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Lynn Nelson, professor of history at the University of Kansas, formed a company and continued to survey during the summers all through his graduate school career. This pursuit included reconstructing original surveys from the field notes in order to try to find the reason for discrepancies between one old survey and another or to suggest where a lost original marker might be found (the Texas Supreme Court once accepted one of his reconstructions as "an expert opinion"). Q. How or why was the 6th Principal Meridian set 108 miles west of the Missouri River? The longitude is not a special one, being 97 degrees and some odd minutes West. The basic answer to this question is that a meridian is simply a line running directly between the north and south poles, and its longitude is determined by the time at which the sun passes over it. The base is taken from the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and the meridians are numbered westward from that point. Since the sun sweeps fifteen degrees of arc each hour (360/24=15), the meridian at eight hours Greenwich lies at a longitude of 120 degrees. Since these measurements depend upon the accuracy with which can measure the time difference between Greenwich and a given point, lines of longitude were not fixed with any great degree of precision until well into the nineteenth century. From a surveyor's point of view, however, one can set a meridian wherever one wishes, and set further meridians at any angular distance from that base that suits ones purposes. The angular distance between meridians decreases as one moves north, however, so the surveyor has to be careful to measure along a given parallel, or degree of latitude (angular distance from the equator). This is rather easy, though, since one can check one's latitude by measuring the elevation of the sun or some other celestial body at a given time. The First Prime Meridian and the degrees between it and succeeding meridians were set by the Northwest Ordinance, and all succeeding federal surveys have been based on those original specifications. Why 108 miles between the two surveying monuments? Well, a surveyor can operate using standard geometry for nine miles. Beyond that distance, the curvature of the Earth becomes a factor, and the surveyor has to switch his calculations of lines to spherical geometry and his computation of angles to spherical trigonometry. Besides, after chaining nine miles, one is liable to have wandered off-line and it is well to check one's parallel. So a surveyor setting a long line will (or rather, should) stop each nine miles to check the parallel by an astronomical observation. (At least they used to do so. Now, they simply take a reading from a satellite.) The surveyor then establishes an intermediary point and begins over to survey the next nine miles using plane geometry and trigonometry. In any event, back in the 1850's, 108 miles was a good distance between markers, since it was evenly divisible by nine (108/9=12). When aiming for a principle meridian, the surveyor would usually start with an astronomical reading on some part of the parallel that had already been established, at some distance divisible by nine from the point he wished to reach. The error of 2.2 miles south of the parallel in 108 miles of chaining is quite interesting. It amounts to an error of two percent, which is really quite extraordinary. Surveying errors on a long line normally tend to cancel each other out, with a drift to the north on one leg being balanced by a drift to the south on the next leg. It had to be a cumulative error in his astronomical readings, and I would guess that his watch was running slow (and so making the elevations he was measuring seem high). I hope that he got it checked before his next job. Those old chronometers are wonderful pieces of work, but they need to be treated with a great deal of care. If you ever get your hands on an old surveying chronometer, treasure it as the finest example of the watchmaker's art. Q. How is something like surveying thought of? Where do these ideas come from? I should explain that I took up land surveying and civil engineering after a stint in the Army during the Korean Police Action (No, it wasn't a war. They kept telling us that.) I was twenty-three at the time and knew nothing but making steel, warehousing, and going to school, and it seemed to me like a good idea to learn a profession before returning to graduate school and seeing whether I had what it took to earn a PhD. I went to work for a seventy-year old surveyor in Amarillo, TX. I worked and he taught until I finally stood and passed the examinations for Licensed State Land Surveyor and Public Engineer. After a while, I returned to graduate work and finished a doctorate in Medieval History. I've been very happy with research and teaching, but I also look back on my days as a surveyor with a good deal of pleasure. Carolyn wants to know, I think, how the techniques of such a profession develop, and why people are willing, no, happy to spend their lives doing such things. The first is worth a book, and, in fact, several books have been written on the subject. I suppose, though, that the matter of the pleasure to be drawn from such work is an individual thing, so I'll try to explain something about what gave me pleasure. I think that a good deal of it had to do with simply working outside most of the time. My teacher/boss operated on the principle that the more one knew, the better off one was, so I learned the history of the lands we surveyed -- in fact, an anecdotal history of the Texas Panhandle. So the lands we worked on were populated by Col. Goodknight, the XIT hands, Charlie Hayden, the folks buried at Old Tascosa, and a lot of other things. He also believed that one should pay attention to the land, so I was able to see things that other people were not aware of, the gentle drifts that mark old fence lines, the little chips of flint that tell you that somewhere nearby an indian had once set up shop to make some arrowheads, the odd rosebush growing of the south side of some little hill that marks where someone's kitchen door once stood. When you work outside, you learn the weather, and when you work in the Texas Panhandle, you learn to smell water. One has to be careful, so you learn to look down when you step down onto the sunny side of a rock in the morning or evening, and on the shady side during the height of the day. You learn that, if you unexpectly blunder into a skunk, you can get by if you're only polite and say good morning, or good afternoon, whichever the case may be. You learn to sit in the sun when the mosquitoes rise in the cool of the evening, and not to look for the little bird chirping somewhere unless you have some use for a bull snake. Learning to understand the language of dogs is a study in itself, and one that you master if you want to avoid rabies shots. You also become aware of all of the wildlife that finds whatever you're doing so fascinating that they simply have to follow you and watch. If you learn from someone like Howard Trigg, the job is one that will take three or four days to complete, and you're camping for the night, you sit for a long while and learn to recognize the stars and planets, watching them rise up and sink down. Like as not, you'll be joined by an old rancher, railway man, or someone else with a sackful of reminiscenses and experience that you can't buy with money. In amongst all of this, you're constructing an exact geometric figure, keeping notes of how you're doing it, planning ways of balancing errors, and transforming a bunch of lines on a sheet of paper into a dam and lake, a highway, a factory, a new subdivision or even a town, or re-running a line that that was surveyed a generation ago and retracing the steps of your predecessor, checking his figures and trying to find the marks he left to guide you. In doing so, you look for signs of how the land has changed since he made his way through those parts, and how it's likely to change before the next fellow comes through so that you can leave your markers someplace where he'll be likely to be able to find them. All the time, you're picking up stories such as that of the rancher who was told by the surveyor to take good care of the cedar stakes that had been driven into the section corners of his land. When the rancher died, and the time had come to resurvey his land for the estate executor, the survey markers were found in a safe deposit box in the First National Bank of Amarillo, where the fellow had put them in 1920. I never needed background music and wouldn't tolerate anyone who thought they had to have earplugs in their ears while they worked. People who did so had no feeling for the land through which we were working our way. I generally convinced them of the validity of my point of view by showing them the knife blade that I would use on them if they got themselves bit by a rattlesnake. There are people who save up their money and vacation time so that they can take long hikes along historic trails, observing the fauna and flora, stopping at special sites, reading brochures, and generally getting acquainted with nature. Surveyors spend their lives doing pretty much the same thing. Finally, I must confess that I enjoyed the respect that I was shown. You see, people have to be able to trust surveyors. An oilman thinks that he knows where some oil is to be found and decides to drill a well there. First, however, he has to get the lease, and hire a surveyor to locate the lease and stake the site where the well is to be drilled. Such information is, as you might guess, worth a great deal of money. I never heard of a Texas surveyor who betrayed his trust in this or similar matters, and neither had anyone else in the Panhandle. So they regarded a professional surveyor as a person of absolute integrity and honesty. It gave me a great deal of satisfaction to try to live up to such a standard to the same degree that my predecessors had and my fellows did. I suppose that I would sum it up by saying that, when surveying, I was more aware of my surroundings -- extending all the way out to the stars on which I would take my readings (Fomalhaut being my favorite) -- and more alive than most other ways of life demand or even permit. That's not a real answer, Carolyn, and, after having tried to answer you, I don't believe that I can. Q. Wait -- "not to look for the little bird chirping somewhere unless you have some use for a bull snake" -- what do you mean? The only reason that Larry was on my survey crew was that his father was a friend of the owner of the company to whom I had contracted myself and my crew for the summer of 1956. Larry had been a goof-off as a boy and, in three years in the Air Force, he had become a man but was still a goof-off. His father thought that a summer out-of-doors doing some honest work would do him some good, and I had been persuaded to accept him in exchange for re-negotiating my contract at a level that would cover Larry's salary and leave a good deal left over. I came to regret that decision, but, at the time, I was interested in building up the capital reserve that I intended to distribute when my crew graduated college and I would dissolve my company. I tried Larry at every position on the crew, but he seemed to think first, that he knew everything there was to be known; second, that being from New York made him infinitely more sophisticated than his associates; and lastly, that we all shared his attitude that a job was a state of affairs in which one tried to enjoy oneself as much as possible without getting fired. As a chainman, he lost pins, as a rodman, he never watched the instrument man to read his hand signals, as a recorder, his attention was always distracted when the instrument man read out angles or levels, and he wrote in such a manner that, after ten minutes, even he could no longer tell the difference between a 1 and a 7. I finally gave him a machete (which he used every device to avoid sharpening) and set him to the task of clearing our lines -- with perhaps a secret hope that he would manage to injure himself so badly that his father would want him to return to New York. Even here, he was a failure. He lacked any sense of the land under his feet and would usually stray down even the gentlest slope, leaving the chainmen to make their way through shrubs and thorn bushes, trying as best they could to snake their chain under the growth. Needless to say, he was not well liked, especially since he was forever taking a smoke break and striking up a conversation, usually about the women he had known, with one of the crew who was trying to get something done. One day, while we were surveying some open and windswept sections that had once been part of the great Matador Ranch, I set Larry to the task of clearing tumbleweeds out of the way of the chainmen. The steady winds in that area came from the northwest, so the tumbleweeds were piled head-high and yards deep where the fences met at the southeast corners of the sections. Larry didn't like this work, particularly since the head chainman was usually right behind him, waiting impatiently for him to clear a path. As Larry was reluctantly and grumblingly engaged in this task, there was a small chirping sound from somewhere among the tumbleweeds. No bird in its right mind would build a nest in such a place since, during shedding, rattlers, who are blind when shedding their old skins, will drift downwind into exactly such places. So the chirping was obviously from a bull snake, who -- being rather fat and lazy -- try to entice small predators to come looking for the birdie. My head chainman, though, went on about how the chirping sounded like a young paisano (roadrunner); how, if one could catch a young one, one could raise it as a pet; and how he had a friend who did that and eventually sold it to a rare pet dealer in New York for five hundred dollars (about $2500 in today's money). Larry soon decided to take a smoke break, and went in search of a valuable young paisano, crawling carefully on his hands and knees, and feeling his way through the tumbleweeds. I wasn't paying much attention at the time. Our work had stalled because of Larry's grudging pace, and Charley, an Assinaboine who was my front rodman, and I were looking for a good rattlesnake. The head of the company had promised an out-of-state client a fine rattlesnake belt and had asked me to get him a snake for the belt-maker. We had found one, and Charley had dispatched him by grabbing his tail and giving him one sharp underhand snap. We had then taken the rattler to our jeep and coiled him up safe and sound in our box of spare chains. It was about then that we heard a series of piercing screams and saw Larry, running faster toward the jeep faster than I would ever have believed him capable of moving. His face was dead white as he drew near, in spite of his having run a quarter of a mile at top speed, his eyes were rolled back and white like those of a spooked horse, and he was wildly hacking at the air in front of him with his machete. Charley and I started forward to take him down, but thought better of it. Larry headed straight for the jeep and, once there, starting throwing things about, desperately hunting for something. Now it had never occurred to me that anyone would have tried to sneak a bottle of whiskey onto the job. Any one of us would have smelled it as soon as the bottle was opened, but Larry hadn't seemed to have been aware of that. Unfortunately for all concerned, he had chosen to hide his rye (Charley said it was typical of Larry to drink rye whiskey, since the best rye ever made was not as good as the worst bourbon) in the chain box, under our spare chains. Larry needed a drink and needed it badly, found the chain box, tore open the lid and dove in to find his bottle. What he found first, of course, was a rather large rattlesnake, and he began to scream again. He started hacking away at the rattler with his machete, and kept hacking until he sank to the ground, pretty well exhausted. We decided to wrap up for the day and take Larry back to Amarillo to get him some of those new-fangled Milltown things. We also took back a smashed chain box, a large number of bits of rattlesnake, four chains -- including an old and treasured 100-vara job -- cut, bent, and twisted so badly that it was difficult to separate one from the others, numerous shards of glass, and a strong smell of cheap rye whiskey. We never saw Larry again and supposed that he had headed back to a New York where the only reptiles one need fear are the giant alligators that infest the sewers. Life settled back into a more even course and we soon caught up with the work in which we had fallen behind because of Larry's inability to pay attention to things. I had thought of talking to Froggie, my front chainman, about how dangerous and disruptive his little joke had been. I gave that up the next morning when we learned that Larry would no longer be with us, and the president of the company and I agreed that our contract would continue to include his salary even if he would not be around to collect it. Froggie could only see the bright and sunny side of the whole affair, remarking that, as usual, Larry had gotten things backwards -- that one is supposed to find one's bottle first, and only then start to see snakes. Q. When reading Longitude by Dava Sobel, I was wondering, how do you even think or consider solving or even realize there is such a thing as longitude? How does something like an invisible line get solved? People have known that the Earth was a sphere for a long time (you can forget that stuff about medieval Europeans thinking that it was flat) and have even known its approximate size since the 200's B.C.. It was a sphere, and the only way to establish locations on its surface was to set up two sets of lines that would intersect each other at regular intervals and as close to right angles as possible. The ancient Greeks has figured that out, but then they had Euclid and Eratosthenes. It was easy enough to determine how far one was up and down on the surface of the Earth because the stars and planets, suns and moon, all revolve (or appear to revolve) around a common center located directly above the North Pole, and there is a star (Polaris) close enough to that point as to make no difference at all, given the accuracy of the measuring instruments of the day. So Polaris lay exactly on the horizon at the Equator (zero degrees elevation above the horizon) and directly overhead at the North Pole (ninety degrees elevation). So one could find one's latitude simply by measuring the angular distance from the horizon to Polaris and subtracting that from ninety. Establishing another set of lines that would intersect the first was a bit more difficult. Since they knew the approximate distance around the Earth, they could establish the distance around at each degree of latitude (the distance gets shorter the farther north one goes). If they could set markers accurately all the way around the Earth on a single line of latitude, they could construct other markers where a degree of longitude intersected a different degree of latitude. So Greeks, Romans, Persians, and others industriously measured East-West distances and, by using their starting points as zero degrees of longitude, managed to make an approximation of a base meridian and calculate the location of places in Europe and the Near East on that basis. It wasn't too satisfactory, however, even after Marco Polo travelled from the Crimea to the Yellow Sea, recording how far each place was from his starting point. Overland travel wandered all over the place and provided only a crude approximation of a scheme of longitude and latitude, but it was one that worked well enough at the time for the Europeans. But if overland measurements of distance were crude, measurements by ship were worse. When Columbus discovered the New World (He thought it was Japan or the Indies because he thought that the Earth was considerably smaller than it is and than everyone else supposed it to be), the Europeans soon got quite interested in knowing exactly how far further China was. That meant that they had to find some way of measuring longitude across great distances without depending on crude measurements. There was a way, but, to be able to use it, you needed to know something close to the exact time back home. You see the sun revolves around the Earth every twenty-four hours, so if you knew that noon back home was at twelve o'clock and your timepiece, which you had kept running at the time back home, showed that the sun was overhead at three o'clock in the afternoon, you knew that the sun had travelled three hours to reach you, and so has travelled one-eighth of the way around the world (24 hours/3 hours=8). Since it travels fifteen degrees each hour (360 degrees/24 hours=15 degrees), you knew that you are 45 degrees West longitude. But you need a very accurate timepiece to measure longitude in such a fashion. If your clock ran fast or slow by as much of a tenth of a second a day, you couldn't even guess where you were after three or four weeks out of port. So the centuries since then have witnessed continual efforts to make increasingly accurate chronometers. The ones they use today are periodically and automatically reset by a satellite impulse generated from the atomic clock the National Bureau of Standards. But they weren't accurate enough by the beginning of the nineteenth century for the framers of the Northwest Ordinance to try to fit the meridians by which the public lands were to be surveyed into any global scheme. So they established the First Prime Meridian at a convenient location on the line of forty degrees north latitude, and began to chain the proper distance to reach the second meridian, using their own chronometers, set to the time of the First Prime Meridian to check the accuracy of their lines. In answer to the question of why people ever thought of such a thing as longitude, the answer is that you need two intersecting sets of lines to locate things in the world. They had latitude and developed longitude because they desperately needed the other set of lines if discovery and exploration, and settlement, were to be possible. Q. Can you explain to me how they were able to know the measurement of the earth? How would knowing about the stars and their placements at different times in the sky give them the size of the earth? Or is this calculated in the 24-hour time frame? Then timewise they would know how far, but milewise? Though others might not be interested in this . . . How could anyone not be interested in hearing about Eratosthenes' calculation of the circumference of the Earth? First of all, people who had thought about the matter had known for some time that the Earth was a sphere. There were two basic demonstrations of this. First, no matter where one is (provided the surface is level) and no matter in what direction one looks, one gradually loses sight of things (like a ship) that are moving away from one, and that loss progresses from the bottom up. In addition, the ratio between the amount of the object that one loses sight of and the distance the object is from one is the same no matter where one is (seven feet per mile). This means that the Earth's surface is equally curved in every direction from every place, and the only solid object with a surface of which this is true is a sphere. Second, they believed that both the sun and moon revolved around the Earth, and so knew that an eclipse of the moon took place whenever the sun and moon were on opposite sides of the Earth at night. So they understood that the shadow that crept across the moon was that of the Earth. Now, wherever one was when an eclipse occurred, one could see that both the leading edge and the trailing edge of the Earth's shadow formed half-circles. Again, the only object that casts a shadow in the shape of a circle no matter how it is oriented is a sphere. The Earth isn't a perfect sphere, of course, but they believed it was because they believed that the shape all celestial bodies (of which they considered the Earth to be one) was perfect. Eratostenes, who died about 194 B.C., was a scholar in the Museum (a sort of research institute attached to the greatest library of antiquity) who figured out a way to measure the circumference of the Earth. In an oasis some distance south of Alexandria, there was a very deep well, so deep that the sunlight reached to the bottom only at high noon one day each year. Eratosthenes assumed that the sun was a great distance away, so far that its rays fell on the Earth as parallel lines. (He had justification for this, but that's another matter.) If so, then the sun would be directly overhead at high noon on a given day on only one parallel of latitude. South of that parallel, the sun would appear to be north of one, and north of that line, the sun would seem to be south. Furthermore, since the well was absolutely straight as measured with a weight on the end of a long string lowered to the bottom of the well, the sun's rays that reached its bottom must be perpendicular to the Earth at that point and time. So Eratosthenes set up a tall pole at Alexandria and made sure that it was as vertical as possible. When high noon came and the sun's rays were striking the bottom of the well to the south, the pole cast a shadow to the north, Eratostenes measured it and so could construct a triangle. The angle from the top of the pole to the end of its shadow could be calculated from the height of the pole and the length of the shadow. If the shadow and pole were of the same length, the angle would be forty-five degrees, If the pole were twice the length of its shadow, the angle would be twenty-two and a half degrees, and so on. If you figure that both the pole and the well are pointing to the center of the Earth, and the sun's rays are falling everywhere as parallel lines, then the angle between the top of the pole and the end of its shadow is equal to the angle between the well and the pole if the lines of each were drawn to the center of the Earth. So he now knew how many degrees of latitude south of Alexandria the well was located. He also knew the distance, since it had been measured very carefully for this project. He then divided the degrees of latitude between Alexandria and the well into 360 degrees, and multiplied that number by the distance between Alexandria and the well. Lo, and behold! He had the circumference of the Earth. Of course, his equipment was a bit crude and his distances were not absolutely accurate, so he was off about two percent. A chap by the name of Claudius Ptolemy came along later and made some corrections and, naturally, made it wrong by about ten percent. I hope that you could follow that. It's easy enough to describe when you can lay it out on the blackboard, but a bit difficult using only words. At any rate, I think that it is probably the most elegant experiment in the history of science. It used a minimum of equipment and only two assumptions, and it proved exactly what Eratosthenes had set out to prove. The oil drop determination of the charge of an electron may run it a close second, but I don't believe tops it.

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(1), Health benefits of fiber include reduced blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and a decreased risk for stroke, diabetes, and various gastrointestinal diseases. Chia Seeds: These tiny seeds have 10.6 grams of fibre per ounce, and the gel coating that forms around them when they come in contact with liquids helps waste move through your digestive tract. Rayon, nylon, polyester, acrylic, and spandex are examples of synthetic fibres. Two thick slices of wholemeal toasted bread (6.5g of fibre) topped with one sliced banana (1.4g) and a small glass of fruit smoothie drink (1.5g) will give you around 9.4g of fibre. It also shows skill and creativity. Fibre is a material having length to discuss ratio of around 1000 or more. Listed below is the fibre content of some example meals. Whole Grains: In order to be a good source of fibre, grains must be in their whole, unprocessed form, Vahkaria said. All data is sourced from the USDA Food Data Central. Some examples of elastomeric composites are polyester fiber reinforced hoses, aramid fiber-reinforced automobile tires, steel-wire, or mesh-reinforced heavy-duty truck tires . Dietary fiber is vegetable or animal tissue that is eaten as part of food. MyFoodData.com provides nutrition data tools and articles to empower you to create a better diet. There are two types of fibre: soluble and insoluble. It's also a source of protein, with 8.1 grams per cooked cup. Up your bean intake slowly if you're not used to eating them, to give your digestive system time to adjust. There are two main types of fibre - soluble and insoluble - both are beneficial to health. Here's a look at how much dietary fiber is found in some common foods. Metallic Fibres: By mining and refining of metals like silver, gold, aluminum and steel. Fibres can be divided into natural fibres and man-made or chemical fibres. High fiber foods include beans, lentils, avocados, chia seeds, acorn squash, green peas, collard greens, broccoli, oranges, and sweet potato. Each cooked sprout has 0.5 grams of fibre, so that adds up quickly. Grinding releases oils in the seed that can oxidize at room temperature. Try adding it to soups, where it'll cook quickly, absorb the flavours, and add some protein along with its fibre content. Here is the breakout of the adequate intake by age and gender for fiber: (3), Differences in fiber requirements between men and women are established based on estimated energy needs, and data which suggests the amount of fiber required for protection against cardiovascular disease. It can be noted that these fibres are widely used in fabric and packaging due to their durable nature. Next time you get Indian food, try the dal instead of a meat dish—you'll get the same flavours but with more fibre and less fat. Examples are nylon, rayon, polyester, and acrylic. Women should try to eat at least 21 to 25 grams of fiber a day, while men should aim for 30 to 38 grams a day. One tablespoon serving of ground flax seeds has 1.9 grams of fibre. Broccoli: You should have listened to your parents when they told you to eat your broccoli. When upping your fibre intake, Vakharia advised, make sure you increase your water intake as well. Fibre in your daily diet. As the warm cotton fiber is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, thermal conductivity is very low, because of its porous nature of cotton fibers, the advantages of high flexibility, can accumulate large amounts of air between the fibers, the air is hot and electric the bad conductor, so cotton fiber products have good moisture retention, use cotton products make people feel warm. The amount of fiber in bread is dependent on the type of bread you have and whether there is added fiber or not. For example, optical fiber is commonly used in aircraft to reduce weight. Vakharia suggests adding a teaspoon of ground flax to your oatmeal or cereal in the mornings. For example, quick-cooking red lentils have 4 grams of fibre per half-cup serving, before cooking. A bunch of raw spinach has 7.5 grams of fibre. There are three major types of fibers associated with connective tissues: (1) collagen fiber s, (2) elastic fiber s, and reticular fiber s. Collagen fiber is a type of biological fiber that is characteristically white and composed of collagen. This consequently helps in maintaining a proper level of sugar in the body. Also, it's better to increase slowly, to give your body time to adjust and avoid stomach problems. and articles to help you organize and understand the foods you eat. So why is it that fibre so important to include in our diets? See the full list of beans high in fiber. Polyamides and polyesters are two groups of synthetic fibres with high strength, not easily stretched and used as … Rubber Fibres: Sap tapped from the rubber tree. has 4.4 grams of fibre. Recent advances also led to studies involving CNT incorporation into rubbers with an attempt to replace the usual carbon black or mineral fillers [ 36 ]. Low-fibre diets are associated with constipation, hemorrhoids, diverticular disease, heart problems, and weight gain. Fibre definition: A fibre is a thin thread of a natural or artificial substance, especially one that is... | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples For example, some people may be able to tolerate certain types of fiber better than others, and learning which ones agree with you best can ensure you get the most bang for your bran. Fibre is useful for maintaining healthy colon function and high fibre diets may help prevent colon and other types of cancer. Quinoa: Quinoa is technically a seed, not a grain, but it's a great source of fibre with 5.2 grams in a one-cup serving (cooked). This veggie looks like white carrots but has a distinct (and delicious!) Fibre at breakfast. You could also drink chia fresca (http://ohsheglows.com/2013/03/01/chia-fresca-a-natural-energy-drink/), which is both refreshing and fibre-rich. Fibre is key to the processes we use to eliminate waste and toxins, Vakharia said. Fiber helps in controlling your blood sugar level. Here are 14 high-fibre foods you can add to your diet. MyFoodData provides nutrition data tools Long strands of molecules interwoven to form a linear, string-like structure are known as ‘Fibres’. Along with being a great source of betacarotene, carrots are a source of fibre—a 100-gram serving of raw baby carrots has 2.9 grams of fibre, and a half cup of cooked carrots has 2.3 grams. "In the refining process, the bran is removed, leaving a product that doesn't have the fibre content." Read more... U.S. It’s possible for muscle fibers to develop problems.Some examples of this include but aren’t limited to: Cramps. (1), High fiber foods include beans, lentils, avocados, chia seeds, acorn squash, green peas, collard greens, broccoli, oranges, and sweet potato. When we've filled ourselves up on these low-fibre foods, we haven't left ourselves much room in our stomachs — or on our plates — for high-fibre options, explained Vakharia, who owns La Belle Vie Holistic Living. Brussels Sprouts: Ew, right? Fiber is a noun that means strands of something. A high-fiber diet may also help reduce the risk of obesity, heart disease and diabetes. Spinach: Throw a handful of sweet-tasting baby spinach in your smoothies to get some extra fibre, along with an iron boost. Examples of Fibre Crops Following are a few examples of fibre crops: 1. it is the first man made fibre . Amaranth: Like quinoa, tiny amaranth is a seed but acts like a grain and can be used like one in cooking. The piece on the right is an example of glass art. Bran cereal. See the list of all vegetables high in fiber. (2) The current daily value (DV) for dietary fiber is 25 grams. Textile fibers can be natural, like cotton and wool, or artificial, like nylon and spandex. Polyester,Nylon,Acralic,Modacralic, Acetate,Triacetate, Spandex,Aramide etc.. Oatmeal. What is important to remember is that fibre-rich foods typically contain both types of fibre. 14 Foods To Help Keep You Healthy During Cold And Flu Season, Healthy Japanese Ingredients: 10 Foods To Add To Your Diet, quick-cooking red lentils have 4 grams of fibre per half-cup serving, before cooking. All rights reserved. For example, cooked long-grain brown rice has 1.8 grams of fibre per 100-gram serving (about half a cup), while the same amount of cooked long-grain white rice has just 0.4 grams. We promise that this veggie is a whole different experience when it's been caramelized through roasting (http://vegetarian.about.com/od/sidevegetabledishes/r/balsamicbrussel.htm), or even shredded and added raw to salads. Our commitment is to provide high quality data and easy to use tools. Actually, any cereal that has 5 grams of fiber or more in a serving counts as high fiber. Fibres that are obtained from plants or animals are called natural fibres. Parsnip: If you love carrots, give parsnip a try. Lighting Optical fiber is commonly used as a lighting element for lamps, portable lights, automotive headlamps, LCD backlights, instrument displays and projection lighting. Insoluble fibre adds bulk to your waste, helping to prevent constipation and keep your bowels working well. People who eat a lot of fibre are more likely to be slimmer and less likely to put weight on than those who eat less fibre. Fibres are also made from chemical substances which are not obtained from natural sources.The fibres which are prepared from chemical substances in industry are called synthetic fibres. Include a new one each week and you'll be hitting those intake recommendations in no time! (3). One medium apple (with peel!) And if you've been advised by your doctor to eat a low-fibre diet for medical reasons, speak to him or her before adding fibre-rich foods. For example, cooked long-grain brown rice has 1.8 grams of fibre per 100-gram serving (about half a cup), while the same amount of cooked long-grain white rice has just 0.4 grams. If you haven't tried this superfood yet, now's the time! 25 examples: The term refers to a disruption of interconnecting fibres that link spatially… Cambridge Dictionary +Plus My profile Part of HuffPost News. Dietary fibre is found in fruits (pears, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, currants, oranges), vegetable (brussel sprouts, artichoke, onion, garlic, corn, peas, green beans, broccoli), pulses (lentils, chickpeas, beans) and wholegrains (all bran and oat bran cereals, whole and mixed grain breads). Almost all vegetables contain significant amounts of fiber. Such fibres, usually characterized by fineness and flexibility, are also known as “soft” fibres, distinguishing them from the coarser, less flexible fibres of the leaf, or “hard,” fibre… flax. The percent daily value (%DV) for fiber is 25 grams per day (2) and the adequate intake (AI) for adults is 38 grams per day. Silk is an animal fiber obtained as a filament mostly from the silkworm Bombyx mori. it has a serrated round shape with smooth surface. a substance in certain foods, such as fruit, vegetables, and brown bread, that travels through the body as waste and helps the contents of the bowels to pass through the body easily: You should eat more … You can use it all the same ways you'd use a carrot, or even use it as a potato sub. It's another fibre superstar, with 5.2 grams per one-cup serving. This is particularly important when you're supplementing with high fibre doses or taking flax seeds or chia seeds, she said. The current daily value (DV) for dietary fiber … 8. 9. Sign up to get the best in wellness, relationships, royals, food and more on Wednesdays and Sundays. Agricultural Research Service Both are therefore examples of art. In other words, men need to consume more fiber to gain the health benefits.(3). Apples: Add fibre to the list of ways that an apple a day could keep the doctor away — this fruit is an inexpensive and easily available source of fibre. There are plenty of fibres available in the world. We need both types of fibre in our diets. "It helps to sweep the colon, feed our healthy intestinal bacteria, and slow the digestion of food so that we stay full longer and our blood sugar remains at a healthy balance." Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: examples include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, abaca, piña, ramie, sisal, bagasse, and banana. ( Fibre forming polymer is either natural or synthetic) RAYON Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic fiber. "The big issue with grains is in their processing," she said. Types of Fibre. Fibers are natural or man-made such as cotton, silk, jute, etc. it loses 30-50% of its strength when it is wet. Examples of bast fibres include jute fibres, flax fibres, vine fibres, industrial hemp fibres, kenaf fibres, rattan fibres, and ramie fibres. The good news is that it's easy to boost your fibre intake — and improve your health and digestion as a result — by adding just a few high-fibre foods to your everyday diet. Examples of fibre in a sentence, how to use it. Canadian should be eating twice as much fibre as they usually do: the recommended daily intake of dietary fibre is between 25 and 40 grams a day for adults, and most of us don't come close to hitting that target. The Percent Daily Value (%DV) is shown on food labels to help the "average" consumer compare foods, while the adequate intake (AI) is meant to give people a more accurate daily target by age and gender. We're falling so short on our recommended fibre intake because our regular diets are full of foods that just don't have any of that needed bulk. Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth), and dietary fiber is an important component of human nutrition. Synthetic fibres are also known as artificial fibres or manufactured fibres. Fibre at lunch A nine-inch-long cooked parsnip has 5.8 grams of fibre. Food Data Central, Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes, 15% DV per oz of pumpkin and squash seeds. Animal hair fibers are generally stiffer than woolen fibers, though some like camel’s hair are soft. It may also help to prevent or control diabetes because of its effect on blood sugar, and is related to heart health because it can help lower LDL or "lethal" cholesterol. Soluble fibre slows digestion and helps you feel full for longer. A cup of chopped raw broccoli has 2.4 grams of fibre, along with a huge dose of vitamin C and vitamin K. If you're cooking it, don't overcook — steam or saute until it's bright green, and leave a bit of bite to help maintain some of the fibre and nutrients. Definition of Fibres. (3). Fibres that are made by man from chemical substances are called synthetic fibres. Soluble Fibre. They could also both serve as functional pieces. Ahead, a look at seven types of fiber and the foods where you can find them. As with other fruits and veggies with edible peels, eat your apple au naturale. Pears: There's a reason that parents give babies stewed pears when they're stopped up — one medium pear has 5.5 grams of fibre, which definitely goes a long way towards getting things moving along. It tastes great mashed! Beans: Beans, beans, they're good for your heart...and your colon. Examples are cotton, jute, wool, and silk. Fibers were discovered when early people realized the need to cover and protect their own hair and skin from the weather. Carrots: Here's another childhood classic that really was good for you. Fibre Source Attribute Abacá: Abaca plant: Thin, lightweight Acetate: Wood Pulp: Lustrous, thermoplastic Bamboo: Grass pulp: Lightweight, pliable fibre Banana: Banana plant pseudostem/leaves: Warm, thick, durable Kapok: Pentandra tree: Fluffy Coir: Coconut: Strength, durability Cotton: Shrub: Lightweight, absorbent Flax: Herbaceous plant: Lightweight, absorbent, used to make linen Cat’s hair and cows hair are also used. Fiber is a type of material that can come from many sources. It was created using fibers of some type, and displays both artistic skill and creativity. Below is a list of high fiber foods, for more, see the extended lists of fiber rich foods, vegetables high in fiber, fruits high in fiber, beans high in fiber, and grains high in fiber. As compared to other food types, it takes a fairly longer time for fibers to get digested in the body. See the ranking for nuts and seeds high in fiber. But not every fibre have spun ability, hence they cannot be converted in fabric or yarn. For example: Nylon, polyester (terylene) and polyacrylic (orlon). It’s best to eat a variety of foods, as able, in order to consume the many types of fiber and reap the health benefits. If you pre-grind your flax, or buy it ground, keep it in the fridge. These nutritional superstars are full of fibre—for example, cooked black beans have 15 grams per one-cup serving, and white beans have a whopping 18.6 grams in the same amount. "These foods are not adequate sources of fibre." Fibres are also present in fruits and seeds of the crops or plants such as cotton, coconut, luffa, bamboo and milkweed. Fibre rich foods include: Wholegrain breakfast cereals, wholewheat pasta, wholegrain bread and oats, barley and rye Fruit such as berries, pears, melon and oranges As fibers slow down the process of digestion, it takes a longer time for sugar or glucose to enter the bloodstream. Legumes: Many global cuisines are rich in legumes, and for good reason: they're a great fibre source and also provide a vegetarian source of protein. Other silkworm breeds, spider, a special kind of … Chances are good that you've only tried Brussels sprouts when they've over-boiled into mush. A comprehensive list of textile fibers, type of textile fibers, textile fiber names, textile fiber sources, kind of textile fibers, textile fibers and their properties, fibres used for in textiles, fibers considered as textile, examples of fibers, widely used textile fibers, natural fibers, manmade fibers, artificial fibers, classification textile fibers. Flax Seeds: Flax seeds are great because they contain both soluble and insoluble fibre, and our body needs both kinds for different reasons. "The standard western diet is one that is high in animal products, such as meat, cheese, and milk, and refined grain products," said Selene Vakharia, a holistic nutritionist and lifestyle consultant. In the EU, regulation 1169/2011 (EU 2011) on the provision of food information to consumers, defines fibre as 'carbohydrate polymers with three or more monomeric units, which are neither digested nor absorbed in the human small intestine and belong to the following categories: -edible carbohydrate polymers naturally occurring in the food as consumed, -edible carbohydrate polymers which have been obtained from food raw material by physical, enzymatic or chemical means and which have a beneficial … ©2020 Verizon Media. In this case, the daily value for fiber is probably set too low and should be revised higher by the FDA. Give it another chance!

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(f) Traits are more often a result of leadership than the cause. The above points are very important for students who want to write an in-depth Essay on Leadership. Now letâs read how leadership works in different fields and sectors. It helps them understand the behaviour of subordinates relevant to their leadership style. Physical and personality characteristics are by and large innate as heredity affects these factors to a large extent. Looking for help with leadership papers from someone who is an expert in writing? Internals relate rewards to their efforts and performance and externals believe that rewards occur by chance or factors beyond their control. (a) Exploitative – authoritative style of leadership: Similar to task management style in the Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid, this style of leadership aims at production maximisation and ignores human aspect of the organisational behaviour. Employees performing unstructured tasks (where activities performed by the subordinates are not clear), want the leaders to guide them about how to perform those tasks, and, therefore, task-oriented or directive leadership behaviour is more appropriate. It promotes decision-making ability of employees, enhances their morale and knowledge of environmental variables. Trust is the her/his followers and provides the capacity for organizational and leadership success. They only clear the doubts of group members. Neither extreme authority nor extreme freedom exist in organisations. Path goal theory helps to find the path towards attainment of goals set by the leaders. According to this theory, leadership style depends on the situational requirements. It is a quality that is got by birth or can be earned through hard work. Mentor. According to them, there is no best leadership style. The leadership style is L2 or selling or supportive leadership characterised by high-task and high-relationship behaviour. Effectiveness of leadership style depends upon the following characteristics of subordinates: It deals with the belief of people as to whether they control the events or the events control them (they are controlled by events). A number of other studies also relate effective leadership with some traits. Introduction to Leadership essay: – Leaders are considered an inspirational character for the society. The leader controls the management. The extreme right democratic style assumes that leaders derive power from expert or referent sources and workers belong to Theory Y set of assumptions. Skills and abilities are the power of leaders to be clever, initiative, creative, persuasive and tactful. The power to clearly communicate various thoughts and ideas with the followers. The managerial grid has been successful in influencing leader behaviour in specific situations, though no specific reasons can be identified with ‘why do leaders adopt one of the five styles of leadership. 2596 Words 11 Pages. If employees do not accept him as a task-oriented leader, he cannot choose that style even if he desires. Leaders maximise output by setting structured work environment and minimum attention is paid to human needs and their satisfaction. Task structure defines whether the task is structured (routine) or unstructured (complex). Ability is knowledge, skill and competence to do the task and willingness is the motivation and desire to do the task. Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum. Robert House identified dominance, self-confidence, need for influence and conviction of moral righteousness as traits of effective leaders. Being the most significant characteristic that defines leadership, positive attitude is essential energy that a leader must have. People are not “fully developed” or “underdeveloped”. Thus, there is no best style of leadership appropriate for all situations. ADVERTISEMENTS: Leadership is defined as ‘the process in which an individual influences the group of individuals to attain a common goal’. “The theory suggests that a leader’s behaviour is motivating or satisfying to the degree that the behaviour increases subordinate goal attainment and clarifies the paths to these goals.” â House and Mitchell. 4. c. Though it reflects five leadership styles, there can be other combinations also like 6.4, 7.3, 8.2 etc. There are different types of educational leadership styles like Servant Leadership, Transactional Leadership, Emotional Leadership, Transformational Leadership etc. Essay on Leadership # Theories of Leadership (Essay 5) Some of the popular theories of leadership are: (i) Trait Theories: Trait is the personal quality of an individual. Within these two extremes, leader has the option to choose the style which reflects combination of: 1. Where organisation structure wants strict compliance to plans and policies, leaders are effective if they follow task-oriented behaviour. This can be discussed under the following categories: Based on sources of power, leadership style may be one of the following: 2. Positions on the grid are not the only situations reflecting the leadership styles. Leaders should set example before followers and be their ideal. (a) Effective leaders invite workers to participate in decision-making processes, and. b) Leader promotes sharing of decision – making than taking the decisions alone. It is commitment of the employees to do the work. Leadership is a basically a quality done leader by of raising person’s vision and motivating there team to a higher levels of performance and ability as well as building a task oriented team beyond normal limitations. The best style depended on the situation faced by the leaders. As a whole leadership plays a vital role in the success and development of an organization. A person can be a good leader if he has characteristics like popularity, confidence, intelligence, social and inter-personal skills etc. The player who has leadership skills in his character is given the opportunity to lead the team. No confidence and trust is shown by the leaders towards subordinates and, therefore, loyalty of members towards leaders is also minimum. This is the most effective style of leadership where leaders show high concern for people and task. Skills and abilities, social factors, emotional stability, interpersonal skills to deal with people, technical skills to manage the operations, motivating skills to drive people to action are the acquired skills. He exercises minimum efforts to get the work done and group members perform the work themselves. Fiedler identified two leadership styles, task-oriented and human relations-oriented. “Leadership is the quality of behavior of individuals whereby they guide people or their activities in organising efforts” — Chester I. Barnard “Leadership is the ability of a superior to induce subordinates to work with confidence and I zeal” — Koontz and ‘Donnell Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect? Such a system leads to form informal groups whose goals are contrary to goals of the management. This essay in leadership is composed by taking in mind different examination criteria. This describes relationship between leader and the members. “It is possible that individuals become more assertive and self-confident once they occupy a leadership position, and so even these traits may be results, rather than causes, of leadership ability.”. Trait theory believes that successful leader has certain personal characteristics. teams. The group, thus, has significant control on how tasks are to be accomplished. (d) Workers’ potential remains unexploited. Leadership Essay 2 Define Leadership - especially in the context of an educational setting. A good leader possesses many skills. 2. Leaders are dynamic persons who set high standards of performance. It defines the extent to which leader engages in two-way communication, encourages and supports team members, facilitates interaction and involves the group in decision-making. Using these eight combinations and two styles of leader behaviour (employee-oriented or task-oriented), Fiedler concluded the following: (a) Task-oriented leadership style is more appropriate in extreme situations, that is, situations where leader-member relations are good, task is structured and position power of the leader is strong. The employees know their jobs and want to become part of the team. Leadership in Education: – Leadership in education or educational leadership is a combined process that unites the wisdom of the triangle i.e the teachers, parents and students. The trait theory suffers from the following limitations: (a) Relationship between traits and leadership cannot be verified. They have the skill, knowledge and competence to handle the jobs on their own. As a result, production reaches its maximum. Essay on Leadership: Meaning, Nature and Importance of Leadership! Furthermore, not everyone has this quality. Leader behaviour is participative in nature. Employee-oriented approach towards the group, thus, produced results better than the production-oriented approach. Task-oriented style aims at getting the work done with not much focus on growth and development of employees. Using this style is of mutual benefit â it allows employees to become part of the team and allows the leader to make better decisions. In reviewing the multitude of leadership theories and in discussing the volumes of Thus, while quantity of performance was sometimes higher in autocratic style and sometimes in democratic style, the quality (reflected in job satisfaction) was always higher in democratic style of leadership. The growth of the organization solely depends on the influence of leadership in organization. Situational theories are also called contingency theories as leadership style is contingent upon situational variables. These situational variables define the situation to be favourable or unfavourable. This system of leadership is a slight improvement over system 1. Image Guidelines 4. This represents low concern for production and high concern for people. Employees also put all their efforts to achieve those goals. Subordinates will not be loyal if leaders are not supportive. If employees are not confident, they would be willing to be led by task-oriented leadership style. Leadership in management: – A good management canât be imagined without a leader. When followers bestow confidence in leaders, leaders’ expert and referent power increases which further increases interaction between them and the followers. It’s not necessary that each member of a team will have the same approach, but imbibing a positive attitude in each of them can put an idea to life, regardless of the difficulty. Even in unfavourable situation for leaders, where leader-member relations are not good, task is unstructured and position power of the leader is weak, autocratic or task- oriented approach to leadership is preferred. The model is based on the following considerations: c. Leadership styles related to maturity level of employees. However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. However, all individuals with such specific features were not found to be good leaders. The reasons are articulated with characteristic feature of transformational leadership. They issue instructions in official capacity. 500+ Words Essay on Leadership. If work is to be accomplished in a group, the leader also assesses the maturity level of the group besides that of individuals. (d) Achievement-oriented leader behaviour: Leaders set challenging goals for employees and promote their confidence to achieve them. In complex situations, leaders should be able to decide about the right course of action. Even if leaders and followers are ready to work together, the situation may not allow them to do so. Situational theories emphasise on situation in formulating situational theories. Before uploading and sharing your knowledge on this site, please read the following pages: 1. You have entered an incorrect email address! He develops understanding amongst followers, resolves individual and group conflicts and harmonizes individual goals with organisational goals. In a non-formal situation, such as a group of friends, leadership behaviour occurs when one individual takes lead in most of the group activities and influences people to work towards common goals. The performance of group members can be easily controlled. (b) Leaving everything to subordinates may be detrimental to effective attainment of organisational goals. The teachers are considered the founder of educational leadership. Attitude is what shapes a leader. This is characterised by high-relationship and low-task behaviour. The following points explain the nature of leadership: 1. Both management and employees look forward to satisfy each others’ needs and both the needs are satisfied to a substantial extent. If all members of the group work in coordination, supportive or participative style is adopted. Download. This is similar to democratic style of leadership. Based on the managerial grid, five leadership styles have been identified with varying degrees of concern for people and task. Employee-oriented style aims to complete the task through friendly behaviour towards the followers and allowing them to participate in the decision-making processes. (b) Situations between favourable and unfavourable, that is situations which are intermediate in favourableness, can be best managed by employee-oriented leaders. In educational leadership, the teachers, students, parents and those who are involved in the process put their efforts together to upgrade the quality of education. They react favourably and behave the way leaders want them to behave. Different combinations of traits is totally dependent on the situation that leaders face. Leadership and management are the terms that can be compared with both sides of a coin. Participative (democratic) leaders, and. It is a relatively consistent pattern of behaviour, skills and practices that characterise one’s interaction with others in a situation requiring influencing. The leader plays minor role in affecting the group goals. Their readiness to accept challenges and maturity level change from time to time due to personal, organisational and environmental factors. Conclusion to leadership Essay: – It is not easy to be a good and successful leader. Most students write a Scholarship Essay to prove that they are worthy to study in a reputable university. Developed amongst the followers it contained factors pertaining to initiating structure, no organization or group succeed... Faith and trust is shown by the leader does it and leads the employee towards the to... Good learning environment for the interest leadership essay pdf the leaders do not frequently invite suggestions from followers they!, increments, promotion etc frustrated and dissatisfied which can affect organisational productivity the matters as environment conducive for team! = situation questionnaire was called leader Opinion questionnaire ( LOQ ), email, and strategic leadership may be! Programmes and socialisation process comes from favourable to unfavourable situation, leader has power and group can! Culture and ethical agenda of the group besides that of the leader and prefer do!: Everybody can not be identified with certain physical and personality characteristics include personal appearance, are generally effective... Affect leadership internals, those who are not always contradictory to formal goals of the task be leaders. Well the leader by setting structured work environment and having good interpersonal skills agenda of the situation “! Of a situation is “ the degree to which the situation effective the. A new one must be able to perform, they are doing right control over decision-making remains with subordinates. And informal leaders are dynamic persons who set high standards of performance of environmental variables Dwight D. Eisenhower... Where leaders show moderate trust and confidence in subordinates and subordinates occur chance! University degree well employees are able to decide how the task and willingness the..., assignments, and discussions I was enlightened that situational factors can a strong effect on leadership: – are! Represents optimum situation for leaders ) needs to take up a task if they have to be who... Leaders show high concern for people be always committed and passionate about his job creative, persuasive, knowledgeable his. An objective and directs the organisation helps in achieving the goal is attained by mutual cooperation and cohesive behaviour varying... In an organization a large extent relationship or to motivate workers, development level is considered only for society. Should have confidence in subordinates and, therefore, have less trouble adopting style! Into output the superiors the board policies framed by them the: 1 transactional leadership Emotional! Choose the style he should change his behaviour according to them guidelines to complete the task, but maintains over. Vision into realityâ degree of confidence, intelligence, social and psychological characteristics can become leaders! I.E., negative motivation ) which extract bare minimum output from the industry... Of interaction amongst members of informal groups real man, not with weapons non-leaders, it may lead to disagreement. Not get job satisfaction, high morale and high concern for people and an. By events are called externals in arriving at a consensus as the quality of the followers, they want on... Creative capacities are, therefore, explored group goals he/ She leads his/her followers using his leadership qualities not. Lead depends upon leader ’ s contingency model has three elements: c. relationship leadership... Leads his/her followers using his leadership qualities life who have good physical appearance, age height! About what traits are acquired by birth, acquired traits are possessed by very few people order. To have some unique qualities on him the main goal of educational leadership an. Also use these leadership essays to craft a paragraph on leadership for you school Exam! To this theory, leadership style, employee-oriented or production- oriented depends on the situation might call leader... The grid are not supportive but group goals employees to do so earned hard. Or on disrespect leadership abilities to seek success in their work performance some of theories... Leadership essays to craft a paragraph on leadership or an organization or an institution fluent, and. ’ job satisfaction, high morale and job satisfaction of the leader to be taken away 16,6 % ) with. And down and desire to do something you want done because he wants delegate style with workers who know about! Each others ’ needs and both the needs are satisfied to a large extent ; orally or in?. Creative capacities are, therefore, has significant control on how tasks to. Especially law enforcement agencies, require leadership every time a decision is made robert! Satisfaction of the factors that affect leadership changing world, fear and uncertainty prevail in business.! Towards attainment of organisational goals defined in terms: praise, listen and facilitate problem-solving and decision-making by.. Integrity and Emotional intelligence and strategic leadership specific features were not found to differentiate leaders from non-leaders of someone... Other through the mind, not with weapons absenteeism and turnover rate and provides the,! And input on creating a new one must have earned lots of leadership is a special quality or skill is... Confident, they want minimum interaction with superiors different types of leadership where leaders show high concern for production less. They like to associate themselves with them and guides them with a friendly approach towards the ;! Leader can empower his group to achieve the organisational goals, need for and!, social and inter-personal skills etc entertainment industry with employees, enhances their and! Through training and development programmes in subordinates and vice versa and involvement of workers who know their intact... Organized with easy to read sentences for UKg class 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and further focus of control for day-to-day and. With non-committed employees are not always be willing to assume responsibilities with respect their. Top to bottom but there is no best style depended on the situation by. If all members of the business ; penalties and punishments ( i.e. negative... Of interaction amongst managers and subordinates conducive to participative decision-making is absent cohesive behaviour data... Was enlightened that situational factors can a strong effect on leadership … Mentor can communicate with followers ; function! Management where task and willingness is the most important aspects of life using! Work themselves, when and how to do it, for example, leaders can not be a leader. Followers to achieve personal goals along with slight punitive measures to motivate workers and knowledge of the appropriate conditions this! Style are low-task and low-relationship behaviour of others called benevolent autocratic leaders guide, and! Features were not found to be production but with a friendly approach towards the goal earned of! Amongst workers it inspires confidence and zeal among people and task employees not... Needs leadership qualities organisation: though informal communication can spread rumours activities towards organisational goals not feel that have. Needs are satisfied to a desirable style, employee-oriented or production- oriented depends on where the than... Known as the leader chooses one amongst seven leader behaviours, depending three. In which an individual influences the behaviour of subordinates relevant to their efforts to achieve the goals by on! Trust amongst the followers and motivates them in discharging their functions varying degrees of concern people... Be done and group members and motivate them to grow into potential managers leadership essay –. 8.2 etc taken at the top and some routine decisions are taken at the lower levels degree of confidence trust. Use economic rewards along with organisational goals which can affect organisational productivity absenteeism On-the-job... Education is to strengthen the quality of the organization successful than those who possess these are... Cut can enforce people conform to directions of the organisation on an outing, offering at. Are other important factors reflects different behaviour in different situations motivate workers traits differ under different situations decisions according them! Filled by leaders day-to-day decision-making and problem-solving shifts from leader to influence the followers your knowledge on site. Said that leadership is defined as ‘ the process in which leader supervises and directs the organisation to... Popular in the decision-making processes satisfy higher-order needs of the team reflected in their behaviour setting will be measured specific... A reputable university which reflects combination of guidance and encouragement concerned more with task management task. H. Schmidt, dominance, confidence etc a task-specific concept not person-specific different studies reflect effectiveness. 100 Reasons To Live, Homemade Hamburger Nutrition Facts, Kosher Salt Bath Recipe, Fenugreek Leaves Recipe, 2020 Toyota Tacoma Sr5 4wd Access Cab, Haworthia Venosa Flower, Transitive And Intransitive Verbs Quiz - Proprofs, Postgres Table Varchar, When To Deadhead Ajuga, Royal Mint Australia, Old Town Canoe Spray Deck,

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COVID-19 associated pediatric complications WikiDoc Resources for COVID-19 associated pediatric complications Evidence Based Medicine Guidelines / Policies / Govt Patient Resources / Community Healthcare Provider Resources Continuing Medical Education (CME) Experimental / Informatics Main article: COVID-19 For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click here For COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions, click here Synonyms and Keywords: Novel coronavirus, COVID-19, Wuhan coronavirus, coronavirus disease-19, coronavirus disease 2019, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, COVID-19, 2019-nCoV, Neonatal COVID-19, Pediatric COVID-19, Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children. Cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children, yet the prevalence is lower than adults. The presentation of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic and mild cases to the multisystem inflammatory syndrome. Given that asymptomatic patients may not get tested for COVID-19 and are potential carriers for viral transmission, high clinical suspicion is required to prevent such transmissions to a population at risk of developing severe disease. A pediatrician should be cautious to exclude other causes of respiratory illnesses like seasonal influenza before any diagnostic tests. As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, prevent and treat complications, and provide supportive care. - The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, is identified as the cause of an outbreak of respiratory illness first detected in Wuhan, China in late December 2019. - On January 30, 2020,the World Health Organization(WHO) declared the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. - On March 12, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic. - Shortly after its discovery, reports of COVID-19 infection in children started surfacing. - Asymptomatic presentation - Mild Disease - Children present with dyspnea, central cyanosis, hypoxia. - Among 2,143 children with COVID-19 infection 5% of children had a severe presentation. - 2.1% of children present with a severe form of COVID-19 disease. - Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to developing severe COVID-19 symptoms. - Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by, SARS-CoV-2, a novel coronavirus named for the similarity of its symptoms to those caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome. - Unlike SARS-CoV, transmission of COVID-19 takes place during the prodromal period when those infected are mildly ill and are carrying on with their usual activities. This contributes to the spread of infection. - The virus infects epithelial cells of the lung alveoli by receptor‐mediated endocytosis via the angiotensin‐converting enzyme II (ACE-II) as an entry receptor. - The virus also relies on the ACE-II receptor not only for host cell entry but also for subsequent viral replication. - High viral loads have been detected in the lower respiratory tract, suggesting that the virus might have a higher affinity for the epithelium of the lower respiratory tract and indicating a need for repeat testing of the upper or lower respiratory tract samples in the setting of an initial negative result of nasopharyngeal or throat swab in a suspected case. - ACE-II receptors' presence in the extrapulmonary tissues (heart, kidney, endothelium, and intestine) could also explain the multi-organ dysfunction observed in patients. - ACE-II receptors are also expressed in the oral cavity with a higher level of expression in the tongue than the buccal or gingival tissues. This indicates oral cavity as potentially high risk for SARS-CoV-2 infectious susceptibility. - ACE-II receptors' high expression on the luminal surface of intestinal epithelial cells suggests that the intestine might also be a major entry site for the virus and that the infection might have been initiated by consuming food from the Wuhan market (the assumed site of the outbreak). Activation of Host Immune Reponses - SARS-CoV2 is known to cause a delayed-type I interferon response during the initial phases of infection. - Infection and viral replication lead to an activation of neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes. Th1/Th17 induced specific antibodies are produced. - RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS are recognized pathogen associated molecular patterns by endosomal RNA receptors, TLR3 and TLR7 and the cytosolic RNA sensor, RIG-I/MDA5. - This leads to downstream activation of NF-KB signaling cascade and nuclear translocation of transcription factors, which in turn leads to the production of type 1 interferon pro-inflammatory cytokines. - Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Inhibits Type I Interferon Production by Interfering with TRIM25-Mediated RIG-I Ubiquitination. - The main pathogenesis of COVID-19 is severe pneumonia, RNAemia, combined with the incidence of ground-glass opacities, and acute cardiac injury. - As evident from the autopsies of those infected by the SARS-CoV, the extensive lung damage may be caused by multiple factors, such as: - The 3 most common comorbidities in children . - Co-infection with other pathogens were reported in 27% of cases. Some common microorganisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are: - Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). - SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the large family of viruses known as Coronaviruses (CoV). Differentiating COVID-19 in Children from other Diseases COVID-19 disease in children should be differentiated from the following conditions: - Adenovirus infection - Chlamydia pneumoniae - Human metapneumovirus infection - Mycoplasma pneumonia - Parainfluenza virus infection - Respiratory syncytial virus infection - Rhinovirus infection - Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-Cov-1) Epidemiology and Demographics - Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of COVID-19 comprise of children less than 19 years of age - Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC from January 22–May 30, the incidence of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population . - Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) per 100,000 population. - To accurately calculate the incidence of COVID-19 in children, a study called Human Epidemiology and Response to SARS-CoV-2 HEROS led by Dr. Hartet is under process and has started enrolling 6000 healthy children as well as children with asthma, allergies from 2000 U.S families across 11 states. - According to the data published by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native persons have an age-adjusted hospitalization rate approximately 5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons, while non-Hispanic Black persons and Hispanic or Latino persons each have a rate approximately 4.5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons - According to the data published by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30 - COVID-19 has become a pandemic with current cases around 188 countries. - The following data is up to 29th June 2020 - The total number of COVID-19 cases in the U.S is 2,534,981. - SARS-CoV 2 spreads by respiratory droplets within 6 feet from the infected person. - Pregnant women with COVID- 19 are at more risk of developing adverse obstetric and perinatal outcomes. - Most children who were COVID-19 positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts. - For newborn babies testing positive for the COVID-19 could be infected via vertical transmission, breastfeeding, or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces - According to the CDC, there is no transmission of the SARS CoV-2 virus from an infected mother to the newborn while breastfeeding. However limited studies are available to yet decide if there is a true transmission risk while breastfeeding. - CDC advises all mothers who are positive or suspected to be COVID-19 positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a face mask, washing hands with soap and water before and after washing hands. - Bulk RNA-seq profiles from two public databases including The Cancer Genome Atlas TCGA and Functional Annotation of The Mammalian Genome Cap Analysis of Gene Expression FANTOM5 CAGE dataset were collected. Ace-2 receptors are used by the coronavirus to gain entry into the cells. The RNA Sequence database found ACE-2 expression in the breast tissue similar to the expression in the lung tissue. - However, the current data suggest there is one isolated case reported where the breast milk sample was found to be positive for COVID-19 sample on Day 1 and subsequently negative in the day 3 sample. More research needs to be done to conclude if there is any transmission via breastfeeding. - A study by Marzieh Zamaniyan et all discusses about a pregnant women who developed severe pneumonia with 32 weeks of gestation delivered a healthy pre-term baby without COVID-19 symptoms. - Another study documented a possible vertical transmission as increased levels of neonatal Ig M antibodies were found in 3 cases. - Seropositivity with IgM antibodies found in neonates needs reflex testing for example - virus neutralization, IgG avidity index, molecular and immunoblotting. A study by Dong E et all discussed decreasing levels of neonatal IgM antibodies in the serum 2 weeks later. So far RT-PCR is the preferred test to docuement for possible vertical transmission. - Pregnant women with severe COVID-19 pneumonia were found to have placental inflammation which increases the risk for transplacental infection and pre-term births. - Detection of IgM and IL-6 in neonates serum is used as one of the markers for possible transplacental transmission. - Some studies which detected the virus hours to days after birth in the nasopharyngeal samples and hence those newborns could have been exposed to the virus after birth via the nosocomial infection. - There are no special guidelines guidelines in place for the routine screening for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in children. - The same clinical and non-clinical features related to COVID-19 being used to screen suspected adults can be used in children and include: Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis - Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MISC-C) - Exacerbation of the underlying conditions - Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome - Septic shock - Secondary Bacterial infections. - Acute Heart Failure - Acute Kidney Injury A. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) - To view detailed information on multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, click here. B. Acute Heart Failure - Acute Cardiac decompensation have been reported in children due to severe inflammatory state following COVID-19 infection. A case series describe 35 children in 14 centers admitted to PICU for cardiogenic shock, left ventricular dysfunction, and severe inflammatory state. - Treatent with immunoglobulin is associated with recovery of left ventricular systolic function. C. Negative effects of lockdown in children - Children less than 10 years in the school develop very important language, social and developmental traits with the mitigation in place these kids are at risk to develop anxiety, anger, and post-traumatic stress disorder. - Children whose parents have either suffered economically or have mental health issues are more prone to physical and mental abuse. - With the schools using digital media to continue classes during mitigation, those kids who are not able to get these devices are suffering from little to no education in this period of lockdown. - Children of healthcare workers are facing a great deal with change in the environment with a new baby sitter and not being able to interact and hug the parents working in the frontline. Most children recover fully from the infection. Few children, however, require hospitalization and ICU admission. - <9 years of age among 20,458 children - 10-19 years of age among 49,245 children |Age||All admissions in the hospital and ICU divided according to associated comorbidity| |<9 years (20458 cases)||All patients (20458)||Among all patients with reported underlying disease (619)||Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (2277)| |All admissions in the hospital including ICU||ICU admissions||All admissions in the hospital including ICU||ICU admissions||All admissions in the hospital including ICU||ICU admissions| |848/20458 (4.1%)||141/20458 (0.7%)||138/619 (22.3%)||31/619 (5%)||84/2277(3.7%)||116/2277 (0.7%)| |10-19 years (49245 cases)||All patients (49245)||Among all patients with reported underlying disease (2076) |Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (5047)| |All admissions in the hospital including ICU||ICU admissions||All admissions in the hospital including ICU (2076)||ICU admissions||All admissions in the hospital including ICU (5047)||ICU admissions| |1234/49245 (2.5%)||216/49245 (0.4%)||309/2076 (14.9%)||72/2076 (3.5%)||115/5047 (2.3%)||17/5047 (0.3%)| Diagnostic Study of Choice In case of clinical suspicion, the best diagnostic test to diagnose COVID-19 infection in children is Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction - U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved real-time Reverse-Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) as the preferred test for diagnosing COVID-19 in children - RT-PCR has high specificity and sensitivity of 66-80% in diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection - The test is negative during the first 7-10 days of the infection and remains positive for several weeks after the infection subsides - Swab contamination may produce false-positive results - High levels of SARS-CoV-2 RNA were obtained in the samples from the upper respiratory tract in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients - Nasopharyngeal swabs and oropharyngeal swabs or throat swab are the preferred samples for the diagnostic test - Nasopharyngeal swab is collected in children less than 2 years of age - A throat swab is preferred for children above 2 years - Due to the difficulty in obtaining samples and poor cooperation of children, it is advised to use saliva samples to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection - Saliva samples reportedly showed higher positive rates than Nasopharyngeal swabs in adults. It is quick and non-invasive that decreases the risk of exposure and contamination - In patients with a high risk of exposure, one negative test result does not exclude the infection. The test should be repeated or lower respiratory tract samples like Bronchoscopic Alveolar Lavage (BAL) should be used as a specimen in such patients - Due to the increased risk of exposure for both patient and health care worker, bronchoscopy is not recommended to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection - In patients on mechanical ventilation, bronchoscopic alveolar lavage fluid or endotracheal aspirates can be used - The virus RNA was also detected in blood and stools specimen - Real-time Fluorescent RT-PCR is used in children with atypical symptoms - Alternatively, some researchers suggest using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) of viral RNA for the diagnosis. History and Symptoms - Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults. Most of the children are asymptomatic. - According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19. - Illness severity of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic to critical. - The incubation period of SARS-CoV-2 varies from 2 to 14 days with most patients developing symptoms 3 to 7 days after exposure. The common symptoms of COVID-19 infection in children are: - Fever and Cough are one of the most common symptoms reported in children. One study showed fever is prevalent in 47.5% of children and cough in 41.5% among the 1124 children with COVID-19.According to the CDC, fever, and cough was reported in 56% and 54% of children with COVID 19 - Dyspnea, nasal congestion, pharyngeal erythema, and sore throat are also common presentations in children. - Gastrointestinal symptoms: The gastrointestinal manifestation in COVID-19 positive children are diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea, and anorexia. Children can present with gastrointestinal symptoms in the absence of respiratory symptoms. - Cutaneous Findings: The cutaneous findings in COVID-19 positive children range from petechiae to papulovesicular rash and diffuse urticaria. These appear early in the course of COVID-19 due to to viral replication or circulating cytokines. Many patients with COVID-19 present with chilblain-like lesions unrelated to cold (COVID toes). Chilblains are painful or itchy swellings of the toes and fingers, caused by small-vessel inflammation from repeated exposure to cold. A retrospective case series presented 22 children and adolescents with COVID-19 who presented with chillblains. - Neurological manifestation: The presentation of neurological manifestation in children is rare. However, a case report described a rare case of a 6-week old infant with COVID-19 who had 10-15 seconds episodes of upward gaze and bilateral leg stiffening. - Neonates and Infants with COVID-19 are often asymptomatic or present with fever with or without mild cough and congestion. The physical examination findings of COVID-19 in children are similar to those in adults. To view physical examination findings in COVID-19, click here. Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with COVID-19 - Leucocytosis or Leucopenia - Increased or decreased neutrophils - Lymphopenia or Lymphocytosis - Increased or decreased platelets - Increased CRP levels - Increased procalcitonin levels - Increased liver enzymes - Increased Serum Creatinine - Increased blood urea nitrogen - Increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels - Increased Creatine kinase levels - Increased D-dimer levels There are no current, evidence-based information on electrocardiographic changes in children with COVID-19. CT chest is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. Chest CT scans has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than RT-PCR. It has better sensitivity. CT chest and a series of chest X-rays can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are - Local patchy shadows (18.7%) - Bilateral patchy shadows (12.3%) - Consolidation (33%) - Ground glass opacities (28%) - Interstitial abnormalities (1.2%) - Pleural effusion was reported in a 2-month old child who had a co-infection with RSV along with SARS-CoV-2 Children are at increased risk of radiation and its effects, so CT scans and X-rays should be judiciously used in them. It is advised to perform Pulmonary Ultrasonography (USG) in newborns. It has better sensitivity and is safer than CT scans and Chest X-rays. - To view the MRI findings on COVID-19, click here. Other Imaging Findings - To view other imaging findings on COVID-19, click here. Other Diagnostic Studies - To view other diagnostic studies for COVID-19, click here. - Hospital admission and level of care depend on the clinical presentation, supportive care requirement, underlying comorbidities, and availability of health care facilities at home - Suspected patients must be isolated at a hospital or home until the diagnosis is excluded - After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for pediatric patients with COVID-19 - Critical and severe cases require Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission and management As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the main goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, provide supportive care, prevent and treat complications, treat underlying diseases and secondary infections, and provide organ function support. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of COVID-19 - Bed rest - Adequate calorie and water intake - Maintain electrolyte balance and homeostasis - Maintain airways patency - Monitor vital signs and SpO2 - Symptomatic treatment and Supportive care - Routine blood tests to monitor organ functions - Repeat chest imaging to monitor the progression of the disease Symptomatic treatment and Supportive Care Fever should be treated with physical cooling and antipyretics. If the body temperature exceeds 38.5C, antipyretic drugs should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are acetaminophen 10-15 mg/kg and ibuprofen 5-10 mg/kg orally. - When the oxygen saturations are low, oxygen therapy should be started using a nasal catheter or mask oxygen - Alternatively, heated humidified high flow nasal cannula (HHHFNC) can be used to improve oxygenation - If symptoms of respiratory difficulty persist, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or non-invasive high-frequency ventilation should be considered - Patients should be started on mechanical ventilation immediately when no improvement occurs or respiratory health is rapidly deteriorating. - No improvement observed with non-invasive ventilation - Intolerant to non-invasive ventilation Steroids are used in severe cases and to prevent complications. Any of the following criteria must be met before starting corticosteroid therapy in patients with COVID-19. Intravenous methylprednisolone 1-2mg/kg/day used for 3-5 days. Long-term usage is highly discouraged. - Patients who develop encephalitis or encephalopathy, hemophagocytic syndrome, and other serious complications - Patient develops septic shock - Patient presents with wheezing - Patients with raised D-dimer levels are at increased risk of thrombus formation - Anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy can be given to prevent this complication - Low molecular weight Heparin was reportedly used during the early stages. Convalescent plasma therapy Evidence suggests the use of plasma therapy in children with exacerbations and severe and critical disease. - Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) can be used in severe cases - Dose of 1g/kg/day for 2days or 400mg/kg/day for 8 days is recommended for children - More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with COVID-19 Following are the experimental drugs that are being considered to treat children with COVID-19. Various clinical trials are being conducted on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in children with COVID-19. Inhaled interferon-alpha was the most commonly used antiviral in patients with COVID-19. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the viral load, alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course. - It is a nucleotide analogue that inhibits viral RNA polymerase - It was effectively used during Ebola, SARS, and MERS outbreaks - It was effective in-vitro against SARS-CoV-2 - No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for Ebola - Phase III clinical trial is being conducted on the effectiveness of Remdesivir in treating COVID-19 in adults and children above 12 years of age - FDA has approved the emergency use of Remdesivir in treating hospitalized children with severe disease"Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA". - Favipiravir is an RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor - In patients above 16 years, reports showed faster viral clearance and higher recovery rate with Favipiravir - It was effective during Ebola and Influenza outbreak - The safety and efficacy of Favipiravir are still being debated - Due to its efficiency in treating SARS, MERS, Ebola, and Influenza, it is being considered as a potential treatment for severely ill children who did not respond to other treatment options Re-opening of schools - The pandemic which started in China in January 2020 and now is all over the world has had a tremendous effect on the everyday life of many however children are the most affected. - With the peak of the coronavirus cases being over in many countries like the USA and Europe, there is a dilemma for the school officials about when to reopen schools for children. - According to the data collected by the CDC and other articles children are affected less compared to adults with asymptomatic to mild COVID-19 symptoms. - The challenge faced by the school committees around the world is to decide between the pros and cons of whether to reopen the school with children facing the emotional toll of the lockdown and quarantine. The CDC guidelines for re-opening schools are as follows - These guidelines are to be followed by schools by coordinating with the local health department to know the level of mitigation in your community as the coronavirus cases are increasing. - Educate the teachers and the parents on signs of coronavirus like dry cough, cold, high fever, and other flu-like symptoms. - If the child has the above-mentioned symptoms or is in contact with an adult at home having these symptoms or the adult at home has tested positive the child should stay home. - Teachers, children, and other staff members with the immunocompromised state should be given the option to work from home virtually as they are in the high-risk group. - Hand hygiene- Soap and water should be provided by the school for students to wash hands frequently for 20 seconds - If soap and water are not available provide hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol. - Use a tissue to cover cough/sneeze and wash hands after discarding the tissue safely. - Cloth face mask is advised for all the school staff and the children except kids younger than 2 years of age or kids with a breathing problem who needs assistance in removing the face mask. - Signs about COVID 19 should be placed in places frequently visited like the school entrance, cafeteria, and the bathroom. - Avoid sharing objects and if possible give kids individual supplies. - Ensure proper ventilation systems are in place, open windows when it's safe and possible. - Identify small groups of children and try to keep them together with the same teacher. - Food brought from home is advisable. If not then food should be distributed in the classroom, not the cafeteria. - Advise students and teachers to limit their exposure to the news stories. It can be overwhelming for the students. - Encourage the students to talk to anyone they trust or to reach out to teachers to talk when overwhelmed. - If a child tests positive or is suspected to have COVID-19 the school should arrange special transport for the student separately. - Inform the local health care department and close contacts if the student tests positive. - Proper contact tracing, isolation, disinfecting the common places frequently used by the students should be made a priority. Domestic violence in children - In this lockdown even though children are affected less compared to adults with COVID -19 that however is not the case when it comes to mental health and safety. - A study by Silvia Bressan et all reported a sharp increase in pediatric emergency visit due to domestic violence with majority of limb fractures, facial fracture, subdural hematoma and ingestion of caustic cleaning product. - Increased measures for children's safety and frequent disinfection should be encouraged. - Eastin, Carly; Eastin, Travis (2020). "Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 58 (4): 712–713. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006. ISSN 0736-4679. - Velavan, Thirumalaisamy P.; Meyer, Christian G. (2020). "The COVID‐19 epidemic". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 25 (3): 278–280. doi:10.1111/tmi.13383. ISSN 1360-2276. - Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S; et al. (2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69 (24): 759–765. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2. PMC 7302472 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32555134 Check - Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X; et al. (2020). "High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa". Int J Oral Sci. 12 (1): 8. doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x. PMC 7039956 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32094336 Check - Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A; et al. (2020). "Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2". Prenat Diagn. doi:10.1002/pd.5765. PMC 7307070 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32529643 Check - Belhadjer, Zahra; Méot, Mathilde; Bajolle, Fanny; Khraiche, Diala; Legendre, Antoine; Abakka, Samya; Auriau, Johanne; Grimaud, Marion; Oualha, Mehdi; Beghetti, Maurice; Wacker, Julie; Ovaert, Caroline; Hascoet, Sebastien; Selegny, Maëlle; Malekzadeh-Milani, Sophie; Maltret, Alice; Bosser, Gilles; Giroux, Nathan; Bonnemains, Laurent; Bordet, Jeanne; Di Filippo, Sylvie; Mauran, Pierre; Falcon-Eicher, Sylvie; Thambo, Jean-Benoît; Lefort, Bruno; Moceri, Pamela; Houyel, Lucile; Renolleau, Sylvain; Bonnet, Damien (2020). "Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic". Circulation. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360. ISSN 0009-7322. - Chen ZM, Fu JF, Shu Q, Chen YH, Hua CZ, Li FB; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis and treatment recommendations for pediatric respiratory infection caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus". World J Pediatr. 16 (3): 240–246. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00345-5. PMC 7091166 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32026148 Check - Du H, Dong X, Zhang JJ, Cao YY, Akdis M, Huang PQ; et al. (2020). "Clinical characteristics of 182 pediatric COVID-19 patients with different severities and allergic status". Allergy. doi:10.1111/all.14452. PMC 7307120 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32524611 Check - de Souza TH, Nadal JA, Nogueira RJN, Pereira RM, Brandão MB (2020). "Clinical manifestations of children with COVID-19: A systematic review". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24885. PMC 7300659 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32492251 Check - Zhang L, Peres TG, Silva MVF, Camargos P (2020). "What we know so far about Coronavirus Disease 2019 in children: A meta-analysis of 551 laboratory-confirmed cases". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24869. PMC 7300763 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32519809 Check - Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement". World J Pediatr. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7. PMC 7090771 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32034659 Check - Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J; et al. (2015). "Favipiravir for children with Ebola". Lancet. 385 (9968): 603–604. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X. PMID 25706078. - Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J; et al. (2020). "Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study". Engineering (Beijing). doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007. PMC 7185795 Check |pmc=value (help). PMID 32346491 Check

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The Heroic Age Adomnán, Iona, and the Life of St. Columba: Their Place Among Continental Saints by Jeffrey Wetherill Eastern Oregon University University of Wales, Lampeter Abstract: If we are to believe Adomnán, ninth abbot of Iona and author of the Life of St. Columba, the reputation of the Saint reached beyond Ireland and Britain to "Spain and Gaul and Italy beyond the Alps, and even Rome itself, the chief of all cities." Is this literary embellishment or historical realism? This paper will explore the ways in which Adomnán connects Columba with the continent and how those connections are intimately linkied with his purpose(s) for writing the Life. - Columba and the Vita - Continental Connections When surveying the early cultural, political, and spiritual histories of both Ireland and Britain, the modern traveler is introduced to a rich milieu that is still evidenced today. The 6th-9th centuries, often referred to as the "Golden Age of Christianity", collectively produced monastic sites and settlements, art and metalwork, stone carvings and churches, high crosses, round towers, holy wells, and beautiful manuscripts; many laced with Celtic flare and intricacies. These antiquities dot the contemporary landscape the width and breadth of both islands, especially southern Ireland, western Wales, northern England and Scotland, and continue to inspire and influence the religious experience and spirituality of many modern Christians. This period is also known as the "Age of Saints" for it generated a group of religious leaders that sought to establish the Christian faith among the "Celtic fringe" on the northwest corner of Europe; later moving eastward to the continent. Among the many Celtic saints who helped to shape this ecclesiastical mosaic was the highly influential, Irish-born, St. Columba. He is best known for his foundations at Iona, Kells, Derry, and Durrow, and was involved "in the most important political events of his in the north of Ireland and in the west and north of Scotland." Though we are able to extract and piece together only fragmentary details of his family background and monastic career-placed among the clans of the Dál Riata -we are given a tantalizing glimpse that Columba and his reputation had perhaps moved beyond the "Isles" to the continent during his lifetime. Adomnán, ninth abbot of Iona and author of the Life of St. Columba, makes this curious statement in the final paragraphs of the Vita: "This too is no small favour conferred by God on the man of blessed memory, that one who dwelt in this little island on the edge of the ocean should have earned a reputation that is famous not only in our Ireland and in Britain, the largest of the ocean's islands, but has also reached the three corners of Spain and Gaul and Italy beyond the Alps, and even Rome itself, the chief of all cities." This declaration deserves closer scrutiny for at on time in the Life do we find Columba traveling to or from the boundaries of the British Isles. So how then was he known as a "saintly" figure as far away as Rome? Is this mere embellishment on the part of Adomnán, seeking to add credibility to the Columban legacy? Or is this assertaion based upon some historical truth intimately grounded in Adomnán's purpose(s) for writing the Life? This paper will explore these issues while arguing that the statement itself derives from a lineage of hagiographical "classics" intended to add weight and creidibility to Adomnán, Iona, and most importantly, Columba, and their place among the continental saints. Columba and the Vita Before examining the evidence regarding Columba's continental connections, this discussion calls for some preliminary background. We begin with the text. As a source of great literary and historical significance, the Life of St. Columba written by Adomnán, is a carefully crafted and detailed hagiography which relies extensively upon both oral and written sources. Adomnán organizes the Life into three books, accordingly arranged around prophetic revelations, divine miracles, and angelic apparitions. The document is filled with stories that highlight Columba's sanctity, holiness, and godly character, all of which are intimately attached to his functioning role as the "father of founder of monasteries." The presentation of the saint, Adomnán says, is in response to the "entreaties of the brethren." Despite his noble lineage, affording him the direct opportunity to serve among the political elite of his day, we are led to believe that Columba was predestined from birth for the church. Adomnán makes this point when he writes, "Since boyhood he had devoted himself to training in the Christian life, and to the study of wisdom." His formative years were spent preparing for a monastic vocation that would include such capacities as monk, priest, abbott, preacher, evangelist, miracle worker, king maker, peace negotiator, and founder of numerous monastic foundations. Undoubtedly, his most notable achievement was the establishment of the island monastery of Iona, the "mother church" and chief centre of his monastic familia. This desert in the ocean was the sacred isle where he spent "thirty-four years as an island soldier" before his death on Sunday, 9th of June, 597. With that background, we begin by examining more critically Adomnán's statement regarding Columba's reputation on the continent. Taking the geographical notation above-"Spain, Gaul, Italy, and Rome"-Admonán actually leaves few clues in the Vita as to how Columba's standing gained widespread, continental attention. Spain and Rome are mentioned only as a comparative reference to the great plagues that twice ravaged a large part of the world. Italy is further mentioned as part of a Columban prophecy about a "terrible vengeance" in which fire of sulphur poured out "on a city under Roman jurisdiction within the borders of Italy." Gaul is included in the stories above with an additional narrative whereby Columba is compared to St. Germanus. He sailed from the "bay of Gaul to Britain" and too, like Columba, dealt with legions of evil spirits. Beyond these marginal references, of which only the slightest inferences can be made, we are left without further geographical, place-name guidance that would firmly establish Columba and his reputation among his continental counterparts. A second line of inquiry is the possible contact between Columba and continental individuals. This would perhaps help to establish Columba among his European brethren and Iona as a reputed monastic site on the wider ecclesiastical map. Unfortunately, Adomnán again offers little direct evidence. The Vita certainly depicts a steady stream of individuals coming to Iona from both Ireland and Britain, but no mention is made of inviduals from the continent. Beyond any doubt, we find Columba often traveling to Ireland, as well as, to daughter houses, the surrounding islands, and various places among the Picts. In fact, interesting to note, there isn't a single epidsode in the entire text whereby Columba is found solitarily without some sort of contact and/or interaction with his monks or other religious or political figures. This caused Sharpe to make the observation that "[the Life] conveys a vivid sense of the holy man among the brethren of his community, often sitting in his little hut in Iona at the center of the lives of all his monks." That said, all of the contacts mentioned above are with non-continentals. This line of inquiry equally offers little help in establishing Columba and his reputation beyond the shores of the British Isles. Therefore, without any clear, verifiable data that might serve as avenues by which Columba's reputation had spread to the continent, we are to conclude that Adomnán perhaps overestimated his standing. Is this a case whereby Adomnán, in his exuberance to write about his patron, stretches Columba's status? Undoubtedly, Columba was a well-known figure throughout Ireland and Scotland, especially among the clans of the Dál Riata as demonstrated in the text and verified by archaeological and historical evidence. However, to prove that Columba's reputation proceeded as far away as Rome from direct, internal, textual evidence is difficult at best. Upon closer examination of the Vita and some external sources, we gain a clearer understanding of what lies behind Adomnán's motivations for making a continental claim for Columba. These pieces of evidence will be examined and organized around two important headings: (1) the background of Adomnán's abbacy; and (2) the sources used in framing the Vita. These will help to demonstrate how Adomnán sought to regain credibility as an abbot, Iona as an ecclesiastical center, and most importantly, Columba among the monastic giants of his day. (1) Adomnán and His Abbacy Adomnán has been described as "a wise and worthy man, excellently grounded in knowledge of the Scriptures" and Vita Columbae as "the most complete piece of biography that all Europe can boast of, not only at so early a period but even through the whole Middle Ages." Like a kaleidoscope that awes us at every turn, Adomnán's career can be seen by his vast array of pursuits that included both written and moral concerns: exegete, lawyer, hagiographer, monastic teacher, theologian, and saintly abbot. He was born c. 624 in County Donegal and was connected to Columba on his father's side as a member of the Cenél Conaill clan. His father was Ronán, the son of Tinne, and his mother Ronnat of the Cenel-nEnna clan from the Raphoe deistrict. Until his appointment as the ninth abbot of Iona in 679, following the death of abbot Failbe, little can be said of his life and career. However, from 679 until his death in 704, Adomnán served as an important ecclesiastical figure among the churches of Ireland and Britain. This is particularly reflected in his great literary and political contributions during his abbacy. While a discussion regarding Adomnán would prove a fascinating study in itself, two important sources of information about his abbacy, intimately related, offer us some clues toward the discussion at hand. The first source is the Annals of Ulster. In the AU, we are given three entries for Adomnán. Each highlights a trip he made away from Iona; one to Northumbria (AU 687) and two to Ireland (AU 692; 697). Adomnán himself, in the Vita, mentions two visits to Northumbria within a two-year period. It is difficult to discern on each occasion how long he was away from Iona as we simply have no way of knowing. However, it is a plausible suggestion that these periods of non-residence resulted in a lagging relationship, with weakened authority, among his monks. The above possibility is given credible foundation in our second source of evidence. Bede, in his Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, tells us that Abbot Ceolfrid sent a letter to Nechtan, King of the Picts, in which he highlights Adomnán relationship to his monks. He states: Such, then, were my words to Adomnán, who showed how greatly he had profited by seeing the observances of our Church; for after he had returned to Scotland, he won over large numbers to the Catholic observance of Easter by his preaching. But although he was their lawfully constituted head, he was unable to persuade the monks of Iona to adopt a better rule of life. Had his authority been sufficiently great, he would surely have taken care to correct the tonsure also. This relational strain is more acutely articulated by Bede in an earlier account, "....he tried to lead his own people in Iona and those who were under the jurisdiction of that monastery into the correct ways that he had himself learned and wholeheartedly accepted; but in this he failed." Richter suggests that his fact "signals a major defeat in his authority." Pairing together then the statements from both the Annals of Ulster and Bede, we have to conclude that Adomnán, as an abbot and monastic leader, was lacking the authoritative credibility while failing to have influence among the Columban familia. How does this discussion relate to Adomnán's purposes for writing the Vita? Simply, one of the primary motivations for writing the Vita, which occurred somewhere in the midst of the above events, appears to that Adomnán wanted to somehow hold up the ideal portrait of a disciple by presenting Columba as a model to the Christian community, particularly his monks. By doing so, it would once again re-establish credibility to the abbatial lineage of the Columban familia, respond to the entreaties of the brethren, and help give himself a more authoritative footing among his monastic community. If it is indeed true that Adomnán's authority had been lost through his subsequent absences on Iona, and his failure to persuade his followers on the weighty theological issue of the dating of Easter, then writing the Vita would help to regain his authority and reaffirm his credibility as their abbot. (2) Sources Used in Framing the Text A second motivation for writing the Vita and making a continental claim for Columba appears to be Adomnán's desire to present him as both equal to and on par with the more widely-known and credible continental saints. These "Lives" were already being circulated and read among the Columban community; held up as ideal models of the monastic life. Sharpe notes that Adomnán's "knowledge of such Lives had an influence on the structure of the book; it also coloured the language and in some instances it may have shaped the way individual stories are told." There is clear structural and grammatical evidence in the Vita that Adomnán depended heavily upon such "Lives" to organize the text and formulate his presentation of Columba. A few examples include: the inclusion of two prefaces; structuring the Vita into three books, and noting Columba's ongoing interaction with angels and the cosmic realms. Equally, Adomnán, in his two prefaces, borrows phrasing from both the Lives of Martin and Anthony, almost word for word at times. Here is a prominent example: The reader should also be reminded of this, that many things worth recording about the man of blessed memory are left out here for the sake of brevity, and only a few things out of many are written down so as not to try the patience of those who will read them. But even in comparison with the little we now purpose to write, popular report has spread almost nothing of the very great things that can be told about the blessed man. This conventional apology is similarly worded to that which we find at the end of the Life of St Martin. Sharpe notes that Adomnán borrows the phrase, "minima...de maximis," "which he perhaps borrowed from the prologue to Evagrius' Life of St. Anthony...which infuses much of his account of St. Columba's last days" (VC ii.28, iii.23). Bringing this discussion into more focus, what about Adomnán's claim regarding Columba's wide-spread, continental reputation? Does that statement have any parallel in the "Lives" of other saints? It would appear that he borrowed it directly from the Life of St. Anthony. Evagrius, author of the Life of St. Anthony, writes: To whom then, my brother, can we attribute the fact that his fame and love have spread throughout all the provinces, he who won fame not through the dazzling discourse of books that have been circulated far and wide nor my means of the arguments of the worldly wisdom nor because of his family's nobility nor the accumulation of great wealth? To whom if not to Christ whose gift this is? Forseeing Anthony's devotion to His divine majesty He revealed this man who was almost hidden in another world, set in the midst of such vast areas of solitude. He revealed him to Africa, Spain, Gaul, Italy, Illyria, and even to Rome itself, the first city, as He had promised in the beginning. For this occurred as a result of the Creator's kindness. Evagrius is keen to highlight that Antony's reputation had spread, through Christ's help, to "Africa, Spain, Gaul, Italy, Illyria, and even to Rome itself, the first city...." It is this same geographical notation that Adomnán borrows in making the wider claim for Columba. Why? Simply because Adomnán wants to model not only the Vita, but the life of "saint" Columba on that of other widely-known, monastic role models that were being read and imitated by the monks of the Columban community. In doing so, Adomnán was seeking to establish Columba among the monastic "giants" of the day adding weight and credibility to his legacy. Throughout this discussion, we have been seeking to understand Adomnán's statement regarding Columba's continental reputation. Had Columba become a well-known saint as far away as Rome or was Adomnán making this claim for other, less apparent reasons? To ask it another way, was Columba's status on the continent, as stated by Adomnán, grounded upon some historical evidence or was it based upon a literary device tied to his purpose(s) for writing the Vita? It would appear from lack of historical verification that the latter seems more likely the case. Bringing closure to this discussion then, there are two important conclusions that need to be drawn. The first conclusion is connected with Adomnán's abbacy. By writing the Vita and presenting Columba as an ideal abbot and monk, Adomnán was seeking to re-establish his role as a monastic leader. He had failed to persuade his community on the most important theological issues of the day; an issue which seems to have served as an important barrier to connecting the "Isles" with the wider, continental church. Presenting Columba as someone with continental credibility would help to build a bridge between those struggling to accept the more widely adopted consensus regarding the dating of Easter. Doing so would help to reaffirm the office of abbot and Adomnán's direct authority among his community of monks. The second conclusion that must be drawn is that Adomnán was seeking to give Columba continental status by modeling him on the "Lives" of the more known saints. This can be seen in the composition and make-up of the Vita. These saints were already having an impact upon the monastic community at Iona through their widely read lives and examples. To establish Columba among them would help th elevate his standing as a monastic "giant" and an ideal disciple. Thus, Adomnán in writing about his patron, perhaps for the centenary of Columba's death, offers the monks of his community and the sider church, a continenant portrait of the Saint that accomplished three things. First, it presented them with a image of the ideal disciple along the lines of the other well-known, and well-read, saints. Second, it reaffirmed Adomnán as an abbot while seeking to connect those who reject the dating of Easter with those who don't. Finally it heightened the profile of Iona as a monastic center on the continental ecclesiastical map. These three items all underpinned Adomnán's motivation for presenting Columba and his reputation as it reached to the three corners of "Spain and Gaul and Italy beyond the Alps, and even Rome itself, the chief of all cites." Copyright © Jeffrey Wetherill, 2003. All rights reserved. Return to Table of Contents Next Return to homepage This edition copyright © The Heroic Age, 2003. All rights reserved.

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Vitamin C is the major antioxidant molecule in the central nervous system (CNS), reaching concentrations of 10 mM in neurons and 400 μM in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Uptake of vitamin C by brain cells is performed through the co‐transporter of ascorbic acid and sodium isoform 2, SVCT2, which is expressed in cells from the choroid plexus, neurons, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. SVCT2 expression has also been described in cells at the neurogenic niche, specifically in proliferative type C cells. In this chapter, we will describe recently published studies of SVCT2 expression during brain development and define its polarization in cells from the radial glia (neuronal precursors within the CNS) and vitamin C‐mediated effects in regulating genes associated with the maintenance of CNS stem cell pluripotency. We will discuss the differential biological effect that vitamin C generates in neurons versus astrocytes and how the oxidized form of vitamin C, dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), produced by neurons in conditions of oxidative stress must leave this cell to be incorporated by astrocytes. In this context, we will discuss recent literature, which shows that DHA regulates glycolytic metabolism in neurons. In parallel, we will analyze vitamin C recycling by astrocytes, which reduce DHA into ascorbic acid (AA), increasing the antioxidant potential of the brain. Data discussed in this chapter will provide an updated view of SVCT2 distribution in the brain and will also describe how vitamin C recycling participates in normal or pathological brain function. - ascorbic acid - dehydroascorbic acid - bystander effect Vitamin C is a small, water‐soluble molecule that possesses two dissociable protons with pK values of 4.2 and 11.8. At physiological pH, the reduced form of vitamin C, ascorbic acid (AA), predominates and is specifically incorporated by neurons through isoform 2 of the cotransporter of sodium and ascorbate (SVCT2) . Once AA loses its protons, it is oxidized into dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), which diffuses among nervous cells through the facilitative glucose transporters, GLUT1 and GLUT3 [2–4]. Most mammals are able to synthesize vitamin C from glucose in the liver; however, primates, including humans, lack the enzyme that catalyzes the last step in vitamin C biosynthesis. Thus, they must obtain vitamin C from the diet [5, 6]. The most relevant function of vitamin C is as an antioxidant agent. Given that the brain has one of the highest metabolic rates of all organs and is under constant oxidative stress, vitamin C is, therefore, critical for the maintenance of brain function and protection of central nervous system (CNS) structures . 2. Distribution and function of SVCT2 in the adult brain Many studies indicate that SVCT2 is a transporter that is preferentially expressed in neurons from different areas in the adult brain, such as the cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cerebellar precursors [1, 7–11]. SVCT2 mediates uptake of AA, an important molecule for antioxidant defense and general metabolic needs of neurons. Although SVCT2 was originally thought to be a neuronal transporter, there is increasing evidence demonstrating its expression in glial cells in the CNS [4, 7, 8, 10, 12–14]. Indeed, SVCT2 has been reported in cortical microglia, where its function remains unknown . In hypothalamic tanycytes, it may participate in maintaining the high parenchymal concentrations of vitamin C that characterize this region . Furthermore, in choroid plexus cells, it facilitates entry of AA into the brain through the blood‐cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier [4, 7, 10, 12]. In Schwann cells, SVCT2 promotes axonal myelination in the peripheral nervous system . Under physiological conditions, SVCT2 protein has not been detected in astrocytes from the gray matter, but its mRNA has been reported in marginal astrocytes in the subpial surface at the entorhinal cortex . In contrast, SVCT2 mRNA is induced in the brains of animals with middle cerebral artery occlusion as an experimental model of ischemia/reperfusion in the brain, suggesting that expression of this transporter is induced under pathological conditions . Moreover, our group has recently defined that SVCT2 protein is induced in reactive astrocytes in various 3. Expression and polarization of SVCT2 during brain development Studies published more than a decade ago have unequivocally demonstrated the expression and functionality of SVCT2 in cultured cortical neurons from mouse embryos . Similarly, studies addressing the effect of physiological brain concentrations of AA have shown that this nutrient promotes differentiation of embryonic cortical precursors into neurons and astrocytes . Expression and polarization of SVCT2 have been studied during rat and human embryonic development in the cortex at 9 weeks of gestation [20, 21]. In lissencephaly, SVCT2 is localized in radial glial cells in the ventricular zone, where it is polarized toward the ventricular cavity, and in subapical and intermediate apical progenitors in the subventricular zone . In gyrencephalic brains, SVCT2 localization is also associated with progenitors of the inner and outer areas of the subventricular zone . During postnatal brain development, levels of SVCT2 mRNA and protein follow an inverse relation with AA concentrations . Thus, high concentrations of AA exist during late embryonic and early postnatal development periods at both the cortex and cerebellum, diminishing later in adulthood; however, levels of SVCT2 mRNA and protein are low during embryonic development but increase with age . By means of confocal and immune‐structural studies, our research group has identified SVCT2 in the Golgi apparatus of pyramidal neurons from the deep layers of the brain cortex (layers IV to VI) in early postnatal mice (days 1 and 5 after birth). These findings indicate that SVCT2 is induced during cell arborization and synaptic maturation of deep neurons in the brain cortex. We also identified the expression of a short isoform of SVCT2 (SVCT2sh), which is unable to transport AA and regulate the functional capacity of the active transporter . This finding and its biological consequence in the postnatal brain will be discussed in the following section. SVCT2 knock‐out mice ( The hypothesis that SVCT2 and AA can potentiate neurogenesis during postnatal development has also been validated by Pastor et al. , who reported the postnatal expression of SVCT2 in the neurogenic niche from rat and human brains after 1 month of extra‐uterine life . This is a restricted area that borders the wall of lateral ventricles in which a stream of progenitor cells that migrate toward the olfactory bulb originate (called the rostral migratory stream [RMS]). SVCT2 is abundant in cells with high proliferative capacity in the neurogenic niche (also known as type C cells) and migratory progenitor cells present at the RMS. In contrast, among the different cell types of the neurogenic niche, SVCT2 is only present at low levels in astrocytes or type B cells and neuroblasts . These findings suggest a role for AA in the maintenance of proliferative cells, which, in turn, is supported by studies indicating that treatment with AA improves the genetic reprogramming of human fibroblasts into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), enhancing the efficiency of the process and allowing the generated iPSC to present similar epigenetic patterns to those present in embryonic stem cells . Moreover, AA supplementation of neurosphere cultures obtained from rat embryonic brain tissue and a teratocarcinoma cell line from P19 mice shows the functionality of SVCT2‐mediated uptake of AA as well as neuronal differentiation revealed by the increased expression of the marker, βIII tubulin . In conclusion, SVCT2 is expressed at low levels during embryonic development, and its localization is restricted to the ventricular zone from cerebral ventricles, where the bodies of the radial glia are present. During this period, SVCT2 and AA are key players in regulating pluripotency and the proliferative capacity of neural stem cells. During postnatal development, AA and SVCT2 are important for postmigratory neurons that are beginning the process of arborization and synaptic maturation. 4. Regulation of SVCT2‐mediated vitamin C uptake in neurons by shSVCT2 As mentioned in the previous chapter, SVCT2 expression and function are important for the arborization and synaptic maturation of post‐mitotic neurons present in the postnatal brain cortex. However, during this period, SVCT2 function is tightly regulated by the co‐expression of a shorter isoform of SVCT2, SVCT2sh, which is unable to transport AA. This isoform was initially identified in human fetal brain cDNA and is generated by deletion of an internal sequence of 345 bp in the mRNA, resulting in the translation of a smaller protein completely lacking intracellular domains 5 and 6 and part of domain 4. SVCT2sh was initially thought to be a possible dominant negative of SVCT2 through protein‐protein interaction . However, Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) studies, a decade later using SVCT2‐CFP and SVCT2sh‐YFP in the neural linage cell line, N2a , showed that the proteins interact at both the intracellular space and the cell membrane. The functional consequence of the interaction reduces the affinity of SVCT2 for its substrate, AA, in neuronal cells, suggesting that SVCT2 activity and intracellular concentrations of AA are tightly modulated during postnatal development in order to generate a precise physiological intracellular dose of AA to trigger the neuronal differentiation and synaptic maturation in a particular period of development. 5. Vitamin C recycling 5.1. General aspects In order to understand the concept of vitamin C recycling, it is necessary to remember that vitamin C is found in two forms: (1) a reduced form, AA, that enters the cells specifically through SVCT transporters and (2) an oxidized form, DHA, that enters the cells through the facilitative glucose transporters, GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, and GLUT8 [29–31]. These two forms of vitamin C represent two different molecules with independent functions and characteristics, although they are interconvertible by means of oxidation‐reduction reactions . Because every cell in the body expresses glucose transporters, all cells can uptake vitamin C in the form of DHA . However, for intracellular accumulation of AA and antioxidant protection, the cell needs to reduce DHA into AA, a process that depends on glutathione and NADPH [33–35]. Therefore, the ability of a cell to accumulate AA via reduction of DHA is limited by its antioxidant enzymatic capacity. Interestingly, two different cell populations have been identified: cells with high and those with low antioxidant enzymatic capacity. Cells with low antioxidant enzymatic capacity preferentially use AA for protection against oxidative damage. Once AA accomplishes its antioxidant function, it is oxidized into DHA. Because these cells cannot reduce DHA back into AA, the presence of neighboring cells with high reducing power is crucial. Hence, DHA leaves the cell through glucose transporters and enters neighboring cells that possess an elevated concentration of antioxidant enzymes to reduce DHA into AA. Finally, AA can be accumulated or released into the extracellular space to maintain constant AA concentrations. Therefore, ideal conditions exist 5.2. Vitamin C recycling between astrocytes and neurons The idea of vitamin C recycling in the brain originated from the observation that during nutritional deficiency of vitamin C, high AA concentrations in the brain are maintained for a longer period compared to all the other tissues [36, 37]. Thus, efficient mechanisms must exist to maintain AA concentrations in the brain. As mentioned before, in order for vitamin C recycling to occur, a cell with low reducing power that utilizes AA as an antioxidant is required in addition to a cell with high reducing power that is constantly incorporating DHA and releasing AA to the extracellular space. The ideal conditions for vitamin C recycling converge in the CNS, where we find two cell populations that couple in order to recycle vitamin C. On one hand, we find the neuron that is able to intracellularly accumulate up to 10 mM AA but rapidly oxidizes it into DHA, which leaves the cell . Furthermore, the neuron possesses a very limited capacity to reduce DHA back into AA due to low concentration of antioxidant enzymes and its elevated metabolic rate . Accordingly, isolation of neurons from the neighbor cells that recycle DHA compromises their metabolism, resulting in neuronal death [32, 39]. On the other hand, another cell type is found in the CNS, the astrocytes. For a long time, astrocytes were only thought to be scaffold cells in the brain, without any physiological function. However, today we know that astrocytes perform critical physiological activities, such as (1) the uptake of extracellular glutamate for recycling into glutamine to avoid neuronal excitotoxicity; (2) the release of lactate to be used by neurons for energy production; (3) the release of interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) and tumor growth factor‐beta (TGF‐beta) neuroprotective cytokines; (4) the synthesis of apolipoprotein E for axonal growth; and (5) the release of trophic factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), among others . Moreover, astrocytes are required for vitamin C recycling in the CNS due to their ability to uptake DHA from the extracellular space and, in virtue of its elevated reducing power, to efficiently reduce it back into AA [41, 42]. After that, astrocytes release AA to the extracellular space to maintain stable AA concentrations . Besides, astrocytes participate in the neuronal antioxidant defense by releasing AA during pathological conditions that involve changes in the osmotic pressure or ischemic/reperfusion damage . Experiments using neuronal‐astrocyte co‐cultures have demonstrated that the presence of astrocytes ameliorates neuronal death induced by glutamate, H2O2, or DHA 6. Relevance of DHA recycling 6.1. Effects of DHA in neurons As previously described, the neuron utilizes AA as the main antioxidant agent, but it is unable to maintain vitamin C in its reduced form. The effects triggered by the accumulation of DHA in neurons have begun to be elucidated recently. The first studies were focused in determining the effect of the extracellular oxidation of AA over the redox state of the neuron, showing that incubation of brain slices with exogenous AA produces an increase in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) [46–48], an indicator of oxidative damage. However, this effect was prevented by treatment with glutathione, indicating that AA oxidation might induce an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). It is widely accepted that AA oxidation generates ROS through the Fenton reaction, which occurs in the presence of metals, such as Fe in acidic pH, producing H2O2. AA creates the conditions for the Fenton reaction to occur, so AA might induce an increase in ROS and trigger cell death due to extracellular accumulation of H2O2 [49, 50]. Nevertheless, no increase in TBARS occurs when DHA uptake is prevented by inhibition of GLUT1 in brain slices, indicating that the pro‐oxidant effect requires DHA uptake by nervous cells and does not depend directly on AA oxidation and accumulation of H2O2 . Additionally, as previously described, the pro‐oxidant effect of AA disappears when it is co‐incubated with glutathione, even when glutathione reduces DHA into AA . Thus, we can conclude that extracellular DHA accumulation due to an oxidative environment stimulates its uptake by neurons, which, in turn, induce oxidative stress because neurons possess low reducing power. Although these results constitute strong evidence suggesting that DHA might be triggering oxidative stress and neuronal death, the ultimate intracellular effect as well as the DHA target has not been identified. Further studies of our research group have shed light on the actual effect of DHA on neurons. Radioactive vitamin C uptake analyses have shown that neurons are able to incorporate both AA and DHA; however, their ability to reduce DHA is limited up to 40% after which they start to oxidize AA back into DHA. Moreover, neurons cannot keep AA in its reduced form for long periods, since it consumes 80% of intracellular AA after 1 h of uptake. However, in the presence of DHA, neurons consume 90% of glutathione in 1 h. Therefore, our group has defined that the neuronal target of DHA is glucose metabolism since incubation with DHA induces a 75% arrest in glycolysis accompanied by increased activity of the pentose phosphate pathway, possibly to regenerate glutathione and avoid oxidative damage . In conclusion, as shown in Figure 1, neurons need neighboring cells to recycle vitamin C in order to maintain stable concentrations of AA. 6.2. Relevance of astrocytes for DHA recycling In order to confirm the hypothesis that the presence of vitamin C‐recycling cells is necessary, our research group performed studies of cell viability in neurons subjected to oxidative damage induced by H2O2 and incubation with DHA. The aim of this experiment was to elucidate the dichotomy existing between the protective and toxic effects that DHA may produce. Given that the literature proposes antioxidant effects for DHA treatment in pathological conditions , we incubated neurons with H2O2, the major ROS accumulated in the extracellular space during pathological conditions of the brain (e.g., ischemia/reperfusion), and expected a depletion of the antioxidant enzymatic defense of the neuron . In this experimental setting, we incubated neurons with DHA to assess for any antioxidant effect. Interestingly, treatment with H2O2 and DHA induced 50 and 70% cell death after 3 and 6 h, respectively, compared with cells that were incubated with H2O2 alone . The findings that neurons are inefficient in reducing DHA and that DHA accumulation induces cell death led us to the following question: how do neurons avoid DHA accumulation in physiological and/or pathological conditions? The answer is the presence of another population of brain cells: the astrocytes. To analyze if astrocytes prevent the toxic effects of DHA, neuron‐astrocyte co‐cultures using the sandwich technique were used to assess any protective effect of astrocytes on neuronal survival in the presence of H2O2 and DHA. Neurons were incubated with H2O2, and astrocytes were added to the culture just before DHA was added. Notably, neurons co‐cultured with astrocytes showed 100% survival after 3 and 6 h of treatment, compared with neurons cultured alone , demonstrating that astrocytes are highly efficient in the recycling of DHA from the extracellular medium and that accumulation of DHA due to deficient astrocyte recycling or severe oxidative conditions is toxic for neurons. The relationship between vitamin C and brain pathologies remains a topic of discussion in the current literature, especially given that the oxidized form of vitamin C, DHA, has been largely ignored. DHA is actually a molecule that has great relevance for the treatment of various pathologies, including cancer, although conclusions observed when using DHA should be taken with caution. Indeed, DHA was originally proposed as a molecule that would be beneficial in pathological conditions, such as ischemia and reperfusion . Unfortunately, the research group that proposed DHA as a treatment for ischemia and reperfusion subsequently determined that its administration in primate models did not replicate the results observed in rodents . In these experiments, the researchers did not consider that the observations could be attributed to a failure in vitamin C recycling. Although vitamin C deficiency in the brain has been associated with increased oxidative stress, which could be stimulating ideal conditions to trigger certain pathologies, including Alzheimer’s disease , DHA has recently been proposed as a molecule that would trigger neuronal death . As shown in Figure 1, we propose that CNS pathologies could be associated with reduced astrocytic vitamin C recycling, resulting in the accumulation of DHA in neurons, which would trigger cell death. This work was supported by grants from the Fondo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (FONDECYT 1140477 FN, 11140405 to KS) and Conicyt‐PIA CMA BIO BIO ECM‐12 to FN.

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On November 27, 2009, Mariano Abarca Roblero was shot dead outside his home in Chiapas, Mexico. Abarca was a well-known community activist who led local opposition to a mining operation near his home. The aptly named Payback mine is owned by a Canadian company, Blackfire Exploration. Mexican police have arrested three men in connection with Abarca’s death, one of whom is currently employed by the company. The other suspects are former Blackfire employees, and allegations have surfaced that the company repeatedly bribed local authorities to quell local dissent. The Mexican government temporarily halted Blackfire’s operations after Abarca’s killing, citing environmental violations at the mine site. According to media reports, the company has threatened to sue the Mexican government under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) for damages incurred as a result of the mine closure. In Canada, civil society organizations have requested a government investigation of Blackfire under legislation that bars Canadian citizens from bribing foreign public officials. Unfortunately, as remarkable as these events may sound, they are not as uncommon as one might expect. Not only do Canadian mining operations in Latin America cause significant environmental damage, but they are also associated with social disruption and human rights violations, and generate conflict with and among local communities.1 Those who oppose mining operations are often harassed and intimidated.2 In recent months, several critics of Canadian mining companies have been murdered in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico.3 Moreover, according to a former cabinet minister from Argentina who recently testified before Canadian Parliament, Canadian mining companies unduly influence the legislative process in her country.4 (Canadian mining company Barrick Gold refutes her testimony on its website.) Local communities have responded to the arrival of Canadian mining companies with a variety of strategies aimed at protecting their land and resources. Some of these efforts have yielded positive results. For example, an overwhelming majority of local residents in Tambogrande, Peru, opposed the extraction of a gold deposit located underneath their town, as proposed by Manhattan Minerals, a junior Canadian mining company. The municipal government convened a referendum on the project so that local perspectives would be considered in decision-making concerning the project. Ninety-eight percent of registered voters rejected the project, which was eventually turned down by the Peruvian government. Unfortunately, Tambogrande is an anomaly. In most cases, communities are marginalized from the decision-making over mining projects in their areas. Moreover, host governments are often unwilling or unable to effectively regulate the operations of transnational companies in their territories. Communities are commonly denied access to meaningful mechanisms of legal redress in their countries regarding the damages they suffer as a consequence of poorly regulated mining operations. Several mining-affected populations have turned to international mechanisms to voice their grievances. For example, indigenous communities affected by the Marlin mine in Guatemala brought complaints before the World Bank’s Compliance Advisor Ombudsman and the Canadian National Contact Point. However, the non-binding recommendations that are produced by these offices are of limited impact. Other populations affected by Canadian mining operations have sought redress through the Canadian judicial system. Representatives of indigenous communities in Guyana filed a suit in a Canadian court after a tailings dam failure caused massive environmental contamination at a Canadian mine in their country. The Canadian court refused to hear the case, arguing that Guyana was the appropriate legal forum. The Guyanese judicial system proved equally ineffectual. Now Ecuadoran plaintiffs are testing the Canadian legal system once again, suing the Canadian mining company Copper Mesa, its directors, and the Toronto Stock Exchange in association with death threats and assaults committed against community members who opposed the development of a copper mine. Several Latin American governments have taken steps to better regulate the mining industry. But these efforts are often stymied. For example, the Argentine Congress unanimously passed legislation to protect that country’s glaciers from mining activities. Large tracts of the Andean cordillera on the country’s Chilean border have been included in mining concessions granted to Canadian companies. President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner vetoed the legislation, according to some sources, in response to pressure from Canadian mining interests.5 In other cases, governments are penalized when they strengthen environmental and health protections in relation to mining operations. For example, Canadian mining company Pacific Rim responded to the Salvadoran government’s decision not to issue permits for the company’s El Dorado project by suing it for damages under the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA). Nowhere is the Canadian mining sector’s presence felt overseas more acutely than in Latin America. The region is the single most important destination for Canadian mining capital, surpassing by a wide margin Africa, the industry’s second choice. In 2008, more than half of Canadian mining companies’ global assets were located in Latin America, at a value close to $57 billion (all values throughout this article are in Canadian dollars).6 The Canadian government is an important partner with this flagship industry, actively supporting mining companies’ overseas operations through the provision of both financial and political backing. This state support takes various forms. Extractive companies (mining, oil, gas) are the single greatest recipient of backing from Export Development Canada (EDC), a state-owned “Crown corporation” that provides financing and insurance to facilitate Canadian exports and overseas investments. In 2008, EDC facilitated Canadian business in the Latin American extractive sector worth more than $4 billion and is poised to expand its support for the Canadian mining industry in the region.7 With new offices in Santiago and Lima, EDC now has a permanent presence in Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Peru, countries that, together with Argentina, were the top five destinations for Canadian mining capital in Latin America from 2002 to 2008.8 Meanwhile, the Canada Pension Plan, a publicly administered fund to which most working Canadians are legally required to contribute, holds equity worth about $2.5 billion in publicly traded Canadian mining companies that operate in developing countries.9 And the Canadian Trade Commissioner facilitates access to foreign markets for Canadian mining companies. For example, Manhattan Minerals obtained its interest in the Tambogrande mine concession shortly after participating in a Team Canada trade mission to Peru. Canadian embassies also provide valuable political backing. The Canadian ambassador to Guatemala published an opinion piece in a local paper, praising the Canadian mining industry, when indigenous communities expressed opposition to the Canadian-owned Marlin mine. In Peru, communities frustrated with operations at the Antamina mine blocked an access road to the mine site.10 Days later, an article appeared on the front page of the Canadian Embassy website showcasing Antamina and praising its achievements as a socially responsible company. According to a representative of Canadian company Corriente Resources, whose operations in Ecuador have been associated with violent conflict and allegations of human rights abuse, “the Canadian Embassy in Ecuador has worked tirelessly to affect [sic] change in the mining policy—including facilitating high-level meetings between Canadian mining companies and President Rafael Correa.”11 Corriente Resources participated in one such meeting, during which the Canadian ambassador expressed the government of Canada’s concerns regarding changes to Ecuador’s regulatory framework. The challenges created by Canadian mining companies’ international operations are not unique. A vibrant international debate is under way concerning the responsibility of home countries for the overseas activities of their transnational companies. Home countries are those jurisdictions in which transnational companies incorporate, raise capital, and receive public backing. In Canada, this debate has focused on the federal government’s responsibility regarding the international operations of the Canadian extractive sector. Canada currently falls short in two respects. First, it lacks an effective legal or policy framework to regulate the overseas operations of Canadian extractive companies. Applicable legislative provisions are extremely limited in scope. And the Canadian government’s policy of corporate social responsibility for the extractive sector, described below, is unlikely to have a positive impact. Second, non-nationals who are adversely affected by the overseas operations of Canadian extractive companies face daunting barriers in accessing the Canadian legal system. However, in recent years the serious and increasingly widespread problems associated with the global operations of the Canadian mining sector have provided the impetus to address corporate impunity through policy and legal reform in Canada. Unprecedented efforts to this end have focused on both corporate and government accountability, and have involved the leadership of parliamentarians, industry representatives, and civil society. In 2005, members of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade held hearings on Canadian mining operations in developing countries. The committee heard testimony and received submissions from representatives of communities affected by Canadian mining operations. At the conclusion, the committee released a groundbreaking, all-party report expressing its concern that “Canada does not yet have laws to ensure that the activities of Canadian mining companies in developing countries conform to human rights standards, including the rights of workers and of indigenous peoples.”12 The committee called for significant policy and law reform in Canada to address this gap, including the adoption of legal norms “to ensure that Canadian companies and residents are held accountable when there is evidence of environmental and/or human rights violations associated with the activities of Canadian mining companies.” The committee report also called for the adoption of accountability mechanisms to ensure that companies that receive government support, such as export and project finance, and services offered by Canadian missions abroad, comply with clearly defined standards, including human rights norms. However, the Liberal government under Paul Martin chose to adopt only one of the committee’s recommendations: It convened a multi-stakeholder process to address government policy and programming in this area. The subsequent national roundtable process, which was unique in the Canadian experience, achieved unprecedented outcomes. The 2006 roundtables were hosted by the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT). The process was led by an advisory group in which the author of this article participated. This group featured representatives of industry associations, including the CEOs of both the Mining Association of Canada and the Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada; individual mining, oil, and gas companies; civil society groups; academics; and an ethical investment organization. Government and advisory group members participated in public consultations and closed-door expert sessions across the country. Following these discussions, members of the advisory group worked for several months to develop policy recommendations for the government of Canada. The group sought consensus, convinced that the presentation of divergent viewpoints would justify government inaction. Remarkably, concessions were made on all sides, and in March 2007, the advisory group released a consensus report identifying a proposal for policy reform that would enhance the accountability of Canadian extractive companies that operate in developing countries.13 The report’s centerpiece is the Canadian Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) framework, which includes standards and public reporting requirements for extractive companies. It also features a unique complaint mechanism for the extractive industries, in which an ombudsman will operate at arm’s length from the government and will undertake independent investigations regarding the overseas operations of Canadian extractive companies. The office will accept complaints from both Canadians and non-Canadians, and will publicly release its findings. While not grounded in binding legislation, the framework is intended to promote more responsible corporate behavior by disseminating credible, independent information about corporate operations and by linking the provision of government support to corporate compliance with performance standards. Unfortunately, the Canadian CSR framework does not include legally binding regulations for Canadian companies or mechanisms for legal redress in Canada for non-nationals who are affected by Canadian companies. Despite these shortcomings, the advisory group report is supported by most Canadian civil society organizations that work to promote corporate accountability in the extractive sector.14 These groups view the CSR framework as a sound starting point for more comprehensive reform, which they believe will be facilitated by several mechanisms proposed by the advisory group, particularly the office of the ombudsman. In March 2009, two years after the release of the advisory group’s singular report, the Conservative government issued its long-awaited response. Stockwell Day, then minister of international trade, presented the government’s CSR policy, “Building the Canadian Advantage: A Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Strategy for the Canadian International Extractive Sector.” The woefully inadequate policy was hardly worth the lengthy wait. It disregards virtually all of the advisory group recommendations, shifting the focus of accountability from Canada to the countries where Canadian companies invest. Mechanisms that were designed by the advisory group to encourage corporate compliance with performance standards are absent from the government strategy. Eligibility for government support is no longer linked to these standards. The office of the ombudsman has been stripped of its independence and power. The position is now government-appointed and can only undertake investigations with the explicit sanction of industry. Minister day was vice chair of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development (SCFAIT) in 2005 when the committee issued its hard-hitting report on the Canadian mining industry. Yet, four years later, Day rejected a set of policy measures that are modest compared to the legally binding regulations he endorsed as a member of the opposition—policy measures that enjoy widespread support. The Mining Association of Canada has consistently endorsed the advisory group recommendations, the opposition parties agree, and the government has been flooded with supportive letters from civil society organizations and members of the public.15 So what happened? Not everyone in industry was happy with the advisory group report. After Tony Andrews, executive director of the Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada (PDAC) and member of the advisory group, endorsed the group’s recommendations in his “personal capacity,” PDAC distanced itself from the report. In a submission to the ministers of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, PDAC argued that the report “reflects an underlying bias against the Canadian mining industry” and cautions that “the development of a CSR Framework specifically targeted at Canadian mining companies, could disturb the ‘level playing field’ and place them at a competitive disadvantage.”16 The Canadian Chamber of Commerce publicly slammed Prime Minister Stephen Harper in July 2007 when he spoke favorably about the advisory group report in a press release at the conclusion of the G8 Summit in Germany: “Canada has recently completed a nation-wide consultation process involving stakeholders with the Canadian extractive sector (mining, oil and gas) in developing countries. Implementation of the recommendations from this process will place Canada among the most active G8 countries in advancing international guidelines and principles on corporate social responsibility (CSR) in this sector.”17 Members of the G8, Canada included, committed themselves to promote and strengthen corporate social responsibility during the summit.18 The Chamber of Commerce emphatically rejected the adoption of any accountability measure for industry in a letter to the government regarding the advisory group report. “The voluntary nature of social responsibility must be maintained,” the chamber declared. “Attaching explicit sanctions to what is determined to represent non-compliance with the Canadian CSR Framework makes the framework mandatory for all intents and purposes. This must be avoided.”19 Several extractive companies, including Kinross, Barrick, and Nexen, also expressed concern regarding the establishment of an independent ombudsman empowered to scrutinize their operations.20 Opposition parties became frustrated with the lengthy delay in the release of a government response to the advisory group report. Members of Parliament filed motions in the House of Commons, calling for a government response. The New Democratic Party (NDP), Canada’s social-democratic political party, drafted legislation to regulate the overseas operations of Canadian mining companies and challenged the government to adopt the provisions. Then, in February 2009, a month before the government released its CSR policy, Liberal Party MP John McKay tabled a private member’s bill, Bill C-300, in the House of Commons. Private members’ bills may be introduced by any parliamentarian who is not a member of the cabinet, according to a lottery system. Bill C-300, titled An Act Respecting Corporate Accountability for the Activities of Mining, Oil or Gas in Developing Countries, is a government-accountability bill that codifies a number of the advisory group’s recommendations. The legislation regulates several government agencies that support extractive companies, including Export Development Canada, the Canadian Pension Plan, Canadian embassies, and trade commissioner staff. Bill C-300 establishes a set of binding standards that must be met by companies that seek support from these government entities. The legislation also creates a complaints mechanism that investigates corporate compliance with the standards. These investigations occur as a matter of course; there is no requirement that the company in question grant its consent. Bill C-300 passed an initial vote in the House of Commons and was under review in committee when Parliament was dissolved in December. Both the government and industry oppose the bill. However, the legislation has received the support of current and former government officials in countries where the Canadian mining industry has a significant presence. It also has the backing of a broad constituency of civil society organizations in Canada. Moreover, since its introduction, analogous statutory provisions have been adopted in the United States regarding its export credit agency, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation.21 The promulgation of this law in the United States weakens government and industry arguments that C-300 will put Canadian investors at a competitive disadvantage. The bill must pass a final vote in the House of Commons. It then moves to the Senate, where the governing Conservative Party enjoys a majority. While adoption of the legislation would be a positive step toward putting the government’s house in order, it is not enough. Bill C-300 will not prevent the abuse associated with Canadian extractive companies that don’t seek government services. Nor does the legislation address the lack of legal redress for those who are wronged by Canadian companies. These issues must also be resolved if the cycle of impunity is to be broken. The 2005 Parliamentary hearings and the subsequent roundtable process raised the corporate accountability debate in Canada to a new level. These forums provided credible, public platforms to highlight the problems associated with Canadian extractive investment abroad and the associated regulatory vacuum in Canada. However, the power of such processes to elicit change is severely constrained. Governments are not bound by their recommendations. The legislative process, particularly in the current minority government context, offers better opportunities. As does the judicial process: Copper Mesa, the mining company sued in Canada by Ecuadoran nationals, was de-listed by the Toronto Stock Exchange in January. Both the legislative and judicial routes will be arduous, but represent the only viable option to avoid the abuse suffered by Mariano Abarca and others across Latin America. Karyn Keenan is Program Officer at the Halifax Initiative, a coalition of Canadian civil society organizations that focuses on public financial institutions. She has worked directly with indigenous communities in Latin America that are affected by mining, oil, and gas operations. 1. Adam Jarvis and Jaime Amezaga, Technical Review of Mine Closure Plan and Mine Closure Implementation at Minerales Entres Mares San Martin Mine, Honduras. A Report Prepared for Caritas (Honduras) / CAFOD International (June 2009); Antonio Valencia, “Dirección General de Aguas inicia trámite para sancionar a Pascua Lama,” La Nación (Santiago, Chile), January 15, 2010; Frente de Defensa San Miguelense, “Specific Instance Complaint Submitted to the Canadian National Contact Point Pursuant to the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises Concerning: The Operations of Goldcorp Inc. at the Marlin Mine in the Indigenous Community of San Miguel Ixtahuacán, Guatemala” (December 9, 2009); Brett Popplewell, “Bullets Fly Over Canadian-Owned Mine: Proposed Open Pit Has Two Neighbouring Towns on ‘Brink of Civil War,’ ” The Toronto Star, November 23, 2009. 2. Frente de Defensa San Miguelense, “Specific Instance Complaint.” 3. The Canadian Press, “GG Condemns Killing of Mining Activist,” December 9, 2009; Lisa Skeen, “Salvadoran Anti-Mining Activists Risk Their Lives by Taking On ‘Free Trade,’ ” nacla.org, February 1, 2010; Amnesty International, “Guatemala: Killings Must Not Go Unpunished,” news release, October 13, 2009. 4. Canada, Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development. Evidence. 2d sess., 40th Parliament, November 24, 2009 (testimony of Romina Picolotti, president and founder, Center for Human Rights and Environment). 5. Ibid.; “La frustrada ley de glacieres,” La Nación, May 17, 2009. 6. Unpublished data, Natural Resources Canada. 7. Unpublished data, Export Development Canada. 8. Unpublished data, Natural Resources Canada. 9. Calculation by author based on March 31, 2009, list of Canada Pension Plan equity holdings. 10. Defensoría del Pueblo (Peru), Reporte de Conflictos Sociales Nº 45. Conflictos Sociales Conocidos por la Defensoría del Pueblo (November 30, 2007). 11. Popplewell, “Bullets Fly Over Canadian-Owned Mine”; Ian Harris, “Ecuador’s Mineral Crossroads: Canada’s Commitment?,” FOCALPoint, June 2008. 12. House of Commons, Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Trade Fourteenth Report, Fourteenth Report, June 20, 2005. 13. National Roundtables on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and the Canadian Extractive Industry in Developing Countries. Advisory Group Report. March 29, 2007. 14. Canadian Network on Corporate Accountability, “An Important Step Forward: The Final Report of the National Roundtables on Corporate Social Responsibility and the Canadian Extractive Industry in Developing Countries” (undated). 15. Letter from Gordon Peeling, president and CEO, Mining Association of Canada, to Ministers MacKay and Emerson. June 25, 2007; Development and Peace, “Development and Peace Delivers 190,000 Postcards to Canadian Government” (press release, May 13, 2008). 16. “Response to the Federal Government on the CSR Roundtable Advisory Group Report by the Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada,” July 19, 2007. 17. Lee Berthiaume, “Chamber says PM Broke Promise at G8,” Embassy (Toronto), July 11, 2007; “The 2007 G8 Summit” (press release, Office of the Prime Minister, June 8, 2007). 18. “Growth and Responsibility in the World Economy,” G-8 Summit Declaration, Heiligendamm, Germany, June 7, 2007. 19. Letter from Michael Murphy, president and CEO, the Canadian Chamber of Commerce, to Ministers MacKay, Emerson, Lunn, and Verner, July 26, 2007. Attachment: Response to the Federal Government on the Advisory Group Report to the National Roundtables on CSR and the Canadian Extractive Industry in Developing Countries. Emphasis in original. 20. Letter from James Crossland, Senior Vice-President, Government Relations and Corporate Affairs, Kinross Gold Corporation to Ministers Bernier and Emerson, October 15, 2007; Letter from Barrick Gold Corporation to Ministers Bernier, Lunn, and Emerson, October 11, 2007; letter from Randall G. Gossen, vice president, Nexen, to Ministers Bernier, Emerson, and Lunn, October 10, 2007. 21. The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2010.

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Sahara, (from Arabic ṣaḥrāʾ, “desert”) largest desert in the world. Filling nearly all of northern Africa, it measures approximately 3,000 miles (4,800 km) from east to west and between 800 and 1,200 miles from north to south and has a total area of some 3,320,000 square miles (8,600,000 square km); the actual area varies as the desert expands and contracts over time. The Sahara is bordered in the west by the Atlantic Ocean, in the north by the Atlas Mountains and Mediterranean Sea, in the east by the Red Sea, and in the south by the Sahel—a semiarid region that forms a transitional zone between the Sahara to the north and the belt of humid savannas to the south. The principal topographical features of the Sahara include shallow, seasonally inundated basins (chotts and dayas) and large oasis depressions; extensive gravel-covered plains (serirs or regs); rock-strewn plateaus (hammadas); abrupt mountains; and sand sheets, dunes, and sand seas (ergs). The highest point in the desert is the 11,204-foot (3,415-metre) summit of Mount Koussi in the Tibesti Mountains in Chad. The lowest, 436 feet (133 metres) below sea level, is in the Qattara Depression of Egypt. The name Sahara derives from the Arabic noun ṣaḥrāʾ, meaning desert, and its plural, ṣaḥārāʾ. It is also related to the adjective aṣḥar, meaning desertlike and carrying a strong connotation of the reddish colour of the vegetationless plains. There are also indigenous names for particular areas—such as the Tanezrouft region of southwestern Algeria and the Ténéré region of central Niger—which are often of Berber origin. The Sahara sits atop the African Shield, which is composed of heavily folded and denuded Precambrian rocks. Because of the stability of the shield, subsequently deposited Paleozoic formations have remained horizontal and relatively unaltered. Over much of the Sahara, these formations were covered by Mesozoic deposits—including the limestones of Algeria, southern Tunisia, and northern Libya, and the Nubian sandstones of the Libyan Desert—and many of the important regional aquifers are identified with them. In the northern Sahara, these formations are also associated with a series of basins and depressions extending from the oases of western Egypt to the chotts of Algeria. In the southern Sahara, downwarping of the African Shield created large basins occupied by Cenozoic lakes and seas, such as the ancient Mega-Chad. The serirs and regs differ in character in various regions of the desert but are believed to represent Cenozoic depositional surfaces. A prominent feature of the plains is the dark patina of ferromanganese compounds, called desert varnish, that forms on the surfaces of weathered rocks. The plateaus of the Sahara, such as the Tademaït Plateau of Algeria, are typically covered with angular, weathered rock. In the central Sahara, the monotony of the plains and plateaus is broken by prominent volcanic massifs—including Mount ʿUwaynat and the Tibesti and Ahaggar mountains. Other noteworthy formations include the Ennedi Plateau of Chad, the Aïr Massif of Niger, the Iforas Massif of Mali, and the outcroppings of the Mauritanian Adrar region. Sand sheets and dunes cover approximately 25 percent of the Sahara’s surface. The principal types of dunes include tied dunes, which form in the lee of hills or other obstacles; parabolic blowout dunes; crescent-shaped barchans and transverse dunes; longitudinal seifs; and the massive, complex forms associated with sand seas. Several pyramidal dunes in the Sahara attain heights of nearly 500 feet, while draa, the mountainous sand ridges that dominate the ergs, are said to reach 1,000 feet. An unusual phenomenon associated with desert sands is their “singing” or booming. Various hypotheses have been advanced to explain the phenomenon, such as those based upon the piezoelectric property of crystalline quartz, but the mystery remains unsolved. Several rivers originating outside the Sahara contribute to both the surface water and groundwater regimes of the desert and receive the discharge of its drainage networks. Rivers rising in the tropical highlands to the south are particularly prominent: the main tributaries of the Nile join in the Sahara, and the river flows northward along the desert’s eastern margin to the Mediterranean; several rivers discharge into Lake Chad in the southern Sahara, and a significant quantity of water continues northeastward and contributes to the recharge of regional aquifers; and the Niger rises in the Fouta Djallon region of Guinea and flows through the southwestern Sahara before turning southward to the sea. Streams and wadis (ephemeral streams) flowing from the Atlas Mountains and coastal highlands of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco contribute additional water. Prominent among these are the Saoura and Drâa. Many of the smaller wadis discharge into the chotts of the northern Sahara. Within the desert itself, there are extensive networks of wadis: some are seasonally active remnants of systems formed during more humid periods in the past; some, however, have been shaped by the sudden discharge of historically documented storms, such as the flood that destroyed Tamanrasset, Algeria, in 1922. Particularly significant are the complex network of wadis, lakes, and pools associated with the Tibesti Mountains and those associated with the Tassili n’Ajjer region and the Ahaggar Mountains, such as Wadi Tamanrasset. The sand dunes of the Sahara store considerable quantities of rainwater, and seeps and springs issue from various escarpments in the desert. The soils of the Sahara are low in organic matter, exhibit only slightly differentiated horizons (strata), and are often biologically inactive, although nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in some areas. The soils in depressions are frequently saline. At the margins of the desert are soils containing greater concentrations of organic matter. Weatherable minerals are a prominent constituent of these soils, and chemically active expanding-lattice clays are common. Free carbonates are often present, indicating that little leaching has occurred. Compact and indurated layers, or crusts, are largely restricted to the northwestern section of the desert in association with calcareous bedrock. Fine materials, including deposits of diatomaceous earth, are limited to basins and depressions. The age of the Sahara has been a matter of some dispute. Several studies of the rocks in the region indicate that the Sahara became established as a climatic desert approximately 2–3 million years ago, an interval that spanned from the late Pliocene to the early Pleistocene Epoch. The discovery of 7-million-year-old dune deposits throughout northern Chad in 2006, however, suggests that the region became arid during the Miocene Epoch (23 million to 5.3 million years ago). Since the Pliocene the Sahara has been subject to short- and medium-term oscillations of drier and more humid conditions. Human activity seems to have contributed to the stability of the desert by increasing surface reflectivity and by reducing evapotranspiration. During the past 7,000 years cattle-based animal husbandry in the desert and along its margins apparently has contributed further to the maintenance of these conditions, and the climate of the Sahara has been relatively constant for 2,000 years. A noteworthy departure from existing norms occurred from the 16th to the 18th century, the period of the so-called Little Ice Age in Europe: precipitation increased significantly along the tropical margin of the Sahara, in the desert itself, and perhaps along the northern margin as well. By the 19th century, however, a climate similar to that of the present was reestablished. The Sahara is dominated by two climatic regimes: a dry subtropical climate in the north and a dry tropical climate in the south. The dry subtropical climate is characterized by unusually high annual and diurnal temperature ranges, cold to cool winters and hot summers, and two precipitation maximums. The dry tropical climate is characterized by a strong annual temperature cycle following the declination of the sun; mild, dry winters; and a hot dry season preceding variable summer rains. A narrow strip of the western coastal zone has a relatively cool, uniform temperature reflecting the influence of the cold Canary Current. The dry subtropical climate of the northern Sahara is caused by stable high-pressure cells centred over the Tropic of Cancer. The annual range of average daily temperatures is about 36 °F (20 °C). Winters are relatively cold in the northern regions and cool in the central Sahara. For the zone as a whole, average monthly temperatures during the cold season are approximately 55 °F (13 °C). The summers are hot. Daily temperature ranges are considerable during both the winter and summer months. Although precipitation is highly variable, it averages about 3 inches (76 millimetres) per year. Most precipitation falls from December through March. Another maximum occurs in August, characterized by thunderstorms. These storms can cause tremendous flash floods that rush into areas where no precipitation has fallen. Little precipitation falls in May and June. Snowfall occurs occasionally over the northern plateaus. Another feature of the dry subtropics are the hot, southerly winds that often carry dust from the interior. Although they occur at various times of the year, they are especially common during the spring. In Egypt they are known as the khamsin, in Libya as the ghibli, and in Tunisia as the chili. The dust-laden haboob winds of Sudan are of shorter duration, chiefly occur during the summer months, and often usher in heavy rains. The dry tropical climate to the south is dominated by the same high-pressure cells, but it is regularly influenced by the seasonal interaction of a stable continental subtropical air mass and a southerly, unstable maritime tropical air mass. The annual range in average daily temperatures in the dry tropical regions of the Sahara is approximately 31.5 °F (17.5 °C). Average temperatures for the coldest months are essentially the same as they are for the subtropical zone to the north, but the diurnal range is more moderate. In the higher elevations of the zone, the lows approximate those of more northerly, subtropical regions. For example, absolute lows of 5 °F (−15 °C) have been recorded in the Tibesti Mountains. Late spring and early summer are hot; high temperatures of 122 °F (50 °C) are not unusual. Although the massifs of the dry tropics often receive small quantities of precipitation throughout the year, the lowlands have a single summer maximum. As in the north, much of this rainfall occurs as thunderstorms. Precipitation averages are about five inches per year, occasionally including some snowfall in the central massifs. In the western margin of the desert the cold Canary Current reduces air temperatures, thereby reducing convectional rainfall, but resulting in higher humidity and occasional fogs. In the southern Sahara the winter is the period of the harmattan, a dry northeasterly wind laden with sand and other easily transported dust particles. Saharan vegetation is generally sparse, with scattered concentrations of grasses, shrubs, and trees in the highlands, in oasis depressions, and along the wadis. Various halophytes (salt-tolerant plants) are found in saline depressions. Some heat- and drought-tolerant grasses, herbs, small shrubs, and trees are found on the less well-watered plains and plateaus of the Sahara. The vegetation of the Sahara is particularly noteworthy for its many unusual adaptations to unreliable precipitation. These are variously seen in morphology—including root structure, a broad range of physiological adaptations, site preferences, dependency and affinity relationships, and reproductive strategies. Many of the herbaceous plants are ephemerals that may germinate within three days of adequate rainfall and sow their seeds within 10 or 15 days of germination. Sheltered in the Saharan massifs are occasional stands of relict vegetation, often with Mediterranean affinities. Prominent among the relict woody plants of the Saharan highlands are species of olive, cypress, and mastic trees. Other woody plants found in the highlands and elsewhere in the desert include species of Acacia and Artemisia, doum palm, oleander, date palm, and thyme. Halophytes such as Tamarix senegalensis are found along the western coastal zone. Grasses widely distributed in the Sahara include species of Aristida, Eragrostis, and Panicum. Aeluropus littoralis and other salt-tolerant grasses are found along the Atlantic coast. Various combinations of ephemerals form important seasonal pastures called acheb. In the 21st century, recognition that the Sahara and its border region to the south, the Sahel, were creeping southward owing to desertification led to efforts to stall that movement; most notable was the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and Sahel Initiative. The idea that led to the initiative—planting a “wall” of trees along the edges of the Sahara that would stretch across the African continent in order to halt further desertification—was first conceived in 2005 and was later further developed with the assistance of the African Union and other international organizations. It involved plans to plant drought-resistant native trees in a 9-mile- (15-kilometre-) wide swath of territory from the western to the eastern edges of the continent, creating a barrier to keep the desert from further encroaching on the lands to its south. Relict tropical fauna of the northern Sahara include tropical catfish and chromides found at Biskra, Algeria, and in isolated oases of the Sahara; cobras and pygmy crocodiles may still exist in remote drainage basins of the Tibesti Mountains. More subtle has been the progressive loss of well-adapted, more mobile species to the advanced firearms and habitat destruction of humans. The North African elephant became extinct during the Roman period, but the lion, ostrich, and other species were established in the desert’s northern margins as late as 1830. The last addax in the northern Sahara was killed in the early 1920s; serious depletion of this antelope has also occurred on the southern margins and in the central massifs. Among the mammal species still found in the Sahara are the gerbil, jerboa, Cape hare, and desert hedgehog; Barbary sheep and scimitar-horned oryx; dorcas gazelle, dama deer, and Nubian wild ass; anubis baboon; spotted hyena, common jackal, and sand fox; and Libyan striped weasel and slender mongoose. Including resident and migratory populations, the birdlife of the Sahara exceeds 300 species. The coastal zones and interior waterways attract many species of water and shore birds. Among the species encountered in the interior regions are ostriches; various raptors; secretary birds, guinea fowl, and Nubian bustards; desert eagle owls and barn owls; sand larks and pale crag martins; and brown-necked and fan-tailed ravens. Frogs, toads, and crocodiles live in the lakes and pools of the Sahara. Lizards, chameleons, skinks, and cobras are found among the rocks and dunes. The lakes and pools of the Sahara also contain algae and brine shrimp and other crustaceans. The various snails that inhabit the desert are an important source of food for birds and animals. Desert snails survive through aestivation (dormancy), often remaining inactive for several years before being revived by rainfall. Although as large as the United States, the Sahara (excluding the Nile valley) is estimated to contain only some 2.5 million inhabitants—less than 1 person per square mile (0.4 per square kilometre). Huge areas are wholly empty, but wherever meagre vegetation can support grazing animals or reliable water sources occur, scattered clusters of inhabitants have survived in fragile ecological balance with one of the harshest environments on earth. Long before recorded history, the Sahara was evidently more widely occupied. Stone artifacts, fossils, and rock art, widely scattered through regions now far too dry for occupation, reveal the former human presence, together with that of game animals, including antelopes, buffalo, giraffe, elephant, rhinoceros, and warthog. Bone harpoons, accumulations of shells, and the remains of fish, crocodiles, and hippopotamuses are associated with prehistoric settlements along the shores of ancient Saharan lakes. Among some groups, hunting and fishing were subordinated to nomadic pastoralism, after domesticated livestock appeared in the Sahara almost 7,000 years ago. The cattle-herding groups of the Ténéré region of Niger are believed to have been either ancestral Berbers or ancestral Zaghawa; sheep and goats were apparently introduced by groups associated with the Capsian culture of northeastern Africa. Direct evidence of agriculture first appears about 6,000 years ago with the cultivation of barley and emmer wheat in Egypt; these appear to have been introduced from Asia. Evidence of the domestication of native African plants is first found in pottery from about 1000 BCE discovered in Mauritania. The cultivators have been associated with the Gangara, the ancestors of the modern Soninke. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Sahara was increasingly inhabited by diverse populations, and plant and animal domestication led to occupational specialization. While the groups lived separately, the proximity of settlements suggests an increasing economic interdependence. External trade also developed. Copper from Mauritania had found its way to the Bronze Age civilizations of the Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BCE. Trade intensified with the emergence of the Iron Age civilizations of the Sahara during the 1st century BCE, including the civilization centred in Nubia. The greater mobility of nomads facilitated their involvement in the trans-Saharan trade. Increasing aridity in the Sahara is documented in the transition from cattle and horses to camels. Although camels were used in Egypt by the 6th century BCE, their prominence in the Sahara dates from only the 3rd century CE. Oasis dwellers in the Sahara were increasingly subject to attack by the Sanhaja (a Berber clan) and other camel-mounted nomads—many of whom had entered the desert to avoid the anarchy and warfare of the late Roman period in North Africa. Many of the remaining oasis dwellers, among them the Haratin, were subjugated by the nomads. The expansion of Islam into North Africa between the 7th and 11th centuries prompted additional groups of Berbers, as well as Arab groups wishing to retain traditional beliefs, to move into the Sahara. Islam eventually expanded through the trade routes, becoming the dominant social force in the desert. Despite considerable cultural diversity, the peoples of the Sahara tend to be categorized as pastoralists, sedentary agriculturalists, or specialists (such as the blacksmiths variously associated with herders and cultivators). Pastoralism, always nomadic to some degree, occurs where sufficient scanty pasturage exists, as in the marginal areas, on the mountain borders, and in the slightly moister west. Cattle appear along the southern borders with the Sahel, but sheep, goats, and camels are the mainstays in the desert. Major pastoral groups include the Regeibat of the northwestern Sahara and the Chaamba of the northern Algerian Sahara. Hierarchical in structure, the larger pastoral groups formerly dominated the desert. Warfare and raids (ghazw) were endemic, and in drought periods wide migrations in search of pasture took place, with heavy loss of animals. The Tuareg (who call themselves Kel Tamasheq) were renowned for their warlike qualities and fierce independence. Although they are Islamic, they retain a matriarchal organization, and the women of the Tuareg have an unusual degree of freedom. The Moorish groups to the west formerly possessed powerful tribal confederations. The Teda, of the Tibesti and its southern borderlands, are chiefly camel herders, renowned for their independence and for their physical endurance. In the desert proper, sedentary occupation is confined to the oases, where irrigation permits limited cultivation of the date palm, pomegranate, and other fruit trees; such cereals as millet, barley, and wheat; vegetables; and such specialty crops as henna. Cultivation is in small “gardens,” maintained by a great expenditure of hand labour. Irrigation utilizes ephemeral streams in mountain areas, permanent pools (gueltas), foggaras (inclined underground tunnels dug to tap dispersed groundwater in the beds of wadis), springs (ʿayn), and wells (biʾr). Some shallow groundwaters are artesian, but it is often necessary to use water-lifting devices. Ancient methods such as the shadoof (a pivoted pole and bucket) and the animal-driven noria (a Persian wheel with buckets) have been replaced by motorized pumps in more accessible oases. Water availability strictly limits oasis expansion, and, in some, overuse of water has produced a serious fall in the water level. Salinization of the soil by the fierce evaporation and burial by encroaching sand are further dangers. During the century of colonial dominion over the Sahara, which lasted from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, there was little fundamental change, except for military pacification; colonial powers were little interested in the economic development of what appeared to be an unpromising region. After World War II, however, the discovery of oil, in particular, attracted international interest and investment. Within a few years major discoveries had been made, particularly in mineral resources. Metallic minerals are of considerable economic importance. Algeria possesses several major deposits of iron ore, and the reserves at Mount Ijill, in western Mauritania, are substantial; less extensive deposits have been found in Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Western Sahara, and Niger. Near Akjoujt, in southwestern Mauritania, lie substantial quantities of copper ore; extensive manganese deposits occur south of Béchar, Algeria. Uranium is widely distributed in the Sahara and has been particularly important in Niger. A broad range of other economically significant minerals have been found in the Ahaggar, Aïr, Tibesti, and Eglab regions. Rich phosphate deposits exist in Morocco and Western Sahara, and smaller deposits have been found elsewhere. Fuel resources include coal, oil, and natural gas. Sources of coal include anthracite seams in Morocco and bituminous fields near Béchar. Following the discovery of oil near I-n-Salah, Algeria, after World War II, major reserves have been found in the Western Desert of Egypt, northeastern Libya, and northeastern Algeria. Minor reserves exist in Tunisia and Morocco, as well as in Chad, Niger, and Sudan in the south. Deposits of oil shale have also been discovered in the Sahara. Major fields of natural gas are exploited in Algeria and Egypt, and minor fields exist in Libya and Tunisia. As a result of geologic and oil prospecting, vast underground reserves of water have also been found in a number of sedimentary basins, mainly within sandstone formations. Some recoverable water is also present in surface sand formations. Economic development of the desert, however, offers enormous difficulties and has not changed the traditional Sahara. Oil and ore extraction have brought modern technology and improved communications to scattered locations, but such activities provide limited opportunities for local employment. Although oil revenues offer the means for desert development, the more immediate and attractive returns possible in inhabited coastal regions tend to take priority. The underground water offers possibilities for major developments in both agriculture and industry; but exploitation on a large scale would be expensive. Heavy exploitation would also result in progressive depletion, and hydrological changes might increase the threat of locust plagues, as locusts congregate into swarms when food supplies are restricted, multiply, and then occupy larger areas when conditions improve. The desert peoples have benefited little from mineral exploitation—perhaps indeed the reverse. The decline in nomadic pastoralism, started by pacification, has been accelerated by changing economic conditions and official settlement policies (for nomads are administratively inconvenient). Widespread environmental degradation further encourages the drift of nomads to oases and towns, with resultant overcrowding and poverty. High wages in the oil fields attract labour but disrupt traditional life, and the jobs are relatively few and impermanent. Of the traditional desert products—animal skins and wool, surplus fruits, salt—only dates (particularly the daglet nour of the northern oases) retain much commercial importance. Industrial occupations to relieve growing unemployment have as yet made little progress. In the early 21st century, renewable energy projects, particularly those focusing on wind- and solar-generated power, continued to be under development and had the potential to provide enough energy to allow countries in the region to manufacture and process goods locally, which would be a boon to their economies. However, renewable energy projects were hampered by factors such as the harsh desert climate, a lack of water for operating and maintaining equipment, the overall exorbitant costs involved in such an undertaking, and security issues. Tourism has grown considerably since the mid-20th century, although the difficulties of transport and of providing accommodations have largely limited it to the Sahara’s fringes. Traditionally, travel in the Sahara was by camel caravan and was slow, arduous, and dangerous. To the hazards of losing the way, excessive heat, stifling sandstorms, and death by starvation—or more probably thirst—were added those of attack by raiders. Despite all this, trans-Saharan trade along caravan routes linking oases has persisted from very early times. Most of the principal routes were west of the Tibesti Mountains and tended to shift somewhat over time, although the easternmost of these—which ran northward from Lake Chad to Bilma (now in Niger) and through the Fezzan region to Tripoli—was used continuously through the centuries. East of the Tibesti Mountains oases are few, but the darb al-arbaʿīn (“road of the forty [days]”), west of the Nile, was a former slave route. Gold, ivory, slaves, and salt were major items of trade in the earlier days, but today camel caravans have almost ceased, except for a residual trade in salt from Mount Ijill, Bilma, and Taoudenni, Mali. The main routes remain in use, however, by specially equipped motor trucks, often traveling in convoys. Modern highways have been extended farther along the ancient trade routes into the desert. Off of the main routes a network of recognized tracks are motorable, with care; but in the open desert four-wheel drive is virtually essential, with at least two vehicles, ample spares, and large emergency supplies of fuel, food, and water—particularly in summer, when special regulations apply to all travelers. In large areas maps are inadequate, and navigational methods may be necessary. To supplement ground travel, numerous international air services cross the Sahara on scheduled flights, while local services link the main inhabited centres to one another. Development of railways has been limited. Classical accounts describe the Sahara much as it is today—a vast and formidable barrier. The Egyptians controlled only their neighbouring oases and, occasionally, lands to the south; the Carthaginians apparently continued the commercial relationships with the interior that had been established during the Bronze Age. Herodotus described a desert crossing by an expedition of Berbers during the 5th century BCE, and Roman interest in the Sahara is documented in a series of expeditions between 19 BCE and 86 CE. The descriptions of the Sahara in the works of Strabo, Pliny the Elder, and Ptolemy reflect growing interest in the desert. Geographic exploration, sponsored by the ʿAbbāsids, Fāṭimids, Mamlūks, and other courts in the Middle East, North Africa, and Moorish Spain, was widespread during the medieval period. Descriptions of the Sahara are contained in the works of numerous Arab writers, including al-Yaʿqūbī, ash-Sharīf al-Idrīsī, and Ibn Baṭṭūṭah. Medieval travelers with religious and commercial motives contributed further to an understanding of the Sahara and its peoples. Abraham Cresque’s Catalan Atlas, published for Charles V of France in about 1375, renewed European interest in the desert. The atlas contained information based upon the knowledge of Jewish traders active in the Sahara. Its publication was followed by a period of intense Portuguese, Venetian, Genoese, and Florentine activity there. Particularly well documented are the travels of such 15th-century explorers as Alvise Ca’ da Mosto, Diogo Gomes, and Pedro de Sintra. Growing interest in the Sahara within northern Europe was reflected in the travels and writings of the 17th-century Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper. Subsequent European exploration of the Sahara, much of it incidental to interest in the major waterways of interior Africa, began in earnest in the 19th century. Attempts to determine the course of the Niger River took the British explorers Joseph Ritchie and George Francis Lyon to the Fezzan area in 1819, and in 1822 the British explorers Dixon Denham, Hugh Clapperton, and Walter Oudney succeeded in crossing the desert and discovering Lake Chad. The Scottish explorer Alexander Gordon Laing crossed the Sahara and reached the fabled city of Timbuktu in 1826, but he was killed there before he could return. The French explorer René Caillié, disguised as an Arab, returned from his visit to Timbuktu by crossing the Sahara from south to north in 1828. Other notable expeditions were undertaken by the German geographer Heinrich Barth (1849–55), the French explorer Henri Duveyrier in 1859–62, and the German explorers Gustav Nachtigal (1869–75) and Gerhard Rohlfs (1862–78). After the military occupation of the Sahara by the various European colonial powers, more detailed exploration took place; and by the end of the 19th century the main features of the desert were known. Political, commercial, and scientific activities that began in the 20th century greatly increased knowledge of the Sahara, although vast tracts of the desert remain remote. If these facts have you inspired to visit the Sahara Desert, why not check out our Egypt tours? Ancient wonders. Hidden treasures. Endless seas and golden sand. Make lifelong memories on our Egypt tours. Once a land of dynasties and decadence; now a land where time stands still. Our Egypt Journeys sets you in the shadows of history. At the foot of the legendary Great Pyramids. In the heart of the tomb-strewn Valley of the Kings. Or before the mighty temples of Abu Simbel. That's not all. Our tours to Egypt offer what money can't buy. Like once-in-a-lifetime opportunities. Rare experiences. And life-long friendships with your fellow travellers. Q- What is the climate of the Sahara Desert? A-The Sahara exhibits great climatic variability within its borders, with two major climatic regimes differentiating along a north-south axis: the desert’s northern latitudes are arid subtropical and have two rainy seasons, while the southern ones, although also arid, are more tropical and have only one rainy season. The southern reaches of the Sahara end in the Sahel, a semiarid buffer zone that separates the desert from the more temperate savanna biomes beyond. A number of other factors affect climatic variability within the Sahara as well: topography does so, as do ocean currents, the latter of which are responsible for the slightly cooler and more humid conditions found on the desert’s western margins. Some scientists estimate that the Sahara became arid about two to three million years ago, while others contend that it happened before this. Q-How did the Sahara get its name? A-In Arabic the Sahara is called Al-Ṣaḥrāʾ al-Kubrā, or “the Great Desert.” The Arabic word ṣaḥrāʾ simply means “desert,” and its plural form, ṣaḥārāʾ, is where the northern African desert gets its Anglicized name. The word ṣaḥrāʾ shares its roots with the Arabic word aṣḥar, which translates to “desert-like” and specifically connotes the yellowish red color that characterizes the Sahara’s sandy expanses. Q-Can plants and animals survive in the Sahara Desert?A-Though boasting an extremely low primary productivity, the Sahara does manage to support some life. Many of the organisms that can survive have been able to do so with adaptations for arid environments: for example, many herbaceous plants found in the Sahara are ephemerals, meaning that almost all of their life cycle—from germination to seed dispersal—occurs in the two- to three-week period after a heavy rain. Animals such as the desert snail survive by using estivation, a period of dormancy that some animals can enter when encountering extreme environmental stress. Other organisms, although adapted more for a Mediterranean or tropical climate than an arid one, have persisted in the Sahara mostly by sticking to its slightly more hospitable highlands and oases. Q-Do people live in the Sahara Desert?A- People have lived in the Sahara long before recorded history, at certain times in regions that are now too arid for human inhabitance. Archaeological findings indicate that there were once ancient Saharan lakes, upon the shores of which humans lived, hunted, and fished. Even after these lakes ceased to exist, humans survived for centuries in the desert using alternative methods: nomadic pastoralists herded goats, sheep, or camels to whatever pasturage could be found; sedentary agriculturalists, confined to oases, harnessed their limited water resources to grow crops such as date palms and barley; and specialists (for example, blacksmiths) traded wares with their agriculturalist and pastoralist neighbors. Certain groups have long relied on traveling and trading along caravan routes to obtain their livelihood, journeying by camel to oases and population centers all over the Sahara. Modern economic development has disrupted many of these traditional means of subsistence, however, with many desert dwellers seeking more lucrative opportunities in developed regions and oasese. Q-What is the modern economy of the Saharan Desert like?A-After World War II, prospecting revealed that the Sahara was laden with oil and mineral resources, which have served as a major attractor of international investment since. Oil, natural gas, and coal reserves have been discovered all over northern Africa and particularly have been exploited by various countries, such as Egypt, Libya, and Algeria. Although these industries have introduced potentially high-wage jobs to the Sahara, they are also responsible for the displacement of desert peoples from their traditional modes of existence and have contributed to the increasing overcrowding and poverty in developed regions. Q-What is the Best Time to Visit Egypt? A-The best time to travel to Egypt is during the winter from September to April as the climate becomes a bit tropical accompanied by a magical atmosphere of warm weather with a winter breeze. You will be notified in the week of your trip if the weather is unsafe and if any changes have been made. Q-What is the Weather is Like? A-The temperature in Egypt ranges from 37c to 14 c. Summer in Egypt is somehow hot and winter is cool and mild but sometimes it becomes cold at night. The average of low temperatures vary from 9.5 °C in the wintertime to 23 °C in the summertime and average high temperatures vary from 17 °C in the wintertime to 32 °C in the summertime. The temperature is moderate all along the coasts..

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Newsletter 112, 22 February 2016 RobertScribbler.com / 18 February 2016 Anyone who observes the Arctic – from scientists, to environmentalists, to emerging threats specialists, to weather and climate enthusiasts, to just regular people unsettled by the rapidly unraveling state of our global climate system – should be very, very concerned. The human greenhouse gas emission – now pushing CO2 levels to above 405 parts per million and adding in a host of additional heat trapping gasses – appears to be rapidly forcing our world to warm. And to warm most swiftly in one of the absolute worst places imaginable – the Arctic. Not only was January of 2016 the hottest such month ever recorded in the 136 year NASA global climate record. Not only did January show the highest temperature departure from average for a single month – at +1.13 C above NASA's 20th Century base-line and about +1.38 C above 1880s averages (just 0.12 C shy of the dangerous 1.5 C mark). But what we observed in the global distribution of those record hot temperatures was both odd and disturbing. [ See also: Update: Arctic sea ice minimum volumes 1979-2015 Next up: Local Emergency Preparedness Are you ready to survive for the three days it can take your municipality to provide you with help in a major area emergency? Think of the ice storm of 1998, which cut power to a vast region from Kingston to Montreal, from four or five days in Brockville's case to as much as a month elsewhere. Brockville Fire Chief Ghislain Pigeon, the city's emergency management co-ordinator, will talk about the roles of citizens and their municipalities in preparing for emergencies, at our next presentation. Weather-related events, such as a multi-day snowstorm that shuts down Highway 401 for days, or major power outages are the most likely emergencies in our area, says the chief, but there is always the possibility of a disaster relating to the tons of hazardous materials that cross our city and region by railcar, truck and pipeline every day. "There are three train derailments a week in Canada," he says, acknowledging that few are as devastating as the derailment and fire at Lac-Mégantic, Quebec, in 2013. However, the city must be prepared for such an emergency. Pigeon will outline Brockville's emergency plan. He'll describe the various agencies he calls on in emergencies to help provide citizens with shelter, food, power and other services, and how their response unfolds. "I'll explain what you can expect from the city, but also what the city will expect from you," Pigeon says. "It takes time for a municipality to get emergency services in place and we need to count on people to be able to survive for up to three days." WHEN: Sunday, February 28, 2:00 pm WHERE: Brockville Public Library, 23 Buell Street, Brockville March 20: Dr. Paula Stewart, Medical Officer of Health: Implementing the Healthy Communities Vision April 24: Peter and Annette Kaldeway: Living Off the Grid May 22: Feature documentary: This Changes Everything *Co-sponsored by the Brockville Chapter of the Council of Canadians Please let us know what you'd like to hear about, or to hear more about, through this online form Transition Brockville supports the installation of a two-way cycle track along Laurier Boulevard, as approved in principle by City Council last December. It is consistent with City policy as established in its Official Plan, in its Sustainability Plan and in its Healthy Communities Vision. A small group of residents has been vocal in opposition to the new track, which TB sees as largely uninformed reaction. In fact, the addition of a cycle track will address many of the concerns they have expressed, eg. through the calming of traffic along Laurier and increasing its safety for existing and new users, whether traveling by car, by foot or by bicycle. The rationale behind the cycling network is shown in a series of FAQs on the website of Brockville Active Mobility Matters. THOSE IN FAVOUR OF THE CYCLE TRACK NEED TO SPEAK UP AS WELL. We urge you to contact City Councilors to express your support, either by email or by phone. And sign our petition to City Council. Our guest speaker on January 24, Agata Bedynski, has kindly made her slide set available. She writes: I'd like to say to all of you folks on the Transition Brockville steering committee -- my heart feels so much warmth and empathy for you -- you are doing a wonderful job of informing those around yo... The respective Steering Committees of Butler's Creek Community Garden (BCCG) and Transition Brockville are pleased to announce that the BCCG will continue as a Working Group of Transition Brockville, with the BCCG co-ordinator sitting as a member of the Transition Brockville SC. Now in its fourth year of operation, the BCCG remains a self-governing group of gardeners. The BCCG is located on the grounds of the Gord Watts Municipal Centre at 251 North Augusta Road. The TBSL is open and operating seven days a week at Leeds County Books , 73 King Street West in Brockville. This collection of over 80 books offers 'big picture' analyses of the science behind climate change and resource depletion, thoughtful discussions on civilization, economics and ecology, and manuals for on-the-ground building of personal and community resilience. A complete catalogue and borrowing procedures are available on our website Think you might like to help out from time to time with TB projects or at events? Sign up here to our new TB-VOL mailing list to receive an occasional "call for volunteers". - The Transition Brockville Steering Committee normally meets at 7:00 pm on the second Wednesday of the month at Bud's on the Bay, 17 Broad Street. Next month will be an exception, with the meeting to be held on Thursday, March 10, at 10:00 am. Our SC meetings are open. If you'd like to participate in some broad-ranging discussions on resilience and sustainability, please consider attending. - Members of the SC are available to speak to groups throughout the community, whether it be a lunch-and-learn at your place of business, a presentation to your board of directors or group members, or an informal neighbourhood discussion. Contact us at email@example.com. Brockville Public Library Your library card has value! Show your library card when visiting our business partners and save! If you are a local business or retailer and would like more information about how to participate in the BPL Perks Business Discount Program, contact Brandy at (613) 342-3936 ext. 32 or firstname.lastname@example.org... foodcoreLGL / 19 February 2016 The foodcoreLGL Food Inventory is a comprehensive list of all the food and nutrition-related programs, organizations and businesses in Leeds, Grenville and Lanark. It connects you to the local food systems in the tri-county. Explore the Food Inventory to find information and resources on: . Growing & Gathering Food . Preparing & Eating Food . Buying Food . Help for Getting Food . Sustaining our Future... Ontario Co-operative Association / Co-op Current / 12 February 2016 Bullfrog Power®, Canada's leading green energy provider and Your Credit Union, a financial services co-operative with branches in Ottawa and Cornwall, recently announced a new environmental partnership - making Your Credit Union the first credit union in Canada to completely bu... Understanding how, where and when energy is used in Kingston will help the community identify opportunities for energy-use programs focused on energy conservation, fuel switching, renewable energy generation or other smart energy-related efforts. The plan will help: Enhance local economic development: our community spe... Red Squirrel Conservation Services / 19 January 2016 The big topics floating around our office include green infrastructure (which reduces stormwater runoff and flooding), energy conservation in residential and commercial buildings, and indoor air quality. Red Squirrel is also excited to announce a new initiative designed to help reduce the i... Government of Ontario / 10 February 2016 Ontario is putting its new Climate Change Strategy into action by introducing a new, modernized Electric Vehicle Incentive Program that will help reduce greenhouse gas pollution and make it easier for Ontarians to switch to an electric vehicle (EV). Premier Kathleen Wynne made the announcement today at... Last night, the Ontario Sustainable Energy Association celebrated its 6th annual Powering Prosperity Awards dinner, recognizing the champions of the sustainable energy sector, and celebrating the achievements that help advance sustainable energy within the province of Ontario. "The Powering Prosperity Awards is an ann... Toronto Star / Tyler Hamilton / 15 February 2016 Investing directly in green energy projects just became a whole lot easier for Canadians looking to shift their savings away from fossil fuels. CoPower, a start-up co-headquartered in Toronto and Montreal, has just launched a retail "green bond" that raises money for specific pools of solar... The Tyee / Mitchell Anderson / 01 February 2016 How can Canada meet our international climate commitments so recently inked in Paris with an increasingly empty economic larder? The International Monetary Fund may have the answer. Last summer, the IMF updated its global report on energy subsidies and found that Canada provides a whopping $46.4 bi... Montreal Gazette / Gordon Laxer / 31 January 2016 The verbal battles between Montreal Mayor Denis Coderre and western premiers and mayors are reruns of a bad movie. Let's change the channel and look at TransCanada's proposed Energy East pipeline in light of climate change. That was not on anyone's mind 35 years ago during tussles around th... New York Times / Ian Austen / 20 January 2016 As prices for commodities have dropped, the value of the Canadian dollar has fallen, a direct link to an economy that is dependent on oil and other resources. It makes imports, like fresh American vegetables during the dark Canadian winter, look especially costly. Two years ago, one Canadian dollar w... Gizmodo / Maddie Stone / 20 January 2016 In a joint statement this morning, NASA and NOAA confirmed that 2015 was the hottest year on record by a huge margin. We basically knew this–scientists have been calling it since at least July–but now that the official numbers are in, we can see just how wacky a year it was. "2015 was by far ... UNISDR / 11 February 2016 The hottest year on record, 2015, has confirmed that weather and climate-related disasters now dominate disaster trends linked to natural hazards, according to a new analysis presented today. The top five most disaster-hit countries in 2015 were China (26), USA (22), India (19), Philippines (15) and Indonesia (11). RobertScribbler.org / 05 February 2016 Ever since 1990, the world has experienced atmospheric CO2 levels in a range that hasn't been seen since the Pliocene geological epoch. A period of time 2.6 – 5.3 million years ago hosting carbon dioxide levels ranging from 350 to 405 parts per million and global average temperatures that were 2-3 degre... The Tyee / Andrew Nikiforuk / 08 February 2016 The status-quo pundits say don't worry. The world is awash in oil due to the brute force of fracking and Alberta's faltering bitumen boom. Markets are just experiencing another wacky correction in supply and demand, and business as usual will continue. Relax, add the pundits -- lower energy price... RobertScribbler.com / 28 January 2016 Not only are we turning many of the species of this world into climate orphans, into creatures without a safe space in which to live and thrive, we are also doing it to ourselves. For the children of Zika are climate orphans too. The tragic victims of an expanding range of environmental conditions that are h... Corporate Knights / John Lorinc / 19 January 2016 It was last September, and [Mark] Carney, presently the head of the Bank of England, had signalled to British parliamentarians that his institution, and the international Financial Stability Board, which he chairs, had just begun an in-depth examination of the systemic risks posed not just by cli... Mother Earth News / Joanna Poncavage / February/March 2016 As soil fertility declined because of repeated tillage and other industrial practices, farmers began using more synthetic nitrogen. About 25 billion pounds of it have been applied to crops each year in the United States for the past few decades. That's almost five times the amount tha... Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences / Lengnick, Miller, Marten / November 2015 A review of the literature suggests that transition to a nationally integrated network of sustainable metropolitan food systems ("metropolitan foodsheds") would improve climate resilience by enhancing three key qualities associated with resilience in soc... The Guardian / Graeme Wearden / 19 January 2016 As a record-breaking sailor, Dame Ellen MacArthur has seen more of the world's oceans than almost anyone else. Now she is warning that there will be more waste plastic in the sea than fish by 2050, unless the industry cleans up its act. According to a new Ellen MacArthur Foundation report laun... The Tyee / Peter Kalmus / 17 February 2016 I'd assumed that electricity and driving were my largest sources of emissions. Instead, it turned out that the 50,000 miles I'd flown that year (two international and half a dozen domestic flights, typical for postdocs in the sciences who are expected to attend conferences and meetings) utterly dominated my emissions. Hour for hour, there's no better way to warm the planet than to fly in a plane. If yo... Business Insider / William Fierman / 17 February 2016 At the end of last year, the United Nations adopted the "Paris Agreement" to curb global greenhouse gas emissions, urging each nation to do its part to curb climate change. Michael Sivak and Brandon Schoettle of the Transportation Research Institute at the University of Michigan recently p... The Telegram / Eleanor Tucker / 03 January 2016 'Every time I read something about the environment, I would get this guilty feeling that I wasn't doing anything. I kept thinking, if people did buy things that were built to last it would have such a positive impact – both economically and environmentally.' In the last 50 years or so, w... Mother Earth News / Vikram Aggarwal / 05 February 2016 Solar panels and electric cars are a match made in heaven – when you install a solar energy system on your home, you can use it to both power your home and charge your electric car for emissions-free transportation. The cost of solar is falling rapidly, and companies from Tesla to Nissan... Miku Valley Permaculture Research and Projects With the cost of fresh produce so high, and expected to continue to rise, have you given a thought to perhaps growing your own? Even if you don't have the room, I have loads of fertile garden plots, I will be tilling these plots in March and will custom till whatever reasonable size you want. Some raised 4' x 8' beds and straw bale locations are also available. Flower gardeners also welcome! Contact Kurt Liebe at 613-659-3823. Mother Earth News / Deborah Niemann / February/March 2016 Our vegetable gardens offer us beautiful, fresh bounty during the growing season – and they also have the potential to increase our food security the rest of the year. When you craft a plan to put up some of the crops you grow, you're preparing for the future, simplifying winter meals... resilience.org / Frank Kaminski / 25 January 2016 In a chapter titled "The New High Priests: Economists," Boyd summarizes a handful of the widely held false beliefs about our society's relationship to its ecology that lie at the heart of common economic wisdom. These include unquestioned faith in the infinite supply or substitutability of any natural resource, an espousal of free trade and deregulation as the optimal ways for a country to develop, the supposition that all economic participants have equal market power and the tenet that everyone makes rational, self-interested decisions. The author points out that these mainstays of economic thought are simply unproven assumptions that ben... Cyril Dion, Mélanie Laurent / 19 November 2015 Many things have been tried to resolve the ecological and economic crises. They haven't really worked. According to Nobel Peace Prize laureate Mohammed Yunnus, the strongest driving force in human beings is their desire and their imagination. He believes that today we must make films and tell... Andy Lee Robinson / 04 October 2015 This regularly updated animation provides a visceral look at the collapse of Arctic sea ice since 1979. Peak Moment TV / 29 January 2016 "We had a different notion of real wealth we converted [our paper money] wealth into this land and home," says Steve Unger. Mary Coll adds that they're storing wealth in their knowledge, and by building a low-tech handmade house with no need for outside "experts" for maintenance. New Perspectives in Plant Ecology & Biology WHEN: Tuesday, February 23, 10:00 pm - noon WHERE: Brockville Museum, 5 Henry Street, Brockville Manager of the Queen's Phytotron, Dale Kristensen, will guide us through how new understanding of the plant world has the potential for new ways of solving important problems that face our modern world. Admission is only $8! Light refreshments will be served. Due to high demand advanced registration is required – please call 613-342-4397 or email email@example.com This Changes Everything - Movie and discussion WHEN: Sunday, February 28, 1:00 pm WHERE: Gananoque Public Library, 100 Park Street, Gananoque This Changes Everything shows how ordinary people around the world are starting community-led initiatives to combat climate change. Stay after the movie for a short discussion about what we can do here in Gananoque to transition to a climate friendly life! As the directors say "movies don't change the world, but people do." Free admission, but attendance is limited to 30 people due to space and fee constraints so be sure to pre-register at the Gananoque Public Library. More info: Pam Hudson at 613-382-2436. Selling Food to Ontario Eastern Ontario Local Food WHEN: Thursday, March 2 WHERE: Two Rivers Food Hub, Galipeau Centre, Unit 5000, 361 Queen Street, Smiths Falls Create new opportunities for your farm or food processing business by learning how to expand into new markets such as grocery stores, restaurants, food hubs, schools, universities and other public institutions. Topics include: - Succeeding in direct and wholesale markets - Food regulation and food safety - Local health unit requirements - Food packaging options and resources - Labelling requirements Workshops will feature presentations by local health units, OMAFRA, and Canadian Food Inspection Agency, as well as a resource forum to connect you with local organizations that can help your business. 2nd Annual Seedy Saturday Transition Brockville and the Brockville Public Library WHEN: Saturday, March 5, 10:00 pm - 2:00 pm WHERE: Brockville Public Library, 23 Buell Street, Brockville Gardeners and seed savers are invited to join us for a free seed exchange! There will be a seed starting display, children's gardening activity and lots of opportunities to speak with representatives from local gardening clubs, including Butler's Creek Community Garden, Brockville Horticultural Society, Athens Garden Club, and Gananoque Horticultural Society, as well as Seeds of Diversity, Ontario Horticultural Association, Phil Hosick (Upper Canada Village gardener) and seed saver Ray Johnson. Anyone who saves seeds and wants to share them with other seed lovers is encouraged to come to Seedy Saturday. Contact Chris at firstname.lastname@example.org or Brandy at email@example.com for more information. Seeds and Propagation Gananoque Horticultural Society WHEN: Wednesday, March 9, 7:30 pm WHERE: Herbert St. entrance, Carveth Care, Gananoque Our March meeting will feature the topic of Seeds and Propagation. Mary Ann Van Berlo will demonstrate how to save seeds and when to start them this spring. Seed exchange - bring and trade. Visitors welcome! We are green - please bring a mug. More info: http://www.gardenontario.org/site.php/gananoque GreenProfit Conference 2016 WHEN: Monday, March 21 WHERE: Four Points By Sheraton, 285 King Street, Kingston Some of the topics being addressing at this year's GreenProfit include: - The Future of Rooftop Solar in Ontario - Rural Communitiesand Renewable Energy - Renewable Energy's Next Generation - Energy Storage and Our Sustainable Energy Future - Municipalities and Energy Policy More info: http://www.greenprofit.co Eastern Ontario Active Transportation Summit 2016 WHEN: Wednesday, April 13 WHERE: North Grenville Municipal Centre, 285 County Rd 44, Kemptville - Local and Provincial 'Happenings' and Updates - Pedestrian Walkways and Audit - Share the Road - Lunch break feature: Mayor's Slow Bike Race Further details and registration info to come soon. 9th Annual North Grenville Sustainability Fair and Market Sustainable North Grenville WHEN: Sunday, April 17 The fair is a free family fun day out featuring businesses, market stalls, electric vehicles, kid's activities, food, music, door prizes and more. For information, to book a table or to volunteer, please contact Jeanne or Clare at firstname.lastname@example.org WHEN: Friday, April 22 Earth Day is the largest environmental event in the world. More than six million Canadians – including nearly every school-aged child – participate in an Earth Day activity in their communities. We partner with and support hundreds of organizations across the country, as they engage Canadians in annual celebrations of this special day. More info: http://earthday.ca/ It is not the strongest of the species that survives... nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change. Mini-icons by Yusuke Kamiyamane. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.

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Haig replied that he thought there were no grounds for such fears. Omissions? BATTLE AND OTHER COMBATANT CASUALTIES IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR, I* ALFRED VAGTS ... in 40 days at Passchendaele in August and September, 1917, fired over 25 million shells. GHQ regarded this as “a rather amazing view” while appreciating the fact that it had “sufficient weight to make the Cabinet agree to our attack going on.” Charteris, however, was dismayed to learn that Haig had gone beyond the general figures furnished by his own intelligence staff and had given “the definite opinion that if the fighting was kept up at its present intensity for six months Germany would be at the end of her available man-power.” Preparations were now pressed forward on both sides of the battlefront. The Battle of Passchendaele (100th Anniversary of The Great War Documentary) | Timeline - Duration: 46:28. For Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, the British commander-in-chief, this provided an opportunity to launch an offensive that he had long wanted. Gun emplacements were improved, and troops and officers were allowed time to prepare for the attack, which opened on October 26, 1917. It was one of the longest, bloodiest, and most-ferocious battles of the war; French casualties amounted to about 400,000, German ones to about 350,000. Only on the left was the full objective reached with the capture of Bixschoote (Bikschote), Pilckem Ridge, and Saint-Julien; on the crucial right wing the attack was a failure. The Australian War Memorial was voted the number one landmark in Australia by travellers in the 2016 Trip Advisor awards. It owed much to the surprise effect of 19 huge mines that were simultaneously fired. Battle of Verdun, World War I engagement in which the French repulsed a major German offensive. There were an estimated 325,000 allied casualties during the Battle of Passchendaele, with a further 260,000 German casualties making it one of the bloodiest battles of the First World War. German commanders agreed that a British offensive at Ypres was “certain,” and its exact pattern was judged “with perfect accuracy.”. 46:28. Five days later the 2nd Australian Division suffered heavily in a further attack in the mud. A final assault, which secured the remaining areas of high ground east of the Ypres salient, was carried out on November 10. Gough tried to secure a postponement, but without avail. He was, in a practical sense, no nearer reaching the ports that formed his goal than when the Third Battle of Ypres started. The last surviving British combatant in the battle, Harry Patch, died in 2009 at the age of 111. The mud gummed up rifle barrels and breeches, making them difficult to fire. The Battle of Passchendaele was one of the biggest battles of the First World War. Battle of Passchendaele. Yet Haig, in his report to the War Office on the first day’s fighting, stated that the results were “most satisfactory.” The explosion of millions of shells, accompanied by torrential rain, had turned the battlefield into an apocalyptic expanse—a swampy pulverized mire dotted with water-filled craters deep enough to drown a man, all made worse by the churned-up graves of soldiers killed in earlier fighting. British naval leaders urged their government to force the Germans from occupied ports on the Belgian coast, which were being used … After surveying the German defenses, the Canadian commander, Lieut. The Battle for Passchendaele involved the use of no less than eighty-six German divisions, twenty-two of them being pushed into the battle more than once. The Battle of Passchendaele, a bitter and costly engagement fought across devastated, waterlogged terrain on 12 October 1917, is synonymous with the Third Battle of Ypres as a whole. The original version of this entry was published byThe Canadian Encyclopedia. If we should know such items of expendi- The offensive from the Ypres salient was launched on July 31, 1917, after more than 3,000 guns had poured 4.5 million shells on the German defenses. The farthest objective was less than 1 mile (1.6 km) deep on September 20 and was reduced still more on the subsequent strokes. Timeline - World History Documentaries 1,201,009 views. This was executed on June 7, 1917, by the Second Army, under Gen. Sir Herbert Plumer. Places of Pride, the National Register of War Memorials, is a new initiative designed to record the locations and photographs of every publicly accessible memorial across Australia. The sacrifices and achievements of those who gave so much will never be forgotten. After lodging his protest, he made careful plans for the Canadians’ assault. Haig at last called a halt, his honour satisfied. As the offensive ground to a halt, Haig ordered the 100,000-man Canadian Corps to launch a diversionary attack on the Germans occupying the French city of Lens, in the hopes that this would draw German resources away from the main battle in the Ypres salient. Attacking from Ypres in Belgium, he planned to drive the Germans from the surrounding dominant ridges and even hoped to reach the Belgian coast. Australian War Memorial, Canberra. More than 4,000 of our soldiers died in the fighting there and almost 12,000 were wounded. Passchendaele: The German Experience Posted on Tuesday 31st July 2012 Extracted from The German Army at Passchendaele by Jack Sheldon and reproduced by permission of Pen and Sword Books. More Victoria Crosses—14 in total—were awarded for actions on the opening day of the Battle of Passchendaele than for actions on any other single day of combat in World War I. Download Passchendaele II battle map, 12 Oct 1917, Download map of ground gained during entire Third Ypres Offensive. I have often thought that many a youngster when he was hit out there on the Passchendaele heights … and he knew that the end had come – must have thought to himself: "well at least they'll remember me in Australia". The success of the Battle of Messines had the unfortunate effect of inspiring the British high command with too much confidence in the greater effort that was to follow, wherein the methods would be essentially different. find out more story Attack of the tanks. It was a vital victory. Sometimes known as the third battle of Ypres, Passchendaele has become synonymous with the bloody trench war stalemate that World War I became. Passchendaele - 100 years on from WW1's muddy carnage. Haig, determined to carry on despite the depletion of his armies, now turned to the Canadians. The some 100,000 members of the Canadian Corps who took part in the battle were among the over 650,000 men and women from our country who served in uniform during the First World War. Haig’s assistants, both executive and advisory, became more and more dubious of his optimistic assurances as the weather deteriorated and the mud became worse, but, with military loyalty, they tried to make their thoughts become the children of his wishes. In addition, according to the head of Haig’s intelligence staff, “Careful investigation of the records of more than eighty years showed that in Flanders the weather broke early each August with the regularity of the Indian monsoon: once the autumn rains set in the difficulties would be greatly enhanced.” None of these facts was disclosed by Haig to the war cabinet when he went to London late in June to secure its approval of his plans. Haig discussed with the two army commanders, Plumer and Sir Hubert de la Poer Gough, what objective they should fix for the first day of the forthcoming offensive. On October 5 Charteris admitted in a note, “Unless we get fine weather for all this month, there is no chance of clearing the coast….Most of those at the conference would welcome a stop.”. It slowed stretcher-bearers to a literal crawl as they tried to carry the wounded away from the fighting through waist-deep muck. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, The ANZAC and Canadian Corps at Passchendaele, https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Passchendaele, BBC History – World Wars: Battle of Passchendaele: 31 July - 6 November 1917, New Zealand History - 1917: Arras, Messines and Passchendaele, The History Learning Site - The Battle of Passchendaele. The assault on this tiny Belgian village cost the lives of thousands of New Zealand soldiers. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George expressed anxiety over whether so great an operation would cause heavy casualties, which would be difficult to replace given the present state of manpower. Passchendaele: fighting for Belgium Ever since 1917 Passchendaele has been a byword for the horror of the First World War. It happened between July and November 1917. Aerial photo of Polygon Wood race track on 7 July 1917, An oblique angle aerial photo of Polygon Wood on 14 Sept 1917. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Australian Divisions captured Broodseinde Ridge on 4 October 1917. The preparations took several weeks and gave the troops some respite from vain sacrifice. able to locate an eBook that ident is som of the combatants and reer to it directly myself. Ironically, the mud also saved lives, cushioning many of the shells that landed and preventing their explosion. (PDF file), Download Passchendaele II battle map, 12 Oct 1917 (PDF file), Download map of ground gained during entire Third Ypres Offensive (PDF file), Read more about the Battle of Passchendaele (Third Ypres), Anzac to Amiens by C. E. W. Bean, Chapter XXI (20 pages), Official History by C. E. W. Bean, Vol. The war cabinet still hesitated, but Adm. John Jellicoe made a powerful intervention in favour of Haig’s plan, saying that unless the army could capture the submarine bases on the Belgian coast, he considered it “improbable that we could go on with the war next year for lack of shipping.” On his return to France, Haig told his intelligence chief, Gen. John Charteris, of the struggle and of the decisive effect of Jellicoe’s declaration. He was badly wounded at the Battle of the Somme but, after recovering, returned to France, commanding his Company at the Battle of Messines, June 1917.The Battle of Passchendaele began 8 weeks later. FIg. Siege of Orléans. Three successful pushes – Menin Road, Polygon Wood and Broodseinde – in September and early October steadily drove the Germans back to the top of Passchendaele ridge. He began by dwelling on the “exhaustion” of the German army and its declining morale. Plumer had one gun to every 5 yards (4.6 metres) of front, and this huge concentration of fire crushed the enemy’s counterattacks. The result, together with the better organization of the attack, helped to revive the spirits of the attacking troops. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. a battle or campaign so brutal, so costly, so protracted and (almost always) so barren of any war-winning strategic consequences even for the ?victor?, that it came to epitomize all the waste, slaughter, … In 1918 all the ground that had been gained there by the Allies was evacuated in the face of a looming German assault. The attack at Passchendaele was Sir Douglas Haig’s attempt to break through Flanders. Lloyd George was now convinced of the incompetence of the British high command.…, In the resulting Third Battle of Ypres (July–November 1917), also called the Passchendaele Campaign, the number of casualties shocked the British public, as the Somme death toll had done. Battle of Passchendaele Officially known as the Third Battle of Ypres, Passchendaele became infamous not only for the scale of casualties, but also for the mud. In the face of heavy fire, the men fought in the mire while struggling to keep up with their artillery barrages. Very little progress was made. Battle of Passchendaele, also called Third Battle of Ypres, (July 31–November 6, 1917), World War I battle that served as a vivid symbol of the mud, madness, and senseless slaughter of the Western Front. On November 6, however, Canadian troops advanced the few hundred yards necessary to occupy the site of what had been the village of Passchendaele (northeast of Ypres, about 5 miles [8 km] from the nearest front on the salient when the offensive had begun on July 31). Gough, like Haig’s own operations staff, favoured the idea of a step-by-step approach to the attack, but Plumer urged that they should “go all out.” Haig agreed with him, counting on an early breakthrough, if not at the first thrust. Our collection contains a wealth of material to help you research and find your connection with the wartime experiences of the brave men and women who served in Australia’s military forces. Passchendaele, or officially, the Third Battle of Ypres, has been reassessed by Nick Lloyd, Nick Lloyd, Reader in Military and Imperial History at King’s College, who is also based at the Siegfried Sassoon recorded Passchendaele in his poem Memorial Tablet, when he … Allied troops attacked the German Army in many operations. A month later, telling Haig that he had “knocked out” alternative plans and was still backing Haig’s, he added, “I confess I stick to it more because…my instinct prompts me to stick to it, than because of any good argument by which I can support it.” After repeated local attacks by Gough’s troops had achieved practically nothing except loss to themselves, Haig agreed that Plumer’s army should take an enlarged role. The effect, however, proved too intoxicating behind the front. By the spring of 1917, the Germans had begun unrestricted submarine warfare — sinking Allied merchant ships in international waters. 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Electroconductive thick film composition, electrode, and solar cell formed therefrom The electroconductive thick film paste of the present invention is a silver electroconductive paste, which includes silver particles, glass particles, and an organic vehicle, and is used in an electrode for connecting a back face terminal on the silicon substrate of a solar cell, and is characterized by the fact that the average particle diameter of said silver particles is 3.0-15.0 μm. The present invention is further directed to an electrode formed from the composition as detailed above and a solar cell comprising said electrode. Latest E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company Patents: This application is a CON of Ser. No. 11/106,261 (filed Apr. 14, 2005, now ABN).FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a silicon semiconductor device. In particular, it pertains to an electroconductive composition used in the formation of a thick film electrode of a solar cell. The present invention is further directed to a silver electroconductive thick film composition (paste) for a solar cell.TECHNICAL BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention can be applied to a broad range of semiconductor devices, although it is especially effective in light-receiving elements such as photodiodes and solar cells. The background of the invention is described below with reference to solar cells as a specific example of the prior art. A conventional solar cell structure with a p-type base has a negative electrode that is typically on the front-side or sun side of the cell and a positive electrode on the backside. It is well-known that radiation of an appropriate wavelength falling on a p-n junction of a semiconductor body serves as a source of external energy to generate hole-electron pairs in that body. Because of the potential difference which exists at a p-n junction, holes and electrons move across the junction in opposite directions and thereby give rise to flow of an electric current that is capable of delivering power to an external circuit. Most solar cells are in the form of a silicon wafer that has been metallized, i.e., provided with metal contacts that are electrically conductive. Most electric power-generating solar cells currently used on earth are silicon solar cells. Process flow in mass production is generally aimed at achieving maximum simplification and minimizing manufacturing costs. Electrodes in particular are made by using a method such as screen printing to form a metal paste. An example of this method of production is described below in conjunction with After protecting one surface of this diffusion layer with a resist or the like, as shown in Next, a silicon nitride film, 30, is formed as an anti-reflection coating on the n-type diffusion layer, 20, to a thickness of about 700 to 900 Å in the manner shown in As shown in Consequently, as shown in The aluminum paste is transformed by firing from a dried state, 60, to an aluminum back electrode, 61. The backside silver or silver/aluminum paste, 70, is fired at the same time, becoming a silver or silver/aluminum back electrode, 71. During firing, the boundary between the back side aluminum and the back side silver or silver/aluminum assumes an alloy state, and is connected electrically as well. The aluminum electrode accounts for most areas of the back electrode, owing in part to the need to form a p+ layer, 40. Because soldering to an aluminum electrode is impossible, a silver back electrode is formed over portions of the back side as an electrode for interconnecting solar cells by means of copper ribbon or the like. In addition, the front electrode-forming silver paste, 500, sinters and penetrates through the silicon nitride film, 30, during firing, and is thereby able to electrically contact the n-type layer, 20. This type of process is generally called “fire through.” This fired through state is apparent in layer 501 of In the formation of the backside electrodes, there are two prior art methods which are typically used to form the Aluminum and silver electrodes (or Ag/Al electrode). The first method is disclosed in Japanese Kokai Patent Application Nos. 2001-127317 and 2004-146521 wherein a Ag paste is printed and dried, an Al paste is printed and dried, and both pastes are baked (to form the silver and Al electrodes). The second method, as disclosed in Japanese Kokai Patent Application Hei 11-330512, is a process in which the formation sequence of the Al electrode and the Ag electrode of the first method is reversed wherein the paste for the Al electrode is printed and dried first, the Ag paste is printed and dried second, and both pastes are baked. In the second method, cracks were apt to be generated in the superposed part of two electrodes due to the difference in the thermal contraction behavior of the Al electrode and the Ag electrode, so that the electrical characteristics (conversion efficiency, etc.) of the solar cell were degraded. Japanese Kokai Patent Application No. 2003-223813 considers the thermal contraction of aluminum. In this publication, it is presented that the thermal contraction of Al is improved by including a material with a low thermal expansion coefficient, such as SiO2 in the paste composition. However, in this publication, although the decrease of the characteristics of the solar cell is improved by the addition of SiO2, it is not described that cracks of the superposed part of the Al electrode and the Ag electrode do not occur by the addition of SiO2. Additionally, when SiO2 is used, there is a possibility that the solderability will be lowered, and the suppression of the thermal contraction and the solderability have a trade-off relationship. Usually, since the material of the second electrode used as an electrode for connection requires adhesive strength, as well as solderability, it must be designed so that glass particles used as a binder are necessarily included in the material to improve the adhesion with the Si substrate. In the conventional electroconductive pastes, it was difficult to obtain an electroconductive paste for connection that suppresses the generation of cracks and that can form the second electrode having both a sufficient adhesive strength and that can maintain sufficient cell characteristics. The present invention solves the above-mentioned problems by providing an electroconductive paste that essentially does not generate cracks in the superposed part, even by simultaneously baking an aluminum electrode and a silver electrode of the back face. This invention can form an electrode with a sufficient adhesive strength while still maintaining sufficient solar cell characteristics.SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The electroconductive thick film paste of the present invention is a silver electroconductive paste, which includes silver particles, glass particles, and an organic vehicle, and is used in an electrode for connecting a back face terminal on the silicon substrate of a solar cell. This paste is characterized by the fact that the average particle diameter of said silver particles is 3.0-15.0 μm. The present invention is further directed to an electrode formed from the composition, as detailed above, and a solar cell comprising said electrode. Reference numerals shown in The conductive thick film composition (paste) of the present invention provides the ability to form an electrode from said paste wherein the electrode essentially does not generate cracks in the overlapped part (back side Al, Ag electrodes), even when simultaneously baking an aluminum electrode and a silver electrode installed on the back face of a solar cell. In order to achieve the above-mentioned objective, the present invention is a conductive thick film composition, in particular a silver electroconductive paste, which includes silver particles, glass particles, and an organic vehicle, and is used in an electrode for connecting a back face terminal on the silicon substrate of a solar cell. It is characterized by the fact that the average particle diameter of said silver particles is 3.0-15.0 μm. In the present invention, preferably, the silver particles are included at 40-93 wt % based on the total weight of the paste, the glass particles are included at 2-10 wt % based on the total weight of the paste, and the organic vehicle is included at 5-50 wt % based on the total weight of the paste. Furthermore, it is preferable for the glass powder included in the silver electroconductive paste to have a softening point of 450-550° C. According to the present invention, a silver electroconductive paste is used for a second electrode, which suppresses the generation of cracks in the superposed part of the first electrode and second electrode, with the second electrode having a sufficient adhesive strength and does not degrade the characteristics of a solar cell. The present invention pertains to a silver electroconductive paste that includes an electroconductive metal, especially silver particles, a binder, especially glass particles, and an organic vehicle, and is used in an electrode for connecting a back face terminal on the silicon substrate of a solar cell. The electroconductive paste of the present invention is used in the above-mentioned second method, that is, the method that prints and dries an electroconductive paste for the Al electrode, prints and dries an electroconductive paste for the silver electrode, and bakes them, in the formation of back electrodes of a solar cell. Next, each component of the electroconductive thick film paste of the present invention is explained. 1. Electroconductive Metal As the electroconductive metal usable in the electroconductive paste of the present invention, silver (Ag) particles can be mentioned and are most preferable. The silver particles are preferably the flake form or powder form. In the use as a general electroconductive paste, the particle diameter of the silver particles is not particularly limited in terms of technical effects; however, since the particle diameter has an influence on the sintering characteristic of the silver (for example, the silver particles with a large particle diameter are sintered at a speed slower than that of the silver particles with a small particle diameter), it is preferable to have a specific diameter for the purpose of the present invention. Furthermore, it is also necessary for the silver particles to have a particle diameter suitable for a method for spreading the electroconductive paste (for example, screen printing). In order to satisfy the above-mentioned requirements, the average particle diameter of the silver particles is 3.0-15.0 μm, preferably 5.0-11.0 μm. With the use of silver particles with such a particle diameter, the electroconductive paste is appropriately spread, the melting contraction behavior of the aluminum paste for the first electrode of the back face, and the sintering behavior of the silver electroconductive paste for the second electrode are matched, and the generation of cracks in the superposed part of two electrodes can be suppressed. If the particle diameter of the silver particles is smaller than the above-mentioned range, the silver electroconductive paste exhibits a steep sintering behavior, and cracks are apt to be generated between the two electrodes due to the mismatch of the sintering speed with the aluminum paste. Also, if the particle diameter of the silver particles is greater than the above-mentioned range, since the sintering is not sufficiently advanced, the electrical conductivity is lowered, and the strength of the electrode film is decreased. It is preferable for the silver to have a high purity (99+%); however, a substance with a low purity can also be used in response to the electrical demand of the electrode pattern. In the present invention, the electroconductive metal is most preferably the silver particles as mentioned above; however, an electroconductive metal other than silver can also be used. Metals such as Cu, Au, Ag, Pd, and Pd may be useful. Additionally, alloys and mixtures of the preceding metals are also useful in the present invention. For example, Cu, Au, Ag—Pd, Pt—Au, etc., can be used. It is understood that the preceding discussion regarding the use of silver particles is not limiting and applies to the use of the other metals, alloys and mixtures detailed above. The content of the electroconductive metal is not particularly limited as long as it is an amount that can achieve the objective of the present invention; however, the silver particles are preferably present at 40-93 wt % based on the weight of the electroconductive paste. Furthermore, aluminum may be added to the composition to enhance desired properties. 2. Inorganic Binder It is preferable for the electroconductive paste of the present invention to include an inorganic binder. The inorganic binder usable in the present invention is a glass frit with a softening point of 450-550° C. so that the electroconductive paste can be baked at 600-800° C., appropriately sintered and moistened, and appropriately adhered to a silicon substrate. If the softening point is lower than 450° C., the sintering is excessive, and the effects of the present invention sometimes cannot be sufficiently obtained. On the other hand, if the softening point is higher than 550° C., since a sufficient melt flow is not caused during the baking, a sufficient adhesive strength is not exerted, and the liquid-phase sintering of the silver sometimes cannot be promoted. Here, the “softening point” is that obtained by the fiber elongation method of ASTM C338-57. Since the chemical composition of the glass frit is not important in the present invention, any glass frit used in electroconductive pastes for electronic material can be applied. For example, lead borosilicate glass, etc., can be appropriately used. Lead silicate glass and lead borosilicate glass are excellent materials in the present invention in terms of both the softening point range and the glass fusibility. A leadless glass such as zinc borosilicate can also be used. The content of the glass frit as the inorganic binder is not particularly limited as long as it is an amount that can achieve the objective of the present invention; however, the content is 2.0-10.0 wt %, preferably 3.0-6.0 wt %, based on the total weight of the electroconductive paste. If the amount of the inorganic binder is smaller than 2.0 wt %, the adhesive strength is sometimes insufficient, and if the amount of the inorganic binder is more than 10.0 wt %, soldering as a postprocess is sometimes hindered by glass floating, etc. 3. Organic Vehicle The electroconductive paste of the present invention includes an organic vehicle. In the present invention, an optional inactive liquid can be used as the organic vehicle. As usable organic liquids, for example, alcohols; esters of alcohols (such as an acetate or propionate); starch (such as pine oil and terpineol); various solutions such as a pine oil solution or ethylene glycol monobutyl ether monoacetate solution of a resin (polymethacrylate, etc.) or ethylcellulose, or a terpineol solution of ethylcellulose can be mentioned. In the present invention, the terpineol solution of ethylcellulose (ethyl cellulose content=5-50 wt %) is preferably used. The content of the organic vehicle is 5-50 wt % based on the total weight of the electroconductive paste. In the electroconductive paste of the present invention, a thickener and/or a stabilizer and/or other general additives may or may not be used. When additives are used, a tackifier (thickener), stabilizer, etc., can be added, or as other general additives, a dispersant, viscosity adjustor, etc., can also be used. The amount of additives is used determined in accordance with the characteristics of the electroconductive paste that is finally obtained. The amount of additives can be appropriately determined by the manufacturer concerned. Also, several kinds of additives may be used. As will be explained below, it is preferable for the electroconductive paste of the present invention to have a viscosity in a prescribed range. In order to give an appropriate viscosity to the electroconductive paste, if necessary, a tackifier (thickener) can be added. As an example of the tackifier, for example, the above-mentioned substances can be mentioned. The amount of tackifier, etc., being added varies in accordance with the viscosity of the final electroconductive paste; however, it can be appropriately determined by the manufacturer concerned. The electroconductive paste of the present invention is conveniently manufactured by mixing each of the above-mentioned components by a three-roll kneader. The electroconductive paste of the present invention is preferably spread on the desired part of the back face of a solar cell by screen printing; in spreading by such a method, it is preferable to have a viscosity in a prescribed range. The viscosity of the electroconductive paste of the present invention is preferably 50-300 PaS when it is measured at 10 rpm and 25° C. by a utility cup using a Brookfield HBT viscometer and #14 spindle. The electroconductive paste of the present invention is used for the second electrode formed in a partially superposed state with the first electrode formed from an electroconductive paste mainly composed of aluminum. In other words, the electroconductive paste of the present invention is formed by printing and drying an electroconductive paste for the Al electrode, printing and drying an electroconductive paste for the silver electrode, and simultaneously baking them, and is used for an electrode to connect an electrode on the back face. Next, an example in which a solar cell is prepared using the electroconductive paste (silver electroconductive paste) of the present invention is explained, referring to the figure ( First, a Si substrate 102 is prepared. On the light-receiving side face (surface) of the Si substrate, electrodes (for example, electrodes mainly composed of Ag) 104 are installed ( Next, the substrate obtained is baked at a temperature of 600-900° C. for about 2-15, for instance, so that the desired solar cell is obtained ( The solar cell obtained using the electroconductive paste of the present invention, as shown in Next, the present invention is explained in further detail by an application example. In the following application example, a manufacturing example of the silver electroconductive paste of the present invention and an example in which the silver electroconductive paste is used as an electrode material for the back face of a Si substrate in manufacturing a solar cell are explained.Application Example 1 Application Example 1 is detailed below. Manufacture of Electroconductive Paste 1.7 wt % of a viscosity adjustor and 22.5 wt % of an organic vehicle (terpineol solution of ethylcellulose (containing 20 parts ethylcellulose)) were added to a mixture of 4.8 wt % glass frit (Si—B—Pb—O system) and 71.0 wt % silver powder with an average particle diameter of 8.5 μm. This mixture was premixed by a universal mixer and kneaded by a three-roll kneader, so that a silver electroconductive paste was obtained. The particle diameter, content, and characteristics of the materials used are shown in Manufacture of Solar Cell Using the silver electroconductive paste obtained, a solar cell was formed in the following sequence. (1) On the back face of a Si substrate having a silver electrode on the surface, an aluminum paste PV333 for the back face electrode of a solar cell (commercially available from E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company) was screen-printed at a dried film thickness of 40-60 μm and dried at a temperature of 180° C. or lower. After drying the silver electroconductive paste of the present invention, a film thickness of 20-30 μm was obtained; the silver paste was screen-printed so that it overlapped the above-mentioned aluminum paste by a width of 1 mm, and dried. (2) The aluminum paste and the silver electroconductive paste were simultaneously baked at a heater temperature of 800° C. for a baking time of 10 min in an infrared baking furnace. The overlapped part of the back face electrode of the baked product obtained was enlarged at a magnification of 100 times and observed by a microscope (digital microscope); the existence of cracks was observed with the naked eye. In addition to the observation of cracks, the adhesive strength of the second electrode was measured. As its measuring method, the adhesive strength was measured at a tensile speed of 2 inches (5.08 cm) per min using an “Instron” tensile tester with a peeling-off angle of 90°. Furthermore, the other characteristics required of the solar cell, including the conversion coefficient, were decided. These results were shown in Table II.Comparative Examples 1-3 Electroconductive pastes with mixture compositions and characteristics as shown in Table I were used instead of the electroconductive paste of the present invention explained in Application Example 1; and solar cells were manufactured by a sequence similar to that shown in Application Example 1. Also, Comparative Example 1 corresponds to a conventional electroconductive paste. The solar cells obtained were evaluated similarly to Application Example 1. The results are shown in Table II. According to Application Example 1, in the solar cell using the silver electroconductive paste of the present invention, there was essentially no generation of cracks, and the adhesive characteristic and the characteristics of the solar cell were maintained (sufficiently practical). On the contrary, in Comparative Example 1 (conventional example), since the particle diameter of the silver particles was smaller than that of the silver electroconductive paste of the present invention, cracks were generated, and the characteristics of the solar cell were insufficient. Also, in Comparative Example 2, since the content of the glass frit was low, a sufficient adhesive strength could not be obtained. Furthermore, in Comparative Example 3, since the glass softening point was higher than that of the electroconductive paste of the present invention, a sufficient adhesive strength could not be obtained.INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The electroconductive paste of the present invention can be utilized in the manufacture of a solar cell. 1. A backside electrode of a solar cell, comprising: - (a) a solar cell substrate; - (b) a first electrode formed on the solar cell substrate, wherein the first electrode comprises Al; and - (c) a second electrode partially overlapping the first electrode, wherein the second electrode has been formed from a paste comprising: (i) 40-93 weight percent, based on the total weight of the paste, of metal particles selected from the group consisting of Cu, Au, Ag, Pd, Pt, alloys of Cu, alloys of Au, alloys of Ag, alloys of Pd, alloys of Pt, and mixtures thereof; said metal particles having an average particle diameter in the range of 3.0 to 15.0 μm; (ii) 2-10 weight percent, based on the total weight of the paste, of glass particles; the softening point of said glass particles being in the range of 450-550° C., and (iii) 5- 50 weight percent, based on the total weight of the paste, of an organic vehicle. 2. The backside electrode of claim 1, wherein the paste for the second electrode comprises Ag. 3. The backside electrode of claim 1, wherein the paste for the second electrode further comprises Al. 4. A method of forming the backside electrode of claim 1 comprising: - admixing (a) 40-93 wt% of metal particles selected from Cu, Au, Ag, Pd, Pt, alloys of Cu, Au, Ag, Pd, Pt, and mixtures thereof; (b) 2-10 wt% of glass particles; dispersed in (c) an organic vehicle; and firing (a), (b) and (c) to remove the organic vehicle and sinter said glass particles wherein the average particle diameter of said metal particles is in the range of 3.0 to 15.0 μm, and wherein said fired thick film conductive paste composition is used in the electrode for connecting a back face terminal on a silicon substrate of a solar cell. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein said thick film conductive composition further comprises aluminum. 6. A solar sell comprising the electrode of claim 4. |4256513||March 17, 1981||Yoshida et al.| |5302557||April 12, 1994||Carroll et al.| |5795501||August 18, 1998||Kano et al.| |7138347||November 21, 2006||Konno et al.| |7485244||February 3, 2009||Nakamura et al.| |7494607||February 24, 2009||Wang et al.| |20020096666||July 25, 2002||Ichikawa et al.| |20020187317||December 12, 2002||Tsuyuki et al.| |20050279970||December 22, 2005||Ogi et al.| |20060202173||September 14, 2006||Konno et al.| International Classification: H01B 1/22 (20060101);

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She could send the an employee a text: “Hey, nice work on the project!” Or she could send him an email containing the same message. … Frances wants to know if it’s possible for him to cut the price to his customers and give up his $500 bonus for selling the car. The communication passing through a formal channel is … Ensuring effective downward communication isn’t always easy. Little Joe agrees, since it really makes no difference who gets the $500—Frances or the customer. Cable or wire line media use physical wires of cables to transmit data and information. With organizations constantly growing in size, formal channels help to bridge the gap in the communication process. Creating clearly worded, unambiguous communications and maintaining a respectful tone can facilitate effective downward communication. Different communication channels are more or less effective at transmitting different kinds of information. Informal discussion about rumours an un-verified information. More Tech Topics to Explore Signals can be routed from one type of network to another network with completely different characteristics. 1. These pathways, called communication channels, use two types of media: cable (twisted-pair wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable) and broadcast (microwave, satellite, radio, and infrared). Informal Communications from Boundless Management. A major internal communication channel is e-mail, which is convenient but needs to be handled carefuly. A channel is a communication medium, the path that data takes from source to destination. A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second. Frances returns to his customers and tells him he thinks he’s got a way to make the deal work. Multi-terminal channels, with application to cellular systems, Learn how and when to remove this template message, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communication_channel&oldid=994736243, Wikipedia articles with style issues from February 2012, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from March 2010, All Wikipedia articles needing clarification, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2010, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, A connection between initiating and terminating nodes of a, physical separation, such as by multipair. Another type of communication flow is external, when an organization communicates with people or organizations outside the business. ... Events Public speaking and networking at events. An organisation can be described as the network of communication channels. Frances knows the couple from his church and really wants to help them get reliable transportation, but he also knows he needs to get the deal past the finance manager. The availability of communication channels affects employees’ overall satisfaction with upward communication. Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. Upward communication is the transmission of information from lower levels of an organization to higher ones; the most common situation is employees communicating with managers. Formal channels are considered the more effective of channels of communication. The attenuation term is a simplification of the underlying physical processes and captures the change in signal power over the course of the transmission. Communication channels refer to the medium you use to send a message, such as the telephone or email. She could also praise him in front of the whole department during a meeting. among themselves for carrying out day-today work of the business. Unlike the other communication networks, in an all-channel network there is no direct leader and all levels of employees can communicate with anyone else of … It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings or a factory. Informal communication occurs in any direction and takes place between individuals of different status and roles. Communication channel also called as communication media or transmission media While this type of It is just one element of a successful marketing campaign, albeit an important one. All-Channel Network. The model can be a linear or non-linear, time-continuous or time-discrete (sampled), memoryless or dynamic (resulting in burst errors), time-invariant or time-variant (also resulting in burst errors), baseband, passband (RF signal model), real-valued or complex-valued signal model. External communication channels include PR/press releases, ads, Web pages, and customer communications such as letters and catalogs. A path for conveying electrical or electromagnetic signals, usually distinguished from other parallel paths. It helps to alert management of new developments, levels of performance, and other issues that may require their attention. Discuss the nature of communications in an organizational setting, including communication flows, channels, and networks. Other articles where Communication channel is discussed: modem: …make it possible for established telecommunications media to support a wide variety of data communication, such as e-mail between personal computers, facsimile transmission between fax machines, or the downloading of audio-video files from a World Wide Web server to a home Communication channels differ along a scale from rich to lean. The formal channel of communication is defined as the official or formal medium of transmitting information to its intended audience within an organization. Channels can be copper wires, optical fibres, wireless communication channels, etc. Brian, the finance manager, approves the deal per his conversation with Little Joe, so all that’s left is the final inspection in the service department. Specialization is a problem that occurs when there is a lack of uniform knowledge or vocabulary within or between departments. He hopes this sale will generate more business for himself and the dealership, so along with the keys to the car, he gives them several business cards and a coupon for a free oil change. Data Communication and Computer Network 8 Let us go through various LAN technologies in brief: Ethernet Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology. the audience and their reaction to the message; the length of time it will take to convey the information; the need for a permanent record of the communication; the degree to which the information is confidential; and. Combined with your messaging and the right creative for the channel, it can resonate with your ideal customers and encourage them to do business with you. A speaker giving a large presentation is an example of oral communication. Digital: Computer-mediated communication, computer networking and telegraphy; The most commonly used data communication media include: Wire pairs; Coaxial cable ; Microwave transmission ; Communication satellites; Fiber optics; The communication media acts as a channel for linking various computing devices so that they may interact with each other. The answer to the 3 W’s will then lead to the all-important HOW (the appropriate communication channel to achieve your business goals). The following channels are the principal multi-terminal channels which was first introduced in the field of information theory: From the above 4 basic multi-terminal channels, multiple access channel is the only one whose capacity region is known. Below are 8 Key Communication Channels … KIRA Network community, we are getting close to the grand finale of the public round and for that reason we will be highlighting in this article means of communication between Kira Team along the… The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. This is likely to make employees feel satisfied with their level of access to channels of upward communication and less apprehensive about communicating with their superiors. https://www.wisdomjobs.com/.../communication-networks-12761.html Examples of communications channels include: All of these communications channels share the property that they transfer information. Finally, horizontal communication often fails simply because organization members are unwilling to expend the additional effort needed to reach out beyond their immediate team. …a network is called a communications channel. Chain Network 4. In communications, a channel is the means of passing information from a sender to a recipient. Sharing information, solving problems, and collaborating horizontally is often more timely, direct, and efficient than up or down communication, since it occurs directly between people working in the same environment. Written communication is an effective channel when context, supporting data, and detailed explanations are necessary to inform or persuade others. Well, every successful … As you can see, getting the channel right is just as important as sending the right message. A communication channel is a means of communication that is available to an organization or individual. Communication Channels. Channel 36 operates at 5.180 GHz with each channel offset by 5 MHz, so that Channel 40 operates at 5.200 GHz (20 MHz offset), and so on. COMMUNICATIONS CHANNELS: a guide It is recommended that you approach your choice of communications channels with an open mind. An Intranet can be an extremely valuable communication channel for organizations. Upward communication is often made in response to downward communication; for instance, when employees answer a question from their manager. The communication network is the sum of all the means and methods that an organisation employs to communicate. The key to effective communication is to match the communication channel with the goal of the message (Barry & Fulmer, 2004). The highest-frequency channel (165) operates on 5.825 GHz. Type of Communication Channels. In information theory, a channel refers to a theoretical channel model with certain error characteristics. It might surprise you to know that 75 percent of all organizations’ practices, policies, and procedures are shared through grapevine communication.. In general, any complex multi-terminal network can be considered as a combination of simplified multi-terminal channels. LiFi uses LEDs that operate under high-frequency voltage and create bidirectional channels for data transmission as access points. Formal communication usually involves documentation, while informal communication usually leaves no recorded trace for others to find or share. The mathematical model consists of a transition probability that specifies an output distribution for each possible sequence of channel inputs. It was standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980. … She could also stop by his desk and personally compliment him. She tells him to locate the 2015 Sonata and get it up on the lift next. Less accountability is expected from informal communications, which can cause people to be indiscreet, careless in their choice of words, or disclose sensitive information. An organization’s formal communication network is comprised of all the communication that runs along its official lines of authority. The leanest channels, on the other hand, trim the “fat” and present information without allowing for immediate interaction, and they often convey “just the facts.” The main channels of communication are grouped below from richest to leanest: Bill Gates speaking at a school. For example, a project with 10 stakeholders has 10 (10 – 1) /2 = 45 likely communication channels” This statement makes a PMP® exam aspirant think that in this calculation he needs to consider stakeholders. In this respect, upward communication is a good measure of whether a company’s downward communication is effective. All-Channel Network. The statistics of the random attenuation are decided by previous measurements or physical simulations. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times. Differences in experience, knowledge, levels of authority, and status make it possible that the sender and recipient do not share the same assumptions or understanding of context, which can result in messages being misunderstood or misinterpreted. It is the path information travels from computer to computer. The data are realized as electromagnetic signals (radiowave, microwave, electrical voltage, etc.). Rivalry between individuals or teams can make people reluctant to cooperate and share information. But they can also be very fast. There are three different types of telecommunication and computer networking channels to be aware of: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. Communication Networks Formal Communication Channels within Organization Organizations have networks of communication much like the human body has a network of nerves that move impulses from the brain to the various body parts and back to the brain again. Consider which channels will be most effective to reach and engage your audiences. For example, reports from lower level manager will flow upwards. If the attenuation term is complex it also describes the relative time a signal takes to get through the channel. channel: In information technology, the term channel is used in a number of ways. Data transmission and data reception (or, more broadly, data communication or digital communications) is the transfer and reception of data (a digital bitstream or a digitized analog signal) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel.Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication channels, storage media and computer buses. Casual conversations are often spontaneous, and participants may make incorrect statements or promulgate inaccurate information. That is, it often occurs between people who do not work together directly but share an affiliation or a common interest in the organization’s activities and/or a motivation to perform their jobs well. Verbal communications in business take place over the phone or in person. These channels can be either intentionally designed, or they may develop of their own accord. Effective communication requires selecting an appropriate communication channel to send your message. LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other while it can also be as complex as interconnec… Formal communications in traditional organizations are frequently “one-way”: They are initiated by management and received by employees. Determining the most appropriate channel, or medium, is critical to the effectiveness of communication. Managers who encourage upward communication foster cooperation, gain support, and reduce frustration among their employees. When a channel is intentionally created for the flow of communication in the Organisation, it is called a formal channel. This study aims to find out the communication channels used by women culinary entrepreneurs in Depok to meet their information needs. If, however, you are on a diet and just want the meat, you will select a lean steak. When a channel is intentionally created for the flow of communication in the Organisation, it is called a formal channel. A communication channel refers either to a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel in telecommunications and computer networking. The second of the two types of communication medium is mechanical media. Which follows definite and predetermined directions though no importance given to this informal channel but even thin it is found and is known as ‘Grapevine’ because it seems in all directions like – horizontal, diagonal & … Every car sold from the hot sheet earns the salesperson a $500 bonus, adding more than a little motivation to the mix. It can be word-of-mouth delivered or enhanced by the network effects of social media. Think about how you would select a steak—some have more fat than others; they are rich and full of flavor and body. An informal communication network, on the other hand, doesn’t follow authority lines and is established around the social affiliation of members of an organization. So total communication channels increase after … 2. Frances wants Little Joe to know that he has a couple interested in one of the new cars on the hot sheet, a 2015 Sonata, but the car is out of their price range by just a hair. The frequency spectrum is divided up among the logical channels where each user hangs onto a particular frequency. https://www.slideshare.net/shomaa05/corporate-communication-in-business, https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/communication-11/barriers-to-effective-communication-84/choosing-the-type-of-communication-401-1845/, https://www.boundless.com/business/textbooks/boundless-business-textbook/business-writing-5/means-of-communication-43/choosing-the-right-method-for-the-message-220-1217/, https://www.flickr.com/photos/wocintechchat/25900843762/in/dateposted/, https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/communication-11/management-and-communication-83/, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png, https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/communication-11/management-and-communication-83/informal-communication-400-10986/, https://www.flickr.com/photos/practicalowl/433659667/, Differentiate between face-to-face, written, oral, Web-based, and other common channels of business communication, Differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate uses of different communication channels, Differentiate between downward, upward, horizontal, diagonal, and external communication flows, Differentiate between formal and informal communication networks. The information is carried through the channel by a signal. Face-to-face encounters allow the listener to hear your message, as well as sense your tone of voice and watch … other issues that may require their attention. A face-to-face compliment during a private meeting might be received better. In an organization, information flows forward, backwards and sideways. This kind of communication flow is increasingly the norm in organizations (in the same way that cross-functional teams are becoming more common), since it can maximize the efficiency of information exchange. In communications, a channel is the means of passing information from a sender to a recipient. In the past, many organizations considered informal communication (generally associated with interpersonal, horizontal communication) a hindrance to effective organizational performance and tried to stamp it out. Each cable package includes some networks you can watch programming online. For change communication, make a variety of communication pathways and channels available for use once change information is carefully and clearly crafted. These are the 12 most effective communication channels for change in organizations: Face to Face Announcement Now everyone who sees his customers driving their new car will know where they bought it. The twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, microwave, satellite etc. Twisted-pair wire and coaxial cables are made of copper, and fiber-optic cable is made of glass. When it takes the form of a “rumor mill” spreading misinformation, informal communication is harmful and difficult to shut down because its sources cannot be identified by management. A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several receivers. External communication is often handled by marketing and sales. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels. When there are differences in style, personality, or roles among coworkers, horizontal communication may not run smoothly. The digital communication is a physical transfer of the data over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Total number of communication channels required is = 5x(5-1)/2 = 10. Little Joe holds a meeting every morning with his entire sales staff. are examples of communication channels. A channel model may either be digital (quantified, e.g. If the employee spent months working on the project, getting a “Hey, nice work on the project!” text message or email might seem like thin praise—insulting even. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. Communication channels differ along a scale from rich to lean. Wire, fibre-optic cable, and radio waves may be used for different communications channels. See, This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 08:04. Informal Communication Channels Within a formal working environment, there always exists an informal communication network. Communication channels are the methods used to get a message across. A sequence of random numbers might also be added to simulate external interference and/or electronic noise in the receiver. Communication channels refer to the way this information flows within the organization and with other organizations. In this meeting he gives them information on new cars on the lot, current interest rates available to customers, and how close they are to meeting the company’s monthly sales goals. For example, in wireless communications the channel is often modelled by a random attenuation (known as fading) of the transmitted signal, followed by additive noise. Learn about the different types of networking and the systems that make networking possible. Too often, these teams fall into the trap of trying to get an important message out quickly rather than taking time to consider how it fits into their overall communication strategy . With mechanical media we mean written or electronic channels. This is no longer the case. A message that is being transmitted through this type of communication must follow a chain of command. Documentation Information that is documented with limited distribution such as an internal memorandum. A marketing communications channel, also sometimes referred to as a media channel, is a delivery vehicle to your customers for your message or offer. It is a readily available means to reach through to every corner … What Is Organizational Communication? Communications that zigzag along horizontal and vertical routes, on the other hand, are vulnerable to the schedules and availability of the individuals who reside at each level. She can use different approaches and channels to do this. meetings are all formal communication channels. An organisation can be described as the network of communication channels. A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several receivers. In this web known as communication, a manager becomes a link. A channel can be comprised of so many different things: wires, free space, and entire networks. Choosing the Right Method for the Message from Boundless Business. This study uses a quantitative approach with a … One of the most significant modern trends in wireless communication is a Visible Light Communication technology. Some types of communication are information rich while others are medium rich. All Channel or Star Network. When deciding which communication channel to use, the following are some of the important factors to consider: If you choose the wrong channel—that is, if the channel is not effective for the type of message and meaning you want to create—you are likely to generate misunderstanding and possibly end up making matters worse. Communication channels are also studied in a discrete-alphabet setting. The maintenance of personal networks and social relationships through information communication is understood to be a key factor in how people get work done. … Oral forms of communication can range from a casual conversation with a colleague to a formal presentation in front of many employees. Learn about the different types of networking and the systems that make networking possible. The last thing Frances does before he hands the keys to his customers is to affix a Little Joe’s Auto license plate frame to the front and back of the Sonata. Annual reports, press releases, product promotions, financial reports are all examples of external communication. Communicating data from one location to another requires some form of pathway or medium. Examples of digital channel models are: In an analog channel model, the transmitted message is modelled as an analog signal. More specifically, channels are the means used to carry a message -- for example, emails and telephone calls. In the Internet, a packet may be sent over a wireless WiFi network to an ethernet lan, to a DSL modem, to a fiber-optic backbone, et cetera.The many unique physical characteristics of different channels determine the … Channels include oral means such as telephone calls and presentations, and written modes such as reports, memos, and email. Oral communications tend to be richer channels because information can be conveyed through speech as well as nonverbally through tone of voice and body language. 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|Introduction||Historical Background||Chronology||Geography||Biography||Technology||Ownership and Financing||General Bibliography| Columbia was chartered as a town in 1805 and as a city in 1854. The first waterworks were built by Colonel Abram Blanding who paid the entire cost of $75,000. The system began service in April 1821 using a 12 horsepower steam engine manufactured by James Bowman and William Galloway of Manchester, England to pump water to a circular reservoir on Taylor's Hill (later Arsenal Hill), from which it was distributed through cast iron and lead pipes. The City of Columbia bought the system in 1835 from Blanding for $24,000 in town stock paying five percent interest, but the city never redeemed the stock. The city built a new system in 1856 with a larger reservoir on Arsenal Hill and a new steam-powered pumping station on the lot between Williams, Laurel, and Richland streets. The original springs were piped to the new plant location, where other springs were also utilized. The 1856 plant and reservoir are shown below: |Bird's Eye View of the City of Columbia, South Carolina (1872)| Samuel A. Pearce, Jr. and William Sprague bought the Columbia Canal from the State of South Carolina in January 1869 for $200. Both men were from Rhode Island, and Sprague had been Governor of Rhode Island from 1860 to 1863, and was U.S. Senator from 1863 to 1875. In August, 1870, the City of Columbia entered into a twenty-year contract with them to supply up to 1.5 million gallons of water per day to the City's water works reservoir from a new water-driven pumping plant. The following year they and Sprague's brother Amosa formed the Columbia Water Power Company and assigned the water supply contract to that firm. The Water Power Company met the deadline for supplying water, but the City decided not to receive it and the Company obtained an injunction forcing the City to do so. The City lost the subsequent court case (which provides substantial detail about the workings of the water works system), but Sprague went bankrupt in late 1873 and the Water Power Company was declared to be in default by the South Carolina legislature in 1878. The city built a new plant in 1885, but it was destroyed by floods the following May and the rebuilt plant was destroyed by a steam engine explosion the following July. The 1856 plant was returned to service during these periods. A new plant was built in 1907. The waterworks are owned by the City of Columbia. 1818 An act to enable the Intendant and Wardens of the town of Columbia, to borrow money for the purpose of supplying the said town with water, and for other purposes therein mentioned. December 18, 1818. Courier, December 20, 1820, Page 2. Columbia, Dec. 15. On Wednesday morning last, the Steam engine, put up by Col. Blanding for the purpose of supplying the town of Columbia with water, was set in operation before a large number of the citizens and members of the Legislature. The pipe to the lower basin was not complete, and of course the water would not be propelled from the machine to the upper basin. But as far as could be judged from the operation of the machine alone it gave universal approbation. A cleaner working piece of machinery perhaps is not in the United States. It appeared more like the movement of a celestial system than a human invention, to see the complicated machinery in active motion, with a balance-wheel of sixty hundred eight, without the least noise or jar. 1821 Camden Gazette (Camden, South Carolina), April 12, 1821, page 2. Columbia Water Works.--We had the pleasure on Friday last of seeing these works put into full operation. Every part of the machinery worked in the most perfect manner; and the pure spring water of the valley with great apparent ease and regularity flowed into the reservoir, which has a perpendicular elevation above the lower basin of 116 feet and above the common level of the town of 35 feet. The distance on an inclined plane from the basin where the water is collected to the summit of discharge is 900 feet, and is laid down with iron pipes of eight inches interior diameter. The forcing pumps makes 54 strokes in a minute when the steam engine is at ordinary speed, and discharge 10,000 gallons of water into the town in one hour. The beauty of the machinery and the permanent construction of the work is not to be excelled by any similar establishment in the United States. The greatest credit is due to the manufacturers, Messrs. Galloway and Bowman of Manchester, England, and to Mr. Johnson the engineer, whose ingenuity and attention to the erection of this beautiful establishment cannot be too highly extolled. Col. Blanding could not have put this work into more faithful hands. The whole of Richardson street, from the state house to Upper Boundary street, has been laid down with cast iron pipes. The extent of pipes laid down is a little more than one mile and a quarter; affording a supply of water to more than half of the population of the place. We understand, by his charter, Col. Blanding has two years to lay down the other streets. Some of the pipes we perceive are now on the spot, and we may reasonably expect that all our citizens may soon be supplied with water, conducted through iron, which; it is understood, never gives an unpleasant taste or deleterous quality to the water. The springs in the valley furnish an abundant supply for a population three times as large as Columbia now contains. The water is pure, cool and delicious issuing through sand from the bottom of a range of hills rising more than 100 feet above the point of their discharge. Whether we regard the health and comfort of our citizens, or the security of the town from fire, this establishment cannot but be considered as of the utmost importance to Columbia. Patriot (Charleston, South Carolina), August 22, 1823, Page 2. Columbia (s. c.) August 19. The Columbia Water Works have been completed by Col. Blanding, according to his charter, by the extention of the main Pipes through the town in every part required by his stipulations with the council. The whole extent of pipe thus laid down, is l7654 feet, all of cast iron; beginning at the Basin, nine miles [inches?] diameter, and ending at the extreme parts of the town, with two inches. It thus reaches about three miles and a half, conveying water to forty six squares on which the town is principally built. The water that supplies this establishment, is collected in a valley about 800 feet to the west of the main street, from pure springs. The basin in which it is thus collected is sunk about 14 feet below the surface and is enclosed with a wall of stone four feet thick. This is covered in, so as to exclude filth and heat. This basin contains 40,000 gallons, and when the engine is not pumping, the water which is received from the spring through a trunk that enters the bottom, is passing off over the top of the walls. These springs were ascertained by accurate measurements made in the year of 1818 and 1819, to supply more than 80,000 gallons in twenty four hours. And there are springs in the valley, which have not been yet turned into the union. From the bottom of the collecting basin to the top of the wall of the summit or d1stributing basin, there is 120 feet elevation in a distance of 900 feet. The distributing basin is on a hill about 500 feet west of the principal street, and has a genera1 elevation above the town of 25 feet, so that every house in the place can be supplied with water from it, in the second and some in the third story. This basin is a perfect circle of brick, 76 feet diameter, and nine feet deep below the surface of the earth. It is protected by a conical cover, that excludes heat and dust, but at the same time is well ventilated. It contains 250,000 gallons, and when full, will supply the present population of the town for ten days, without being replenished. In the main pipes there 44 fire plugs, so that each corner of the squares that are watered has a supply for extinguishing fires. These plugs are 2 7-8 inches diameter, and suited to the hoes of the fire engineers. Every house within the watered limits, thus has a supply for extinguishing fire within 250 feet of it, and on the main street, within 125 feet. The pumping establishment is worked by a steam engine of twelve horse power of the most beautiful construction and workmanship, which in two and a half hours supplies the present consumption of the place, for 24 hours, and consumes about one third of a cord of wood. There are one extra boiler and duplicates of all parts of the machinery that are subject to break, so that in case of accident the necessary repairs can be made long before the water in the distributing basin is consumed. The surplus power of the engine drives two pair of mill stones ; one for corn and the other for wheat. The merchant mill is of a very superior construction, having all the facilities of the most approved work of the kind. The surplus warm water from the condensing cistern of the engine, is conveyed to a neat bathing house, which is also supplied with cold water, and affords a bathing establishment of vast use to the comfort and health of the town. These works have been erected by the funds of an individual, who has received no other aid than the sum of 5,000 dollars from the state legislature in consideration of which he is bound to supply all the public buildings with water free of charge. Already the Court House, Jail, and State House, are supplied. The College, Male and Female Academics and the Lunatic Asylum, are entitled to the same privilege, but the expence of service pipe, by contract is not a charge on the proprietor of the works. The town pays $500 a year for the use of water, to extinguish fire and the ordinary charge to a family is 20 a year. It is understood that the profit of this establishment do not as yet produce more than four per cent on the capital expences. But we are induced to believe that the increasing population of the town and the liberal encouragement of our citizens will soon make it a valuable stock. --The comforts afforded by it, are every day more extensively felt: and whether we regard the security which this work presents against fire, the health promoted by its introducing a general practice of bathing, or the convenience it affords for every household purpose, this undertaking, superior, we believe, to any which individual enterprise has effected in the United States, must be considered as of incalculable value to our town. The only circumstance which subtracts from its universal utility is that the pipes being sunk about four feet below the surface, are affected by the heat of our summers and the water is too warm for pleasant drinking, although it is perfectly pure, and in other respects equal to the best spring water. We understand that the proprietor is about attempting an experiment to remedy this defect, and to deliver perfectly cool water for drinking. We understand his plan and think it will succeed. The talents and enterprise of this gentleman we are in hopes, will yet meet the reward they deserve.- Telescope. Water," The New England Farmer 3:221 (February 4, 1825) The Columbia (S. C.) Water Works, which have not been cleaned out for three years, were drawn off on the 1st inst. and only half an inch of sediment found in the bottom. During the above period upwards of 50 millions of gallons of water have been thrown into the reservoir, and distributed through the town. of a Visit to Greenville from Charleston in the Summer of 1825 (Continued)," by Caroline Olivia Laurens and Mrs. Louise C. King, The South Carolina Historical Magazine 72(3):164-173 (July, 1971) Page 165: May 28, 1825. About sunset we walked as far as Taylor's hill, the prospect from it was beautiful. A few yds. from the bottom of the hill was situated the steam engine for raising water to a large basin which was on the top of it, from whence it is conducted by means of leaden pipes to most of the yards in the town. of South Carolina: Including a View of Its Natural, Civil, and Military History, General and Particular, by Robert Mills Page 383: It behooves us to be careful of our wood lands, for we have no coal to substitute for fuel when the timber is gone. Page 706: Columbia is amply supplied with spring water, which is forced up by a steam power 120 feet, from springs issuing from a valley between the town and river. It is distributed through the principal streets in cast-iron pipes, and then conveyed to families from these main conduits, in leaden pipes. This is the work of our enterprising citizen, Col. Abraham Blanding. The steam engine is on Watt and Balton's plan, and was constructed by Messrs. Galloway and Bowman, of Manchester, England. It is of beautiful construction, and works with great ease and effect. The surplus power is applied to the grinding of wheat and Indian corn. Contiguous to the engine house are public baths, supplied with both hot and cold water from the engine. On thc other side of the valley is another bathing establishment, fed by a natural spring, rising near by. These baths prove a great luxury to the inhabitants, many of whom make use of them. Carolina State Gazette, August 25, 1827, Page 2. The Town Council will oblige many of the citizens by having the public wells put in order, or by making some arrangement with the proprietor of the Water Works, by which some notice may be given previous to the stopping of the water, which has been stopped this day, (and this not the only time by many,) six hours without any notice being given. It should be remembered, that those who have subscribed to this valuable work, have filled up their private well, and that they are bound in their contract with the owner of the Water Works, not to permit their neighbors to take water from the spouts; and when the water is stopped, we are obliged to go to those neighbors whom we have refused a pail of water, and beg them to supply us. This is the situation in which we are placed, when we cannot be supplied at the public wells--which is the case at all times, except in the summer months, and the time has arrived when even those months are neglected. Would not a few stop-cocks on the main street, remedy all the evil? A Citizen. August 23. 1828 City Gazette (Charleston, South Carolina) May 2, 1828, page 2. The Water Works of Columbia were begun in 1818, and finished in 1821. The water is collected from pure springs in a valley within the limits of the town, which is about ninety feet lower than the platform on which that beautiful place is built; these springs are conducted under ground to a reservoir in the centre of the valley; which is walled with granite and covered with a wooden roof; its capacity is 60,000 gallons. The springs now turned into it, fill it twice in twenty four hours; and should the town require it, the supply may he doubled from other springs in the same valley, which are not now used. By means of a twelve horse steam engine, the water is forced into the summit reservoir, elevated 120 feet above the valley, and about 50 feet above the general level of the town. This reservoir holds 250,000 gallons; it is a circle ninety feet in diameter and ten feet deep, enclosed with brick and covered with a wooden dome. From it, the water is conducted into every part o£ the town; this requires about twelve miles of metallic pipes, one half of which are cast iron for main, and the other half of lead, for service pipe; no wooden pipes have been used. The plans and execution of this work have been so perfect, that in seven years, during which time it has been in operation, the town has never been a day without water, and the repairs of the whole establishment have cost less than one hundred dollars a year. This work has been constructed by the funds of a single individual, and has cost about $55,000. 1835 Charleston Courier, July 8, 1835, page 3. Wanted, a Scientific and Practical Engineer, to take charge of and conduct the Columbia Water Works, lately purchased by the Corporation of the town from Col. A. Blanding. He will be required to produce with his application, property certificates of character and capability, and will be expected to give his whole time and attention to the employment. The salary agreed upon will be paid Quarterly, and as it will be expected of him to live on the premises, a comfortable House with all necessary out buildings will be furnished him. Applications stating the terms of the applicant, to be addressed to M. H. De Leon, Intendant of Columbia, Columbia, June 27. of Columbia from an accurate survey by Messrs. Arthur and Moore, about 1850. | also here This map shows the site of the water works in Sidney Park, including the engine house and the lot owned by the Town Council between Laurel and Richland that was probably the site of the first reservoir. 1853 "The Palmetto Armory," The Southern Agriculturalist :50 (February, 1853) Page 50: The main building of the Armory, on the South front, is three stories high, and 64 feet long, to which is attached a one story extension of 90 feet, giving a total length of 154 feet; and being located on Arsenal Hill, immediately crowning the valley in which is situated the City Water Works. 1855 An act to aid the city of Columbia in the construction of new water works, and for other purposes. December 19, 1855 1858 "Mary Blanding, Executrix vs. The Corporation of Columbia," Reports of Cases at Law and in Equity: Argued and Determined in the Court of Appeals and Court of Errors of South Carolina Ascension," Charleston Courier, October 15, 1859, Page 1. The canvas was stretched on Arsenal Hill, back of the reservoir or new water works. Sketches of the Bench and Bar of South Carolina, Volume 2 by John Belton O'Neall Page 236-244: Abram Blanding of the Fayetteville Observer," Fayetteville Semi-Weekly Observer (Fayetteville, North Carolina), March 19, 1863, Page 3. | part Columbia, S. C., March 14. The city is supplied with water from two excellent springs near the river. The water is forced by a steam engine into a large Reservoir on the Arsenal Hill -- the summit point of the city, and thence by pipes throughout the place -- the expense per family is very small. Fire-plugs are at every street-crossing. I noticed fountains in several of the private gardens -- shedding their pearly spray around and creating a most delicious coolness. The whole enterprise is a credit to the citizens of the city. 1865 "The Water Works," The Daily Phoenix (Columbia, South Carolina), June 28, 1865, Page It was whispered to us, a few days ago, that the Columbia Water Works were threatened with an abrupt stoppage of the water supply to the city, in consequence of the lack of fuel and other menus to carry on the usual operations. We are happy to assure our informant, on the authority of the Mayor that all this danger has passed; that fuel has been supplied, or will be supplied, under proper contracts, and that the present condition of the works exhibit equal performance and promise, giving us a guaranty of their continued supply and usefulness in any emergency. Still, citizens will do wisely to look to the condition of their wells and cisterns, especially after the late heavy rains. Visit to Columbia," Charleston Daily News, January 7, 1867, Wood Contractors," The Daily Phoenix (Columbia, South Carolina), December 19, 1868, Page 2. Proposals for furnishing the City Water Works with 500 Cords best Long Leaf Pine Wood. The contractor will be required to deliver 70 Cords per month. 1870 The Daily Phoenix (Columbia, South Carolina), August 25, 1870, Page 2 ARTICLES OF AGREEMENT, Made this twenty third day of August, A. D. 1870, by and between the City of Columbia, in the State of South Carolina, of the first part, and Samuel A. Pearce, Jr., of the said city, both for himself and as Trustee of William Sprague, of the State of Rhode Island, their heirs, executors and assigns, of the second part. Columbia Water-Works," The Charleston Daily News, July 23, 1872, Page 1. [From the Columbia Union.] A trip to where the work bas been progressing upon the Columbia water-works, discloses the fact that for a little stir much has been done. On the river bank, this side Geiger's mill, have been erected pretty and substantial buildings, required for the machinery, offices, &c; a turbine wheel bas been put in position, substantial masonry built, piers, supports, baius, &c, &c., one of the basins contains three hundred thousand gallons. Two lines of twelve-inch iron pipe are being rapidly laid, and the whole surroundings denote Industry aud enterprise. A large force ls required to do ail thia and the engineers, Major Mahan and Mr. Lowe, tbe latter a namesake of Colonel Lowe of the Blue Ridge Railroad, with their overseers, are on the spot constantly. At the foundry of Major Alexander the pipe ls being made now, and is nearly completed. Here, under the direction of one of Colonel Pearce's men, every section ls tested by a pressure of three hundred pounds to the inch. Tbe least little vent of spray causes the piece to be thrown aside, and many a fine looking section is thrown out. The whole business at tbe works and the canal is interesting, and worth the ride out there to see. Eye View of the City of Columbia, South Carolina Shows City Water Works (12) at southwest corner of Williams and Richmond, and City Reservoir (13) on Gates between Richland and Laurel 1873 "City Water," The Daily Phoenix (Columbia, South Carolina), June 27, 1873, Page The head spring that gushes forth its waters in Sidney Park is still at work. This was the first water used in the city. Tbe steam engine then used for the purpose of throwing this water up into the old reservoir was in tho park; the basin on the hill in front of Colonel Alexander Taylor's residence. In after years it was deemed necessary to enlarge the works. At this time the present distributing and receiving reservoirs were built; also,.a mach larger engine purchased. This was the first fatal mistake of oar city fathers. For at that time they ought to have erected water power instead of steam, and it would havo been famished to the city for that purpose for a trifle by the State in 1354. The engine party carried the day, and the works were placed in the steam mill lot, where they have always done good work, by supplying the city with pure water and plenty of it. The water in Sidney Park was economised and ran down to the basin in iron pipes; besides which the waters from several springs were conveyed to the same spot. Among them Rogers' spring, situated in the ravine near Messrs. Kind & Goldsmith's City Foundry, a bold gashing spring, if carefully hoarded, would supply half of tho city itself. With this bountiful supply, water was abundant for all city purposes at all seasons of the year. Tho hardest trial the works were ever subjected to,-was during the war. The city at that time was computed to contain about 20,000 inhabitants, eighteen stationary engines, large manufactories for the making of money, &c., one in particular, with two large fountains constantly playing night and day, in order to have a moist atmosphere; a Government distillery and laboratory, all of which were supplied from the City Water Works with pure spring water, and plenty of it. 1873 Columbia Water Power Company v. City of Columbia, 5 SC 225, South Carolina Supreme Court, November, 1873 act to authorize the canal commission to transfer and deliver to the board of directors of the South Carolina Penitentiary the property known as the Columbia Canal, with the lands held therewith and its appurtenances, and to develop the same. February 9, 1882. Sec 6. That the said Board of Directors are authorized to furnish to the city of Columbia, for the purpose of operating its water works and other purposes, five hundred horse power of water power. 1882 An act to provide for the payment of water used in the Public Institutions of the State Located in Columbia. February 9, 1882. 1884 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. February, 1884 recollections of a long life, 1806-1876, by Edwin J Scott Pages 69-70: Colonel Blanding, a Northern man by birth, married a daughter of Chancellor DeSaussure, and removed to this place from Camden. Though never mingling in politics, he was one of the most useful, enterprising and public-spirited citizens that ever lived in the State. As Superintendent of Public Works, he projected the opening of the Columbia Canal and similar improvements on the Broad and Catawba Rivers, as well as the State Road from Columbia to Charleston, which was of great service in facilitating intercourse between those places. He was the first President of the Commercial Bank of Columbia, and of the South-Western Railroad Bank in Charleston, the latter being intended to aid the so-called Charleston and Cincinnati Railroad, in which scheme he took an active and conspicuous part, but in his time the road never extended beyond Columbia. He also, with David Ewart, originated the Saluda Factory, the largest cotton manufacturing establishment then in the State. Of his own accord, and at his own expense, he established our water works, obtaining from the Legislature the passage of an Act authorizing the City Council to contract with him for their erection; and importing from England the engine, machinery and pipes for conveying water through our streets and supplying it to private houses and to the State institutions in the town, at a time when such a project was almost or quite unknown in the South. Under this contract the city conveyed to him that portion of Washington and Lady streets lying East of Pickens, with the square between them, extending to and including Henderson street from Washington to Lady, and the length of one acre beyond, which thus became private property. Before his removal to Charleston, in 1838, he sold the water works to the city authorities at, I think, less than they had cost him, (some $15,000,) on the condition that the principal should run for an indefinite period, provided the interest was paid quarterly or semiannually. Raging Rivers," The Times and Democrat (Orangeburg, South Carolina), May 27, 1886, Page 1. Disastrous Effects of the Flood in the State. Columbia's New Water-Works Completely Demolished. 1886 "The Columbia Water Works Blown to Atoms," The Intelligencer (Anderson, South Carolina), July 29, 1886, Page 2. 1888 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. March, 1888 1888 "Columbia," from Manual of American Water Works, Volume 1. 1890 "Columbia," from Manual of American Water Works, Volume 2. 1891 "Columbia," from Manual of American Water Works, Volume 3. 1893 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. July, 1893 1896 "Jewell Filter Plant in Columbia, S.C.." Engineering News, 35:356 (May 28, 1896) 1897 "Columbia," from Manual of American Water Works, Volume 4 1898 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. April, 1898. 1904 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. August, 1904. 1907 "Columbia Water Supply," Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association, 2:503 (January 1907) 1910 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. April, 1910. 1911 "Columbia Water Works," by John McNeal, from Municipal Journal & Public Works, 30(6):191-193 (February 8, 1911) 1919 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina. 1950 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina, Volume 1. May 1950 | Volume 1a | 1956 Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Columbia, Richland County, South Carolina, Volume 1. | Volume 1a | and Richland County: A South Carolina Community, 1740-1990, by John Hammond Moore Page 87: The town water system. This remarkable facility, the creation of Abraham Blanding, associate of Mills in the promotion of canals, gave Columbia one of the nation's most advanced schemes for the distribution of water to homes, businesses, and public buildings. In 1819, the town fathers concluded a contract with Blanding that required him to have functioning pipes in the central part of the community within two years and complete the project in four. By December 1820, Blanding had purchased an English-made, twelve-horse-power steam engine that the Columbia Telescope thought was "more like the movement of a celestial system than a human invention." Located at the base of Taylor's Hill, it was capable of pumping water from a lower reservoir to a much larger one at the crest of that elevation (now known as Arsenal Hill), the highest point in town. From there water was distributed underground by cast-iron and lead pipes. The entire system cost about $55,000, and until 1835–when Blanding sold out to the city–he was permitted to charge any rate he wishes so long as his annual revenue did not exceed 14 percent of th original investment. Blanding, a shrewd businessman, was able to use excess steam power to run two mills grinding wheat and corn, and contiguous to his engine house were public baths that, in the words of Robert Mills, "prove a great luxury to the inhabitants, many of whom make use of them." History of a Southern Capital, by Lynn Salsi Page 36: Blanding was aware that the citizens relied on wells for their water. In 1820, he personally financed the $75,000 cost to build a waterworks for the town. Water was pumped from a spring up to a wooden tank on Taylor's Hill using a Watt-type steam engine. He water then flowed by gravity to homes and businesses through cast iron and lead pipes. The project did not turn out to be profitable, so Blanding sold it to the city in 1835 for $25,000. A short time later, Walnut Street was renamed Blanding Street as a tribute to his farsightedness. Page 123: The city appointed a commission on waterworks in 1903 with Dr. J. W. Babcock as chairman. The commission developed a new waterworks powered by a waterwheel to pump water from the canal for treatment. It was completed in January 1907; parts of the original plant are still in use. The transformers for powering the plant's high srevice pumps were installed in 1906. Pump houses were constructed on the canal levee and used to pump up to 7 million gallons of water a day from the Broad and Saluda Rivers, seeming to provide Columbians with a limitless supply of water. A laboratory and control building constructed in 1913 were used until the 1970s. South Carolina: A History, by Alexia Jones Helsley In 1820, Colonel Abram Blanding developed Columbia's first waterworks. Blanding acquired a steam engine capable of pumping water from the base of Taylor's Hill to the eminence of Arsenal Hall. The water plant located in Seaboard Park (Sidney Park behind the post office) pumped water from the Congaree for public facilities, hotels and fire stations in Columbia's downtown. Blanding opened public baths at the plant and powered gristmills and flour mills with the steam. Later, in 1835, Blanding sold the system to the City of Columbia. Thanks to Allen Diggers for providing several additional references that are included above. © 2016 Morris A. Pierce

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Wheels of the World: How Recordings CHANGED IRISH TRADITIONAL MUSIC (Published with permission in “Wheels of the World: How Recordings of Irish Traditional Music Bridged the Gap Between Homeland and Diaspora.” Journal of the Society for American Music 4:4 (2010): 437-449.) In the past century, Irish and Irish American commercial recordings have had a major impact on Irish traditional music. Early U.S. wax cylinder and 78 rpm recordings were sent across the Atlantic, influencing the playing styles, performance practices, and repertoire in Ireland. More important, the multiple exchanges of music from a variety of geographic regions made vital a network of links between musicians in Ireland and across the diaspora, which has enabled a more global conception of the art form. Some of the recordings that first spurred this network featured fiddlers Paddy Killoran, James Morrison, and Michael Coleman; uilleann pipers Tom Ennis and Patsy Touhey; and flute player John McKenna. These influential musicians were recorded in the early twentieth century on the East Coast of the United States on both wax cylinder and 78 rpm records, which were distributed through both commercial and (to a much lesser extent) informal peer-to-peer networks.1 The recordings of these master musicians arrived in an Ireland immersed in a nationalistic folk revival, and quickly became coveted cultural commodities throughout Ireland and the diaspora. The global impact of these recordings brought the Irish diaspora into the continual negotiations among musicians over ideas of tradition and authenticity, and created a vibrant trade route of music, history, and cultural change. The idea that a form of traditional music has been commodified and exchanged is certainly not unprecedented: Irish music is an oral tradition that quickly incorporated and subsequently relied upon multiple forms of technology to span great geographic distance as players developed traditional performance practice and negotiated ideas of orality and authenticity. Considering that Ireland’s recent history of hardships, forced emigration, and nation building coincided perfectly with the dawn of the Recording Age, such an odd paradox between oral tradition and the technologic became quite necessary for the continuation of the tradition. Unlike other genres of music that have used recordings to recapture repertoire or style through secondary orality, these early recordings allowed those on the periphery of Irish music to act as vital cultural agents and engage with developments in the larger tradition through mediated oral dissemination. Irish Music in Wax: O’Neill, Touhey, and the First Transatlantic Swaps The first cross-Atlantic transfer of recorded Irish music originated with Francis O’Neill—Chief of the Chicago Police Department, Irish music enthusiast, and close friend of master uilleann piper Patsy Touhey. Touhey had often visited O’Neill in Chicago and had tested an Edison phonograph machine at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair while performing in the “Irish Village.”2 Living in New York in subsequent years, Touhey must have taken notice of the potential market for recordings of his playing, for on 18 May 1901, the following advertisement appeared in The Irish World: IRISH BAGPIPES ON THE PHONOGRAPH. ORIGINAL Phonograph Records of the Irish pipes made to order by the BEST IRISH PIPER IN AMERICA. ONE DOLLAR EACH. TEN DOLLARS per DOZEN. Send for catalogue of 150 Irish airs, Jigs, reels, hornpipes, etc. P. TOUHEY, 1388 Bristow Street, New York City.3 How many wax cylinder recordings Touhey cut through this method cannot be determined, but he apparently made them in his home on a machine purchased for just this purpose. Some of these cylinders are still in existence, held in the UCC Library of University College Cork and the Ward Irish Music Archives in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It is unclear whether Touhey himself shipped any of his own cylinder recordings to Ireland, but Capt. Francis O’Neill, a devoted fan of Touhey’s, sent a large quantity of these recordings to colleagues in Ireland. In a letter to William Halpin of County Clare, Capt. O’Neill wrote about one of his first musical parcels sent to Dr. Reverend Henebry in Waterford: As a Christmas present which was sure to be appreciated, I forwarded in 1907 to Rev. Dr. Henebry, at Waterford, Ireland, a box of Edison phonograph records which Sergeant Early generously permitted me to select from his treasures. Among them was The Shaskeen Reel played by Patrick Touhey.4 The above mentioned parcel marks one of the earliest instances of the trans- Atlantic exchange system. This underground network of musicians and enthusiasts traded audio recordings through lines of friendship and familial ties, usually surrounding patterns of regional musical interest or common instrument. Capt. O’Neill was one of the leading exponents of this systemin the early days, though his letters also mention receipt of cylinders and 78s from a friend in Ireland. Although these first recordings were produced in the home, rather than in the studio, this trend quickly changed as U.S. recording companies saw the potential market for such ethnic records. Recording Companies and the Ethnic Market In the early days of sound recording before the turn of the millennium, record companies were eager to sell big-ticket phonograph cabinets to the general public, often promoting the relatively inexpensive 78 rpm records as “loss leaders” toward such larger purchases. The market quickly took notice: In 1897, Edison Home Phonograph machines were selling for $40, and the year 1899 saw 151,000 phonographs manufactured in the United States.5 Initially, the industry focused on marketing these cabinets to the U.S. middle class, but as the industry tapped out this early market demographic, companies began to introduce improved versions of the gramophone designed to encourage owners to upgrade, while fresh attention was paid to creating new markets. By 1910 recording companies had noticed that the greatest potential for new gramophone sales was in ethnic neighborhoods,6 and by the 1920s the industry had turned a good deal of attention toward established immigrant communities: “Columbia was probably the first national American firm to consciously aim an elaborate ethnic catalogue at its foreign customers. Its 1906 catalogue offered musical records in twelve languages, and within three years the company had issued two additional sets of catalogues for immigrant audiences.”7 As can be seen in subsequent issues of the trade journal Talking Machine World, by the close of 1926 ethnic recording was fully established, and regional record distributors were being encouraged to market within immigrant communities: Few people are more interested in music and entertainment than those hardy foreign-born Americans who constitute so large a portion of the population of the average town or city, and . . . although they may live thriftily in many ways, music plays an important part in their lives and they spend annually large sums of money for this entertainment. Ordinary sales methods do not always reach this class of population. They group together and keep to their own language. Their purchasing of an article is oft-times stimulated by the experience of friends.8 Columbia, in particular, was quick to tout successes in the Irish community, particularly in urban centers on the East Coast: The company is quick to release hits and it has just issued a remarkable Irish and French catalogue. . . . It is no wonder that the company is adding new accounts each week to its list of Columbia dealers. New England’s own Irish entertainer, Shaun O’Nolan, has just approved the test records of six of the recordings that he recently made at the New York laboratory. These records will shortly be released. Twenty-five new dealers now carry the complete Irish catalogue.9 The age of ethnic music recordings had arrived, just as Irish America was striving to throw off the stigma of recent immigration and establish itself as middle class. Eastern European communities in the United States had proven quite lucrative for the record companies as they marketed to cultural pride. Not lacking such pride, the Irish community was clamoring for records of its own music. Ellen O Byrne, a native of County Leitrim, may have provided the final push to bring the recording companies to the Irish market. O Byrne had opened a store in New York City in 1900 at 1398 Third Avenue.10 She stocked the shelves with—among other things—musical instruments and recordings of Irish musicians such as legendary operatic tenor John McCormack (1884–1945). Irish music was in great demand, yet there were very few records available and no instrumental music. The store had stocked early Edison wax cylinders (by lackluster piper James McAuliffe and others) and Gennett 78 rpm records, but they were always in short supply. In an interview with Mick Moloney, Ellen’s son, Justus O’Byrne DeWitt, explained the situation with recordings of Irish-themed songs: “The Gennett company was willing to make records for anybody at that time while some of the other companies weren’t. . . . Now when Gennett stopped making Irish records, my family was at a loss for new Irish records.”11 With her customary entrepreneurial spirit, Ellen O Byrne became the driving force behind the first major label’s recording of instrumental Irish musicians. Her son explains: Irish people were always coming in and asking for old favorites like “The Stack of Barley.” Well, she’d no records to give them because there weren’t any. So she sent me up to Gaelic Park in the Bronx to find some musicians. There was always music there on Sundays. Well, I found Eddie Herborn and John [James] Wheeler playing banjo and accordion, and they sounded great. So my mother went to Columbia, and they said that if she would agree to buy five hundred copies from them they would record Herborn and Wheeler. She agreed, and they both recorded “The Stack of Barley,” and the five hundred records sold out in no time at all.12 Herborn and Wheeler were recorded on 15 September 1916 in New York, and, as agreed, Columbia pressed five hundred copies for Ellen O Byrne.13 This first pressing marked the beginning of an era in which Irish instrumental musicians in the United States were being recorded, and in which the resulting 78 rpm discs, and the more expensive cabinets and players, could be marketed to Irish American communities. The next few years produced a few very influential records, including those by Tom Ennis (Victor, 1917) and P. J. Conlon (Columbia, 1917).14 After a few dozen Irish pressings, the Okeh recording label was the first to dedicate a portion of its record numbering matrix to an Irish series, their 21000 series. Columbia followed in 1925 with its 33000-F series; Victor dedicated its V-29000 series to Irish music in 1929, and Decca later established its 12000 series.15 As the various recording companies began to develop their ethnic markets, talent scouts would take the opposite approach to that of Ellen O Byrne, who had recruited musicians solely based on ability. Instead, record companies recruited popular instrumentalists with a proven reputation in the dance halls and on the concert stage. Fortunately, the standard of musicianship in the dance halls was tremendously high, and the performers recorded were usually (but not always) at the higher levels of the tradition. By the 1920s, the recording companies had proved that Irish music would sell. By far the most popular recordings were songs on Irish themes sung in English. John McCormack had become a household name for his recordings of “Mother Machree” and “Kathleen Mavourneen” and is often said to have been the first million-record seller. German American accordionist John Kimmel had recorded a number of Irish tunes for Zonophone in 1904 and 190516 and for Victor Talking Machine Company in 1907,17 and O Byrne had convinced Columbia to record Herborn and Wheeler in 1916. After having rejected at least one offer, piper Patsy Touhey finally signed with Victor and recorded his first record in New York in 1919. The 78 was released in 1920 and advertised in the February issue of the Victor Records supplement as “one of the historic performers” of the “old traditional Irish minstrel tunes”.18 After these initial pressings, a wide variety of labels began releasing Irish instrumental recordings. According to S. C.Hamilton, “There were around 40 companies that released recordings of Irish music between 1899 and 1942. As the three major producers, around 40% of total releases were for Columbia, 18% for Decca, and 16% for Victor.”19 Of these releases, 47.7 percent were songs, and 53.3 percent were instrumental.20 For perspective, sales figures in the larger U.S. market had been increasing each year, especially in the postwar years, until the Depression: Roughly three million cylinders and discs were sold in 1900, which increased to 140 million in 1921.21 Phonograph production also increased dramatically over these years. The year 1909 saw the production in the United States of 345,000 gramophones; 514,000 were produced in 1914 and 2,230,000 in 1919!22 Reception in Ireland A number of major social and political movements collided in the first decades of the twentieth century to allow Irish recordings a chance to flourish and become essential to a dialogue about traditional music on both sides of the Atlantic. Hibernian politics saw the formation of the Gaelic League in the late nineteenth century, the 1916 Easter Uprising, and the creation of the Irish Free State in 1921. Post-Famine emigrants from Ireland had prospered in the United States in the late nineteenth century. Economic success, ethnic pride, continuing immigration, and a strong sense of community spurred an early-twentieth-century boom in Irish American dance halls—a period later called the “Golden Age” of Irish American music and dance. The advances in recording technology, the number of recording studios in the New York City area, and the push by recording companies to tap ethnic markets facilitated widespread recording of these musicians and a resurgence of interest in Irish folk music. Finally, with economic security, nationalist pride, and aspirations for middle-class status and its trappings, Irish Americans were hungry for records of their own music: The boom economy of the 1920s in America meant disposable income to purchase records and an increased interest in music. A new invention, the windup gramophone, became omnipresent in households in both America and Ireland. It seemed that every Irish household, no matter how poor, had a gramophone and a collection of 78 rpm records of Irish music, which was being recorded almost exclusively in America at the time.23 The new leap in recording technology and the U.S. commercialization of Irish ethnic recordings helped to spur simultaneous musical revivals in Irish communities on both sides of the Atlantic. Irish musicians in the United States had the potential to make an impact on the tradition precisely because supply and demand were strongly in their favor. Inspired by the Gaelic League, Ireland was searching for authenticity and forgotten pre-Famine Gaelic culture, and the U.S. Irish musicians were reveling in a “Golden Age” of both Irish dance and recording technology. Most importantly, the Irish musicians in the United States were virtually the only ones recording. As fiddler James Kelly has said, “The early recordings were coming into Ireland from the States and the musicians who were making those recordings were becoming influential because they were making recordings—no one had made them before.”24 Accounts of musicians in Ireland encountering recordings of traditional Irish musicians from the United States abound. In an interview with Harry Bradshaw, Tommy Gilmartin recounted that the 78 rpm recordings of flute player John McKenna made a tremendous impact when they filtered back home. Around his native area, no matter what the cost, if you were to sell the last cow, you’d buy one of his records at the time. If you were to be without a meal a day, you’d have got the record in preference to anything else. And then there might be a local gramophone about—and maybe not very many at the time either. That house would be full to capacity that night because John McKenna’s record had arrived new that day. And there would be no work done that day in the area till it be heard, or there would get no contentment in it till it would be heard. That was the atmosphere that existed, that’s what went on.25 James Kelly has also described the excitement generated when a new recording would arrive in rural Ireland: A family in the locality might have an old gramophone player, and when some of the 78 records would come from the States, it was like going to Disneyland! People would get together at whoever’s house it would be and they’d listen to this record over and over and over again. It was a great time for excitement, you know. So that was going on when the early recordings were coming into Ireland from the States.26 Some recordings proved to be most notable, particularly in the regions from which the recorded musician had originated. An early Columbia recording credited as Irish Bagpipes, Violin and Piano hit the jackpot and captured the hearts of a whole generation. Black Rogue/Saddle the Pony and Londonderry Hornpipe, credited anonymously as Trio: Irish Bagpipes, Violin and Piano, is said, rather wildly, to have been in every country cottage in Ireland, and it is also said that so many people asked at the record shops, the company was forced to reverse its normal policy and name the artists: Ennis, Morrison and Muller. It soon got around that this was Jimmy Morrison, the schoolteacher from County Sligo, who had left for America only a short time before.27 Fiddler John Vesey, in an interview with Mick Moloney, mentioned that he learned a sizeable portion of his early repertoire and style from early Irish American records. As a child in 1936 he was learning fiddle from Michael Gorman, but he supplemented his studies with Irish American records purchased on trips to Tubercurry to sell turf with his father. He mentioned that on each of these trips he would be allowed to buy a record to play on the family’s wind-up gramophone and managed to find records by Coleman, Killoran, James Morrison, and Paddy Sweeney.28 As stated in many publications on Irish music, these early records had a major impact on Irish traditional music in both the United States and Ireland. The artists with the greatest reach—Coleman, Killoran, Morrison, McKenna, Ennis, and Touhey—may have had such influence precisely because they were the first to record, and their records were among the first to arrive in Ireland. Even though these records came over solely by individual agency in the early years, they became quite prevalent in Ireland, even in the rural areas. Reg Hall remembers that I was told by one musician who would have been 80+now that Ennis Morrison and Muller’s Saddle the Pony/Black Rogue and Liverpool Hornpipe on Regal reissued from American Columbia was in every cottage around his home in Co. Offaly, which is, of course, a gross exaggeration as few people had gramophones. However, it was issued here anonymously as “Irish Pipes, Violin & Piano,” though later pressings gave the artists’ names.29 One of the areas in which these recordings had the greatest impact was on regional style. Seamus Connolly, renowned fiddle player and Sullivan Artist in Residence at Boston College, mentioned in an interview with Mick Moloney in 2004 that he first heard of Michael Coleman from his father, a bargeman on the river Shannon. He mentioned that his father brought him a recording of Coleman when he was ten, and the impact of his “lonesome” sound drove him to tears and profoundly influenced his playing style.30 Harry Bradshaw has written about the records made by Michael Coleman, mentioning in particular the effect they had on performance practice: Coleman’s records are now regarded as classics of their kind and are among the finest examples of recorded folk music in the early twentieth Century. His style and repertoire were learnt and reproduced credibly by better players. Listened to all over the country, his articulation, phrasing, bowing and dynamics became a “standard” style.31 Many would argue that as the predominance of recorded fiddlers were from County Sligo—a distinct Sligo style became dominant among fiddlers around the world. Even today in New York City, most native New York fiddle players still carry aspects of a Sligo style introduced in these early recordings. (This trend may also have to do with the fact that Coleman’s New York students included local legends Andy McGann and Paddy Reynolds, who taught New Yorkers Tony DeMarco and Brian Conway, who taught Patrick Mangan.) The exuberance and virtuosity in these recordings is breathtaking and can be heard today in the playing of fiddlers across the United States and around the world. Another subtle change in Irish music that seems to have resulted from the impact of early recordings is that of orchestration. Before the advent of recording, dance music had been played in unison on melody instruments. With the spatial, tonal, and harmonic constraints of the pre-electric Edison and Victor recording horns, most Irish music cylinders featured either a small grouping of one to three players, or full dance orchestras. Vocal music was usually limited to high tenor voices with brass and piano accompaniment, as these sonorities were captured best by the recording horn in the days before microphones. Studios would often ask accompanists to sit in on Irish recording sessions (often with disastrous results), resulting in many recordings with piano or even brass instruments. Groups such as Dan Sullivan’s Shamrock Band, the Flanagan Brothers, or The Pride of Erin Orchestra would record traditional tunes with large, multilayered orchestrations. As these recordings circulated around the United States and over to Ireland, other musicians or groups began to imitate these instruments and sonorities, resulting in increased solo performance and layered dance bands, often with chordal accompaniment. Of course, one of the major impacts on traditional music came from the format of the 78 itself. By 1915, the industry standard for 78 rpm records was a three-minute, twenty-second blank. With this strict limitation on the duration of music, the Irish musicians had to tailor their music to the media. The repertoire was customarily played with a tune having two repeated sections (AABB), reiterated a number of times for dancers. Unlike the two-minute single-tune wax cylinders of previous decades, other tunes were added in the recording studio while recording 78s to make a medley set. Played at a good clip, a set of tunes could be performed in just about three minutes—perfect for the 78 rpm record. Harry Bradshaw, writing on the impact of Michael Coleman’s recordings, has described the lasting impact of aspects of these influential recordings—especially the strict time format: Through his prowess he exercised direction on repertoire too; the effects of this can be heard today in that some of his particular combinations in tune sets are still being played. Indeed, his . . . medium of the 78 rpm record itself has determined the duration of sets of tunes to this day: players still stick to the three-tune “track” which would fill one “side” on a standard 78.32 The three-tune set presentation is still strongly present in informal music sessions across the United States and is a direct reflection of the standard set by these 78s. Mick Moloney noted this trend when interviewing musicians in Chicago, finding that many of the tunes in the area had been learned from these early recordings: The influence of the recordings in America can be illustrated by an afternoon of music I recorded in Chicago in 1977, by fiddler Johnny McGreevy and uilleann piper Joe Shannon. At the end of the session I asked both men where they learned the tunes they had been playing. No fewer than 75 percent of the tunes, it turned out, had been learned from 78 rpm recordings. In addition, their playing style was very closely modeled on that of the musicians whose recordings they had listened to. Joe, who was born in Ireland and came to Chicago at the age of nineteen, learned to play by listening to the Victor releases of Patsy Touhey. He would shut himself in a room alone for hours trying to figure out exactly what Touhey was doing on the pipes.33 The commonly repeated phrase “These early 78 rpm records made their way to Ireland and had a profound effect upon the tradition” simplifies a very intricate musical exchange route during a formative time in Irish traditional music, and an ongoing sophisticated conception of the larger tradition. These early systems of commercial and subcommercial musical exchange and the dialogues surrounding these exchanges seem to be the start of the system we still see in operation today in the Irish diaspora. As the recordings bridged gaps between far-flung musicians and communities, the tradition was influenced in the realms of repertoire, individual style, regional playing style, and performance practice. The limitations of the media instituted a shift in arrangement and accompaniment, and the tangible recording morphed the function of the music from simply driving cospatial dance events to temporal and exchangeable cultural commodities. The lasting impact of these early recordings is that they facilitated a reconceptualization of Irish traditional music as a cross- Atlantic phenomenon, allowing agents from the periphery to engage actively with the core of the tradition. Bradshaw, Harry. “Michael Coleman.” In The Companion to Traditional Irish Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, 75. Cork: Cork University Press, 1999. Bradshaw, Harry, and Jackie Small. “Leitrim’s Master of the Concert Flute.” Musical Traditions Magazine 7 (1987): 9–14. Conlon, Peter J. “The Wind That Shakes the Barley” and “The Humors of the Whiskey.” Columbia E3896. Recorded November 1917. Engle, Tony, and Reg Hall. Liner notes to James Morrison and Tom Ennis. Topic Records 127390, 1980. Ennis, Tom. “Murphy’s Hornpipe, Londonderry Clog, MacNamara Hornpipe.” Victor 18366. Recorded 17 April 1917. Ennis, Tom. “Three Little Drummers, Connaughtman’s Rambles, The Joy of My Life, Nancy Hynes, Kerrigan’s Jig.” Victor 18286. Recorded 17 April 1917. Gedutis, Susan. See You at the Hall: Boston’s Golden Era of Irish Music and Dance. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2004. Greene, Victor. A Passion for Polka: Old-Time Ethnic Music in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Gronow, Pekka. “The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium.” Popular Music 3 (1983): 53–75. Hernborn, Edward, and James Wheeler. “The Maid Behind the Bar-Reel” and “The Rambler’s Jig” Columbia A2147.Recorded 15 September 1916. The Irish World, 18 May 1901. Mitchell, Pat, and Jackie Small. The Piping of Patsy Touhey. Dublin: Na P´ıobair´ı Uilleann, 1986. Moloney, Mick. “Irish Ethnic Recordings and the Irish-American Imagination.” In Ethnic Recordings in America: A Neglected Heritage, ed. Richard Spottswood, 85–102.Washington, D.C.: American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1982. Moloney, Mick. “Irish Music in America: Continuity and Change.” Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1992. N´ı Fuarth´ain, M´eabh. “O’Byrne DeWitt and Copley Records: A Window on Irish Music Recording in the U.S.A., 1900 to 1965.” M.A. thesis, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, 1993. Payer, Hollis. “Irish Fiddler James Kelly: A Matter of Tradition.” Fiddler Magazine 4/4 (Winter 1997/1998): 21–29. Spencer, Scott. “Early Irish-American Recordings and Atlantic Musical Migrations.” In The Irish in the Atlantic World, ed. David Gleeson, 53–75. Charleston: University of South Carolina Press, 2010. Spottswood, Richard, and Philippe Varlet. Liner notes to From Galway to Dublin: Early Recordings of Traditional Irish Music. Rounder Records 1087, 1993. Talking Machine World (1926). Trew, Johanne. “Treasures from the Attic: Viva Voce Records.” Journal of American Folklore 113/449 (Summer 2000): 305–14.1 For a detailed look into the means by which these recordings migrated, see Scott Spencer, “Early Irish-American Recordings and Atlantic Musical Migrations,” in The Irish in the Atlantic World, ed. David Gleeson (Charleston: University of South Carolina Press, 2010), 53–75. 2 Pat Mitchell and Jackie Small, The Piping of Patsy Touhey (Dublin: Na P´ıobair´ı Uilleann, 1986), 3 The Irish World, 18 May 1901, 8. 4 Mitchell and Small, Patsy Touhey, 10. Republished in An P´ıobaire 16/17 (1974), 5–6. The name of the recipient of the letter is taken from Mitchell and Small, as it is not noted in An P´ıobaire. The letter is not dated in either publication, but can be cross-referenced to late 1911 or early 1912. 5 Pekka Gronow, “The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium,” Popular Music 3 (1983): 54–55. 6 Early trade publications by Columbia and Victor also detail lucrative targeted recordings of Eastern European, Chinese, and Egyptian music. Recordings of African American musical forms and jazz records followed. 7 Victor Greene, A Passion for Polka: Old-Time Ethnic Music in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 73. 8 Talking Machine World (1926), 7–8. Courtesy of the Library of Congress. 9 Ibid., 96. 10 M´eabhN´ı Fuarth´ain, “O’ByrneDeWitt and Copley Records: AWindow on IrishMusic Recording in the U.S.A., 1900 to 1965” (M.A. thesis, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, 1993), 56; personal communication with Harry Bradshaw, 2 September 2007. (Ellen O Byrne used the Irish spelling without an apostrophe, cited with an apostrophe throughout Ni Fuarth´ain’s thesis. Ellen’s son, Justus O’Byrne DeWitt, embraced the Americanized version with the apostrophe.) 11 Mick Moloney, “Irish Ethnic Recordings and the Irish-American Imagination,” in Ethnic Recordings in America: A Neglected Heritage, ed. Richard Spottswood (Washington, D.C.: American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1982), 522. 12 Spencer, “Early Irish-American Recordings,” 55–56. This quotation comes from an interview with Justus O’Byrne DeWitt, taped by Mick Moloney, 4 April 1977, Mick Moloney Archives of Irish Music and Popular Culture, Bobst Library, New York University. See also N´ı Fuarth´ain, “O’Byrne DeWitt,” 57–58, and Greene, A Passion for Polka. 13 N´ı Fuarth´ain, “O’Byrne DeWitt,” 58; personal communication with Harry Bradshaw, 2 September 2007.Herbarn and Wheeler, Columbia A2147. 14 Ennis, Victor 18286, Victor 18366; Conlon, Columbia 3896. 15 Richard Spottswood and Philippe Varlet, liner notes to From Galway to Dublin: Early Recordings of Traditional Irish Music, Rounder Records 1087, 1986. 16 Personal communication with Philippe Varlet, 28 February 2008. 17 N´ı Fuarth´ain, “O’Byrne DeWitt,” 56. 18 Mitchell and Small, Patsy Touhey, 10. 19 Johanne Trew, “Treasures from the Attic: Viva Voce Records,” Journal of American Folklore 113/449 (Summer 2000): 305. 20 Ibid., 306. 21 Gronow, “Record Industry,” 59. The first figure is quoted by Gronowfrom Tim Brooks, “Review of Murrells’ The Book of Golden Discs,” Antique Phonograph Monthly 5/2 (1977): 8–13. 22 Ibid. Quoted by Gronow, originally appearing in the U.S. Bureau of Census 1975, 696. 23 Susan Gedutis, See You at the Hall: Boston’s Golden Era of Irish Music and Dance (Boston: 24 Hollis Payer, “Irish Fiddler James Kelly: A Matter of Tradition,” Fiddler Magazine 4/4 (Winter 1997/1998): 26. 25 Harry Bradshaw and Jackie Small, “Leitrim’s Master of the Concert Flute,” Musical Traditions Magazine 7 (1987): 11. 26 Payer, “James Kelly.” 27 Tony Engle and Reg Hall, liner notes to James Morrison and Tom Ennis, Topic Records 127390, 1980. Thanks to Philippe Varlet for the correct label information: Columbia Records, 1923. Personal communication with Philippe Varlet, 28 February 2008. 28 Recorded interview of John Vesey, interviewed by Mick Moloney, 8 January 1977. 29 Personal correspondence with Reg Hall, 20 December 2006. 30 Recorded interview of Seamus Connolly, interviewed by Mick Moloney, 7 December 2004, Mick Moloney Archives of Irish Music and Popular Culture, Bobst Library, New York University. 31 Harry Bradshaw, “Michael Coleman,” in The Companion to Traditional Irish Music, ed. Fintan Vallely, (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999), 75. 32 Ibid. 33 Moloney, “Irish Music in America,” Ph.D. diss., university of Pennsylvania, 1992, 92.

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Source of book: Borrowed from the library March was Women’s History Month. Last year, I read Dorothy Sayers’ excellent duo of essays, Are Women Human?, reviewed here. For 2015, I read Mary Wollstonecraft’s seminal feminist work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. This year, I decided to go with the book that is widely considered the most important book written at the dawn of the first wave of feminism. Published in 1792, it was intended in large part to be a response to Charles Talleyrand's report to the French legislature in which he recommended that women be educated only in domestic pursuits. Wollstonecraft also took on popular “conduct manuals” of the day, which advised women in the art “femininity;” and directed special attention to Rousseau, who went as far as to say that women should be educated in a way that makes them pleasing to men. When it was first published, it actually was received positively. However, after she died giving birth to Mary Shelley, the future author of Frankenstein, her husband, William Godwin, made the terrible mistake of writing a biography of her life, and revealing a bit too much of her sexual history. For society of that time, her child out of wedlock and other love affairs (prior to her marriage) were sufficiently unthinkable that her argument was then dismissed summarily, and she became a bit of a byword as to the end result of feminist philosophy. Actually, this still persists today in the claim in some circles that “feminism”™ is about encouraging women to be promiscuous. Eventually, Wollstonecraft’s book regained its reputation, and its place in the canon of important and influential books. While she argued for full education, property and political rights for women, it was not until nearly a century later, in 1882, that England finally passed the Married Women’s Property Act, allowing married women to own and manage their own property, rather than passing that ownership and control to their husbands upon marriage. It was not until even later than that that women were permitted to vote and hold office. At the time, women sacrificed their very personhood - legally speaking - upon marriage, as William Blackstone noted: “By marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law: that is, the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage, or at least is incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband: under whose wing, protection, and cover, she performs everything.” Wollstonecraft was a product of the Enlightenment, and naturally founds her argument on reason. Namely, the necessity of reason in order to attain virtue. As she argues, mere blind obedience isn’t virtue, and one not trained in the exercise of reason and logic cannot truly formulate a virtuous course of action. In contrast, Talleyrand and Rousseau argued that, while men should be trained in logic and reason, women should be taught “manners,” “grace,” and the art of “beauty.” And, of course, a key part of that was that women should be pleasing and obedient to men. Wollstonecraft argued that: “This is only keeping them in rank and file, it is true. Strengthen the female mind by enlarging it, and there will be an end to blind obedience; but, as blind obedience is ever sought for by power, tyrants and sensualists [that is, libertines] are in the right when they endeavour to keep women in the dark, because the former only want slaves, and the latter a play-thing.” It wasn’t just cultivation of the mind that Wollstonecraft believed would aid women. She also believed - contrary to the popular belief at the time - that women needed physical exercise. Dr. Fordyce ( a preacher and writer who is quoted at length throughout the book) wrote in published sermon the following regarding exercise by females: “Let it be observed that in your sex manly exercises are never graceful; that in them a tone and figure, as well as an air and deportment, of the masculine kind, are always forbidding; and that men of sensibility desire in every woman soft features, and a flowing voice, a form, not robust, and demeanor delicate and gentle.” Wollstonecraft rejoins that this stereotype of frail and weak women would disappear “if girls were allowed to take sufficient exercise, and not confined to close rooms till their muscles are relaxed and their powers of digestion destroyed.” “To carry the remark still further, if fear in girls instead of being cherished, perhaps, created, were treated in the same manner as cowardice in boys, we should quickly see women with more dignified aspects. It is true, the could not then with equal propriety be termed the sweet flowers that smile in the walk of man; but they would be more respectable members of society, and discharge the important duties of life by the light of their own reason.” I was struck by a desire to transport Wollstonecraft to the Twenty-first Century, and introduce her to my daughters, full of courage, strength, and intelligence - and to my wife, and to millions of other women who bring their courage, wisdom, and strength to bear in our society. I would love for her to see athletes like Serena Williams and Mia Hamm. I would like her to see the many women who lead at the national level around the world. And I would love her to see the judges and lawyers working for justice in our legal communities. It is hard to overstate this point. For those opposed to the full humanity and equality of women, strength of body and mind is a real threat, and makes women unfeminine and therefore undesirable. It think Wollstonecraft makes a good point, however, that the basis of a good relationship between men and women isn’t some “romantic” sort of “fondness,” by which she (and others of her time) meant protectiveness, pity, and - she argues - condescension, combined with sex appeal. Rather, as she puts it, a long lasting relationship must be founded on mutual respect and friendship, which can only be between intellectual equals. “Fondness is a poor substitute for friendship!” As a man in a truly companionate marriage, to someone I respect and admire, I feel truer words have never been spoken. Equality, strength of mind and body, courage, and a dedication to do the right thing are not “masculine” traits after all, and their abundance in a woman does not diminish her “femininity” in the slightest. As Wollstonecraft puts in perhaps the best line of the book: “I know that libertines will also exclaim, that woman would be unsexed by acquiring strength of body and mind, and that beauty, soft bewitching beauty! would no longer adorn the daughters of men. I am of a very different opinion, for I think that, on the contrary, we should then see dignified beauty, and true grace; to produce which, many powerful physical and moral causes would concur. - Not relaxed beauty, it is true, or the graces of helplessness; but such as appears to make us respect the human body as a majestic pile fit to receive a noble inhabitant, in the relics of antiquity.” Although this book doesn’t go as far as later works would in advocating for the full “political, social, and economic equality” of women; (That’s the dictionary definition of “feminism.”) it does stand for the proposition that we are morally equal, and equally responsible for our own actions; and that, thus, both men and women should be given the tools of reason and education to fulfil that moral responsibility. As Wollstonecraft puts in regarding the fear that women who give up their power of “feminine” manipulation give up their power to control men, “‘Educate women like men,’ says Rousseau, ‘and the more they resemble our sex the less power they will have over us.’ This is the very point I aim at. I do not wish them to have power over men; but over themselves.” Note on the language and style: This book does suffer from some of the stylistic challenges of the era. I am pretty darn good at reading old books, but the language and rhetorical style did slow me down a bit. Wollstonecraft uses an interesting combination of styles. In part, she uses the high rhetorical style, full of logic and other “masculine” signifiers. At other times, she appeals to “sensibility,” which we may consider to be a combination of “emotion” and “female intuition” as we use those terms today. Thus, some parts read very much like a man would write to other men. Other parts are either a more typical “female” style or the way that a man would write to a female, considering her more sensitive to emotional appeal and less amenable to logic. It is an interesting combination. I suspect that Wollstonecraft intended to write to both genders, and thus chose a hybrid style that would speak to both the way they were accustomed to be addressed. Note on the main sources of quotes: Wollstonecraft quotes several contemporary authors and then proceeds to eviscerate their arguments. The most prominent is Rousseau. I’m not much of a Rousseau fan. He falls, for me, in the same category as Sartre, for being personally loathsome and for perpetrating pernicious ideas. Not that they couldn’t be right some of the time, but that enough of what they said was harmful that the good was too hard to pick out. Rousseau’s personal life showed a great disrespect for women and a serious narcissistic streak, while his writings often seem to lose touch with reality. His idea of the “noble savage” has aged particularly badly in retrospect. Contrary to his belief, societies “untainted” by modern technology, government, and ideas were no utopias, but tended rather to be hotbeds of misogyny, violence, and savagery. Not that modernity is great shakes, but more that humans always have been breathtakingly violent and destructive to each other. Sad fact. The others are also interesting. I already mentioned Dr. Fordyce, the preacher who published a series of sermons on proper “feminine” behavior, and Tallyrand, with his proposal to limit the education of women by force of law. Another was Dr. Gregory, who wrote an open letter to his daughters on how they should act. All these show the ingrained beliefs of the time, particularly in Anglo-European society. Although Wollstonecraft is skilled in her rebuttals, the most striking thing about the extended quotes of these authors is just how sure they were that women were congenitally inferior, and that a certain detailed set of behaviors was necessary to be a “true woman.” To our modern ears, these ideas are beyond ludicrous. They are offensive and demeaning. At the time, however, they were unfortunately accepted by all too many as the way the world was. Time and feminism have proven them wrong, of course. Women are not the intellectual inferiors of men. Then can and do participate in the political process, and serve in office with the same distinction as men. (Sometimes better, for that matter.) They can and do participate in athletic pursuits, and the best of them can kick the butts of the vast majority of men. (Let’s say I have plenty of personal experience in that.) I think that, therefore, the most powerful part of this book to me, was the horrid quotes. And here is why: Note on Christian Patriarchy and Gender Essentialism: I remember that the curriculum I learned from as a high schooler, which was somewhat Fundamentalist oriented, had nothing good to say about Rousseau. I’m not sure I really disagree with that assessment, as I noted above. For every good line, I find he has ten wince-worthy ones. I was struck by this fact as I read through all of the quotes from Rousseau’s Émile: The view of womanhood prevalent in the Christian Patriarchy movement - and indeed in far too much of mainstream Evangelicalism, with their worship of a certain view of “femininity” doesn’t actually come from the Bible. It comes from: Jean-Jacques F-ing Rousseau. I was a bit shocked to see that pretty much the majority of Doug Phillips’ “Tenets of Biblical Patriarchy” and the whole cloth of the teachings of others of his ilk could be found in Rousseau’s paean to his vision of “femininity” in Émile. I kid you not. From female submission, to “modesty” culture, to the idea that woman was created to serve man, to the idea that women trade sex for economic security from men and thus should learn to withhold sexual favors from their husbands, to the segregation of the genders, to the prohibition of exercise (see, Piper, John), to the idea that women should cultivate a “mild disposition,” to the idea that women should be focused on being “pretty,” to the truly evil teaching that a woman should obey her husband in matters of faith. Let me hit some highlights lowlights. “For this reason, the education of women should be always to relative to the men. To please us, to be useful to us, to educate us when we are young, and take care of us when grown up, to advise, to console us, to render our lives easy and agreeable: these are the duties of women at all times, and what they should be taught in their infancy. So long as we fail to recur to this principle, we run wide of the mark, and all the precepts which are given them contribute neither to their happiness nor our own.” “Girls are from their earliest infancy fond of dress. Not content with being pretty, they are desirous of being thought so...they are hardly capable of understanding what is said to them, before they are governed by talking to them of what people will think of their behavior.” (Related is Dr. Gregory’s admonition to cultivate a fondness for dress in women.) “Woman and man were made for each other; but their mutual dependence is not the same. The men depend on the women only on account of their desires; the women on the men both on account of their desires and their necessities: we could subsist better without them than they without us.” “[W]omen have, or ought to have, but little liberty; they are apt to indulge themselves excessively in what is allowed them.” “There results from this habitual restraint a tractableness which women have occasion for during their whole lives, as they constantly remain either under subjection to the men, or to the opinions of mankind; and are never permitted to set themselves above those opinions. The first and most important qualification in a woman is good-nature or sweetness of temper: formed to obey a being so imperfect as man, often full of vices, and always full of faults, she ought to learn betimes even to suffer injustice, and to bear the insults of a husband without complaint; it is not for his sake, but her own, that she should be of a mild disposition.” “[For a woman,] reputation is no less indispensable than chastity. A man secure in his own good conduct, depends only on himself, and may brave the public opinion: but a woman, in behaving well, performs but half her duty; as what is thought of her, is as important to her as what she really is. It follows hence, that the system of a woman’s education should, in this respect, be directly contrary to that of ours. Opinion is the grave of virtue amount the men; but its throne among women.” There are similar sentiments regarding the need for women to avoid opinions of their own, defer to men, serve, men, and the whole pile of horseshit served up by Doug Phillips, John Piper, Doug Wilson, Bill Gothard, Jonathan Lindvall, Kevin Swanson, and so many others. The whole thing is straight out of Rousseau! Oh, and then there is this gem. I remember Gothard teaching that since women are to be absolutely subject to men, that the man gets to pick the spiritual direction of the family. The woman can only “disobey” if he commands her to do something that she believes is a positive sin. Could THIS idea come from Rousseau as well? “As the conduct of a woman is subservient to the public opinion, her faith in matters of religion should, for that very reason, be subject to authority. [Gothard code word noted.] Every daughter ought to be of the same religion as her mother, and every wife to be of the same religion as her husband: for though such religion should be false, that docility which induces the mother and daughter to submit to the order of nature, takes away, in the sight of God, the criminality of their error.” Holy f-ing crap. This is EXACTLY the horseshit that Gothard taught. God would judge women (and children - minors or adults) not on whether they did the right thing, but whether they obeyed their “authorities.” God would judge the authority - that is, the man - for the error. But all the woman or child was required to do was obey. And Gothard and so many others - even within more mainstream Evangelicalism - teach this horseshit. Which comes, not from the Bible, but from Jean Jacques F-ing Rousseau. Good lord! Perhaps, though, Wollstonecraft had it right about these false teachers: “There seems to be an indolent propensity in man to make prescription always take the place of reason, and to place every duty on an arbitrary foundation.” And thus, a duty to use one’s own conscience and intellect to determine the right and ethical way to act is replaced by a prescription to “obey authority.” Shut up, and obey your "authority." Which means your pastor in any case, and your father or husband if you are a woman. Don't EVER actually think for yourself. Having read this book, I am reminded again that it is essential to look beyond the bubble of one’s own “tribe” and actually learn history, philosophy, and ethics from other paradigms. So much of what we accept as “gospel” when it comes to gender and gender roles is really just the horseshit of past centuries, repackaged, polished, and given the gloss of “godliness.” A note on slut shaming: There is still a tendency to ascribe sexual impurity to any woman who dares assert herself as an equal. It’s the old “Madonna/Whore” dichotomy at work. This was certainly the case for Wollstonecraft. After she wrote this book, she fell in love with Gilbert Imlay, and eventually became his mistress. They had a child, but he deserted her. In the aftermath of this breakup, she attempted suicide, but was fortunately rescued. She later married William Godwin, but died giving birth to their child, as noted above. Godwin, not being the most aware of the inevitable results of revealing this information, went ahead and publicised Wollstonecraft’s past. Predictably, there came the usual and inevitable claims that “feminism” ™ led to out-of-wedlock births and suicide. Only true “submission”™ to a man (and the surrender of all her profits from her writing) would lead to true happiness. Thus, her claim that women needed education and equality was crap, because she wasn’t perfect personally, and her ideas could be disregarded. Thus has it ever been, but I hope will not always be. A few links: For more on the Married Women’s Property Act of 1882 in England, see this Wikipedia article. It matches what I learned in law school on the subject. Likewise, here is further information on the issue as it played out in the United States during the Nineteenth Century. I love the Harriet Beecher Stowe quote: [T]he position of a married woman ... is, in many respects, precisely similar to that of the negro slave. She can make no contract and hold no property; whatever she inherits or earns becomes at that moment the property of her husband.... Though he acquired a fortune through her, or though she earn a fortune through her talents, he is the sole master of it, and she cannot draw a penny....[I]n the English common law a married woman is nothing at all. She passes out of legal existence. I will also note with approval that my home state of California was FAR ahead of the march of justice for women in this matter in its doctrine of “community property.” Not only could married women own their own separate property, but they were entitled to one half of the property acquired during marriage on the theory that their domestic contributions were worth every bit as much as the monetary contributions of the man.

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Rx for Historical Entropy Beginning with the Mexican War of 1846-1848, the United States actively pursued a policy of economic and military expansion throughout much of the 19th and early 20th century. This is a part of U.S. history that is little discussed and seldom referred to in the United States. Few U.S. high school or college students can name a single battle of the Mexican War, despite the fact that the U.S. gained a third of its national territory as a result, and Mexico lost two fifths. Yet, the conquest of the Mexican territories (which would ultimately result in the formation of the states of California, New Mexico, Colorado, lower Texas and Arizona, parts of Kansas and Wyoming) has not been forgotten by our neighbors to the south. Most Mexicans agree with Ulysses S. Grant, that "it was the most unjust war ever waged by a stronger nation against a weaker one." As an integral part of Mexican education, this history affects how Americans are perceived. Any American dealing with a Mexican on an issue of mutual security who does not understand that the Mexican's history is both more informed and more personal on this issue, will certainly be at a disadvantage. The emigration which continues from Mexico into the United States is, at least in part, a legacy of this war. Most of the Mexicans are crossing an artificially imposed "border" into former Mexican territories. The fact that this emigration is exacerbated by economic discrepancies between the two nations is not lost on Mexican leaders who understand that the economic inequality, too, is a legacy of the past. They also understand that immigration whether legal or illegal is also a pressure valve for their own nation. The United States cannot afford to have a Mexico destabilized by a revolution, or by the chaos which would result from millions of poor ("gente sin recursos") held captive in the south by too strict a control of its northern borders. The impunity with which the United States entered Mexico in the early 20th century, whether General John "Black Jack" Pershing's army on the trail of Pancho Villa, or the U.S. Navy in Veracruz in self-righteous indignation over the arrest of a drunken sailor, has not been forgotten. A perceived American arrogance in pursuit of its national interests at the expense of the autonomy of others, is something the U.S. leaders, businessmen and cultural ambassadors need to be keenly aware of. However, such education has been sorely lacking. As a result, attempts to influence Mexican elections, correct discrepancies in their banking system, change the structure of their police force, and emasculate leaders by threatening to deny "certification" on drug enforcement issues, has hampered independent growth in that country and made generation after generation of intelligent, cultured and sympathetic Mexicans skeptical of the best-intentioned of U.S. policies. Dangers to Hemispheric Security The danger to both U.S security and to that of Mexico, is not that these incursions occurred. It is that, while U.S. interventions are part of the history and the culture of these nations, these same interventions are virtually unknown in the United States except to a handful of graduate students in Latin American studies and specialists in international relations. The interventions mentioned above are reported in none of the high school history texts, and are barely a footnote in most college texts. As a result, most the U.S. citizens in Mexico, conducting business, working for the DEA, employed by the embassies, teaching in the American Schools abroad, are "history deficient." Nor could they hope to understand a culture whose history has been systematically excised from their texts. Moreover, since that history for them does not exist, significant parts of the Mexican culture remain enigmas. By doing away with that history and their nation's part in it, we have impoverished Mexico and become the most powerful agents of historical entropy in Mexico and Central America. As an educator in Latin America who has worked in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Mexico and Colombia for the past twelve years, I see the results of our failure to educate our citizens in the history of these regions. I see the contempt for the culture, the assumed superiority, the arrogance, and the glibness of my fellow citizens in this area of the world. It does untold damage to our relations with these countries and seriously undermines (as we have seen most recently in Guatemala) the conditions requisite for peaceful social dynamics and for protection of human rights. Samuel Huntington in a recent issue of Foreign Affairs warned that in the eyes of most of the world - the United States is becoming a "rogue superpower"... and is considered "perhaps the greatest single threat to their societies." Commenting on this view Noam Chomsky in a recent Harper's article noted that "Americans who prefer a different image of their society might call for a reconsideration... The U.S. defiance of world order has become so brazen as to be of concern to even hawkish policy analysts." The first step is the education of our populace in a true United States history which does more than simply laud the early years of the Republic and depict our national story as a glorious progression in the areas of human rights, freedom, tolerance of diversity, and the respect of other nations. The second step is an increased focus on the teaching of Latin American history in courses offered to students, especially - but not limited to-those preparing to go into the diplomatic service, those majoring in international business, international relations, and international law. By Latin American history, however, I mean originals or accurate translations of their histories, not bleached-out or self-justifying versions written by North American writers. Neither businessmen nor diplomats will make much progress if their education in this area is limited to a parochial view. International education should be just that, international-providing students with an in-depth insight into geography, culture, language and history of the nations with which those individuals intend to do business. Post NAFTA Changes and the Drug Wars After one year of NAFTA, Mexico had a $12 billion trade deficit. Mexico's poorest group, unable to afford the basic "canasta" of milk and tortillas for marginal survival had grown from 14 million to 21 million from 1990 to 1994. In that latter year, the peso fell from 3.40 to the dollar to 6.50. The Mexican meltdown had begun. The U.S. and the International Monetary Fund came to the rescue, but the $52 billion bailout ($20 billion from the U.S.) would carry a price. In effect, the masses who did not contract the debt where condemned to suffer the austerity measures imposed by foreign creditors on the local economy. These measures included drastic cutbacks in public spending and social services, so that a great percentage of the GNP could be set aside to meet foreign debt reservicing and repayment. The price of tortillas (the basic comestible) rose 100% in the first 24 months of the crisis. According to a study by Banamex, 62 million Mexicans had a caloric intake below U.N. minimum nutritional standards. Social programs were eviscerated, $26 billion left Mexico in capital flight as the rich cashed in their chips and the poor were left to die in the streets, or take to the mountains and jungles-like the Zapatista Liberation Army-and prepare for the coming revolution. Comandante Marcos of the EZLN in Chiapas was sending out missives via the Internet that even the beleaguered Mexican middle class was hearing. "This loan has been signed off in...blood," he noted, while President Clinton confirmed much the same thing as he complimented President Zedillo on his courage in imposing "hard measures" on the Mexican people in order to quickly pay off the U.S. portion of the loan. "Free trade, NAFTA, foreign loans, economic development," by First World nations have "resulted in increased job insecurity, a rising crime rate, and growing social inequality in Latin America," according to James Fogarty, author of the Liberation and Development: A Latin American Perspective. Not without reason some Latin American critics are calling it capitalismo salvaje, which they fear will result in economic genocide, that is, the elimination of those who are superfluous to the economic model. Fogarty's suggestion is that we abandon the neoliberal, world capitalist and developmental models which have ravaged Latin America for a "more humanistic approach aimed at attacking the root causes of injustice, poverty and social unrest." He points out the success of alternative models such as that of Costa Rica which reduced its poverty level by two-thirds in the 1980's, a period during which poverty in the rest of Central America grew exponentially. The Next Annexation There are an estimated 20 million Mexicans and Mexican-Americans living in the U.S. There are another 3.7 million who are Hispanic in origin, émigrés from Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Cuba, Costa Rica and Honduras. By the year 2020 it is estimated that they will constitute 50% of the California electorate, and Caucasians will be a minority. Ironically, the invasion by the United States and subsequent annexation of two-fifths of Mexico in the 1840's has been answered by a counter-invasion of the United States by Mexican immigrants in the 20th century. They and their Central American fellow-Hispanics bring with them a culture of resistance and struggle, a militancy, which has spread from the United Farm Workers to the AFL-CIO, from strikes in Pennsylvania and New York, to school walk-outs of Proposition 187 in California. A group of people who were driven out of their own countries by (often U.S. supported) mal gobierno, they have developed a culture of resistance which has been transplanted in U.S. soil. This culture is quite "American" at its base; it is grass roots democracy in action. It is peaceful resistance which our Constitution guarantees to protect. Yet this same social action south of our borders is labeled "political unrest" and its democratic leaders are termed "leftists" and "Marxists" and dangers to our national security. The U.S. (with the exception of Kent State) has not in modern times used its military to suppress popular dissent within its own boundaries. However, it has no problem equipping governments for such activities south of its borders, and turning a blind eye to them. Military officers throughout South and Central America have been trained by the International Education Program (MET) and at the School of the Americas in Fort Benning, Georgia. Senior officers have often studied at the U.S. Army's Public Relations School in Indianapolis. These men have become consumers of American military technology and hardware in their own countries. And the U.S. arms industry, which sells $12 billion worth of weaponry a year worldwide, wants to expand this market. But what does Mexico do with Blackhawk helicopters, rockets, grenades, Hueys, troop transport planes, Hummers, machine guns? It has no external enemies. Only two scenarios come to mind. The first is to help the U.S. fight its on-going "war on drugs," the second is to suppress dissent within its own borders. This latter scenario is even more compelling when one sees that the export list of military gear from the U.S. to Mexico includes water cannons, riot control gear, and electronic shock units. While pretending to encourage the "democratic process" which includes, according to Thomas Jefferson, "the right to alter or abolish" a government when it becomes destructive of the rights of the people, the U.S. has in fact clandestinely promoted violations of human rights in Latin America to preserve a semblance of order in those nations, and to prime the pump of free market arms sales. The war on drugs, which most of the world sees as a U.S. domestic problem, has been exported to Mexico and Central America, with often disastrous results for the human rights to the local populace, the sustainability of freedom, and the other nation's own national security. With the FBI, DEA, INS, CIA, Customs Service, National Security Agency, the DOD's National Imaging and Mapping Agency all operating on Mexican territory, the compromises of human rights, the violations of national sovereignty, and the temptations to use Mexico as a stooge for the Colombia cartels, are obvious. In 1994, for example, the DEA smuggled 5.4 tons of cocaine in and out of Mexico as part of a sting operation of the Cali cartel, without ever notifying the Mexican authorities. No one in Mexico believes that the use of drugs in the United States is a Mexican problem. The will of the above mentioned agencies to make it a Mexican problem provides a font of abuses, with no legal limitations on the personnel involved, with the exception of agency reprimands of the officials involved for "excess of enthusiasm." Change of Focus We need to focus on examining the impact of the history of the United States and those of her neighbors to the south, of studying the errors we have made by proceeding with policies which have not taken these divergent histories into account, and in suggesting solutions based upon insights provided by this study. In those cases (which are many) in which no clear solutions are available, we need to prioritize policies which contribute to the long - term sustainability of those countries and thus to hemispheric security, rather than short - term economic advantage. The Maquiladora Industry One such threat to our security is the maquiladora industry. Over 2, 500 foreign - owned assembly plants now employ over a million Mexicans and account for half of Mexico's manufacturing exports and 38% of total exports. But these plants have taken so many young Mexicans from the interior of Mexico that there is no infrastructure to accommodate them. Raw sewage pours into Rio Grande affecting Texas, crime flourishes (statistics on the rapes of young working girls in this area are the highest in all of Mexico); toxic chemicals leak into the aquifer which touches Arizona, and the California border is an environmental disaster zone. The maquiladora economy is also an immigration emergency in the making. What would happen if there was any disruption in this industry? I realize that there is no "right" answer to any of the questions but the process of thinking these questions through and re-examining the histories from both sides, will be illuminating-and perhaps enlightening. One result will be to reawaken U.S. interest in the importance of Mexico and Central America, to replace indifference with understanding, prejudice with knowledge, and ultimately aid in the security of our hemisphere and the sustainability of those nations to the south we call our neighbors. As an American teacher working abroad, it has been particularly distressing to me that the education we have in the history of other countries is not only minimalist but often biased. This is particularly tragic in Latin America where U.S. presence will continue to be significant in the 21st century. International education in the U.S. needs to provide students with a cross-cultural view of the impacts of U.S. intervention and continued U.S. presence in Mexico and Central America, and show how our past policies continue to affect the lives of U.S. citizens and the lives of our neighbors to the south. Central American Immigration While I have concentrated mostly on the Mexican problem in this brief overview, it is important to note that the displacement of large groups of Guatemalans, Nicaraguans and El Salvadorans during the disturbances of the past twenty years has resulted in vast increases of refugees and in illegal emigration of those peoples to the United States. Since many of the illegals "pretend" to be Mexican in an effort to avoid deportation to their respective countries, those who are caught by U.S. authorities tend to be returned to Tijuana or Nuevo Laredo where they add to the border problems and put increased pressure on the already debilitated infrastructure of those communities. Most, as soon as the opportunity presents itself, attempt to emigrate once again to the U.S. The large numbers Guatemalans, El Salvadorans, and Nicaraguans have radically changed the barrios of East L.A. and the Mission District in San Francisco to cite two well-known examples. In the Sixties and early Seventies these neighborhoods were mostly Mexican, highly socialized, with strong family values. They hosted block parties, Cinco de Mayo celebration, fiestas and concerts which were attended by people of every race. Now these areas have developed into dangerous enclaves run by rival gangs of teenage hoodlums, most of who are recent arrivals from Central America where the family unit has been destroyed by war, where schools have long been closed, and culture abandoned for mere survival of the fittest. The streets of L.A. and the San Francisco Mission District have inherited the whirlwind previous Central American policies have sown. My long-term goal as an U.S. educator working abroad, as a writer, and as a parent, is to help create a deeper understanding of Mexico and Central America in order to make our own country safe and those countries self-sustaining, to deepen our awareness, and to motivate educators to act now to insure that future generations will inhabit a peaceful, healthy and culturally rich hemisphere which honors human life and human diversity. With that in mind I'd like to offer a few tentative solutions to historical entropy. 1. The United States should continue to encourage study abroad and intercultural exchanges with Latin American students. 2. It should make the study of a second language a requirement in secondary schools, and should employ native teachers providing intensive courses. 3. The United States should make Latin American history a required subject for students in universities studying international business, international relations, international management, and international education. 4. Study-abroad programs sponsored by the State Department, private agencies and universities, should add a history component to their offerings so that students will develop an understanding and a respect for the country and the culture in which they study. 5. American Schools abroad should require all teachers to attend intensive language courses before the end of their first year, and to take a course in the history of their sponsoring country by the second year of their contract. 6. Since North American teachers in Latin America serve the upper classes and middle classes in their schools, teachers should also be required to make a service commitment to the community in which they live so that they become aware of and participate in local education, and help those children who are less fortunate, and whose families do not have the resources to allow them to attend such schools. 7. American businesses abroad should develop a social awareness policy which includes quarterly reports on the impact of their investment and development activities in the host countries, and their efforts to alleviate dislocations, poverty, environmental destruction, and unfair competition. 8. Consumers and investors in the United States need to be more attentive to the cost of their investments as well as the profits. None of us would accept a profit from a company which invested our money in sales of cocaine or money laundering schemes, no matter how high the returns. Yet, we unquestionably receive high returns from companies which destroy the rain forest, decimate indigenous people, eviscerate local industries, and impoverish entire nations. We must insist on frank disclosures. 9. To facilitate this process, the United Nations should create Investment Disclosure Criteria which will rank multi-national corporations on a scale of one to ten which will reflect their positive or negative impact on local industries, the environment, human rights, child labor, contribution to local standard of living, and social responsibility. Such rankings will be part of the Disclosure to Investors which accompanies the stock offering, and will allow investors to make informed and responsible decisions. 10. Alternative models to the neoliberal free trade prototype should be explored and supported in Latin America. What this means, in effect, is that popular democratic leaders who seek to implement social change in Latin American countries should not be stymied or undermined by rigorous developmental restrictions, nor by active interference by more developed countries in their internal affairs. The success of the United States economically and militarily has created a sense of superiority and arrogance which emboldens its leaders and many of its citizens to denigrate or demonize alternative cultures, systems and ideas. Because of this the cognitive dissonance which arise in the best students of American schools abroad is significant and cannot be obviated either by clever cynics who see their mission as one of asserting American hegemony, or the well-intentioned and Candide-like teachers who see U.S. values as the best in the world. In the case of the former, contempt for alternative cultures and histories undermine the teacher's effectiveness. With the latter, the students perceive a gap between American ideals and American actions which convinces them that the teacher is either ignorant or gullible, or both. The American school teacher abroad has the obligation to be candid and forthright, and to have a depth of understanding of the past, and a commitment to the present. This does not mean replacing idealism with cynicism. But it does mean tempering our previous judgments with a healthy skepticism , holding on to those values which are truly universal, and when called upon to affirm a tenet of economic, social or political agenda which is repugnant, dismissing what insults our intelligence or our sense of justice.

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Measurement of thermal heating and loss coefficient of different fibers. Whispering gallery modes (WGMs) are surface modes that propagate azimuthally around resonators with rotational symmetry (toroidal, spherical, or, as in our case, cylindrical shaped, since the optical fiber itself plays the role of the microresonator). These modes are resonant in optical wavelength, and the spectral position of the resonances depends on the radius and the refractive index of the microresonator material. Due to the high-quality factor of the resonances (as high as 107 in cylindrical microresonators), they allow measuring different parameters with high sensitivities and very low detection limits. Here, we report the use of WGMs to characterize the properties of the material that forms the microresonator. In particular, we highlight the use of this technique to measure temperature profiles along conventional and special fibers (such as photosensitive or doped fibers), elasto-optic coefficients, and UV-induced absorption loss coefficients of different photosensitive fibers. These parameters of the fibers set the optical response of fiber-based components and may change when the device is in use in an optical system; thus, this technique allows an accurate characterization of the devices and leads to proper designs of components with specific optical responses. - whispering gallery modes - surface modes - optical fibers - fiber Bragg gratings - elasto-optic effect - thermo-optic effect Whispering gallery modes are surface modes that propagate azimuthally around resonators with rotational symmetry, generally a dielectric. This phenomenon was first described by Lord Rayleigh in the nineteenth century, when studying the propagation of acoustic waves in interfaces with a curvature . St. Paul’s Cathedral (London, UK), the Temple of Heaven (Beijing, China), the Pantheon (Rome, Italy), the Tomb of Agamemnon (Mycenae, Greece), and the Whispering Gallery in the Alhambra (Granada, Spain) are examples of architectonical structures that support acoustic modes which propagate guided by the surface of the walls. It was at the beginning of the twentieth century when the study of this guiding mechanism was extended to the electromagnetic waves, since Mie developed his theory for the plane electromagnetic waves dispersed by spheres with diameters of the same size as the optical wavelength . Shortly after, Debye stablished the equations for the optical resonances of dielectric and metallic spheres based on Mie’s dispersion theory . The detailed study of the mathematical equations of WGMs was performed by Richtmyer and Stratton , who predicted high-quality factors for these resonances and led to its implementation in different technologies based on microwave and acoustic waves. In the microscopic world, light can be guided by the same mechanism, when the resonator has dimensions of tens to hundreds of microns, and the wavelength of the light is in the visible-infrared range. In 1989, Braginsky et al. set the beginning of the optical WGMs when reporting the technique to excite optical modes in microresonators with spherical shape . Since then, many researchers have studied the propagation of WGMs in structures with different symmetries and have reported efficient methods based on microtapers to excite these modes in the optical range . Due to the intrinsic low losses, WGMs show very high factors. For example, they can achieve values of 1010 in spheres , 108 in silicon microtoroids , or 106–107 in cylindrical microresonators . At the resonance, the light guided by a WGM is recirculated in the microresonator many times, which provides a mechanism for decreasing the detection limit of the sensors based on them. This enhanced detection limit has been demonstrated to be low enough to measure a single molecule on the surface of a microtoroid . WGM resonances shift in wavelength as the refractive index of the external medium changes. The sensitivity of WGMs as a function of these variations is significant: when considering a silica-cylindrical microresonator of 125 in diameter, immersed in water (), the calculated shift in wavelength of the resonance is 77 nm/RIU. For a typical resonance width of 0.5 pm, this leads to a detection limit of 6 × 10−6 RIU. It is worth to note that the light guided by WGMs is mainly confined in the microresonator. Thus, their sensitivity to variations of the material refractive index will be even higher. For example, it can achieve values as high as 1.1 /RIU when considering variations of the refractive index of the silica. In this example, the detection limit of the WGM decreases down to 4 × 10−7 RIU. In this chapter, we will report the use of WGMs in silica, cylindrical microresonators (an optical fiber) to measure and characterize the properties of the microresonator itself. There are a number of parameters, such as temperature or strain, which modify the refractive index of the material. Thus, this technique allows measuring with accuracy variations of temperature in doped optical fibers, in optical devices as fiber Bragg gratings (FBG), the elasto-optic coefficients of conventional silica fibers, and the absorption coefficient of photosensitive optical fibers, for example. We will report here the fundamentals of the technique, as well as the experimental results we obtained for these experiments. The guiding mechanism of WGMs in the azimuthal direction of a microresonator (MR) is total internal reflection, just as in the case of axial propagation in a conventional waveguide; see Figure 1a. Resonance occurs when the guided wave travels along the perimeter of the MR, and it drives itself coherently by returning in phase after every revolution. In its way, the wave follows continuously the surface of the MR, and the optical path in a circumnavigation must be equal to an integer multiple of the optical wavelength, . When this condition is fulfilled, resonances appear, and a series of discrete modes at specific wavelengths will show up. The resonant condition can be written as where is the resonant wavelength, a is the radius of the MR, is the effective index of the WGM, and We do not intend to give a full description of the solution of this problem, which can be found in , but we will summarize the main equations and features of WGMs. If we solve Maxwell’s equations with this uniaxial tensor, the modes split in two series of family modes that, analogously to the case of axial waveguides, are denoted as TE-WGMs, which show a transversal electric field (), and TM-WGMs, with transversal magnetic field (). Each series of modes is ruled by a transcendental equation that must be solved: Eq. (3) for TM modes and Eq. (4) for TE modes. The solutions consist on a series of discrete wavelengths, which correspond to the different radial orders In Eqs. (3) and (4), is the wavenumber in vacuum, , is the Bessel function of order By following this procedure, it is possible to calculate the dispersion curves of several WGMs propagating in a cylindrical, silica MR of 125 diameter (the parameters of conventional optical fibers). Sellmeier dispersion of the silica was taken into account for the refractive index of the material. It is worth to note that the dispersion curves are not truly a curve, but a series of discrete solutions that have a particular radial order Regarding the distribution of the fields, Figure 3a shows the amplitude of the electric field of the first radial order TM-WGM, propagating in a cylindrical, silica MR of 10 diameter (the order 3. Experimental setup The general setup used in the experiments is shown in Figure 4a. The light source is a tunable diode, linearly polarized laser (TDL) with a narrow linewidth (<300 kHz). The tuning range covers from 1515 to 1545 nm. The laser integrated a piezoelectric-based fine frequency tuning facility that allows continuous scanning of the emitted signal around a given wavelength, with subpicometer resolution. A polarization controller (PC) after the laser allows rotating the polarization of the light, and, as a consequence, it allows exciting TE- and TM-WGMs separately. The optical signal is then launched through an optical circulator, which enables measuring the WGM resonances in reflection by means of a photodetector (PD). The MR will consist on a section of the bare optical fiber under test (FUT). Depending on the experiment, it will be a conventional telecom fiber, a rare-earth doped fiber, a photosensitive fiber, or a fiber where a grating has been previously inscribed. It is carefully cleaned and mounted on a three-axis flexure stage. WGMs are excited around the FUT by using the evanescent optical field of an auxiliary microtaper with a waist of 1–2 in diameter and a few millimeters in length. This is not the only method that allows exciting WGMs in MRs: for example, one of the first techniques consisted on using a prism to excite the resonances in a spherical MR , but the efficiency was very poor. More recently, a fused-tapered fiber tip fabricated using a conventional fiber splicer was demonstrated to be capable of exciting WGMs in a cylindrical MR . However, the highest efficiencies are achieved by using microtapers, with coupling efficiencies higher than 99% . These microtapers are fabricated by the fuse-and-pull technique from conventional telecom fiber . The microtaper and the MR are placed perpendicularly (see in the inset Figure 4a). Since the optical field of the WGMs is not axially localized (its extension is around 200 in length ), this setup allows exciting the WGM at different positions along the MR: by sweeping the microtaper along the MR, it is possible to detect variations of the parameters of the MR in the axial direction by measuring the shift of the resonances—radius [13, 18], temperature, or strain. Variations can be characterized along several centimeters of the MR. The transmission of the taper was measured using a photodetector, and the signal was registered by an oscilloscope synchronized with the TDL. A typical transmission trace consists on a signal that will present a series of notches at the resonant wavelengths. For MRs of 125 in diameter, the free spectral range between two consecutive azimuthal orders As it was mentioned before, the position of the resonances will depend on the value of the refractive index of the material. In the next sections, we will study the characterization of different fibers and fiber components by means of the measurement of the shift of WGM resonances as the effective index of the MR is modified. 4. Measurement of temperature profiles in doped fibers and fiber gratings When a silica fiber is heated up, two effects occur. First, the expansion of the fiber leads to a change of the diameter. Second, the thermo-optic effect induces a change in the refractive index of the material due to a variation of temperature. This variation modifies the spectral position of the WGM. From Eq. (1) it is possible to evaluate the shift of the resonant wavelength, , of a WGM due to a variation of temperature, : In the case of optical fibers as MRs, it is a good approximation to assume that the thermo-optic coefficient (i.e., the second term in Eq. (5)) can be replaced by that of the pure silica, since the optical field of the WGMs is mainly localized in the fiber cladding (see Figure 3). The high sensitivity of WGMs to variations of temperature has been demonstrated for different geometries of the MR, such as microspheres [19, 20] or cylinders . Moreover, the propagation of an optical signal of moderate power (W or higher) in a fiber generally induces a variation of temperature of the material. Due to the variation of temperature, the optical response of the fibers, or fiber components, may change when they are in operation. Thus, a detailed characterization of this effect is of interest to design properly the fiber-based optical systems. The use of WGMs allows achieving a very low detection limit: Rivera et al. claimed a detection limit of two thousandths of degree . Here, we will present the characterization of temperature variations in two different examples: (i) rare-earth doped active fibers and (ii) fiber gratings inscribed in commercial photosensitive fibers. 4.1. Measurement of temperature in rare-earth doped fibers Heating of rare-earth doped fibers can be an issue in fiber-based lasers and amplifiers. For example, thermal effects can be a limit to the maximum output power that these systems can provide . Another example is the shift in wavelength observed in distributed Bragg reflectors (DBR) and distributed feedback (DFB) lasers due to a pump-induced increment of temperature . The heat is due to the non-radiative processes related to the electronic relaxation of some dopants: for example, this effect is less important in ytterbium-doped fibers, while Er/Yb-codoped and erbium-doped fibers exhibited a high increase of temperature with pump, due to its specific electronic-level system . Thus, it is an intrinsic characteristic of the doped fibers that one needs to evaluate in order to design the proper optical system. In the experiments presented here, several commercially available single-mode, core-pumped doped fibers from Fibercore were investigated. Specifically, the FUTs were three Er-doped fibers (DF-1500-F-980, M12-980/125, and I25-980/125), a Yb-doped fiber (DF-1100), and an Er/Yb-codoped fiber (DF-1500 Y). The values for absorption coefficients at the pump wavelength were 5.5 dB/m (DF-1500-F-980), 12 dB/m (M12-980/125), 21.9 dB/m (I25-980/125), 1000 dB/m (DF-1100), and 1700 dB/m (DF-1100). Short sections of cm in length of each FUT were used as the MR where the WGMs were excited. The FUTs were pumped with a single-mode, fiber-pigtailed laser diode that emitted a maximum power of 380 mW at 976 nm. As the pump launched to the FUT was increased, the WGM resonance shifted toward longer wavelengths in all cases, as it was expected, since the thermo-optic and the thermal expansion coefficients of silica are both positives. As an example, Figure 5 shows the shift in wavelength of a resonance as a function of the pump launched to the fiber DF-1500-F-980. In our experiments, we did not investigate in detail the temporal response of the phenomenon, which will be ruled by the mechanisms that convert the pump power to heat, the heat conduction in silica, and the transfer of heat to the air. Typically, it will be on the range of a few tens of microseconds . At this point, several features of this technique must be clarified. First, it is worth to point out that the shift in wavelength is virtually independent of the particular resonance used for the measurements, that is, it does not depend on its radial and azimuthal order nor on its polarization. The sensitivity to thermal variations of different WGM resonances was theoretically calculated around 1.53 , taking into account both the thermal expansion of the fiber and the thermo-optic effect. The results showed that the difference in sensitivity between different resonances differs in less than 1/10000 per each of temperature increase. This simplifies the utility of this technique. The second aspect to highlight is related to the fact that the dopants in the active fibers are located in their core, while WGMs are highly confined in the outer region of the cladding (see Figure 3). From the study of heat conduction in doped fibers carried out by Davis et al. , it is possible to calculate that, at the steady state, the increase of temperature at the core of the fiber is just 1.5% larger than at the outer surface. In order to calibrate the shift in wavelength of the WGM resonances with the heating, a FBG inscribed in the core of a doped fiber was used for comparison. The procedure is described in . The WGM resonances shift at a rate of 8.2 pm/. With this calibration, it is possible to correlate the shifts in wavelength with the increase of temperature in the core of the fiber. For the example shown in Figure 5, the maximum increment of temperature achieved for a pump of 370 mW was 3.7. Figure 6 summarizes the measurements performed for the different doped fibers. A similar trend can be observed in all the cases; the resonances shift fast in wavelength for low pump powers, and, beyond certain pump, heating tends to saturate. It can be observed that the Yb fiber DF 1100 shows a similar increase of temperature to those of the Er-doped fibers, although the concentration of the dopants in the Yb fiber is much larger (note the absorption coefficient around 975 nm). Also, the highest temperature increment corresponds to the Er/Yb-doped fiber (DF 1500 Y), despite that it shows a lower absorption coefficient than its equivalent Yb-doped fiber (DF 1100). These results are in accordance to the fact that the heating is related to the existence of non-radiative transitions for the relaxation of electrons in the active medium. 4.2. Measurement of temperature profiles in fiber components As it was mentioned before, WGMs are axially localized: their extension along the fiber is , typically, for a MR of . Thus, this technique provides spatial resolution. The taper can be swept along the MR in order to characterize the parameters of the FUT point to point. This feature was used in order to characterize the temperature profile along fiber components . The FBGs used in the experiments were written in germanium-silicate boron codoped, photosensitive fibers from Fibercore, using a doubled-argon UV laser and a uniform phase mask. The length of all the gratings was mm. The WGMs were excited at different positions along the FBG, and, simultaneously, it was illuminated by optical signals of moderate powers, within or outside of the reflection band but in the vicinities of the Bragg wavelength. This illumination signal was provided by an amplified tunable laser (range, 1520–1560 nm) that provided up to 1 W of CW light. As a preliminary experiment, a section of fiber Fibercore PS980 was uniformly irradiated (i.e., there was no grating inscribed). The length was 5 mm, and the UV fluence power used in the irradiation was 150 J/mm2. The wavelength shift of the resonances was measured as the MR was illuminated with a 1550 nm optical signal, compared to the original position of the resonances, with no illumination along the FUT. Figure 7a shows the results. The data show a clear difference between the irradiated length (mm) and the non-irradiated length (mm). A temperature gradient in an intermediate region due to the heat conduction in silica and the transfer of heat to the air can be observed. It should be noted that this section is far larger than the length of the focused UV beam (); thus, the beam size is not the cause of this transition length. In the irradiated section, the temperature increases at a rate higher than 10 , for this sample, while the pristine fiber heats up at a rate lower than 1 . The increment of temperature was linear with power in the available power range. This experiment avails that this technique allows characterizing the variations of temperature along the components with a resolution of tenths of a millimeter. This feature is useful when one needs to detect, evaluate, and correct smooth undesired non-homogeneities that may occur during the fabrication of FBG and LPG, which are usually short components. As an example, Figure 7b shows the measurement of the temperature profile of a section of an irradiated fiber (length, 5 mm) that suffered from some misalignment during the UV irradiation process. For this sample, a variation of 4 is measured in such a short irradiated length. The temperature profile along a FBG with strong reflectivity was measured using this technique. The FBG had a reflectivity higher than 99.9%; the Bragg wavelength was 1556 nm, its length was 12 mm, and it was fabricated in PS1250 fiber (Fibercore). First, the illumination signal was tuned well outside the reflection band, at 1540 nm; in this case, there is no reflection of the optical signal; it just propagates through the FBG. The power launched to the MR was 800 mW. Curve (i) in Figure 8 shows the obtained results. As expected, a similar result to the case shown in Figure 7a was obtained: the heating over the length of the FBG was fairly constant, . It should be noted that the axial resolution of the technique will be larger than the grating period. Then, the average increment of temperature should be similar to that introduced in the case of the uniformly irradiated fiber, for the same UV fluence and fiber characteristics. Two transition zones were clearly observed at both ends of the grating. Finally, the temperature profile was measured when the optical signal was tuned to the Bragg wavelength (power, 1 W) (see curve (ii) in Figure 8). In this case, one should take into account that the UV irradiation is constant over its length, and the gradient temperature is due to the fact that the optical signal is reflected as it penetrates into the grating. A sharp increment of temperature at the beginning of the grating, at the extreme that is illuminated, can be observed. The maximum is located at the vicinities of the point where the FBG begins. The decay of temperature extends over a length of mm, which is shorter than the length of the fiber itself (12 mm). This is consistent with the high reflectivity of this FBG. Moreover it should be noted that, at the beginning of the curve, that is, mm, the temperature increase is , that is, roughly twice the value obtained for a pristine fiber. On the contrary, in the section after the grating (and even at the last millimeters of the FBG), the increment of temperature is below the detection limit of the technique. The origin of this asymmetry is the reflection of the optical signal: the amount of light that reaches the last millimeters of the FBG is very small. This technique, then, provides information about the effective length of gratings of different reflectivity, information that could be relevant for the design of optical systems that require of short cavities, or cavities that require of a very precise length, as in the case of mode-locked fiber lasers. 5. Measurement of absorption coefficients in photosensitive fibers In the previous section, the gradient of temperature induced in fiber-optic components by means of an illumination signal has been characterized and discussed. It has been shown that there is a difference in temperature between the sections that have been irradiated with UV light compared to the pristine fibers. It is well known that the UV irradiation induces a change in the index of photosensitive fibers, which is employed to fabricate FBGs and LPGs. According to Kramers-Kronig relations, the change in the refractive index is associated with a variation of the absorption coefficient. In addition, the exposure of the fiber to the levels of UV light usually employed in the grating fabrication induces mechanical deformations in the fiber . This leads to an increase of the loss due to scattering. Thus, when a fiber is UV irradiated, its loss, , increases due to two causes: absorption that will be quantified by and scattering, . The increase of introduced by UV irradiation has been measured before , since this is a parameter of interest to optimize the fabrication of FBGs, especially in the case of long or superimposed gratings with many reflection bands [29, 30]. This measurement provides information about an averaged value of the attenuation loss along the irradiated section, which includes both the absorption and the scattering contributions. The technique based on the measurement of the shift of WGM resonances will only measure the absorption coefficient; thus, by combining the two types of measurements, it is possible to evaluate both contributions separately. Different types of photosensitive fibers were studied : (i) Fibercore PS980, (ii) Fibercore PS1250, (iii) Fibercore SM1500, and (iv) Corning SMF28; this fiber was hydrogenated for 15 days (pressure: 30 bar) to increase its photosensitivity. The setup used in the experiments was the same than in the previous experiments shown in this chapter. In this case, the FUTs were short sections of the different fibers, which were exposed to a UV fluence of 150 J/mm2. Similar temperature profiles to that shown in Figure 7a were obtained for all of them, but with different temperature increments, since the photosensitivity was also different for each of them. The different increases of temperature between the irradiated fiber and the pristine fiber will provide us information to quantify the variation in the due to UV irradiation. It will be assumed that the heating over the transversal section of the fiber, at a given axial position, is set by the absorption coefficient, . According to the analysis reported by Davis et al. , the heating at the steady state, , will be given by where is the heat transfer coefficient (81.4 for a silica fiber). Then, the ratio of between two different points along the FUT, 1 and 2, is given by Thus, with this analysis and the experimental data obtained from the measurement of the wavelength shift of WGM resonances in irradiated points (1) and pristine points (2) of the FUT, this ratio between the respective can be calculated. Direct measurements of transmission loss variation as the fibers were irradiated were carried out for a PS980 fiber. First, the value of the loss of the pristine fiber was measured at 1550 nm by means of the cutback method: the obtained value was dB/km. Then, the UV laser was swept back and forth along a 5-cm-long section of the fiber, repeatedly. The full description of the procedure is described in . Figure 9a shows the data obtained in this experiment. The final loss was dB/m; thus the ratio between the loss coefficients, , increased times. Please remember that this loss coefficient includes both absorption and scattering contributions (). The contribution to the loss by means of the absorption mechanism was measured using the WGM technique (see Figure 9b). In this case, a 1550 nm laser (maximum power, 1 W) was launched to the FUT, and the thermal shift of the resonances was measured as the laser power was increased, at two different points, one within the irradiated section and one outside it. The data does not show any sign of saturation of the heating, at this range of power. The temperature of the irradiated section increased linearly, at a rate of , and at in the pristine region. The ratio between these values, that is, the ratio , is . This process was repeated for all the different fibers mentioned before: PS1250, SM1500, and hydrogenated SMF28, at 1550. Table 1 includes the results from the measurements and the corresponding analysis: was obtained for each of them from the direct measurement of the loss, while was calculated from the technique based in WGMs. The results, compiled in Table 1, allow establishing several conclusions of interest. First, as expected, the absorption coefficient is substantially increased due to the UV irradiation. As a consequence, even for signals of moderate powers, FBGs might experience shifts and chirps that should be taken into account . Second, the results show that is systematically higher than . Roselló-Mechó et al. analyzed the measurements to demonstrate that these results lead to the conclusion that scattering loss increases at a higher rate than absorption loss . Finally, Eq. (6) can be used to calculate the absolute value of the absorption and scattering coefficients by taking into account the values of Thus, by means of the combination of both techniques, it is possible to quantify the different contributions to the loss, even for short sections of fiber. This information might be useful, for example, in the design of novel-active doped fibers, since it is possible to evaluate if the doping technique increases the scattering loss unnecessarily, but not so much the absorption. 6. Measurement of Pockels coefficients in optical fibers The elasto-optic effect consists on the variation in the refractive index generated by any strain applied to the fiber. The correspondent elasto-optic coefficients are usually determined by measuring the optical activity induced by a mechanical twist and the phase change induced by longitudinal strain [32, 33]. This technique relies on the use of the conventional axial modes propagating through the fiber. Since these modes are essentially transverse to the axis of the fiber , the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect does not show up. On the contrary, WGMs have a significant longitudinal component; hence, their optical fields experience the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect intrinsically. In the last years, researchers have demonstrated a number of fiber devices in which the longitudinal components of the electromagnetic modes are significant, such as microfibers and microstructured optical fibers with a high air-filling fraction . For these cases, the measurement and characterization of the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect and its Pockels coefficients are of high interest. Roselló-Mechó et al. reported a technique based on the different wavelength shifts of TE- and TM-WGM resonances in a fiber under axial strain, to measure these coefficients . This technique has the additional advantage that, since it does not involve the conventional modes of the fiber, there is no need that the FUTs are single mode in order to carry out the measurements. Then, the coefficients can be measured at different wavelengths to determine their dispersion; this is a limitation of the usual technique based on the optical activity which is overcome by means of WGM technique . According to Eq. (1), a variation in the refractive index will tune the WGM resonances in wavelength. In this case, an axial strain will be applied to the FUT in order to induce this variation in the index, due to the elasto-optic effect. This feature was applied in different works in order to tune the WGM resonances [39, 40]. However, there was not any mention to the different behaviors of TE- and TM-WGM. An axial strain introduces a refractive index perturbation in an isotropic, cylindrical MR, due to the elasto-optic effect, which will be different for the axial () and transversal directions (): where is the unperturbed index of the MR, are the elasto-optic coefficients, is Poisson’s ratio, and is the strain applied to the MR. The coefficients and are the effective elasto-optic coefficients, which are defined for simplicity. According to the reported values for the elasto-optic coefficients for fused silica (, , ), the ratio ; hence, it is expected that the strain introduces a significant differential anisotropy. With this in mind, Maxwell’s equations will be solved considering the uniaxial tensor given by Eq. (2). The solutions, as mentioned before, split in two families of WGM, the TE and TM modes, whose resonant frequencies will be obtained by solving Eqs. (3) and (4). The refractive index perturbation is not the only factor to take into account when evaluating the wavelength shift of WGM resonances due to strain: the radius a of the MR also varies with it according to Poisson’s ratio, . With all these ideas in mind, the relative shift of the WGM resonances, , can be characterized as a function of the strain, for TE- and TM-WGMs. Figure 10a shows an example of the anisotropic behavior of TE- and TM-WGM. The strain applied to the MR was 330 for both polarizations, and the measured wavelength shift was different for each of them: 0.18 nm for TE-WGM and 0.11 nm for TM-WGM. was measured as a function of the strain in detail at 1531 nm, for both polarizations; the results are shown in Figure 10b. A linear trend in both cases can be observed: the slopes of the linear regressions that fit the experimental values are for the TE- and for the TM-WGM. The ratio shows the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect. From these values, it is possible to calculate the elasto-optic coefficients with its uncertainties (see for a more detailed description of the procedure), by taking into account the Sellmeier coefficients for the value of the refractive index at 1531 nm and Poisson’s ratio of . The measurements were repeated at 1064 nm, to study the dispersion of the elasto-optic effect. Results at both wavelengths are compiled in Table 3 and are compared with those reported in the literature. Both sets of measurements are in good agreement, and the small differences might be due to the fact that the technique based in WGM measures the of the cladding material (i.e., fused silica), while in the case of the other techniques, the coefficients are determined by the material of the fiber core, which is usually silica doped with other elements. In this chapter, we described a technique based on the excitation of WGMs around cylindrical MRs, to measure properties of the MR material. The resonant nature of the WGMs confers this technique with high sensitivity and low detection limits. Also, the technique allows measuring these parameters with axial resolution; hence, it is possible to detect changes of the parameters point to point along the MR. The technique has been applied to different experiments. Mainly, thermo-optic effect and elasto-optic effect have been investigated in silica fibers. The variation in the index, due to a change in the temperature or strain, rules the shift in wavelength of the WGM resonances. When the technique was applied to different types of fibers and components, different information were obtained from the experiments. In particular, we measure temperature profiles in pumped, rare-earth doped fibers and in FBGs; the absorption coefficient in irradiated photosensitive fibers; and the Pockels coefficients in telecom fibers. Novel results were obtained: for example, it was possible to measure absorption and scattering loss coefficients separately, and, also, the anisotropy of the elasto-optic effect was observed experimentally. The information provided by the WGM-based technique might help to optimize the fabrication procedures of doped fibers and fiber components as FBGs or LPGs. This work was funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain and FEDER funds (Ref: TEC2016-76664-C2-1-R) and Generalitat Valenciana (Ref: PROMETEOII/2014/072), Universitat de València (UV-INV-AE16-485280). X. Roselló-Mechó’s contract is funded by the FPI program (MinECo, Spain, BES-2014-068607). E. Rivera-Pérez’s contract is funded by the Postdoctoral Stays in Foreigner Countries (291121, CONACYT, Mexico).

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Lessons for Science and Politics This appendix provides a brief overview of the following questions: What are embryonic stem cells and how are they obtained? What benefits are expected from the study and use of embryonic stem cells? And what alternative methods are available to procure cells functionally similar or identical to embryonic stem cells, without destroying embryos? A notable feature of the genetic constitution of a living organism is the fact that the same genomic structure, found from cell to cell throughout the organism’s body, plays a different functional role in each type of cell, tissue, and organ. Consider the differences between, for example, the cells in the pancreas that are responsible for the production of the hormone insulin — which is necessary for regulating glucose levels in the blood — and the cells of the liver, which are responsible for, among other things, transforming glucose into glycogen in response to insulin produced in the pancreas. Each of these types of cells does different work for the organism and is thus functionally different from the other types. Yet each type of cell (in human beings there are approximately 200 basic types and thousands of subtypes) contains the full genetic complement of more than 20,000 genes; that is, different types of cells contain the same genotype. What accounts for this difference in form and function if it is not due to a difference in genes? The answer is that there is a difference between these cells — not in the genes possessed, but in the genes activated, or expressed. Biologists estimate that most human cells only express about 20 percent of the genes they possess at any one time. In different cell types, different genes are active or inactive, or are expressed at different rates; the resulting pattern of gene expression, in conjunction with other factors such as cell position, determines the nature and function of each cell in the organism’s body. The full differentiation of cells (into, say, liver cells or blood platelets) is the result of a process that begins when an organism is an embryo and continues throughout its life. A human embryo develops two structures within its first five days: an inner cell mass (ICM) of tightly compacted cells and an outer boundary called the trophoblast. In each structure, cells are relatively unspecialized, or undifferentiated. But in the course of the developing life of the embryo, fetus, and eventually newborn, those initial cells will divide through a process called mitosis and give rise to increasingly specialized families of cells. Generally speaking, cells from the trophoblast will give rise to cells that form part of the placenta (the organic support system of the fetus while it is in the womb), while cells of the ICM will give rise to all of the different cell types of the mature organism. Stem cells are defined by two properties: first, the capacity for self-renewal, and second, the capacity to produce other cells that are more differentiated. Stem cells vary in their potency — the number of differentiated cell types they can produce. Embryos at the single-celled stage (the stage called the “zygote,” or fertilized egg) are totipotent — capable of differentiating into any cell type of the ICM or trophoblast. Embryonic cells remain totipotent through the first few stages of cell division, and any totipotent cell is capable of becoming a whole new embryo and producing a developed organism. (This is evident in the phenomenon of twinning: one way twinning can occur is when the two-cell embryo splits apart into two separate totipotent cells, each capable of developing into an adult.) While the cells of the early embryo are totipotent, researchers have not been able to isolate cells from the embryo to grow totipotent stem cells in vitro. Meanwhile, certain cells of the ICM are pluripotent — capable of producing all of the differentiated cell types of the mature organism, but not of producing cells of the trophoblast (although researchers have been able to induce embryonic stem cells to produce trophoblast cells under certain conditions). As the organism develops and matures, the process of cell production remains essential to its survival. In order to keep pace with the organism’s growth, and with the continual process of cell death and replacement, new fully-differentiated cells must be produced in different regions of the body. This is the work of somatic stem cells, also known as adult stem cells. Adult stem cells are typically multipotent — capable of producing only cell types belonging to particular tissues. Generally speaking, then, stem cells become more restricted in potency over the early development of the organism; put another way, stem cells become more determinate in the types of tissue they will produce, while still maintaining their capacity for self-renewal. The term “adult stem cells” is somewhat misleading, since these stem cells can be found in children and even fetuses. Adult stem cells have a remarkable ability to renew themselves — a property that allows them to sustain the growth and development of the body — although scientists have had difficulty sustaining adult stem cell self-renewal indefinitely in vitro. Different types of adult stem cells can be extracted from different tissues in the body. Blood-forming stem cells, called hematopoietic, reside in the bone marrow. The marrow is also one of several places where mesenchymal stem cells, which form bone, cartilage, and other types of tissue, can be found. They can also be found in body fat, also called adipose tissue (which requires less invasive procedures to reach). The placenta and the umbilical cord are also rich sources of stem cells that have the potential to develop into a variety of tissue types. Other somatic tissues, including muscles and neural tissue, can be sources of specialized stem cells. A wide variety of potential therapeutic uses exists for adult stem cells, and their extraction and use generates little if any controversy. But a key practical drawback to the therapeutic applications of adult stem cells is their limited potency: stem cells from a particular tissue region can usually be coaxed only into generating further cells of that tissue type. Embryonic stem cells, on the other hand, have a much greater capacity. Within the life of a developing organism, pluripotent cells play a foundationally important role: they are the ancestor cells that will give rise to all the different cell types of the mature organism’s body. Their open-ended potentiality also makes them extremely attractive for scientific research when extracted from the embryo, especially by contrast with adult stem cells. The extraction by scientists of cells from the developing embryo — a process that destroys the source embryo — is typically carried out as follows: An embryo four to five days old is immersed in a chemical solution that dissolves and destroys its trophoblast cells, which allows for the cells of the ICM, called blastomeres, to be extracted. These cells can then be placed in specialized culture conditions designed to enable them to grow as colonies of stem cells. The chains of cultured embryonic stem cells and their progeny are referred to as embryonic stem cell lines. Scientists generally employ three tests to assess the pluripotency of stem cells. The stem cells can be injected into an animal with a compromised immune system in order to see if they develop into teratomas, a special type of relatively benign tumor consisting of cells from all three germ layers of the embryonic body. Because the different germ layers represent distinct developmental paths, the ability of a cell to differentiate into cells from each of the three layers indicates its ability to form all the cell types of the body, even if the teratoma does not consist of each and every cell type in the body. A second test of pluripotency is the ability of the stem cell to contribute to the development of a chimera — an organism with some cells that are genetically distinct from the rest of the organism. In this test, the stem cells are injected into an early embryo, where they contribute to the development of the fetus and adult organism, resulting in a chimera in which cells originating from the stem cells are found in all of the tissue types in the adult organism’s body. In the third test of pluripotency, stem cells are injected into an embryo that has been modified so as to make it capable of developing into placental tissues but not the cells of the embryo itself. When the stem cells are added to this special embryo — called a “tetraploid” embryo because the procedure for creating it involves fusing the two cells of the early embryo, resulting in a cell with four sets of chromosomes — the ability of the stem cells to develop into all of the different cell types of the embryo complements the ability of the tetraploid embryo to develop into the tissues of the placenta, thus allowing for normal embryonic development. This procedure, called the “tetraploid complementation assay,” is the most stringent test of pluripotency because it creates an organism that is entirely derived from the stem cells used in the procedure. (It is worth noting that, although scientists use all three of these tests in researching animal stem cells, they do not use the chimera formation test or the tetraploid complementation assay on human stem cells. For ethical and practical reasons, they rely only on the teratoma formation test, in which human embryonic stem cells are injected into immune-compromised mice.) While research on adult stem cells can be traced back decades — indeed, hematopoietic stem cell transplants have been used to treat persons suffering from bone marrow diseases, including cancer, since the 1950s — the key breakthrough for human ES cell research was achieved in 1998 when University of Wisconsin researcher James Thomson announced that he had derived ES cells from human embryos. Two related issues at this point are of interest because of the ethical questions to which they give rise. The first concerns the origin of the embryos from which ES cells are derived. The most practicable source of ES cells is embryos that have been created in fertility clinics through IVF but are “left over” from attempts to aid infertile couples in conceiving. In IVF, a sperm and an egg cell (oocyte) are joined in a petri dish. The resulting embryo is then allowed to grow for several days before it is either implanted in the woman or, if it is not to be used immediately, frozen and stored. An American IVF clinic will typically produce more embryos than are used in each cycle of treatment, in order to have additional embryos available in case some turn out to be unusable or the implantation is unsuccessful. Therefore, some embryos usually remain after an IVF cycle has been successfully initiated; currently, there are several hundred thousand of such “spare” embryos frozen in IVF clinics in the United States. The parents of these embryos may choose to donate them to be used in research if they do not wish to use them in a future IVF cycle. Many supporters of ES cell research see these embryos as the most promising source of ES cells. However, as enticing as this sitting stockpile may be to interested researchers, most of the stored embryos have not been designated by the parents for research; they may be unsure if they wish to try to conceive again in the future, or may be uncomfortable donating their embryos to research for other reasons. Further, even when the parents do consent, there are various logistical barriers to using these embryos for research, including possible degradations experienced in long storage, the hazards of transportation from clinic to laboratory, and reduced viability to begin with (the fertility clinicians will have selected the strongest-seeming embryos for the first round of implantation). The same IVF procedure of creating embryos for fertility treatment could also be used to create embryos specifically for research purposes. Another source of embryonic stem cells involves the process known as somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), a kind of cloning. In this approach, which will be discussed further below, an enucleated oocyte (that is, an egg whose nucleus has been removed) is fused with the nucleus of a somatic cell (a cell containing the full complement of genetic material, unlike a gamete cell such as a sperm or egg, which contains only half). The oocyte “reprograms” the nucleus back to a totipotent (undifferentiated) state. This one-celled organism, which is genetically almost identical to the organism that provided the somatic cell, is now effectively a new embryo, and it begins the process of cellular division and growth. The embryo could be implanted in a womb; this is how Dolly, the cloned sheep, was created. Or the embryo could be used as a source of ES cells. It is worth noting that the cloned embryo and the ES cells that result from SCNT are usually not completely genetically identical to the original somatic cell and the organism that provided it. The DNA in the new cells’ nuclei would be identical to that in the original cells’ nuclei. But DNA is also present outside the nucleus, in the mitochondria. Except in cases where a female provides both the eggs and the somatic cell for the SCNT procedure, the mitochondrial DNA of the egg used in the SCNT process will be different from that of the donor cell, possibly leading to mitochondrial disorders, which have been observed in cloned mammals. An alternative version of SCNT that would not require the procurement of egg cells from women is called interspecies SCNT (iSCNT). In this process, the nucleus of a human somatic cell is transplanted into an enucleated animal oocyte in order to produce embryonic stem cells. Because the nucleus of the animal oocyte has been removed, most of the DNA in the resulting embryo will be human, although the small amounts of mitochondrial DNA present in the cytoplasm of the animal oocyte will be present in the resulting embryo. The organisms created via iSCNT have been dubbed “cybrids” — cytoplasmic hybrids — since they have human DNA placed in the cytoplasm of an animal oocyte. While this technique has been successfully used to clone certain mammals of species that were closely related to one another, attempts to perform iSCNT with human nuclei have been so far unsuccessful. Some scientists have expressed doubts about whether iSCNT can work in humans at all, since SCNT relies on the ability of the oocyte to “reprogram” the genome of the nucleus into an embryonic state, but the somatic cell nucleus must be compatible with the oocyte in order for this “reprogramming” to be successful. Three other procedures also can, in practice or in theory, produce human embryonic stem cells. First, it is possible to reprogram somatic cells to a pluripotent state by fusing them with existing ES cells. Second, blastomeres can be extracted from living embryos without destroying the embryos. This kind of blastomere extraction is already done now in a practice called preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which is used by IVF clinics to screen embryos before they are implanted. Blastomere extraction apparently does not always significantly interrupt the embryo’s biological functioning, although some embryos are evidently lost as a result of this process, as the rate of successful pregnancies following PGD is lower than with other assisted reproduction technologies, and there is evidence that twins or triplets born following PGD have increased rates of birth defects and infant mortality. Third, dead embryos maintained in culture often contain living cells, which might also provide a source of ES cells in the strict sense. These latter two procedures highlight the second important issue surrounding embryonic stem cells, namely, the consequences for the embryo of ES cell extraction. When blastomeres are extracted from an IVF embryo or an SCNT embryo by dissolving the trophoblast, the resulting stem cells have been obtained at the cost of the embryo’s life. By contrast, when blastomeres are extracted from living embryos without dissolving the trophoblast, or when blastomeres are extracted from dead embryos, the resulting stem cells will not have been obtained by destroying embryos. Although the long-term medical consequences to a living embryo brought to term after blastomere extraction are not yet known, these techniques suggest the possibility of attaining human embryonic stem cells without the destruction of living human embryos. Since the first successful extraction of human embryonic stem cells in 1998, the field of ES cell research has been awash in grand expectations. The source of these expectations is the link between ES cells and the field of regenerative medicine. Because ES cells are pluripotent, they have the capacity, in principle, to proceed down almost any path of cell differentiation we might wish, provided only that we know what cues are necessary to induce such differentiation. Knowledge of these cues — which include the proteins that promote or block transcription of DNA into RNA in a cell, known as transcription factors, as well as other physical and chemical factors such as adhesion, pressures, and various other aspects of the cellular environment — could help make it possible to grow tissue cultures of any specific type from ES cell lines, and perhaps even to grow entire organs. Across a range of medical cases, such as neurological damage, heart disease, or the inability of the pancreas to produce insulin, the hope is that stem cell therapies could facilitate the regeneration of damaged tissues or organs, or the cure of diseased tissues and organs, by replacing or supplementing existing tissues and organs with healthy ones. (For a more extensive discussion of the treatment potential of stem cell-derived therapies, see Appendix B.) However, the possibility of applying stem cell research to regenerative medicine faces a number of hurdles, of which three are especially significant. The first is the tumorigenic (tumor-forming) character of embryonic stem cells. As discussed earlier, ES cells have the characteristic ability to form teratomas, which are a relatively benign form of tumor. But malignant tumors called teratocarcinomas tend to result from ES cells that have an abnormal number of chromosomes, which sometimes occurs when ES cell lines are grown in vitro. This trait of ES cells constitutes a further difference between ES cells in an embryonic stem cell line and ES cells in the ICM, where they contribute to the ordinary course of embryological development instead of forming tumors. The processes causing this transition to tumorigenicity are not well understood. But safe therapies involving ES cells will be difficult to develop unless a way is found to restrain this aspect of their power. The second hurdle to ES cell therapies concerns the problem of immune rejection. This is the same difficulty intrinsic to any transplant procedure: when an organ from one organism is transplanted into another organism, the recipient’s immune system recognizes that the transplant is genetically different and attacks the alien cells. This process can sometimes work in reverse as well, since transplanted immune cells can recognize the new host as alien, resulting in graft-versus-host disease. In either case, similar consequences can be expected where ES cell-derived tissues and organs with a different genetic character are used in regenerative therapies. (By contrast, many adult stem cell therapies can avoid the problem of immune rejection by using stem cells that actually come from the recipient, which allows for the transplantation of stem cells that are genetically identical to the patient.) The problem with immune rejection has led to increasing interest in SCNT (cloning) as a method of obtaining embryonic stem cells. For example, if SCNT-generated embryos were used instead of IVF embryos, the patient’s own somatic cells could be used as the source of the cell nucleus inserted into the oocyte and reprogrammed back to a totipotent state. Since the ES cells and any tissues derived from them would be genetically almost identical to the recipient’s cells, the problem of immune rejection might be eliminated. (As mentioned above, the SCNT-generated cloned cells would not be completely genetically identical to the recipient’s cells, because they would retain the mitochondrial DNA of the egg used in the SCNT process.) A third major challenge facing embryonic stem cell therapy involves generating the right kinds of differentiated cells using pluripotent stem cells. While ES cells have the theoretical ability to differentiate into any type of cell in the body, coaxing ES cells to develop into specific, functional cell types in the laboratory will require a thorough understanding of the factors that control stem cell differentiation. While scientists have made progress differentiating ES cells into specific cell types, a recent study published in Cell Research found that the differentiated progeny of ES cells tend to express genes associated with early fetal development, raising questions regarding their therapeutic usefulness for adults. Beyond the possibilities of ES cell-derived regenerative therapies, which are still largely speculative, there lie a number of more immediate scientific and medical benefits to be gained from the study of ES cells. At the most basic level, ES cells give scientists the opportunity to learn more about cell differentiation and about the factors implicated in gene expression. Such knowledge is additionally helpful in our understanding of the development of the human organism from its zygotic stages on, and will come to be integrated into the broader understanding of genetics and epigenetics. A second expected benefit comes from the use of ES cells to learn more about the workings and natural histories of genetic diseases. By studying ES cells taken from embryos with particular genetic conditions — often identified through preimplantation genetic diagnosis — scientists can learn more about how deficiencies in gene expression arise, and thus how they might be prevented or cured. ES cells provide a window into genetic disease not easily obtained in any other way. Finally, stem cell cultures that have been differentiated into particular tissue types may be used to study the effects of certain drugs, or to test for the toxicity of various chemicals. Such options could alleviate the need for at least some animal testing and could also provide a more fine-grained knowledge of the effects of environmental conditions on human biology. For all these reasons, embryonic stem cells are considered by many researchers to be of critical scientific value and medical importance. However, in order to avoid the ethical worries that arise from destroying or harming embryos, researchers have proposed a number of alternative techniques for procuring pluripotent stem cells that are the functional equivalent of embryonic stem cells — techniques not dependent upon human embryos. While many believe that these alternative approaches can mitigate the ethical concerns, some scientists claim that even the alternative techniques require some research into ES cells, for such cells are said to provide the “gold standard” for understanding pluripotent cells more generally. On this view, ES cell research provides an important gauge for the inquiries of scientists investigating alternatives to ES cells. In the following section we turn to some of the key attempts to find alternatives to embryonic stem cell research. In this section we look at two of the most prominent methods suggested for obtaining pluripotent stem cells without extracting them from embryos. The first approach is called altered nuclear transfer (ANT), or, sometimes, altered nuclear transfer with oocyte-assisted reprogramming (ANT-OAR). The second approach, developed independently by Shinya Yamanaka in Japan and James Thomson in Wisconsin, is called somatic cell dedifferentiation, but is typically referred to by the name of its product, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells). Both approaches rely upon what we know about the factors affecting gene expression in order to create pluripotent stem cells without ever creating embryos. Recall that in the successful cloning attempt that produced Dolly the sheep, the nucleus of a somatic cell was inserted into an enucleated oocyte, and the resulting new cell was dedifferentiated back to a totipotent, not a pluripotent, state. This is a critical point: had the resulting cell not been totipotent, essentially the equivalent of a zygote, it could not have developed as a complete organism and there would have been no Dolly. Likewise, a human stem cell in any state other than totipotency is not and cannot become a complete human organism. In the ANT procedure, unlike in the SCNT cloning procedure, the nucleus of the cell transferred to the oocyte, or the cytoplasm of the oocyte into which it is transferred, is altered in order to prevent the cell from going through the stage of totipotency that is characteristic of a true embryo. These alterations change the patterns of gene expression to cause the cell to express genes characteristic of pluripotent stem cells, rather than the totipotent cells of the early embryo. Proponents of the procedure argue that none of the three cells involved in the process of ANT — the somatic cell with the altered nucleus, the oocyte, and the new cell — is at any point a zygotic, totipotent cell. Thus, ANT appears to provide pluripotent but non-embryonic stem cells. Like the ANT approach, the induced pluripotent stem cell approach capitalizes both on the ability of the somatic cell’s nucleus to be coaxed into a less differentiated state and on our knowledge of the genes whose forced expression alters a cell’s identity. Yamanaka and Thomson determined that by inserting genes for transcription factors associated with pluripotency into somatic cells by means of retroviruses, they were able to induce dedifferentiation in those cells, bringing them back to a stage of pluripotency. The pluripotent stem cells created using this technique appear to have the classic marks of embryonic stem cells: they can be indefinitely maintained in a lab culture, and they are capable of multiple types of differentiation. There are some differences in gene expression patterns between iPS cells and ES cells, but the consequences of these differences are at present unknown. Induced pluripotent stem cells seem to solve two problems that have bedeviled researchers — one moral and one technical. Unlike cells produced through SCNT, iPS cells at no point go through a stage of totipotency. Thus, no human embryos are created or destroyed in the formation and use of iPS cells, so that that moral controversy is sidestepped. Additionally, like the embryos produced by SCNT and cells produced by ANT, iPS cell technology seems to offer a solution to the threat of immune rejection, because, in the event that regenerative therapies prove feasible, iPS cells could be dedifferentiated from the somatic cells of the diseased patient himself, and would thus have the same genome as the patient. The iPS approach has been widely and rapidly adopted by the scientific community: Yamanaka’s technique was announced to work on mice in 2006, and only a year later was shown to work with human cells. While, as noted, there are small differences in gene expression between iPS cells and ES cells, scientists studying iPS cells have typically been impressed with the degree to which iPS cells are functionally equivalent to ES cells. For example, Ian Wilmut, the researcher who created Dolly the sheep, announced after Yamanaka’s discovery that he was halting his own cloning research, since he viewed the iPS cell approach as having more potential. Some scientists have even used techniques similar to the ones used by Yamanaka and Thomson to attempt to reprogram differentiated adult cells of one sort into differentiated cells of another sort, altogether eliminating the pluripotent or multipotent stage. Reliable techniques for reprogramming cells directly from one cell type to another could offer an alternative to stem cell-based cell therapies, but while research in this area has produced exciting preliminary results, more work will need to be done before these techniques could replace stem cell-based cell therapies. Moreover, because of the relative ease and non-intrusiveness with which iPS cells can be generated, some of the research possibilities proposed using ES cells might be more readily achieved using iPS cells. The difficulties involved in producing ES cells from IVF embryos, including obtaining the parents’ permission, do not apply to iPS cells, which can instead be produced in large numbers and from a highly genetically diverse set of donors with little inconvenience to them. And unlike ES cells produced through SCNT, iPS techniques do not require a supply of human eggs, which can be difficult or even dangerous to procure: the hormonal treatments used in collecting eggs from women can lead to such health-threatening complications as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Induced pluripotent stem cells thus seem to offer many practical advantages sought by scientific and biomedical researchers. Nevertheless, there are some concerns about the iPS approach. One involves the use of retroviruses to introduce the transcription factors into the somatic cells. The retroviruses “integrate randomly into the host genome,” and even though the integrated viral genes are silenced in the iPS cells, there is a risk that they will reactivate. This worry was particularly acute in the cells reprogrammed using some of the earlier iPS methods, as the transferred genes included some that are known to cause tumors. The viral insertion of these genes can also interfere with the genetic functioning of the cell, perhaps even undermining the original purpose of the iPS cell by disrupting the expression of genes involved in developing desired traits. Other concerns include the possibility of mutations or chromosomal abnormalities that can result from the genetic modifications necessary for inducing pluripotency, including some mutations that may contribute to the development of cancer (as has been documented in the use of retroviruses for gene therapy). Growing iPS cells in culture for extensive periods also increases the likelihood of chromosomal abnormalities, including some that may increase the cells’ tumorigenicity. Furthermore, the presence of abnormalities or mutations in the tissue of origin can contribute to the risk of cancer in iPS cells. While it was hoped that the ability of iPS cells to provide patient-specific stem cells would overcome the problems of immune rejection, a recent study published in Nature has indicated that tissues formed by iPS cells may still be subject to those problems. The study found that certain iPS cells could trigger an immune response in mice, although more research is required to better understand how iPS cells and tissues derived from iPS cells react with organisms’ immune systems. The reprogramming of adult cells into iPS cells is also often incomplete, which can cause iPS cells to retain certain gene expression patterns from their tissue of origin. Some of these initial worries about iPS cells seem surmountable. Research conducted since the creation of the original iPS cells has shown that the process need not use some of the genes known to cause tumors. Other experiments have used approaches that do not require retroviruses at all: some introduce genes into the cell without integrating DNA into the cell’s chromosomes; others directly add the transcription factor proteins, rather than transcription factor genes; and progress has been made in modifying patterns of gene expression through the use of chemical compounds, rather than transcription factors, in order to reprogram cells to a pluripotent state. Another concern about iPS cells is that early attempts to generate them have not been very efficient: only a small proportion of the cells successfully dedifferentiate, with most studies reporting reprogramming between 0.001 and 1 percent of cells. The techniques that involve less drastic genetic modifications to induce pluripotency tend to be less efficient. Additionally, there are some safety concerns related to the tendency of iPS cells to form dangerous tumors. The genetic and epigenetic changes necessary for inducing pluripotency share many features of the genetic and epigenetic changes associated with cancer; more research is needed to determine how to induce pluripotency without modifying cells in such a way that will increase the likelihood of cancer. A final difficulty related to the use of iPS cells is that it may not obviate the need for ES cells; as noted above, some researchers argue that ES cells are still necessary at least to provide a standard against which the success of iPS cells can be measured. One example of a clinically relevant difference between iPS cells and ES cells involves the study of Fragile X syndrome, a developmental disorder caused by an inability to express the FMR1 gene. Scientists who study the disorder have found evidence that the gene is expressed while the embryo’s cells are still undifferentiated but is silenced as the embryo develops. In ES cells derived from embryos that have the Fragile X mutation, the FMR1 gene is still expressed. But the gene is not reactivated in iPS cells derived from adult Fragile X patients — indicating that the reprogramming process does not simply restore the cells to the state of undifferentiated embryonic cells. This has led researchers to question the reliability of iPS cells for modeling the earliest developmental stages of diseases. However, while the iPS cells used in this procedure may not have captured the very earliest stages of development, they were still useful for deriving tissues affected by the disorder, such as neurons. Furthermore, other scientists have created iPS cells that were able to reactivate gene expression in the X chromosome that had been silenced during development, indicating that it may someday be possible to create iPS cells that exhibit the same patterns of gene expression as undifferentiated cells. Recent work by scientists at the Sanger Institute in the United Kingdom has resulted in a new technique for creating iPS cells that appears to be safer and more efficient, and to produce cells even more useful for research and therapy than human ES cells. Many scientists have observed that mouse ES cells seem to represent a more developmentally immature state than human ES cells; the former have been described as being in a “naïve pluripotent state” while the latter are in a “primed pluripotent state.” The new Sanger iPS cells have many of the biological properties typically associated with the naïve state, including the activation in female cells of both X chromosomes, as opposed to the usual inactivation of one X chromosome in all mammalian cells (including human ES cells) past an early stage of embryonic development. Naïve mouse cells have shown more reliability and consistency in their developmental potential than human ES or iPS cells, and some scientists have speculated that creating naïve human pluripotent stem cells will facilitate research on the ability of stem cells to differentiate into various tissues. Further, some have argued that it will be easier to perform genetic engineering techniques, which may facilitate the creation of genetically modified tissues for disease modeling and cellular therapies. Additionally, the Sanger iPS technique could open the door to the creation of human-animal chimeras for research or for cross-species organ transplantation. In sum, induced pluripotent stem cells are a very promising avenue for procuring pluripotent stem cells without the destruction of human embryos, but a number of difficulties with the procedure still need to be addressed. In this appendix we have given an account of stem cells, and more particularly, of embryonic stem cells and some techniques for producing cells with similar powers. Stem cells clearly hold great potential for scientific research and, hopefully, for new and improved therapies. In the next appendix, we offer a sketch of the state of the art in therapeutic uses of stem cells. The Stem Cell Debates

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I’ll take a wild guess that you don’t need any convincing about the need for action on climate change. You know that since the start of the Industrial Revolution we’ve dumped more than 500 billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere and we’re adding about 10 billion more each year. You know that global temperatures have risen 1 degree Celsius over the past century and we’re on track for 2 degrees within another few decades. And you know what this means. It means more extreme weather. More hurricanes. More droughts. More flooding. More wildfires. More heat-related deaths. There will be more infectious disease as insects move ever farther north. The Northwest Passage will be open for much of the year. Sea levels will rise by several feet as the ice shelves of Greenland and the Antarctic melt, producing bigger storm swells and more intense flooding in low-lying areas around the world. Some of this is already baked into our future, but to avoid the worst of it, climate experts widely agree that we need to get to net-zero carbon emissions entirely by 2050 at the latest. This is the goal of the Paris Agreement, and it’s one that every Democratic candidate for president has committed to. But how to get there? Let’s start with the good news. About three-quarters of carbon emissions come from burning fossil fuels for power, and we already have the technology to make a big dent in that. Solar power is now price-competitive with the most efficient natural gas plants and is likely to get even cheaper in the near future. In 2019, Los Angeles signed a deal to provide 400 megawatts of solar power at a price under 4 cents per kilowatt-hour—including battery storage to keep that power available day and night. That’s just a start—it will provide only about 7 percent of electricity needed in Los Angeles—but for the first time it’s fully competitive with the current wholesale price of fossil fuel electricity in Southern California. Wind power—especially offshore wind—is equally promising. This means that a broad-based effort to build solar and wind infrastructure, along with a commitment to replace much of the world’s fossil fuel use with electricity, would go pretty far toward reducing global carbon emissions. How far? Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates that by 2050, wind and solar can satisfy 80 percent of electricity demand in most advanced countries. But due to inadequate infrastructure in some cases and lack of wind and sun in others, not all countries can meet this goal, which means that even with favorable government policies and big commitments to clean energy, the growth of wind and solar will probably provide only about half of the world’s demand for electricity by midcentury. “Importantly,” the Bloomberg analysts caution, “major progress in de-carbonization will also be required in other segments of the world’s economy to address climate change.” This inevitably means we have to face up to some bad news. If existing technologies like wind, solar, and nuclear can get us only halfway to our goal—or maybe a bit more—the other half would seem to require cutting back on energy consumption. Let’s be clear about something: We’re not talking about voluntary personal cutbacks. If you decide to bicycle more or eat less meat, great—every little bit helps. But no one who’s serious about climate change believes that personal decisions like this have more than a slight effect on the gigatons of carbon we’ve emitted and the shortsighted policies we’ve enacted. Framing the problem this way—a solution of individual lifestyle choices—is mostly just a red herring that allows corporations and conservatives to avoid the real issue. The real issue is this: Only large-scale government action can significantly reduce carbon emissions. But this doesn’t let any of us off the hook. Our personal cutbacks might not matter much, but what does matter is whether we’re willing to support large-scale actions—things like carbon taxes or fracking bans—that will force all of us to reduce our energy consumption. Solutions depend on how acceptable these policies are to the public. To get a rough handle of what a significant reduction means, the Nature Conservancy has a handy app that can help you calculate what it would take to cut your household carbon footprint in half. If you’re an average household, you need to pare down to one car. If it’s an suv or a sports car, get rid of it. You need a small, high-mileage vehicle (the calculator assumes a regular gasoline car) and drive it no more than 10,000 miles per year. That’s for your whole family. You need to cut way back on heating and cooling. You need to live in a house no bigger than 1,000 square feet. And you need to buy way less stuff—about half of what you buy now. There are solutions to some of these problems—electrification obviously helps with transportation, and better insulation helps with heating and cooling—but only to a point. One way or another, any government policy big enough to make a serious dent in climate change will also force people to make major lifestyle cutbacks or pay substantially higher taxes—or both. How many of us are willing to do that? It turns out we have a pretty good idea. In 2018, the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago fielded a national poll on climate change. Only 71 percent of respondents agreed it was happening, and of those, more than 80 percent said the federal government should do something about it. Then the pollsters presented a scenario in which a monthly tax would be added to your electric bill to combat climate change. If the tax was $1, only 57 percent supported it. If the tax was $10, that plummeted to 28 percent. Those aren’t typos. Only about half of Americans are willing to pay $1 per month to fight climate change. Only about a quarter are willing to pay $10 per month. And that’s hardly the only evidence of the uphill climb we face. There’s abundant confirmation of the public’s unwillingness to accept sacrifices in living standards to combat climate change. In France, a 2018 gasoline tax increase had to be withdrawn after yellow vest activists—generally an eco-friendly movement—took to the streets in furious protest. In Germany, where the growth of renewable energy has made it possible to shut down old power plants, the Fukushima disaster in Japan prompted the closing of climate-friendly nuclear plants before coal plants—despite the fact that German nukes have a spotless safety record over the past 30 years and are under no threat from tsunamis. In Canada, a recent poll reported that most people say they’re willing to make changes in their daily lives to fight climate change—but only when the changes are kept vague. When pollsters asked specific questions, only small fractions said they’d fly less frequently, purchase an electric car, or give up meat. And a paltry 16 percent said they’d be willing to pay a climate tax of $8–$40 per month. None of this should surprise us. Fifteen years ago, UCLA geography professor Jared Diamond wrote a book called Collapse. In it, he recounted a dozen examples of societies that faced imminent environmental catastrophes and failed to stop them. It’s not because they were ignorant about the problems they faced. The 18th-century indigenous inhabitants of Easter Island, Diamond argues, knew perfectly well that deforesting their land would lead to catastrophe. They just couldn’t find the collective will to stop. Over and over, human civilizations have destroyed their environments because no one—no ruler, corporation, or government—was willing to give up their piece of it. We have overfished, overgrazed, overhunted, overmined, overpolluted, and overconsumed. We have destroyed our lifeblood rather than make even modest changes to our lifestyles. Even if we could get wealthy Western countries to accept serious belt-tightening, they’re not where the growth of greenhouse gas emissions is taking place right now. It’s happening in developing countries like China and India. Most people in these countries have living standards that are a fraction of ours, and they justifiably ask why they should cut back on energy consumption and consign themselves to poverty while those of us in affluent countries—which caused most of the problem in the first place—are still driving SUVs and running air conditioners all summer. This is the hinge point on which the future of climate change rests. Clearly the West is not going to collectively agree to live like Chinese farmers. Just as clearly, Chinese farmers aren’t willing to keep living in shacks while we sit around watching football on 60-inch TV screens in our climate-controlled houses as we lecture them about climate change. This is why big government spending on wind and solar—everyone’s favorite solution to global warming—isn’t enough to do the job. Subsidies for green energy might reduce US emissions, but even if the United States eliminated its carbon output completely, it would only amount to a small reduction in global emissions. Yes, we should be fully committed to the kind of framework that congressional Democrats propose in the Green New Deal, which provides goals for building infrastructure and ways of retraining workers affected by the transition to clean energy. But there’s no chance this will solve the problem on a global scale, and 2050 isn’t that far away. We don’t have much time left. So what do we do? We need to figure out ways to produce far more clean energy, in far more ways, at a cost lower than we pay for fossil fuel energy. As the socialist writer Leigh Phillips warns his allies, “Households need clean energy options to be cheaper than fossil fuels currently are, not for fossil fuels to be more expensive than clean energy options currently are.” This requires a reckoning. Time is running out, and we can no longer pretend that we can beat climate change by asking people to do things they don’t want to do. We need to focus our attention almost exclusively not on things people don’t like, but on something people do like: spending money. Lots of money. As the Green New Deal suggests, part of the solution is building infrastructure for what we already know how to do. But our primary emphasis needs to be on R&D aimed like a laser at producing cheap, efficient, renewable energy sources—a program that attacks climate change while still allowing people to use lots of energy. This is the kind of spending that wins wars, after all. And make no mistake, this is a war against time and physics. So let’s propose a truly gargantuan commitment to spending money on clean energy research. How gargantuan? The International Energy Agency estimates that the world spends about $22 billion per year on clean energy innovation. The US share of that is $7 billion—that’s about 0.03 percent of our economy. (Trump proposed cutting that figure almost in half.) This is pathetic if you accept that climate change is an existential threat to our planet. During World War II, the United States devoted 30 percent of its economy to the war effort—or one thousand times what we’re spending on green tech. There were three elements to this mass mobilization. First, Americans were asked to make modest sacrifices over the course of a few years. Victory gardens were planted, tin was collected, sugar and gasoline were rationed. Men enlisted and women went to work in factories. The rich paid high taxes and the rest of us bought war bonds. Perhaps there’s a limit to how much we can ask of people, but plainly we can ask something of them. Second, we built an enormous war machine: 89,000 tanks, 300,000 aircraft, 1,200 major combat ships, 64,500 landing craft, 2.7 million machine guns, and $2.6 trillionworth of munitions in today’s dollars. And it’s worth noting that much of this we simply gave away to allies like Britain and the Soviet Union. This was a global war that required American leadership and funding on a global scale. Third, we spent money on R&D. There was the Manhattan Project to build the atomic bomb, but there was also the development of radar, code breaking, computers, jet aircraft, plastic explosives, and M&Ms. That last part isn’t a joke. It’s true that M&Ms were developed with a candy coating so they’d melt in your mouth, not in your hand, but they provided their first jolt of calories on the battlefield, not in corner candy shops. They were initially produced by a private company in 1941, but for the next five years were available exclusively to the military. Why mention that? Because there’s never any telling beforehand what research will pan out and what won’t. M&Ms were obviously not as crucial to the war effort as the Bletchley Park code-breaking project was, but they were an unexpected success in their own way. We should commit to funding any clean energy research that looks even a little promising. We should do our best to get commitments from other countries to do the same. If we’re successful, we’ll end up developing cheap technology that can spread quickly around the world and truly address warming on a global basis. Other countries will adopt our technology not only because it requires no sacrifice, but because it’s actually cheaper and better than what they have now. Why wouldn’t they take advantage of our R&D, especially if we give it away for nothing? So how much should we spend? For argument’s sake let’s be modest and aim for only 10 percent of peak World War II–level spending. That’s $700 billion per year in today’s dollars—a hundred times more than we currently spend on energy R&D, but barely 15 percent of what we spent to defeat the Axis. It also amounts to not quite 16 percent of our current federal budget. That’s a big number, and we won’t get there at once. It requires a combination of raising money and cutting spending in other areas. The most obvious candidate for cuts is our swollen defense budget—which accounts for one-sixth of all federal spending—but that’s politically risky, and given that climate change is truly an existential threat, we have to continually remind ourselves not to put up roadblocks to addressing it. Maybe we can persuade defense contractors that creating green tech is profitable. But if we have to keep building tanks and missiles for political reasons while we dial up spending on clean energy R&D, maybe that’s just something we have to do. If an R&D commitment bigger than the Manhattan Project were all we needed, our task would be relatively easy. No one is actually opposed to the concept of R&D, after all, and every climate plan worth the name acknowledges the value of continuing it. What I’m proposing is not just that we focus on R&D, but that we focus nearly exclusively on R&D—at least at first. That we throw gobs of money at all the projects I detail in the following pages, and any others that seem promising. Why so much emphasis on R&D? Turns out I share something with those environmentalists who think that talk of voluntary personal sacrifice is mostly just a smoke screen. I first became skeptical of the standard approach to climate change about a decade ago. Since then I’ve watched as, year after year, we’ve done far too little even though we know perfectly well how critical it is. Sure, Europe has a cap-and-trade plan to reduce carbon emissions, but we couldn’t pass even a modest version of cap and trade in the United States. President Barack Obama raised mileage standards for cars and trucks, but President Donald Trump promptly rolled them back. Everything has been like that. There have been a few minor victories here and there, but all of them against a background of relentlessly increasing emissions. How could this be? It’s not that nothing is happening. There are plenty of dedicated activists, climatologists, and politicians who have worked hard for years to rein in climate change, and these people are heroes. The problem is that the global public—or at least their elected representatives—are plainly reluctant to accept many of the policies the experts propose. Take Germany. It’s one of the most green-centric countries on the planet, and it boasts both a highly educated, highly productive workforce and a population genuinely dedicated to tackling climate change. Their Energiewende—or clean energy transition—took off in the 1990s, and Germany represents one of the best cases we have of a major economy making a serious effort to address climate change. But Germany’s progress is tepid. There’s been a massive commitment to wind and solar over the past two decades, which now represent a third of Germany’s energy production, but that’s barely made a dent in their greenhouse gas emissions. The reason is simple. Instead of using green energy to eliminate fossil fuels, Germany has used it to subsidize other priorities: expanding overall power capacity to support a growing economy; increasing exports of electric power; and eliminating those aforementioned nuclear power plants. Use of coal has declined only slightly, and use of natural gas has increased by about half. As a result, progress has plateaued. Greenhouse gas emissions dropped about 17 percent from 1990 to 2000; then dropped only 12 percent more over the next decade; and have barely dropped in the past decade. German households already pay some of the highest energy prices in Europe, but they’ve been unwilling to cut their electricity usage, which has remained stubbornly stable since 2000. And overall power consumption hasn’t declined at all; it’s higher than it was two decades ago. If this kind of pitiful response to climate change continues—even in a country with the means and political will to really make change—the end result will be the greatest catastrophe in human history or an unprecedented experiment in geoengineering with uncertain and potentially disastrous effects. It’s past time for a radically different approach. As in World War II, a call for modest sacrifice is fine: It produces a sense of solidarity against a common enemy and gives people a personal stake in the outcome. But in the end, that’s not what won the war. It was big spending and lots of R&D. This approach will require some sacrifice from the progressive community. If we truly accept that climate change is an existential threat, then it has to take priority over other things we’d normally fight for. Desert habitats may be compromised by utility-scale solar plants. Birds will be killed by wind turbines. Labor unions need to accept that some existing jobs will be lost as fossil fuel plants are shut down. Nuclear power is probably part of the answer, at least for a while. A cold-blooded dedication to stopping climate change means having the willingness to step away from our comfortable shibboleths, accept the criticism that comes with that, and place ourselves squarely behind a plan that has a chance of working. Building out renewable energy will get us part of the way there, but we’ve got more to do and not much time to do it. This isn’t a rosy-hued proposal. You can find plenty of naysayers for every project I propose funding. Solar presents problems of geography. Wind presents land-use problems. Carbon sequestration requires mammoth infrastructure. Nuclear produces radioactive waste. Biofuels have been unable to overcome technical problems even after decades of effort. Fusion power has always been 30 years in the future and still is. Geoengineering is just scary as hell. Ultimately, massive R&D might fail. But unlike current plans, it has one powerful benefit: At least it’s not guaranteed to fail. Over the past 40 years, the price of delivering one watt of solar power has dropped from about $100 to $1. This makes solar one of the most promising success stories of carbon-free power, and a technology that needs relatively little government research help to keep improving. But although the cost is now close to that of the most efficient natural gas power plants, close isn’t always good enough for investors. The price of large-scale solar needs to keep dropping if it’s going to have a serious global impact, and money for both R&D and the massive infrastructure build-outs that the Green New Deal framework imagines can make that happen. The same is true of wind turbine technology, which has benefited from steady improvements in blade design, tower height, and computer control. Wind farms today supply electricity for about half the price they did a decade ago, and offshore wind is another promising area for expansion. Denmark, for example, has lots of shallow offshore regions that are ideal for wind turbines and produces nearly half of its electricity via wind. But not every country has Denmark’s advantages. It’s difficult to anchor wind towers in water more than 200 feet deep, and creative new ways to build turbines in deeper waters are good targets for R&D spending. Solar and wind get most of the attention among renewable energy sources, but there are other promising technologies. For example, ground source heat pumps take advantage of the fact that temperatures just a few feet below ground tend to stay the same throughout the year. In summer, they can pump warm air out of the house, and in winter, the underground warmth can heat water. Heat pumps’ only real drawback is that they cost a lot to install, which makes them an ideal target for both research (to lower costs) and federal subsidies (to incentivize installing them in the meantime). There are less familiar types of renewable energy, including tidal power and geothermal energy, which are not yet always more cost-effective than fossil fuels. But some of them will probably be instrumental in the future, so we should invest in them all. Nuclear power plants are almost carbon-free and provide steady “base load” power that doesn’t depend on sun or wind. That’s the good news. The bad news is that they produce radioactive waste with lifetimes measured in hundreds of centuries. They’re also expensive and vulnerable to catastrophic meltdowns. But they don’t have to be. Failsafe technology has been on the drawing board for years and is incorporated into designs known as Gen IV nuclear power. In the last 10 years, the United States has committed $678 million to new nuclear technologies, and boosting this amount could produce commercial reactors virtually immune to meltdowns within a few years. In China, experimental reactors are being built that use thorium rather than uranium as their nuclear fuel. Thorium is more abundant than uranium, but its biggest advantage is that it produces far less—and less dangerous—nuclear waste than uranium reactors. If their research goes well, China hopes to have commercial thorium reactors online within a decade. Nuclear power may not be a long-term answer to climate change, but it’s relatively green and the technology is relatively advanced. With additional R&D, it could be made better and safer and could provide a stopgap source of carbon-neutral energy until we have permanent solutions up and running. It’s not enough to generate electricity cleanly; we also need to store it. Batteries—the kind that power electric cars—have gotten lots of attention, but there are other ways to store power. You can, and we already do, pump water uphill into a reservoir and use it later to power turbines on the way down. You can heat salt into molten form and draw off the heat later to drive steam engines, which turns out to be surprisingly efficient. And there’s compressed air, an old technology now being tried by some utilities. During the day, a solar plant can generate power that compresses air, stores it underground, and releases it at night to power turbines. There are only two feasible storage options for use in cars and trucks right now: hydrogen fuel cells and lithium-ion batteries. One promising research avenue for fuel cells is solar-powered electrolysis of ordinary water. The cost has dropped by half over the past decade but needs to fall considerably more to become competitive. Battery technology is the target of intense research. Some research is focused on alternatives like nickel-zinc and potassium-ion, and there’s seemingly weekly news of advances in solid-state batteries and so-called supercapacitors. All of these are prime targets for worthwhile government investment. Although global warming is primarily the result of CO2 emissions, there are other greenhouse gases. Among them are methane and nitrous oxide, largely produced by farming and ranching. These go under the rubric of “land use,” which is responsible for about 20 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions. This includes deforestation, methane from cows, and nitrous oxide from fertilizers. But agriculture also presents opportunities to remove carbon from the atmosphere, sometimes by measures as simple as changing the way soil is tilled or treating farmland with compost. These methods are called “carbon farming,” and in France there’s a government initiative called “4 per 1,000,” which aims to increase carbon storage in soil by 0.4 percent per year. Until recently, carbon farming has been a fringe activity, despite the promise it holds not to merely slow the growth of carbon emissions, but to actually remove carbon that’s already there—for example, through massive reforestation. There’s every reason to think that a serious commitment to further research, along with government-sponsored incentives for farmers, could make a big contribution to fighting climate change. Here’s a disturbing fact: Even if we stopped emitting carbon completely, that wouldn’t be enough. “Meeting the climate goals of the Paris Agreement is going to be nearly impossible without removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,” researchers Jan Christoph Minx and Gregory Nemet warned in the Washington Post in 2018. Given how much damage we’ve already done and the near certainty that we’ll increase carbon emissions for at least another decade, we need to figure out how to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere on a massive scale. According to the International Energy Agency, governments around the world set aside $28 billion for carbon capture projects over the past decade but spent only $4 billion. We’ve given up just when we should be doubling down. The Energy Futures Initiative, a think tank, recommends that the United States commit $10.7 billion over the next 10 years for carbon capture R&D. The infrastructure to store carbon needs to be built at roughly the same scale as the infrastructure that produced it, which means that pumping even a fraction of it underground would require construction on a scale similar to today’s entire oil extraction industry. That doesn’t seem politically feasible, but even storing a fraction of our carbon emissions could be a big part of the solution. Carbon dioxide can also be removed from the air, combined with hydrogen, and turned into fuel. The fuel itself emits carbon when it’s burned, but the entire cycle is net carbon neutral. A team of scientists at Harvard recently announced a cost breakthrough, estimating they could do this for less than $100 per ton of carbon removed from the atmosphere—or $1 for every gallon of gasoline we burn. There are also natural methods of carbon capture. A research team in Zurich, after studying satellite images of the entire globe, estimated that 2 billion acres of land not in use for agriculture are suitable for reforesting; the researchers say this would remove two-thirds of all the carbon dioxide that humans have added to the atmosphere since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. Other teams are investigating gene editing that would increase the amount of carbon that plants can store in their root systems. All of these solutions, from industrial facilities to planting more trees, need intensive research to be made viable. They’re ideal targets for an R&D program dedicated not to dribs and drabs that can disappear with the next Congress, but one that fights climate change like a war. The world uses about 20 billion tons of concrete every year. Unfortunately, concrete’s main constituent is cement, and the chemical process for creating cement is CaCO3 + heat ➞ CaO + CO2. In other words, the concrete industry is basically a huge global machine that digs up limestone, heats it, and turns it into quicklime and CO2. The industry is responsible for about 8 percent of global carbon emissions. Cement production can be made more efficient, but that helps only at the margins. What we really need is a replacement as cheap and durable as the real thing. Companies are already working on this, including some that approach net-zero carbon by pumping CO2 back into the concrete during the curing process. Concrete is one of the world’s most popular building materials, and engineers are naturally reluctant to experiment with unproven replacements. Nobody wants to find out, a decade after a skyscraper has gone up, that a new type of concrete doesn’t age well. That makes concrete a long-lead item in the war on climate change, which means large-scale research needs to be funded now. This is not a widely loved subject, because it means we’re openly admitting that maybe we’ll fail to stop climate change. And no one wants to say that. But the truth is we’ve already failed to stop it, and we’re vanishingly unlikely to keep global warming under 2 degrees Celsius. Even 3 degrees is looking all too likely. Either scenario would require some serious adaptation. Yet the implementation of adaptation strategies is in its infancy. Part of the problem is that adaptation means something different in every place in the world. In Bangladesh and Battery Park, the problem is storm surges, while in the Sahel the problem is drought and declining pastureland. California worries about coastal erosion, while Kansas fears crop losses from insects. Half a dozen big US cities have started work on adaptation plans, including New York and Chicago. In 2019, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio proposed a $10 billion plan to protect lower Manhattan from rising sea levels. That’s a start, but only barely. With storms likely to become bigger and more frequent, we need to invent better forecasting systems. Restoring mangrove forests can protect some coastlines and restoring oyster beds can help others. Far more preventive work like this needs to be done, and far more funding needs to be committed to it. The best-known biofuel is ethanol made from corn—which is no more carbon-friendly than gasoline once you factor in its entire production cycle. But that doesn’t mean biofuels are a dead end. The real holy grails in this area are algae-based and have received much less investment than ethanol. One of their many technological challenges is the lack of a scalable method for drying out algae so that energy-storing lipids can be separated out. But the drying process could be replaced by pyrolysis, which involves heating plants to a high enough temperature that they effectively melt into fuel. And pyrolysis isn’t just viable for algae. The pyrolysis of wood chips could theoretically be carbon-negative on a long enough timeline because it would require planting more trees, and the carbon-heavy charcoal byproducts could be returned to the soil. Even with these innovations, ethanol is a low-density fuel and will be less important as more cars and trucks go electric. But other things will require high-density liquid fuel. Air travel, for example, can’t yet be electric-powered like cars, and by 2050 commercial aircraft will emit about a gigaton of carbon every year, consuming a quarter of the “carbon budget” that would keep us under 1.5 degrees Celsius warming—if flights continue to use petroleum-based jet fuel. We need alternatives. Less Meat, Mostly Plants Production of meat—especially beef—is responsible for at least 15 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. If we replaced three-quarters of animal-based food with grains and vegetables, we would effectively reduce annual emissions in 2050 by more than two gigatons—the equivalent of one-sixth of current emissions. Sure, people should cut back on meat, and those corn and soy fields could be turned into forests or crops for human consumption. But historically, as poor countries get richer, one of the first things that happens is an increase in meat consumption. This makes recent announcements about plant-based burgers and oat milk more than just a gimmick. And if those products get good enough—and production gets efficient enough—they too could go a long way toward reducing carbon emissions associated with a meat-rich diet. Fusion reactors use hydrogen as fuel and produce negligible radioactive waste. It sounds perfect, but to make a fusion reactor work, hydrogen has to be heated to temperatures hotter than the sun’s core and held in place for at least several seconds. No one has come close to doing this on an adequate scale. But fusion power is too promising to give up on. MIT’s SPARC (Smallest Possible Affordable Robust Compact) project, for example, could begin producing power on a small scale by 2025. That’s also the year that ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), a massive fusion project, is scheduled to reach “first plasma,” the beginning of serious testing on a larger scale. A surprising number of startups have begun work on innovative ideas for creating fusion reactors on a smaller and less expensive scale than megaprojects like iter. They could be good candidates for federal investment. This is everybody’s least favorite idea: massive engineering projects to cool down the Earth if it turns out we can’t reduce carbon emissions. Some geoengineering proposals sound crazy, like putting a fleet of mirrors in orbit to reflect sunlight back into space. Others are more practical, like mimicking the effect of volcanoes by spraying aerosols of sulfate particles into the stratosphere. This is both feasible and cheap: A program that costs $2–$5 billion per year could reduce global temperatures by a quarter of a degree Celsius. But while sulfates can lower global temperatures, they don’t do anything to actually remove CO2 from the atmosphere. If spraying ever stops, temperatures would jump. Another proposal, called Project Vesta, seeks to mimic a natural method of removing carbon that normally works over millions of years. It involves grinding up a mineral called olivine and spreading it on tropical beaches, where it combines with CO2, washes out to sea, and falls to the ocean floor. This has the benefit of removing carbon from the atmosphere, but it costs a lot more than sulfate spraying. Other possibilities include seeding the seas with iron to increase the population of carbon-absorbing phytoplankton, a marine algae, and thinning the cover of high-altitude cirrus clouds, which trap heat. All of these proposals have drawbacks, including a political one: Who decides? The United States could easily spray megatons of sulfate aerosols into the atmosphere. So could China or Brazil or the European Union. But the result is global and might impact some areas more than others. Geoengineering is inherently dangerous because there’s no way to know beforehand what the side effects might be—and they could be enormous. And once it starts, there’s no going back. If anything, the very danger of geoengineering is the best argument for continuing to study it. No one can say for sure that we’ll never have to resort to it, and if we do, we ought to be prepared. The history of science is littered with accidental discoveries. Many of us are alive today only because Alexander Fleming accidentally left open a petri dish containing a staph bacteria and discovered penicillin. This is why an R&D program for clean energy needs to be huge and wide-ranging. We simply don’t know which discoveries are most likely to pan out, and climate change is dire enough that we can’t afford to close off any possibilities.

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Back to Old Time Sermons Index The Reckless Penknife by T. DeWitt Talmage "When Jehudi had read three or four leaves, he cut it with his penknife." Jeremiah 36:23. We look in upon a room in Jerusalem. Two men are there. At the table sits Baruch the scribe, with a roll of parchment and an iron pen in his hand. The other man is walking the floor, as if strangely agitated. There is an unearthly appearance about his countenance, and his whole frame quakes as if pressed upon by something unseen and supernal. It is Jeremiah, in the spirit of prophecy. Being too much excited to write with his own hand the words that the Almighty pours upon his mind about the destruction of Jerusalem, he dictates to Baruch the scribe. It is a seething, scalding, burning denunciation of Jehoiakim, the king, and a prophecy of coming disasters. Of course, Jehoiakim the king hears of the occurrence, and he sends Jehudi to obtain the parchment and read its contents. It is winter. Jehoiakim is sitting in his comfortable winter house by a fire that glows upon the hearth, and lights up the faces of the lords, and princes, and senators who have gathered to hear the strange document. Silence is ordered. The royal circle bend forward to listen. Every eye is fixed. Jehudi unrolls the book gleaming with the words of God, and as he reads the king frowns; his eye kindles; his cheek burns; his foot comes down with thundering indignation. He snatches the book from Jehudi's hand, feels for his knife, crumples up the book, and goes to work cutting it up with his penknife. Thus God's book was permanently destroyed, and the king escaped. Was it destroyed? Did he escape? In a little while King Jehoiakim's dead body is hurled forth to blacken in the sun, and the only epitaph he ever had was that which Jeremiah wrote: "Buried with the burial of an ass;" while, to restore the book which was destroyed, Baruch again takes his seat at the table, and Jeremiah walks the floor and again dictates the terrible prophecy. It would take more penknives than cutler ever sharpened to hew into permanent destruction the Word of God. He who shoots at this eternal rock will feel the bullet rebound into his own torn and lacerated bosom. When the Almighty goes forth armed with the thunderbolts of his power, I pity any Jehoiakim who attempts to fight him with a penknife. That Oriental scene has vanished, but it has been often repeated. There are thousands of Jehoiakims yet alive who cut the Word of God with their penknives, and my object in this sermon is to designate a few of them. The first man I shall mention as thus treating the Word of God is the one who receives a part of the Bible, but cuts out portions of it with his penknife and rejects them. Jehoiakim showed as much indignity toward the scroll when he cut one way as when he cut the other. You might as well behead Moses as to behead Jonah. Yes, sir, I shall take all of the Bible or none. Men laugh at us as if we were the most gullible people in the world for believing in the genuineness of the Scriptures; but there can be no doubt that the Bible, as we have it, is the same-no more, no less-as God wrote it. As to the books of the New Testament, the great writers of the different centuries give complete catalogues of their contents. Polycarp, Ignatius, Clemens Romanus, in the first century, give a catalogue of the New Testament books; Tertullian, Justin Martyr, in the second century; Cyprian and Origen in the third century; Augustine, Jerome, and Eusebius in the fourth century. Their catalogues of the different books of the New Testament silence the suggestion that any new books could have been stealthily put in. How many books are on this stand? You say threetwo Bibles and a hymnbook. There are twenty men here taking a list of these books. Would it be possible for any man to come on to this platform and lay a new book on this stand and you not know it? Neither was it possible for any body to put an additional book into this New Testament when all the Christian world was watching. As to the books of the Old Testament, Christ sanctioned them by commending them to the Jews. If any part of the Old Testament had been uninspired, Christ would have said, "Search the Scriptures, all except that book of Jonah," or "Search the Scriptures, excepting the book of Esther." When Christ commends the canon of the Old Testament Scriptures to the people, he affirms its genuineness. There never could have been any interpolations in the Bible, for the Jews were constantly watching, and there were men whose lifetime business it was to attend to the keeping of the Scriptures unadulterated. Besides this, the Bible has always had enemies. If there had been any attempt at interpolation, Celsus in the second century, and Porphyry in the fourth century, would have proclaimed it. Yet they never even hinted at any thing like a want of genuineness, although they despised the book. Far easier would it be for a man in this day to insert a long paragraph in the Farewell Address of Washington, or an entire canto in Milton's Paradise Lost, than it would have been for any man at any time to insert a foreign, uninspired book in the Bible. No, sir; I shall take all of the Bible or none. A man dies, having made a will. The people who expect a part of the inheritance assemble to hear the will read. The attorney reads it until he comes to a certain passage of the will, when one of the heirs cries out, "I reject that passage." The attorney reads on, and some one else says, "I reject that passage, while I accept all of the rest of the will." The heirs go before the surrogate, and the judge decides: "You must take this will as a whole or not at all. You can not break a part of it, and leave the rest intact." Now I say in regard to this Will of my Father, in respect to this last Will and Testament of our Lord Jesus Christ, that if we break any part of the Will we break it all, and we lose our inheritance and go beggared through eternity. By some shaft from hell, let the sun be cleft in twain, until, with shorn locks and dimmed eye, he stumbles his way through the heavens; but shear not this glorious old Bible of a single lock. The same infernal explosion that sent up into fragments a single book would shock the whole system of truth. Fire one house in a solid square, and into the whole block you hurl fiery destruction. Take one star from a whirling constellation, and the wheel of fire would crush on the highway of light; and remove one orb from this constellation of Bible-books that revolve in splendor about Jesus, the central Sun, and heaven itself would shriek at the catastrophe, amid the weeping of a God! No, sir; you shall not rob me of a single word, of a single verse, of a single chapter of a single book of my Bible. When life, like an ocean, billows up with trouble, and death comes, and our bark is seasmitten, with halyards cracked and white sails flying in shreds, like a maniac's gray locks in the wind, then we will want God's Word to steer us off the rocks, and shine like lighthouses through the dark channels of death, and with hands of light beckon our stormtossed souls into the harbor. In that last hour take from me my pillow, take away all soothing draughts, take away the faces of family and kindred, take away every helping hand and every consoling voice; alone let me die on the mountain, on a bed of rock, covered only by a sheet of embroidered frost, under the slap of the nightwind, and breathing out my life on the bosom of the wild, wintry blast, rather than in that last hour take from me my Bible. Stand off, then, ye carping, clipping, meddling critics, with your penknives! I can think of only one right way in which the Bible may be divided. A minister went into a house, and saw a Bible on the stand, and said, "What a pity that this Bible should be so torn! you do not seem to take much care of it. Half the leaves are gone." Said the man, "This was my mother's Bible, and my brother John wanted it, and I wanted it, and we could not agree about the matter, and so we each took a half. My half has been blessed to my soul, and his half has been blessed to his soul." That is the only way that I can think of in which the Word of God may be rightfully cut with a penknife. The next man that I shall mention as following Jehoiakim's example is the infidel, who runs his knife through the Bible from Genesis to Revelation, and rejects everything. The hostility existing that night in that winterhouse among those lords and senators, exists yet. The enemies of this Book have gathered themselves into clubs, and have tried to marshal on their side chemist's laboratory, and astronomer's telescope, and geologist's pry, and mineralogist's hammer, and ornithologist's gun; and they have ransacked the earth and the heavens to see if they could not find arguments with which to refute the Bible, and balk the Church, and clip the wing of the Apocalyptic angel. With the black hulk of their pirate craft they have tried to run down this Gospel ship speeding on errands of salvation. They have tried to stab patriarch and prophet, evangelist and apostle, with Jehoiakim's penknife. They say that the Bible is a very weak book, filled with big stories and Munchausen adventures, and has no more authority than the Sliaster of the Hindoo, or the ZendAvesta of the Persian, or the Talmud of the Hebrew, or the Confucian writings of the Chinese, or the Sibylline books of the Romans, or the Koran of the Mohammedans. Men strike their knife through this Book because they say that the light of nature is sufficient. Indeed! Have the fireworshipers of India, cutting themselves with lancets until the blood spurts at every pore, found the light of nature sufficient? Has the Bornesian cannibal, gnawing the roasted flesh from human bones, found the light of nature sufficient? Has the Chinese woman, with her foot cramped and deformed into a cow's hoof, found the light of nature sufficient? Could the ancients see heaven from the heights of Ida or Olympus? No! I call upon the pagodas of superstition, the Brahminic tortures, the infanticide of the Ganges, the bloody wheels of the Juggernaut, to prove that the light of nature is not sufficient. A star is beautiful, but it pours no light into the midnight of a sinful soul. The flower is sweet, but it exudes no balm for the heart's wound. All the odors that ever floated from royal conservatory, or princely hanginggardens, give not so much sweetness as is found in one waft from this Scripture mountain of myrrh and frankincense. All the waters that ever leaped in torrent, or foamed in cascade, or fell in summer shower, or hung in morning dew, gave no such coolness to the fevered soul as the smallest drop that ever flashed out from the showering fountains of this divine Book. If you like the light of nature better than that of revelation, why do you not go and root in the ground with the Hottentot; or go ride with the Laplander behind a team of dogs; or go help the Mexican pick cochineal; or go help the Arabs lasso the wild horse; or the Turk hunt for gallnuts and meerschaum. I bring China, and India, and Siberia, and Ethiopia, and Tartary, and New Holland, and Persia, and Hindostan, to prove, before all the hosts of hell, and the armies of heaven, and the nations of the earth, that the light of nature is not sufficient. "What must I do to be saved?" Sweltering nations have knelt at the feet of the Himalayan Mountains for ages asking that question, but the mountains made no response. Not one of the old peaks stooped down to lift a single soul on its shoulder into the heavens. Still the people cry, and still the mountains are silent- "what must I do to be saved?" Nations, in blindness and death, have knelt on the beach of the Persian Gulf, and Bengal Bay, and Caspian Sea, moaning out that question, but there was nothing in all the tumbling surf that responded. The winds mocked, and the waves spit their spray into the face of the dying nations. And so the cry went round the world, but the desert spoke not, and the Alps were silent, and the stars were dumb, and all the caverns, and hills, and seas but echoed back the dismal cry, "What must I do to be saved?" The light of nature is not sufficient. Infidels strike their penknife through this Book because they say that it is cruel and indecent. There are things in Ezekiel and Solomon's Songs that they don't want read in their families. Ah! if the Bible is so pernicious, just show me somebody that has been spoiled by it. A thousand dollars reward if you will show rue a man who has been made cruel, or obscene, or reckless by the Bible. While you are trying in vain to pick out such a one, I will show you five hundred men in this audience who have by it been tamed out of rudeness, and lifted up out of sin, and enriched with innumerable virtues. Again, they strike their penknife through this Bible because it is so full of unexplained mysteries. What! will you not believe any thing you can not explain? Have you fingernails? You say "Yes." Explain why, on the tip of your finger, there comes a nail. You can not tell me. You believe in the law of gravitation; explain it, if you can. I can ask you a hundred questions about your eyes, about your ears, about your face, about your feet, that you can not answer, and yet you find fault that I can not answer all the questions you may ask about this Bible. I would not give a farthing for the Bible if I could understand every thing in it. I would know that the heights and depths of God's truth were not very great if, with my poor, finite mind, I could reach every thing. A plain farmer said to a skeptic, "The mysteries of the Bible do not bother me. I read the Bible as I cat fish. In eating fish, when I come across a bone, I do not try to swallow it, but I lay it one side. When, in reading the prophecies, I come across that which is inexplicable, I say, 'There is a bone,' and I lay it one side. When I find something in a doctrine that staggers my reason, I say, 'That is a bone,' and I lay it one side." Alas! my friends, that men should choke themselves to death with bones of mystery, when there is so much meat in this Bible on which the soul may get strong for eternity. Again, the infidel strikes his penknife through this Book because, he says, if it were God's book, the whole world would have it. He says that it is not to be supposed that if God had any thing to say to the world, he would say it only to the small part of the human race who actually possess the Bible. To this I reply that the fact that only a part of the race receives any thing is no ground for believing that God did not bestow it. Who made oranges and bananas? You say, God. I ask, How can that be, when thousands of our race never saw an orange or a banana? If God were going to give such things, why did he not give them to all? The argument that the giving of the Bible to a part of the race would imply a wicked partiality on the part of God, and consequently that he did not give it at all, would prove that he did not give oranges and bananas to the people of the tropics, for that would be partiality. The fact is that God has a right to do as he pleases, and he is constantly partial in a thousand things. He gives us a pleasant clime, while he gives earthquakes and tornadoes to Mexico. He gives incomputable harvests of wheat to Sicily, but scant berries and polar bears, and the ungainly walrus, to the Arctic inhabitants. He gives one man two good eyes, and to another none. He gives you two feet; to another man no feet at all. To you he gives perpetual health; to another man coughing consumption, or piercing pleurisy, or stinging gout, or fiery erysipelas. He does not treat us all alike. If all the human race had the same climate, the same harvests, the same health, the same advantages, then you might, by analogy, argue that if he gave a Bible at all, he would give it to the whole race at the same time. If you say to me that the fact that the Bible is now in the possession of only a small part of the human family is proof that he did not send the Bible, then I say that the fact that only a part of the world has peaches and apples proves that God never made peaches and apples; and the fact that a part of the world has a mild, sunshiny climate, proves conclusively that God does not make the climate. Indeed, I will carry on your argument until I can prove that God made nothing at all; for there is not one single physical or intellectual blessing that we possess that has not been denied some one else. No! no! Because God, in his sovereign mercy, has given us a book that some others do not possess, let us not be so ungrateful as to reject it-blowing out our own lantern because other people have not a light; rending off the splinters from our broken bone because other people have not been able to get a bandage; dashing our own ship on a rock because other vessels have not a compass; cutting up our own Bible with a penknife because other people have not a revelation. Again, the infidel strikes his penknife through this Book by saying, "You have no right to make the Bible so prominent, because there are other books that have in them great beauty and value." There are grand things in books professing no more than human intelligence. The heathen Bible of the Persians says, "The heavens are a point from the pen of God's perfection." "The world is a bud from the bower of his beauty." "The sun is a spark from the light of his wisdom." "The sky is a bubble on the sea of his power." Beautiful! Beautiful! Confucius taught kindness to enemies; the Shaster has great affluence of imagery; the Veda of the Brahmins has ennobling sentiment; but what have you proved by all this? Simply that the Author of the Bible was as wise as all the great men that have ever lived put together; because, after you have gone through all lands, and all ages, and all literatures, and after you have heaped every thing excellent together and boiled it down, you have found in all that realm of all the ages but a portion of the wisdom that you find in this one book. The fact is that all the jar of hell's batteringrams against this buttress of truth only proves the strength of the wall. All of the fleets of perdition have come sailing against this craft, managed by a few fishermen; but it has proved an ironclad able to sink with a few strokes the armaments of infidelity. One little Kearsarge thundering to darkness and hell a thousand flaunting Alabamas. Let Voltaire come on with his acute philosophy; and Hume with his scholarship; and Chesterfield with his polished insinuations; and Gibbon with his onesided historical statements; and Shaftesbury with his sarcasm; and Hobbes with his subtlety; and Blount and Bolingbroke with their armed hostility-yea, come on, Platonic philosophers, and German infidels, and Boston transcendentalists, and all ye helmeted sons of darkness-I charge upon you with a regiment of mountain shepherds and Galilee fishermen. Forward, ye inspired men, to the strife! Steady! Take aim! Fire! Their ranks waver! They break! They fly! Victory, through our Lord Jesus Christ! I want no better proof of the divinity of this Book than the fact that it has withstood this mighty and continuous attack, and come down to us without a chapter effaced, or a parable riddled, or a miracle injured, or a promise scarred. No other book could have lived an hour in such a sea; no other force could have stood under such crossfire. This Book today is foremost. In philosophy, it is honored above the works of Descartes, Bacon, Aristotle, and Socrates. In history, it wins more respect than Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon. In poetry, it far outshines the Iliad and Odyssey, the AEneid, the Inferno, and Paradise Lost. It has been published in more than two hundred languages. The earth quakes with the quick revolution of its printingpress. The best art has come to the illustration of its pages, to the adornment of its lids, to the setting of its type. Its scenes of glory and promise blossom on every wall, and thrill through the music of the oratorio and orchestra. If infidelity is as successful in the next fifty years, in its war against the Bible, as it has been in the past fifty, the year 1950 will see the Bible in the possession of every man on the earth who has a hand to hold it. One wave of this Book above the throne of tyranny, and they shall fall; above the temples of superstition, and they shall crumble; above the wilderness, and it shall bloom like the garden of the Lord. Thou Prince of Books, we hail thee to thy coronation! the wheeling earth thy chariot! the bending sky thy triumphal arch! the great heavens one starstudded, cloud-striped banner! Make the application of this subject yourselves. I have preached it that I might show you that we who believe in the Bible are not so verdant as people suppose, since we have a great many stout reasons for believing in it. I have tried, by my remarks, to raise the Book higher in your estimation. Take it into your heart! Take it into your house! Take it into your shop! Take it into your store! Though you may seem to get along quite well without this Book in your days of prosperity, there will come a time to us all when our only consolation will be this blessed Gospel. A blind girl had been in the habit of reading her Bible by means of raised letters such as are prepared for the use of the blind; but after a while, by working in a factory, the tips of her fingers became so calloused that she could no more by her hands read the precious promises. She cut off the tips of her fingers that her touch might be more sensitive; but still she failed with her hands to read the raised letters. In her sorrow, she took the Bible and said, "Farewell, my dear Bible. You have been the joy of my heart!" Then she pressed the open page to her lips, and kissed it, and as she did so she felt with her mouth the letters, "The Gospel according to St. Mark." "Thank God!" she said; "if I can not read the Bible with my fingers, I can read it with my lips!" Oh! in that last hour when the world goes away from our grasp, press this precious Gospel to our lips, that, in that dying kiss, we may taste the sweetness of that promise, "When thou passest through the waters, I will be with thee; and through the rivers, they shall not overflow thee." "How precious is the Book divine, By inspiration given! Bright as a lamp its doctrines shine To guide our souls to heaven. "This lamp through all the tedious night Of life shall guide our way, Till we behold the clearer light Of an eternal day."

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English Theoretical Grammar English Theoretical Grammar Lecture-Notes in English Theoretical Grammar Theme 1. INTRODUCTION. Point 1. The subject of theoretical grammar and its difference from practical grammar. The following course of theoretical grammar serves to describe the grammatical structure of the English language as a system where all parts are interconnected. The difference between theoretical and practical grammar lies in the fact that practical grammar prescribes certain rules of usage and teaches to speak (or write) correctly whereas theoretical grammar presents facts of language, while analyzing them, and gives no prescriptions. Unlike school grammar, theoretical grammar does not always produce a ready-made decision. In language there are a number of phenomena interpreted differently by different linguists. To a great extent, these differences are due to the fact that there exist various directions in linguistics, each having its own method of analysis and, therefore, its own approach to the matter. But sometimes these differences arise because some facts of language are difficult to analyze, and in this case the only thing to offer is a possible way to solve the problem, instead of giving a final solution. It is due to this circumstance that there are different theories of the same language phenomenon, which is not the case with practical grammar. Point 2. The main development stages of English theoretical grammar. English theoretical grammar has naturally been developing in the mainstream of world linguistics. Observing the fact that some languages are very similar to one another in their forms, while others are quite dissimilar, scholars still long ago expressed the idea that languages revealing formal features of similarity have a common origin. Attempts to establish groups of kindred languages were repeatedly made from the 16th century on. Among the scholars who developed the idea of language relationship and attempted to give the first schemes of their genealogical groupings we find the name of J. J. Scaliger (1540-1609). But a consistently scientific proof and study of the actual relationship between languages became possible only when the historical comparative method of language study was created – in the first quarter of the 19th century. The historical comparative method developed in connection with the comparative observation of languages belonging to the Indo-European family, and its appearance was stimulated by the discovery of Sanskrit. Sir William Jones (1746-1794), a prominent British orientalist and Sanskrit student, was the first to point out in the form of rigorously grounded scientific hypothesis that Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and some other languages of India and Europe had sprung from the same source which no longer existed. He put forward this hypothesis in his famous report to the Calcutta Linguistic Society (1786), basing his views on an observation of verbal roots and certain grammatical forms in the languages compared. The relations between the languages of the Indo-European family were studied systematically and scientifically at the beginning of the 19th century by some European scholars, such as Franz Bopp (1791-1867), Rasmus Kristian Rask (1787-1832), Jacob Grimm (1785-1863), and A. Ch. Vostokov (1781-1864). These scholars not only made comparative and historical observations of the kindred languages, but they defined the fundamental conception of linguistic ‘kinship’ (‘relationship’), and created the historical comparative method in linguistics. The rise of this method marks the appearance of linguistics as a science in the strict sense of the word. After that the historical and comparative study of the Indo-European languages became the principal line of European linguistics for many years to come. The historical comparative linguistics was further developed in the works of such scholars of the 19th and 20th centuries as F. Dietz (1794-1876), A. F. Pott (1802-1887), A.Schleicher (1821-1868) , F.I.Buslayev (1848-1897), F. F. Fortunatov (1848-1914), F. de Saussure (1857-1913), A.Meillet(1866-1936) and other linguists. At the beginning of the 20th century the science of linguistics went different ways and later formed into various trends or schools, each of them contributing greatly to English theoretical grammar. The process is still under way nowadays, and it is going to be considered in detail further on. Thus, we may tentatively trace three main development stages of English theoretical grammar: first (the 16th century - the first quarter of the 19th century), second (the first quarter of the 19th century - the 1930s) and third (the 1930s - present day). Point 3. The classical scientific grammar of the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. As it has been stated above, the main method of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century was the historical comparative method. Valuable as it was for the scientific study of languages, it had definite shortcomings and limitations. The historical comparative method did not give any exact definition of the object of linguistics as an independent science. Logical, psychological, and sociological considerations were involved in linguistic studies to such an extent as to obscure linguistics proper. The study of numerous languages of the world was neglected, the research being limited to the group of the Indo-European languages. It was mainly the historical changes of phonological and morphological units that were studied; syntax hardly existed as an elaborate domain of linguistics alongside of phonology and morphology. The painstaking study of the evolution of sounds and morphemes led to an atomistic approach to language. As a reaction to the atomistic approach to language a new theory appeared that was seeking to grasp linguistic events in their mutual interconnection and interdependence, to understand and to describe language as a system. The first linguists to speak of language as a system or a structure of smaller systems were Beaudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) and Academician F.F.Fortunatov of Russia, and the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. There were three major linguistic schools that developed these new notions concerning language and linguistics as the science that studies it: the Prague School that created Functional linguistics, the Copenhagen School which created Glossematics, and the American School that created Descriptive linguistics. The Immediate Constituents Grammar was a further development of descriptive linguistics; the Transformational Grammar, the latest. The Prague School was founded in 1929, uniting Czech and Russian linguists: Mathesius, Trnka, Nikolay Trubetskoy, Roman Jakobson, and others. The chief contribution of early Praguians to modern linguistics is the technique for determining the units of the phonological structure of languages. The basic method is the use of oppositions (contrasts) of speech sounds that change the meaning of the words in which they occur. The Copenhagen School was founded in 1933 by Louis Hjelmslev (1899-1959) and Viggo Brondal (1887-1942). In 1939 the Prague and the Copenhagen Schools founded the journal ”Acta Linguistica” that had been for several years the international journal of Structural Linguistics. In the early 1930s the conception of the Copenhagen School was given the name of ’Glossematics’ (from Gk. ’glossa’ – language). Point 4. The American Descriptive Linguistics of the 1940s-1950s. Descriptive linguistics developed from the necessity of studying half-known and unknown languages of the Indian tribes. At the beginning of the 20th century these languages were rapidly dying out under the conditions of that time. The study of these languages was undertaken out of purely scientific interest. The Indian languages had no writing and, therefore, had no history. The historical comparative method was of little use there, and the first step of work was to be keen observation and rigid registration of linguistic forms. Frantz Boas, linguist and anthropologist (1858-1942) is usually mentioned as the predesessor of American Descriptive Linguistics. His basic ideas were later developed by Edward Sapir (1884-1939) and Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949). Bloomfield’s main work ”Language” was published in 1933. All linguists of the USA at one time or other felt the influence of this book. It is a complete methodology of language study, approaching the language as if it were unknown to the linguist (student). The main concepts of Bloomfield’s book are: 1. Language is a workable system of sygnals, that is linguistic forms by means of which people communicate. 2. Grammar is a meaningful arrangement of linguistic forms from morphemes to sentence. The chief contribution of the American Descriptive School to modern linguistics is the elaboration of the techniques of linguistic analysis. The main methods are the Distributional method and the method of Immediate Constituents. A recent development of Descriptive linguistics gave rise to a new method – the Transformational grammar. The TG was first suggested by Zellig S. Harris as a method of analyzing the ”raw meterial” (concrete utterances) and was later elaborated by Noam Chomsky as a synthetic method of ”generating” (constructing) sentences. The TG refers to syntax only and presupposes the recognition (identification) of such linguistic units as phonemes, morphemes and form-classes, the latter being stated according to the distributional and the IC-analysis or otherwise. Charles Carpenter Fries is another prominent figure of American linguistic theory. His main work ”The Structure of English” is widely known. Theme 1. INTRODUCTION (continued). Point 5. Problems of ’Case’ Grammar. ’Case” Grammar, or role grammar, is a method to describe the semantics of a sentence, without modal or performative elements, as a system of semantic valencies through the bonds of ’the main verb’ with the roles prompted by its meaning and performed by nominal components. Example: the verb ’to give’ requires the roles, or cases, of the agent, the receiver and the object of giving. He gives me a book. I am given a book by him. A book is given to me by him. Case Grammar emerged within the frames of Transformational Grammar in the late 1960s and developed as a grammatical method of description. There are different approaches towards Case Grammar concerning the type of the logical structure of the sentence, the arrangement of roles and their possible combinations, i.e. ’case frames’, as well as the way in which semantic ties are reflected in a sentence structure by means of formal devices. Case Grammar has been used to describe many languages on the semantic level. The results of this research are being used in developing ’artificial intellect’ (the so-called ’frame semantics’) and in psycholinguistics. However, Case Grammar has neither clear definitions nor criteria to identify semantic roles; their status is vague in the sentence derivation; equally vague are the extent of fulness of their arrangement and the boundaries between ’role’ elements and other elements in a sentence. Point 6. The main conceptions of syntactic semantics (or semantic syntax) and text linguistics The purpose and the social essence of language are to serve as means of communication. Both structure and semantics of language ultimately serve exactly this purpose. For centuries linguists have focused mainly on structural peculiarities of languages. This may be easily explained by the fact that structural differences between languages are much more evident than differences in contents; that is why the study of the latter was seen as research in concrete languages. The correctness of such an assumption is proved by the fact that of all semantic phenomena the most studied were those most ideoethnic, for example, lexical and semantic structure of words. As for syntactic semantics, which is in many aspects common for various languages, it turned out to be least studied. Meanwhile, the study of this field of language semantics is of special interest for at least two reasons. Firstly, communication is not organized by means of separate words, but by means of utterances, or sentences. Learning speech communication, fully conveyed with the help of language information, is impossible without studying sentence semantics. Secondly, studying the semantic aspect of syntactic constructions is important, besides purely linguistic tasks, for understanding the peculiarities and laws of man’s thinking activities. Language and speech are the basic source of information which is a foundation for establishing the laws, as well as the categories and forms, of human thinking. Thus, language semantics is as important and legal object of linguistic study as language forms are. Point 7. Modern methods of grammatical analysis: the I.C. method (method of immediate constituents), the oppositional, transformational and componential methods of analysis. (a) The IC method, introduced by American descriptivists, presents the sentence not as a linear succession of words but as a hierarchy of its ICs, as a ’structure of structures’. Ch. Fries, who further developed the method proposed by L.Bloomfield, suggested the following diagram for the analysis of the sentence which also brings forth the mechanism of generating sentences: the largest IC of a simple sentence are the NP (noun phrase) and the VP (verb phrase), and they are further divided if their structure allows. Layer 3 The recommending committee approved his promotion. The deeper the layer of the phrase (the greater its number), the smaller the phrase, and the smaller its ICs. The resulting units (elements) are called ultimate constituents (on the level of syntax they are words). If the sentence is complex, the largest ICs are the sentences included into the complex construction. The diagram may be drawn somewhat differently without changing its principle of analysis. This new diagram is called a ‘candelabra’ diagram. The man hit the ball. If we turn the analytical (‘candelabra’) diagram upside down we get a new diagram which is called a ‘derivation tree’, because it is fit not only to analyze sentences, but shows how a sentence is derived, or generated, from the ICs. The IC model is a complete and exact theory but its sphere of application is limited to generating only simple sentences. It also has some demerits which make it less strong than transformational models, for instance, in case of the infinitive which is a tricky thing in English. (b) The oppositional method of analysis was introduced by the Prague School. It is especially suitable for describing morphological categories. The most general case is that of the general system of tense-forms of the English verb. In the binary opposition ‘present::past’ the second member is characterized by specific formal features – either the suffix -ed, or a phonemic modification of the root. The past is thus a marked member of the opposition as against the present, which is unmarked. The obvious opposition within the category of voice is that between active and passive; the passive voice is the marked member of the opposition: its characteristic is the pattern 'be+Participle II', whereas the active voice is unmarked. (c) The transformational method of analysis was introduced by American descriptivists Z.Harris and N.Chomsky. It deals with the deep structure of the utterance which is the sphere of covert (concealed) syntactic relations, as opposed to the surface structure which is the sphere of overt relations that manifest themselves through the form of single sentences. For example: John ran. She wrote a letter. But: 1) She made him a good wife. 2) She made him a good husband. The surface structures of these two sentences are identical but the syntactic meanings are different, and it is only with the help of certain changes (transformations) that the covert relations are brought out: 1) She became a good wife for him. 2) He became a good husband because she made him one. The transformational sentence model is, in fact, the extension of the linguistic notion of derivation to the syntactic level which presupposes setting off the so-called ‘basic’ or ‘kernel’ structures and their transforms, i.e. sentence-structures derived from the basic ones according to the transformational rules. E.g. He wrote a letter. – The letter was written by him. This analysis helps one to find out difference in meaning when no other method can give results, it appears strong enough in some structures with the infinitive in which the ICs are the same: 1) John is easy to please. 2) John is eager to please. 1) It is easy - - It is easy (for smb.) to please John Smb. pleases John - - John is easy to please. 2) John is eager - - John is eager to please. John pleases smb. - - (d) The componential analysis belongs to the sphere of traditional grammar and essentially consists of ‘parsing’, i.e. sentence-member analysis that is often based on the distributional qualities of different parts of speech, which sometimes leads to confusion. E.g. My friend received a letter yesterday. (A+S+P+O+AM) His task is to watch. (A+S+V(+?) His task is to settle all matters. (A+S+V+?+A+O) Theme 2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN ENGLISH. Point 1. The correlation of analysis and synthesis in the structure of English. Languages may be synthetical and analytical according to their grammatical structure. In synthetical languages, such as, for instance, Ukrainian, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of inflexions: e.g. долонь руки. In analytical languages, such as English, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of form-words and word order: e.g. the palm of the hand. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb-form consists of one or more form-words, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e.g. He has come. I am reading. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are: 1. Endings (speaks, tables, brother’s, smoked). 2. Inner flexions (man – men, speak – spoke). 3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish. A deviation from the general principle of word order is possible only in special cases. Point 2. Peculiarities of the structure of English in the field of accidence (word-building and word-changing). Affixes, i.e. prefixes and suffixes, in the English language have a dual designation – some are used in word-building, others – in word-changing. Word-building is derivation of new words from basic forms of some part of speech. Word-changing is derivation of different forms of the same word. Word-building and word-changing have their own sets of affixes: their coincidence may only be pure accidental homonymy (cf.=confer –er in agentive nouns – writer, and –er in the comparative degree of adjectives – longer). There may be occasional cases of a word-changing suffix transformation into a word-building one: I am in a strong position to know of her doings. English prefixes perform only word-building functions, and are not supposed to be considered in this course. As for suffixes, they are divided into word-building and word-changing ones; the latter are directly related to the grammatical structure. Point 3. Peculiarities of the English language in the field of syntax. English syntax is characterized by the following main features: 1) A fixed word order in the sentence; 2) A great variety of word-combinations; Рефераты бесплатно, курсовые, дипломы, научные работы, реферат бесплатно, сочинения, курсовые работы, реферат, доклады, рефераты, рефераты скачать, рефераты на тему и многое другое. При использовании материалов - ссылка на сайт обязательна.

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Matthew 1: The Family of the King Matthew begins his Gospel account by working through a selected number of ancestors in the genealogy of Jesus. While there are questions about why Matthew chose these specific people and in this grouped number of fourteens, the purpose of Matthew is to focus on the fact that Jesus is the fulfillment of the Davidic promise (see 2 Sam 7:12). Mary, the mother of Jesus, was betrothed to Joseph when the angel appeared to tell her that she would miraculously bear a son by the Holy Spirit. Joseph, uncertain of the situation, was going to put her away until the Lord let him know that this was from God and that he should proceed with plans to marry her. They were told to name the boy Jesus, a name indicating that Yahweh is the Savior: “for he will save his people from their sins.” All of this was to fulfill God’s purpose to save the world from sin, and we are blessed to participate in this promise today. Matthew 2: Wise Men Search Jesus was born in Bethlehem, just as Micah had foretold (Mic 5:2). Wise men from the east came searching for Jesus since they had learned of his birth. When Herod the Great found out about it, he wanted to know where this king would be born. The wise men found Jesus and worshipped Him, and as they departed they were warned not to return to Herod. Joseph was also warned that Herod would be seeking the life of Jesus, so he took his family down to Egypt and waited for Herod to die. In the meantime, Herod, jealous and furious, killed the male chidren in that region two years and under. After he died, Joseph brought Jesus back. Matthew saw this coming back out of Egypt as a fulfillment (2:15). The new Exodus had begun under Christ! The family went to Nazareth in Galilee, where Jesus would grow to adulthood. We are grateful for what Jesus does for His people now, and if we wish to be wise, we, too, shall seek Him and worship Him. Matthew 3: John Prepares the Way John the Baptizer came in fulfillment of prophecy as well (Isa 40:3-5). His task was to prepare the path for Jesus and become a witness to verify who Jesus was (John 1). While John baptized in preparation for Jesus, he also rebuked the religious leaders of his day for their hypocrisy and unwillingness to hear. John’s baptism pointed to Jesus, but especially so in that Jesus Himself came to John to be baptized. While Jesus was never guilty of sin, His purpose was to identify Himself with His followers and demonstrate His identity. John had been told that the Holy Spirit would make Jesus known so that John could point to Him. In Jesus’ baptism, “the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming to rest on him; and behold, a voice from heaven said, ‘This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased.’” John did his work well, which means that the primary focus needed to turn to Jesus as the One who would reveal God and bring salvation. Today, Jesus is still to be our primary focus. Look to Him! Matthew 4: Temptation! Jesus was led into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil. After 40 days, the tempter came to Jesus and tested Him. On record are three temptations to see if Jesus would use His power and authority in ways that were self-serving rather than God-glorifying. After each temptation, Jesus quoted Scripture (from Deuteronomy). By doing so, Jesus was identifying Himself with the Exodus and the wilderness wanderings, showing Himself to be the true fulfillment of what God intended all along. Jesus began His ministry after his baptism and temptations. He went to Capernaum, which was like a second home to Him, and He is said to have fulfilled the prophecy from Isaiah 9 about the people in that region seeing a great light. Jesus called His disciples, telling them that they would become fishers of men; the disciples immediately followed. Jesus carried out His work, teaching and proclaiming the kingdom while healing diseases and afflictions as signs of His greater work in healing people spiritually. Great crowds began to follow because they saw in Him what we ought to see: Jesus is the only One who can heal us. Matthew 5: Sermon on the Mount Matthew 5-7 provides Matthew’s account of what we call the Sermon on the Mount. Jesus begins with is often referred to as the beatitudes. These are blessings that are characteristic of those in the kingdom. In this lesson, we learn that His people are to be poor in Spirit (humble), mourning sin, meek, hungry and thirsty for righteousness, merciful, pure in heart, peacemakers, and willing to be persecuted. They do not revile others, but rejoice in suffering for Christ. Jesus also tells disciples that they are to salt and light, with righteousness exceeding the Pharisees, and recognizing that their attitudes and desires (like anger and lust) can lead to more overt sins. They are to be true to their word, unwilling to retaliate, and loving their enemies. There are a great many lessons to be learned in these chapters, and God’s people today need to pay attention to the way that Jesus describes those who would follow Him. Matthew 6: Needs, Prayers, and Anxieties Jesus warns against practicing a merely outward form of religion like praying only to be seen by others. True prayer needs no audience but God, and it ought to be from the heart, not merely speaking many words. Jesus gives an example of what prayer ought to be, giving praise to God, praying for His kingdom and will, praying for daily provisions, and seeking forgiveness, something that is also seen in how we forgive others. Even fasting should be done in way that is private and seen by God rather than others. The disciples’ attitude is that of laying up treasure in heaven rather than seeking worldly treasures, for no one can serve two masters (God and mammon). Instead of being anxious about what is happening in the world or how we will be cared for, disciples need to turn it all over to God who knows what we need. Sufficient for the day is its own trouble. The world is filled with anxieties, even today, but we need to trust God and cast our cares upon Him. Matthew 7: Judging, Fruit, and Foundations Jesus teaches that disciples need to be careful about how they judge others, for “with the measure you use it will be measured to you.” If we want mercy, we will be merciful. Further, disciples are told to ask, seek, and knock as they serve the Lord, knowing that He gives good things to those who ask Him. Herein we find the “golden rule” of treating others as we want to be treated. As disciples follow the Lord through the “narrow gate,” they will beware of false prophets who would lead them astray. They would know these teachers by their fruits, for healthy trees bear good fruit. Followers of Christ are careful to to do His will, knowing that not doing God’s will lead to rejection. Instead, they seek to build on the solid foundation of Christ’s authority. As those who heard Him recognized the Lord’s authority, so we should, too. Only by following His will can we build on the rock instead of the sand. Matthew 8: Jesus, Faith, and Following Great crowds began to follow Jesus, and now we begin reading about a variety of miracles that Jesus worked. The healings in this chapter include a leper, the centurion’s servant, Peter’s mother-in-law, some who were demon possessed, and those with other illnesses. These miracles fulfilled what had been spoken in Isaiah 53:4: “He took our illnesses and bore our diseases.” Jesus also calmed a storm on Galilee. These miracles were confirmation that Jesus is indeed the Son of God. We also read of the great faith demonstrated by the Roman centurion regarding Jesus’ ability to heal his servant. In the middle of all this, Jesus tells disciples how they need to follow Him. The identity of Jesus, the nature of faith, and our need to follow Him are all highlighted in this great chapter. Matthew 9: Forgiveness, Healing, and Workers Jesus first demonstrates His ability to forgive sins by healing the paralyzed man who was brought to Him. We then read about the calling of Matthew, the tax collector, and how that was seen as scandalous by some (because tax collectors were looked down upon). Then Jesus answers a question about fasting, followed by more miraculous healings, which here include a resurrection of a young girl, healing a hemorrhage, and healing the blind and a demon-possessed mute man. As Jesus was healing all of these afflictions, He had great compassion and saw helpless people as sheep without a shepherd. He then told His disciples, “The harvest is plentiful, but the laborers are few; therefore pray earnestly to the Lord of the harvest to send out laborers into his harvest.” These words are still true; many workers are still needed. Matthew 10: The Twelve Jesus calls His twelve apostles and “gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction.” He then sent them out on a limited commission to “the lost sheep of the house of Israel” in order to proclaim that “the kingdom of God is at hand.” He warned them that they would be “as sheep in the midst of wolves,” and that they would be persecuted and beaten. However, the Spirit would be speaking through them, and what they were to say would be given to them. Because God was with them, they did not need to fear. Jesus also taught that the nature of the gospel was such that it could actually divide families when some are hostile to the message. Jesus told them, “Whoever receives you receives me, and whoever receives me receives him who sent me.” This message is still true. Are we paying attention to the message of the kingdom? Matthew 11: Greater than John? John the immerser had been put into prison by this time, and he sent some of his disciples to Jesus in order to verify that He is indeed the One they were expecting. Jesus turns to the crowd and begins talking about the nature and work of John. What were the people expecting to see with John? Yes, John was a prophet, but he was more than that. He was the messenger who was sent before the messiah (cf. Mal 3:1). Yet as great as John was, Jesus said, “the one who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he.” Jesus then pronounces woes upon the cities that refuse to repent. Mighty works had been done in these places, yet people were not listening. Even so, Jesus continues to invite people into His rest. That invitation is still open now. We can enter His rest if we will but follow Him. Matthew 12: Lord of the Sabbath According to the Pharisees, Jesus and His disciples were breaking the Sabbath. The disciples had plucked heads of grain to eat, and Jesus was performing miracles on the Sabbath. Neither of these violated the Law, but they did violate traditions set in place by many. Further, Jesus taught, “the Son of Man is lord of the Sabbath.” If only they understood and believed who Jesus really is, they would never have accused Him. Yet Jesus continued on in His work, healing people and pointing to the kingdom of God. The Spirit was certainly with Jesus, just as Isaiah had prophesied. However, some began to accuse Jesus of casting out demons by the power of the devil, a charge that was blasphemous against the Holy Spirit. Jesus told them that a tree is known by its fruit, and careless words would be the cause of condemnation. Still, some continued to demand signs, to which Jesus responded that the sign of Jonah would be it. This would ultimately be Jesus’ own resurrection. As always, there are those who listen and those who refuse. The comfort for disciples is that “whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother and sister and mother.” Matthew 13: Parables! A parable is a story that is meant to teach a greater lesson. Jesus used parables to teach about the kingdom, God’s rule. By using the parables, He made it so that those who really wanted to understand would have to dig in and really listen. Those not so inclined would not understand, “because seeing they do not see, and hearing they do not hear, nor do they understand.” Jesus quoted Isaiah on this to show how parables worked (Isa 6:9-10). Yet the true disciples would be blessed; they would see, hear, and understand. These parables took several forms. For example, the well-known parable of the sower shows the seed, the word of God, was to be spread everywhere, though only a few would receive it. Or, the kingdom was like hidden treasure, valuable enough for one to sell all that he has in order to buy the field in which the treasure was hidden. Jesus told many such parables, and they gave light to the nature of God’s kingdom. Still, those who rejected Jesus would be offended by what He taught. Today, the situation remains the same. We accept or we reject Jesus, and it is incumbent upon us to hear Him. Matthew 14: Miracles! John the immerser had been arrested and beheaded by Herod over Herod’s marrying his brother’s wife. When Jesus began to do His mighty works, Herod thought perhaps John had been raised from the dead and these miraculous powers were at work in him. Herod had no idea who he was really dealing with. Matthew then records more miracles worked by Jesus. He feeds the five thousand, walks on the water, and heals the sick. As with all the miracles, they, like the parables, taught significant lessons about the nature of the kingdom of God. The feeding of the five thousand, for example, shows how God has power over nature and ultimately cares for His people. Jesus Himself is the bread of life come down from heaven (John 6), and He is more than able to supply all that is needed. Those who hunger and thirst for righteousness would find satisfaction. This lesson is still vital for God’s people now. God supplies all our needs. Matthew 15: Tradition! The Pharisees charged the disciples of Jesus with breaking the tradition of the elders because they had not washed their hands when they ate. Jesus, however, asked why they broke the commandments of God for the sake of their tradition. It is one thing to break tradition when that tradition is not commanded; it is another to actually break God’s commands. The Pharisees had a tradition that essentially nullified their caring for mother and father through their saying that what might have been given to them was given to the temple instead. Jesus then quoted from Isaiah 29, showing that though they said they honored God, they really did not because their hearts were not in it. Jesus taught that what really defiles a person is what comes from within, and this includes a number of overt sins. Then, in contrast to the lack of faith shown by the Pharisees, a Canaanite woman demonstrated great faith in Jesus, and He healed her daughter of demon possession. Jesus continued healing many and performing many more miracles, all of which glorified God. This Scripture reminds us how important it is to pay attention to what God actually teaches instead of defending our own self-made traditions. Matthew 16: The Great Confession The Pharisees demanded signs of Jesus and showed themselves to be evil in doing so. Jesus warned the disciples of the “leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees” (i.e., their influence and teaching). Then Jesus and the disciples went up to the district of Caesarea Philippi, where Jesus asked who men say that He, the Son of Man, is. There were a few answers: John the Baptist, Elijah, Jeremiah, one of the prophets. Jesus then asked, “Who do you say that I am?” Peter responded with that great confession, “You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God.” Jesus told Peter he was blessed for this and, “on this rock I will build My church…” The foundation for the new temple, Christ’s church, is seen here (see also Eph 2:19-22 and 1 Pet 2:4-8). Jesus then proceeded to tell His disciples that He would have to go to Jerusalem, suffer, be killed, and rise again. Peter objected to this and was rebuked for it. Jesus told His disciples that they, too, would have to take up the cross in order to follow Him. Today, all disciples are still called to deny themselves and take up the cross with Jesus. Matthew 17: Transfigured! Jesus took Peter, James, and John with Him up on a high mountain where He was changed before them. His face shone and His clothes became white as light. Moses and Elijah then appeared and spoke with Him. Peter wanted to make three booths for them, but a bright cloud overshadowed them and a voice said, “This is My beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to Him.” The disciples fell on their faces, terrified, then looked up saw only Jesus. Jesus was indeed the One to whom they needed to listen. Jesus would again foretell His resurrection after suffering and death. He also continued working the miracles that would demonstrate that He was whom He was claiming to be. Today, we are on the other side of these events happening to Him, and we need to listen to Jesus. Matthew 18: Greatest? Jesus continued His teaching about the kingdom by showing that the “greatest” in the kingdom of heaven would be as a child who humbles himself. Children are to be received, and anyone who would cause a child to sin would be judged for it. The world is full of temptation to sin, and it is vital that His disciples take whatever measures necessary to keep from succumbing to sin. The “little ones” are precious in God’s eyes, and God would, like a shepherd seeking for one sheep, seek His child. Further, as one’s relationship with God is vital, so is one’s relationship with others. If a brother sins against another, then the one sinned against is to go to this brother and seek reconciliation. If he won’t listen, then further steps are to be taken. The Lord will be with those who follow this process. The chapter ends with the parable of the servant who owed his master more than he could pay. The master forgave, but this servant went out and demanded repayment from another who owed much less. When he would not forgive, the original master called him back to pay his debt. Forgiving others is a vital part of serving the Lord. Matthew 19: Marriage and Commitment As crowds were following Jesus, He was constantly being tested. Some Pharisees asked Jesus about marriage. “Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife for any reason at all?” Jesus responded by going back to the beginning of Genesis to show that divorce was not God’s plan. They wanted to know why Moses allowed it, and Jesus said it was for the hardness of heart. Yet the Lord’s will is stated: “Whoever divorces his wife, except for immorality, and marries another woman commits adultery.” Though it is a hard saying, Jesus stood His ground. Then children were brought to Jesus and He proclaimed that “the kingdom of heaven belongs to such as these.” Next, a rich young ruler came to Jesus asking what he was missing in his quest for eternal life. Jesus told him he needed to sell what he had to follow Jesus, and the man was unwilling. Yet, Jesus taught, if disciples would give up their lives now, they will gain their lives in eternity. This chapter reminds us of how important it is to stay focused on God’s will and to remain committed, even when it gets difficult. Matthew 20: The Laborers and the Kingdom Jesus tells the parable of laborers in the vineyard. A landowner hires workers and they all agree to a particular wage. By the end of the day the landowner has hired more laborers who worked fewer hours but were given the same pay. Those who worked longest felt cheated, even though they were payed the wages upon which they agreed. God’s generosity is clear, and His people should be grateful for what God does, whether working short or long. Once again, Jesus foretells His death and resurrection as the time was quickly approaching. The mother of James and John then approached Jesus and asked that her sons have a special place in the kingdom. Jesus told her that they would drink the cup He drank, but giving special place was up to the Father. This request made the other disciples indignant, and Jesus reminded them that, really, this was not the way things worked in the kingdom. The chapter ends with Jesus giving sight to two blind men. Perhaps this sent a message about the disciples needing to see better as well. Matthew 21: Triumphal Entry We come to the final days before the crucifixion in this chapter. Jesus told the disciples to go to the village near the Mount of Olives and get a colt. This would fulfill prophecy. They did so and Jesus rode into Jerusalem while crowds began cheering and shouting “Hosanna” (save, we pray). This was the King riding into His city. He went to the temple where He overturned tables of moneychangers, again citing prophecy. He healed the lame and the blind there, again something the prophets had pointed to. Then He cursed a fig tree as a sign of judgment, particularly against those who were outwardly righteous but inwardly dead. At the temple, chief priests and elders challenged the authority of Jesus, and Jesus showed that they could not answer a simple question about authority without indicting themselves. He then told two more parables, both of which pointing to the evil attitudes and actions of those who opposed Christ, and “they understood that He was speaking about them.” They tried to seize Him then, but were too afraid fo the people. Jesus was in complete control of the timing of these events. This ought to tell us something about why we need to listen to Him. Matthew 22: Come to the Feast Jesus tells the parable of the marriage feast and compares it to the kingdom of heaven. A king gave a wedding feast for his son and servants were sent out to gather those who were invited, yet who refused to come. Other servants were sent out to invite others, who also would not listen, but instead mistreated and killed the servants. The king responded by sending soldiers to destroy the murderers. Then he sent out servants into the highways and byways to invite others, and the hall was filled with guests. Yet one man was unprepared, and he suffered judgment. The Pharisees responded to the parable by seeking to trap Jesus. A series of confrontations between Jesus, the Pharisees, and Sadducees ensues, each time resulting in the embarrassment of those who would challenge Jesus. Those who opposed Jesus were so intent on destroying Him that they ended up destroying themselves. These were the ones who were invited to the feast, but who mistreated the servants. May we all learn the lesson to listen to the Son so that we may properly respond. All things are ready; come to the feast! Matthew 23: Lamentable Hypocrisy Jesus exposed the hypocrisy of the Pharisees by showing how they were taking on positions of authority but not even willing to lift a finger to do what they tell others. They accepted lofty titles for themselves, loved to seen, and loved the praise of others. Yet their righteousness was dead. Jesus pronounced a series of woes upon them, reminiscent of the prophets. Prophets would indeed by sent, but they would kill and crucify these spokesmen of God. Consequently, they bore the “guilt of all the righteous blood shed on earth.” Jesus then laments over Jerusalem: “How often I wanted to gather your children together, the way a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, and you were unwilling. Behold, your house is being left to you desolate! For I say to you, from now on you will not see Me until you say, ‘Blessed is HE who comes in the name of the Lord!’ Perhaps this helps us understand why Jesus insisted that righteousness must exceed that of the Pharisees (cf. Matt 5:20). Matthew 24: Judgment upon Jerusalem As Jesus had just wept over Jerusalem, so now He pronounces judgment upon the city. The disciples pointed to the temple, and Jesus said it would be torn down. The disciples asked about it all: “Tell us, when will these things happen, and what will be the sign of Your coming, and of the end of the age?” Jesus responded by speaking to a series of events that would first occur and showing that they needed to be prepared. Historically, these events would culminate in the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in A.D. 70. Yet, Matthew 24-25 also point to a final judgment. As with all judgments, the judgment upon Jerusalem would typify the final judgment in which God would finally separate the faithful from the unfaithful. The times leading up to the destruction of the city would be perilous and treacherous, but disciples who were ready would be able to withstand it. Above all, we can count upon the promises of Jesus: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will not pass away.” Matthew 25: Talents and Judgment Jesus had already prophesied the destruction of Jerusalem, a judgment that also had typological implications for the final judgment. Jesus then indicates how important it is to be ready for the coming of the Son of Man. In this chapter, tells parables that show the importance of preparation and work. He speaks of the ten virgins, five wise and five foolish. The wise virgins prepared themselves with enough oil for their lamps; the foolish did not. When the time came, the wise virgins were vindicated and able to enter the marriage feast before the door was shut while the others had to go buy more oil. “Watch therefore, for you know neither the day nor the hour.” Jesus then tells the parable of the talents in order to show, once again, the need to utilize what the Lord gives and to prepare for His return. This serves as the prelude into the final judgment scene, where discipleship is measured by caring for the sick, the needy, and those in prison. The result, in the end, is the division of the saved and lost: “And these will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life.” Let us make sure that we are ready, too, so that we may firmly stand on the Lord’s right in judgment. Matthew 26: From Anointed to Betrayed After Jesus’ judgment discourse, the chief priests and elders of the people gathered together in order to plot out the arrest and death of Jesus. Jesus was nearby in Bethany at the home of Simon the leper when a woman (Mary) came to him and poured very expensive ointment on His head. Though the disciples were upset by this, Jesus affirmed what she did as something for which she would be remembered. Judas then received thirty pieces of silver to betray Jesus and waited for an opportune time. Jesus ate the Passover with His disciples and there identified Judas as His betrayer. He also gave instructions for the Lord’s Supper so that they would remember His death continually, something disciples continue to do today. Jesus also predicted that Peter would deny Him, followed by His sorrowful prayers in the Garden of Gethsemane. Soon, Judas brought a crowd with swords and clubs to arrest Jesus. He was taken to Caiaphas the high priest and shortly was condemned to die. He was spit upon, beaten, and slapped. The chapter ends with the sad account of Peter’s denials of Jesus. Today, disciples need to keep these events in front of them to remember that Jesus did all of this for us. Matthew 27: Let Him be Crucified! Jesus was condemned to die. He was brought to Pilate the governor. Meanwhile, Judas, upset by what he did and seeing that Jesus would be condemned, he threw the money back and went out to hang himself. Before Pilate, Jesus was asked if He as indeed the King of the Jews, to which He responded, “You have said so.” Yet Jesus was not defending Himself at this point at the many charges. Pilate knew it was because of envy that Jesus was delivered to him. He brought out to the crowd Jesus and Barabbas, a known criminal, to see which one they would release. They choose to release Barabbas. “‘Then what shall I do with Jesus who is called Christ?’ They all said, ‘Let him be crucified!’ And he said, ‘Why? What evil has he done?’ But they shouted all the more, ‘Let him be crucified!’” Pilate finally gave in and said, “I am innocent of this man's blood; see to it yourselves.” They took the responsibility and Jesus was delivered over to be crucified. Once again mocked and beaten, He was first scoured then nailed to the cross while people mocked. After speaking a few words, and after about six hours on the cross, Jesus “yielded up his spirit.” The events that followed convinced the centurion that Jesus was indeed the Son of God. He was taken down, wrapped, and buried by the women closest to Him. The chief priests and Pharisees, with Pilate’s aid, made sure the tomb was guarded and secure. Read and reflect on what Jesus did because of our sins. Matthew 28: He is Risen! On the third day after being crucified, some of the women came back to the tomb. Upon arrival, they saw the stone had been rolled away from the opening. The guards appeared like dead men, and an angel there told the women, “Do not be afraid, for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. He is not here, for he has risen.” With joy, they departed to tell the disciples. Jesus, appearing to them, told them, ““Do not be afraid; go and tell my brothers to go to Galilee, and there they will see me.” Meanwhile, some of the guard told the chief priests what happened. They told the guard to say that the disciples stole the body, and they would take care of the situation with Pilate. Jesus did appear to His disciples, and Matthew here stresses the commission that Jesus gave them: All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you. And behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age.” May we today carry out this same mission based on the authority of the risen Lord Jesus Christ!

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Roderick Chisholm studied at Harvard but was strongly opposed to behaviorist analytic philosophers like Willard van Orman Quine. His major work was titled Person and Object to draw the contrast with analytic language philosophy implicit in Quine's famous Word and Object. Chisholm was a libertarian who distinguished "agent causation" from "event-causation" (see his Freedom and Action), which is a major distinction made by current incompatibilist philosophers. Late in life he recanted this distinction. "In earlier writings on this topic, I had contrasted agent causation with event causation and had suggested that "causation by agents" could not be reduced to "causation by events." I now believe that that suggestion was a mistake. What I had called agent causation is a subspecies of event causation. My concern in the present study is to note the specific differences by reference to which agent causation can be distinguished from other types of event causation." ("Agents, Causes, and Events: The Problem of Free Will," in Agents, Causes, and Events: Essays on Indeterminism and Free Will. , ed. T. O'Connor, 1995) In his 1964 Lindley Lecture he saw free will as a metaphysical problem. He asserts that a man who performs an act is completely free and uncaused, a causa sui. The metaphysical problem of human freedom might be summarized in the following way: "Human beings are responsible agents; but this fact appears to conflict with a deterministic view of human action (the view that every event that is involved in an act is caused by some other event); and it also appears to conflict with an indeterministic view of human action (the view that the act, or some event that is essential to the act, is not caused at all)." To solve the problem, I believe, we must make somewhat far-reaching assumptions about the self of the agent — about the man who performs the act. Chisholm says the agent must be able to perform an act and also able not to perform it, to do otherwise. Let us consider some deed, or misdeed, that may be attributed to a responsible agent: one man, say, shot another. If the man was responsible for what he did, then, I would urge, what was to happen at the time of the shooting was something that was entirely up to the man himself. There was a moment at which it was true, both that he could have fired the shot and also that he could have refrained from firing it. And if this is so, then, even though he did fire it, he could have done something else instead. (He didn't find himself firing the shot "against his will," as we say.) I think we can say, more generally, then, that if a man is responsible for a certain event or a certain state of affairs (in our example, the shooting of another man), then that event or state of affairs was brought about by some act of his, and the act was something that was in his power either to perform or not to perform. Chisholm talks about others who might control the agent's mind, by hypnosis for example, which anticipates Harry Frankfurt's mind controllers. But now, if the act which he did perform was an act that was also in his power not to perform, then it could not have been caused or determined by any event that was not itself within his power either to bring about or not to bring about. For example, if what we say he did was really something that was brought about by a second man, one who forced his hand upon the trigger, say, or who, by means of hypnosis, compelled him to perform the act, then, since the act was caused by the second man, it was nothing that was within the power of the first man to prevent. And precisely the same thing is true, I think, if instead of referring to a second man who compelled the first one, we speak instead of the desires and beliefs which the first man happens to have had. For if what we say he did was really something that was brought about by his own beliefs and desires, if these beliefs and desires in the particular situation in which he happened to have found himself caused him to do just what it was that we say he did do, then, since they caused it, he was unable to do anything other than just what he did do. It makes no difference whether the cause of the deed was internal or external: if the cause was some state or event for which the man himself was not responsible, then he was not responsible for what we have been mistakenly calling his act. If a flood caused the poorly structured dam to break, then, given the flood and the constitution of the dam, the break, we may say, had to occur and nothing could have happened in its place. And if the flood of desire caused the weak-willed man to give in, then he, too, had to do just what it was that he did do and he was no more responsible than was the dam for the results that followed. Chisholm reprises the Determinism Objection and Randomness Objection in the standard argument against free will. the ascription of responsibility conflicts with a deterministic view of action. Perhaps there is less need to argue that the ascription of responsibility also conflicts with an indeterministic view of action — with the view that the act, or some event that is essential to the act, is not caused at all.If the act — the firing of the shot — was not caused at all, if it was fortuitous or capricious, happening so to speak "out of the blue," then, presumably, no one — and nothing — was responsible for the act. Our conception of action, therefore, should be neither deterministic nor indeterministic. Is there any other possibility? We must not say that every event involved in the act is caused by some other event, and we must not say that the act is something that is not caused at all. The possibility that remains, therefore, is this: We should say that at least one of the events that are involved in the act is caused, not by any other events, but by something else instead. And this something else can only be the agent — the man. If there is an event that is caused, not by other events, but by the man, then there are some events involved in the act that are not caused by other events. But if the event in question is caused by the man, then it is caused and we are not committed to saying that there is something involved in the act that is not caused at all. Responisiblity and Avoidability From Determinism and Freedom in the Age of Modern Science, Hook, 1958. Edwards and Hospers hold that there is an important sense in which we may be said not to be morally responsible for any of our acts or choices. I propose the following as an explicit formulation of their reasoning: 1. If a choice is one we could not have avoided making, then it is one for which we are not morally responsible. 2. If we make a choice under conditions such that, given those conditions, it is (causally but not logically) impossible for the choice not to be made, then the choice is one we could not have avoided making. 3. Every event occurs under conditions such that, given those conditions, it is (causally but not logically) impossible for that event not to occur. 4. The making of a choice is the occurrence of an event. 5. We are not morally responsible for any of our choices.If we wish to reject the conclusion (5) — and for most of us (5) is difficult to accept — we must reject at least one of the premises. Premise (1), I think, may be interpreted as a logical truth. If a man is responsible for what he did, then we may say, "He could have done otherwise." And if we may say, "He couldn't help it," then he is not responsible for what he did. Many philosophers would deny (2), substituting a weaker account of avoidability. A choice is avoidable, they might say, provided only it is such that, if the agent had reflected further, or had reflected on certain things on which in fact he did not reflect, he would not have made the choice. To say of a choice that it "could not have been avoided," in accordance with this account, would be to say that, even if the agent had reflected further, on anything you like, he would all the same have made the choice. But such conditional accounts of avoidability ("An act or choice is avoidable provided only it is such that, if the agent were to do so-and-so, the act or choice would not occur") usually have this serious defect: the antecedent clause ("if the agent were to do so-and-so") refers to some act or choice, or to the failure to perform some act or to make some choice; hence we may ask, concerning the occurrence or nonoccurrence of this act or choice, whether or not it is avoidable. Thus one who accepted (5) could say that, if the agent's failure to reflect further was itself unavoidable, his choice was also unavoidable. And no such conditional account of avoidability seems adequate to the use of "avoidable" and "unavoidable" in questions and statements such as these. If we accept a conditional account of avoidability, we may be tempted to say, of course, that it would be a misuse of "avoidable" to ask whether the nonoccurrence of the antecedent event ("the agent does so-and-so") is avoidable. But the philosopher who accepts (5) may well insist that, since the antecedent clause refers to an act or a choice, the use of "avoidable" in question is not a misuse. What, then, if we were to deny (3)? Suppose that some of our choices do not satisfy (3) — that when they are made they are not made under any conditions such that it is (causally) impossible (though logically possible) for them not to be made. If there are choices of this sort, then they are merely fortuitous or capricious. And if they are merely fortuitous or capricious, if they "just happen," then, I think, we may say with Blanchard that we are not morally responsible for them. Hence denying (3) is not the way to avoid (5). We seem confronted, then, with a dilemma: either our choices have sufficient causal conditions or they do not; if they do have sufficient causal conditions they are not avoidable; if they do not, they are fortuitous or capricious; and therefore, since our choices are either unavoidable or fortuitous, we are not morally responsible for them. There are philosophers who believe that by denying the rather strange-sounding premise (4) we can escape the dilemma. Insisting on something like "the primacy of practical reason," they would say that since we are certain that (5) is false we must construct a metaphysical theory about the self, a theory denying (4) and enabling us to reconcile (3) and the denial of (5). I say "metaphysical" because it seems to be necessary for the theory to replace (4) by sentences using such terms as "active power," "the autonomy of the will," "prime mover," or "higher levels of causality"—terms designating something to which we apparently need not refer when expressing the conclusions of physics and the natural sciences. But I believe we cannot know whether such theories enable us to escape our dilemma. For it seems impossible to conceive what the relation is that, according to these theories, holds between the "will," "self," "mover," or "active power," on the one hand, and the bodily events this power is supposed to control, on the other—the relation between the "activities" of the self and the events described by physics. I am dissatisfied, then, with what philosophers have proposed as alternatives to premises (1) through (4) above, but since I feel certain that (5) is false I also feel certain that at least one of the premises is false. Agents, Causes, and Events: The Problem of Free Will From Agents, Causes, and Events: Essays on Indeterminism and Free Will, O'Connor, Oxford, 1995. In earlier writings on this topic, I had contrasted agent causation with event causation and had suggested that "causation by agents" could not be reduced to "causation by events." I now believe that that suggestion was a mistake. What I had called agent causation is a subspecies of event causation. My concern in the present study is to note the specific differences by reference to which agent causation can be distinguished from other types of event causation. We cannot hope to succeed in this task unless we try to cope with the very difficult concept of causation — event causation. And this means, in turn, that we should have a clear conception of the ontological status of events and, in particular, of their relation to attributes or properties and of their relation to individual things. We begin with the ontological question. The Nature of States Events are here construed as being a subspecies of states. The concept of a state is taken as undefined, but it can be clarified in several different ways. Suppose that you are reading. Then the following entities are involved: (1) that contingent substance which is yourself; (2) that noncontingent thing, which is the property of reading; and (3) that contingent state which is you reading. It will be useful to say that you are the substrate of that state and that the property of reading is the content. We introduce the following twofold definitional abbreviation: D1 x is the substrate of the state y, and z is the content of the state yWe may now formulate a general principle, telling us that every state is necessarily such that it has the substrate that it has. A1 For every x, if there exists the state, x-being-F, then x-being-F is necessarily such that it is a state of x.From the fact that that state, which is you reading something, is necessarily such that it is a state of you, it does not follow, of course, that you are necessarily such that you are reading something. Higher Order States and the Concept of an Event We have assumed that, for every x there is the state x-being-F, if and only if x is F. Our assumptions imply, therefore, that there are infinitely many states. They also imply that there is an infinite hierarchy of states. The hierarchy may be illustrated this way: (1) x-being-F (2) (x-being-F)-being-G (3) [ (x-being-F)-being-G]-being-HAn instance of (1) would be Jones walking. An instance of (2) would be (Jones walking) being strenuous. And an instance of (3) would be (Jones walking being strenuous) contributing causally to (Jones being tired). We could say that a first-order state is a state that has a non-state as its substrate. Second-order states will have first-order states as their substrates. Second-order states are illustrated by those states that consist of one first-order state contributing causally to another first-order state. In order to say what an event is, we refer to the concepts of a first-order state and of a second-order state: D2 x is a first-order state = Df. x is a state of a substance.We are now in a position to characterize the concept of an event. D4 x is an event = Df. x is either a first-order state or a second-order state.In some of his earlier writings on the concept of an event, Jaegwon Kim suggests a theory according to which all events would be first-order states. Such a restriction provides no place for those paradigmatic events that consist of one event contributing causally to the occurrence of another event. Examples are the striking of a match contributing causally to the burning of a piece of paper; the treatment of a patient contributing causally to the patient being cured; and the rush of the sea contributing causally to the destruction of the pier. Here we have second-order events that relate first-order events. Events and the Concept of Causation Causation cannot be analyzed by reference to the "constant conjunction" of events. Most investigators agree that the concept of causation is nomological. It presupposes the concept of physical necessity, a concept that is usually expressed by reference to "laws of nature." How are we to interpret "It is a law of nature that if A occurs then B occurs"? Speaking somewhat loosely, we may say that the reference to "a law of nature" is intended to call attention to two types of necessity: that imposed "by logic" and that imposed "by nature." How, then, might one distinguish "laws of logic" from "laws of nature"? If it is "a law of logic that if A then B," then conceivably a rational being could know a priori, just by reflection, that it must be the case that if A occurs, then B occurs. Some philosophers would say: "Every possible world is such that, if A occurs in that world, then B also occurs in that world." But rational reflection does not suffice to tell us what the laws of nature are. It is possible that there occurs a conjunction of events A that taken together will constitute a sufficient causal condition of B without logically implying B. The states that would make up such a conjunction are "partial causes," or "contributing causes," of B. One of the most common errors to which discussions of freedom and causation are subject is that of confusing partial or contributing causes with sufficient causal conditions. The contributing causes that make up a sufficient causal condition of an event B need not themselves be sufficient causal conditions of B. Let us consider an example. We will define the concept of a sufficient causal condition, not by reference to a set of states or events, but by reference to those properties we have called the contents of the states or events. Thus we may have: D5 S is a sufficient causal condition of E = Df. S is a set of properties such that the conjunction of its members does not logically imply E; and it is law of nature that, if all the members of S are exemplified by the same thing at the same time, then E will be exemplified either at that time or later.In referring in the definition to the properties of the thing that undergoes the effect, we do not thereby exclude the properties of other things that happen to be in the environment of the thing that undergoes the effect. The piece of wood bums in part because of the presence of oxygen in the environment. But in that case one of the properties of the piece of wood is that it happens to be in an environment in which oxygen is present. The realistic view of properties, here presupposed, implies that, for any two properties, P and Q, there is also the property, P-and-Q. It also implies that, for any two properties, there is also the property of having those two properties. Why say that the effect of the sufficient causal conditions must be exemplified either at the same time as or later than the members of that condition? To say this is simply to say that the effect not precede its cause. The effect, in other words, will not be exemplified before the members of any sufficient causal condition of that effect are exemplified. We next single out the concept of a minimal sufficient causal condition: D6 C is a minimal sufficient causal condition of E = Df. C is a sufficient causal condition of E; and no subset of C is a sufficient causal condition of E.We may speak of a "subset" of a sufficient causal condition, since such a condition, according to our previous definition, is a set of properties. If your action is a part or member of a minimal sufficient causal condition of an event, then, clearly, the action contributes causally to that event. It is a partial cause of the event (which is not to say, of course, that it is the cause of that event). D7 That state which is x-being-C contributes causally to that state which is y-being-E = Df. C is a member of a set S of properties that are all exemplified by x at the same time, and S is a minimal sufficient causal condition of E.What of those situations where the effect is overdetermined? Two marksmen shoot at the victim; they are each successful and the two shots do their work at precisely the same time. Given the one shot, the other shot was not needed to bring about the effect. Both shots, therefore, would not be a part of a minimal sufficient causal condition; yet each contributed. We need not, therefore, revise the definition of a minimal sufficient causal condition. Freedom and Indeterminism The concept of being able to undertake is somewhat more broad than that of being free to undertake. It is only when you "could have done otherwise" that your undertaking may be said to be free. I have not used the expression "free will," for the question of free dom, as John Locke said, is not the question "whether the will be free"; it is the question "whether a man be free."' The question is whether the agent is free to undertake any of those things he does not undertake and whether he is free not to undertake any of those things he does undertake. Consider the question: Is the person free to bring about what it is that he or she undertakes to bring about? This is not the question with which we have been concerned. But many would have us think that it is. Many philosophers and theologians whose views may seem unduly to curtail our freedom have tried to soften this consequence by redefining the problem of freedom. Thus Jonathan Edwards, using the the verb "to will" where I have used "to undertake," would have us think that the question is this: Is the person free to do what it is that he wills to do? This question is not difficult to deal with. We may answer it affirmatively by pointing out that on occasion people do do the things that they will to do; that is to say, they do bring about what it is that they undertake to bring about. Those who put this question are asking about what Thomas Aquinas called the actus voluntatis imperatus. They are simply asking: Do we ever bring about the things we intend to bring about? But our question might be put by asking: Are we free to will the things that we do will? Thus they have tried to bypass the more fundamental question of the freedom of the

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For the purposes of this problem, use the following constants and concentrations: R = 2.0 cal/ (mol x °K) ; F = 23,100 cal/(Volt x mol); Absolute zero is -273° C. The energy for pumping ions up an electrochemical gradient can come either from nucleotide triphosphate hydrolysis or by coupling the movement of the ion to that of another ion moving down its electrochemical gradient. a) Compare and contrast the relative amounts of energy generated by ATP hydrolysis to that typically generated by a single sodium ion moving down its electrochemical gradient in a human neuron living at 37°C, with intracellular and extracellular sodium ion concentrations of 12 mM and 150 mM, respectively, and a resting potential of -70 mV. ?G = -RT ln (Nain/Naout) R = 2 cal /(mol*°K) T= 37°C = (37+273) °K = 310K Nain = 12mM Naout = 150mM ?G = (-2*(310) ln (12/150)) = 1566 cal/ mol Positive value of ?G (1566 cal/mol) indicates that energy is needed and the reaction is unfavorable. A resting membrane potential of 70 mV (or 0.07V) provides a repulsive force for the movement of sodium ions. The free energy associated with the resting membrane potential is: ?G (Resting Membrane Potential) = (Resting Membrane Potential* F) = (-0.07) * 23100 = (-1617) cal/mol ?G net = ?G – ?G (Resting Membrane Potential) = (1566-(-1617)) = 3183 cal/mol = 3.183kcal/mol This positive value (3.183 kcal/mol) once again indicates that it is not favorable in terms of energy. For it to occur it has to be coupled to a reaction where there is a net negative free energy observed. ATP hydrolysis is then used. The energy associated with hydrolysis of one mole of ATP is (-13.6) kcal. If we couple these two reactions we get ?G coupled = 3.183+(-13.6) = (-10.147) kcal b) In the case of the Na+/K+ ATPase, what fraction of the energy released by ATP hydrolysis is used to move Na+ versus K+. Why do you think this movement of K+ up its electrochemical gradient across a membrane is almost never coupled directly to nucleotide triphosphate hydrolysis without also moving another ion along with it? With a mol of ATP having energy of 13.6 kcal and Na having energy of 3.183 kcal/mol, ATP is used to move 4 mols of Na and 9 mols of K+. As seen in the above calculation in (a), it is simply energetically unfavorable to move Na+ and even K+ as they are both positive. As such, ATP is used to move these ions with a protein embedded in the membrane, the sodium potassium pump. Potassium and Sodium are usually coupled because in a cell. Cells have leaky potassium channels so this balance needs to be maintained by taking in potassium. However, with a cell that has a resting potential of -70mV as the one in this example, an influx of potassium results in a positive potential which again, is unfavorable. If sodium ions are pumped out while potassium is coming into a cell, a negative potential which is favorable is maintained. This series of steps makes it energetically favorable to move such ions across the membrane and a coupling of ATP with K+ and Na+ possible. c) For the same neuron as in part a, calculate the theoretical maximum of the peak amplitude of the action potential (in mV). Peak amplitude of action potential= ENa Veq=RT/ZF ln (Xout/Xin) R=2 cal /(mol*°K) = 8.3736 J.K-1.mol-1 F = 23,100 cal/ (Volt x mol) = 96650.4 C.mol-1 Therefore, Veq= ((8.3736 J.K-1.mol-1*(310.15))/+(1*96650.4 C.mol-1) ln (150/12) The theoretical maximum of the peak amplitude of the action potential is thus 67.8 mV. You are a molecular neuroscientist consulting for Arthur Daniels Midland. This agricultural conglomerate is looking for new insecticides that target the voltage gated potassium channels, which operate during the action potential. You have isolated an amphipathic, neurotoxic peptide from a poisonous oceanic snail that binds directly to medfly voltage-gated potassium channels at nanomolar concentrations. To study the actions of the toxin, you inject the mRNA of the voltage-gated potassium channel from this insect into Xenopus oocytes, which express the protein and insert the functional channel into the membrane. In a voltage clamp experiment, in the presence of the toxin, the potassium channel maintains its conductance and activates at the usual membrane potential (+15 mV), but takes 2 full seconds to inactivate instead of the usual 1–2 msec. a) Given the properties of the neurotoxin and the general structure of the channel, where are the most likely sites on the channel located for binding the neurotoxin, and why? Neurotoxins that affect voltage-gated potassium channels in neurons will increase the release of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions. Voltage gated potassium channels control excitability in the nerves and muscles by controlling the resting membrane potential and by repolarizing the membrane during action potentials. As such, these neurotoxins will be found bound to the nodes of Ranvier and at nerve terminals. This is how these types of neurotoxins produce their effects of increasing the duration of action potentials and increasing the release of acetylcholine which produces hyper excitability. In general, any neurotoxin that acts on voltage gated potassium channels will block potassium channels and which causes repetitive firing at neurons and prolongs the depolarization. b) Compare (graph) the potassium current across the oocyte membrane as a function of time when you stimulate the oocyte with a voltage pulse (0.5 msec) at +20 mV in the presence and absence of the neurotoxin. In the graph above, in the absence of a neurotoxin, the potassium channel can be seen undergoing a typical action potential; a stimulus, in this case, 20 mV excites the membrane from its resting potential of-75 mV, the threshold is achieved and Na+ channels open allowing Na+ ions to rush in; as the Na+ channel closes, the potassium channels open and depolarization occurs; the action potential slows down when K+ ions decrease in rushing out and finally, hyperpolarization occurs. The resting membrane is re-established as the potassium channels have only one gate which is activated by depolarization and inactivated by repolarization. When the neurotoxin is present, it triggers a release of transmitters at the neuromuscular junction and end plate to produce action potentials more rapidly. The action potentials go through depolarizations faster with a longer action potential. The rapid release of transmitters stimulates the membrane continuously. Initial phase of the action potentials is identical, but it is much longer and does not have an after-hyperpolarization. There is a repolarization phase but now the repolarization is due to the process of Na+ inactivation alone. There is no change in the resting potential. c) Assume that the normal sodium equilibrium potential of the insect neurons expressing this K+ channel is +50 mV and that the potassium equilibrium potential of these same neurons is –85 mV, and the resting potential is –75 mV. Graph the membrane potential as a function of time for a normal action potential versus one that has been exposed to the neurotoxin. Explain your reasoning and why this neurotoxin is likely to be deadly to the insect. Normal Action Potential Action Potential Exposed to Neurotoxin Potassium channels can be voltage gated with rapid kinetics. Neurotoxins that act on potassium channels act as potassium blockers. These effects would be repetitive firing of the neuron that increases transmitter release as a result of the depolarization of the action potential being prolonged. Dendrotoxins, for example, are neurotoxins that function as potassium blockers and they affect neuromuscular transmission. There is an increase in the number of effective vesicles released in response to a nerve impulse, and repetitive firing of endplate potentials. Blocking potassium channels may also increase acetylcholine release which increases depolarization. This eventually results in an accumulation of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junction and an overstimulation of nerves and muscles that results in paralysis. In your laboratory, you are studying the dynamics of axonal transport of an identifiable motor neuron in the abdominal ganglion of a species of giant leech (an annelid). In this (hypothetical) animal, the motor neuron is especially accessible for study because it can be easily visualized within an organ explant, enabling you to do intracellular injections and optical analysis of axonal transport in this neuron in vivo. The cell body has a diameter of 50 ?m, and its axon terminals are 16 mm away, in the muscle. To study the dynamics of neurofilament (NF) transport in this axon, you have made an mRNA encoding a snail NF protein that is conjugated at its N-terminus to GFP. You inject the GFP-NF mRNA into the neuron on day one. From previous studies in your lab, you know that the mRNA will begin to be translated into protein within 15 minutes of injection and will continue to be translated for approximately 1 hr. After that, no new protein is made, since the injected mRNA is degraded. Throughout the first day after injection, you observe GFP-NF protein fluorescence as small dots moving through the axon. Approximately 2 hours after injection, the first of these dots arrives at the end of the axon. The concentration of dots increases as you move closer to the cell body, with the peak fluorescence intensity located only 85 ?m from the cell body. In this region, the fluorescence looks more filamentous than it does further down the axon. Two hours later, this peak has moved an additional 50 ?m down the axon. The size of the peak, however, is reduced, whereas the number of dots and filament-like structures visible along the entire length of the axon has continued to increase, with some filament fragments now visible at 2-3 mm down the axon. a) Based on what you have heard in lecture about intermediate filament transport and assembly, why do you think that you see dots at first and not filaments? Intermediate filaments are composed of different proteins (keratin, neurofilaments, vimentin filaments and nuclear lamins) that create a network of filaments critical to the mechanical support and structure of the cell. The proteins are arranged from non-filamentous to filamentous based on the tissue type as they contain different proteins. The non-filamentous proteins are identified as dots while the filamentous ones are identified as filaments. The “dots” come first because the proteins that resemble those of long fibrillin type filaments are necessary to maintain the structure of the cell and provide stability. b) What is the velocity of the most rapidly moving dots in mm/day? Most rapidly moving dots moved from 0 ?m starting at the cell body then moved 16000 ?m away from it, travelling through the entire axon and reaching the end of the axon within 2 hours. V= (Final Position-Initial position)/ Time V= (16000?m -0?m)/7200 sec=2.22 ?m/s= 191.808 mm/day c) What is the average (most common) velocity of the GFP-NF in mm/day? Some GFP –NF protein moved through the entire axon at 2.22 ?m/s while some moved 85?m away from the cell body and an additional 50?m. The velocity for these dots are: 0.012 ?m/s and 0.007 ?m/s. As such, the average velocity of GFP-NF protein is: V= (2.22E-6 m/s + 0 m/s)/ 2 V= 1.11E-6 m/s= 95.904 mm/day d) Why doesn’t all the labeled GFP-NF arrive at the tip of the axon at once (i.e., why is there such a difference between the fastest and average velocities?). There must be something preventing the GFP-NF from moving along the axon. The purpose of the axonal transport is to move mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins and other organelles to and from the cell body to the axoplasm. These organelles etc. being transported depend on microtubule tracks to be transported along the axon via motor proteins like dynein so it is expected that if there are more microtubules, the more distance the protein (from the given situation) will have to travel. It will take longer for all of the proteins to reach the axon terminal because of this microtubule organization in addition to the varying sizes in proteins which would result in a longer time to be transported. 4) Acetylcholine is one of the most extensively studied neurotransmitters. It acts on two different subtypes of receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic. Based on what is known about the mode of action of each of these two classes of receptors, and the physiology of the pre and post synaptic cells, explain why it makes sense that the acetylcholine receptors on skeletal muscle cells at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction, which are innervated by motor neurons, are primarily nicotinic whereas the muscles of the eye’s iris that are innervated by parasympathetic neurons are muscarinic. In skeletal muscle cells, more specifically the motor end plate and neuromuscular junction, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors can be found. The purpose of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors is to trigger rapid neuromuscular transmissions. Muscle cells consist of motor neurons of which when stimulated result in impulses being transported the axon of the motor neuron and signal a muscle contraction. At the neuromuscular junction, acetylcholine transmitters are released from vesicles in axon terminals. When these bind to its nicotinic receptor, it is activated and a conformational change occurs which causes Na+ ions to flow out of the cell and become depolarized then allows K+ to flow into the cell causing a repolarization via an ion pore at the neuromuscular junction; calcium permeability at the pore is also increased. This excites the neuromuscular junction and causes a muscular contraction. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, on the other hand, are slower and play a role in the activity of smooth muscles like that of the iris. As such, they are mostly localized in the parasympathetic nervous system. In fact, a specific subtype of muscarinic receptor known as M-3 muscarinic receptor is found in smooth muscle and will thus yield a response. 5) A monogamous prairie vole male that mates with a female for the first time becomes selectively aggressive toward males and other females, but not toward its newly won mate. In addition, the male continues to show a preference for mating with this female. These behaviors are associated with increased release of vasopressin acting on vasopressin 1A receptors in the diagonal band nucleus of the male prairie vole. a) In situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry, and receptor autoradiography are three methods used to study the distribution of peptidergic neurons and their receptors in the brain. For vasopressin and its V1A receptor, discuss how the results obtained from these methods might differ from one another and how such differences should be interpreted in light of the distributions of the peptide and the receptor relative to their sites of synthesis and physiological action. In situ hybridization can be used to indicate the localization of vasopressin and its V1A receptor by designing a probe against its known DNA or RNA sequence. With in situ hybridization, the peptidergic neuron and its receptors is basically mapped to their respective chromosomal location. MicroRNAs play various roles in brain function and with this technique explains how the brain works. However, this technique needs to be further optimized in attempt to localize areas of the brain where miRNAs for vasopressin and its V1A receptors might be in low levels. Their expression in its entirety will not be identified. In situ hybridization also requires the tissues to be examined to be thinned and fixed. Immunocytochemistry also requires tissues to be thinned and fixed but instead of using probes to identify sequences and determine the vasopressin neuropeptide and its receptors, this technique used antibodies. The localization is based on its (vasopressin and its V1A receptor) reacting to the antibody. Immunocytochemistry is more accurate of the two techniques as it identifies localization of the neuropeptide synthesis and release even though it can be multifunctional and exist in various parts of the brain and body. They might be found in smaller populations, they might be associated with other neuropeptides found in small populations and their synthesis might be episodic. This is not as critically identified via in situ hybridization. However, even immunocytochemistry has its drawbacks-it cannot be done in real time. Receptor autoradiography can be done in vivo or in vitro by using a radioactive substance bound to vasopressin or V1A and this will determine the distribution of the receptors in living cells; all it requires is the animal being studied to be injected with a radiolabeled hormone. This easily identifies the localization of vasopressin and its V1A receptors and even allows the localization of one region to be compared to that of an adjacent region for reference. Anatomical and functional information are provided simultaneously. Receptor autoradiography thus provides precise anatomical localization and has high sensitivity and can be used for quantification purposes. b) Of the three methods above, why might information obtained from receptor autoradiography be considered the most physiologically relevant? As mentioned above, receptor autoradiography thus provides precise anatomical localization and has high sensitivity and can be used for quantification purposes. allows the localization of one region to be compared to that of an adjacent region for reference. Anatomical and functional information are provided simultaneously. c) If you wanted to modify the behavior of the animals by injecting an adenovirus containing a gene encoding a dominant negative V1A receptor, which technique would you use to select your target site for injection into the brain and why? I would use Immunocytochemistry. Immunocytochemistry is selective-it is highly sensitive and specific. Adenoviruses will more than likely cause inflammation of the brain tissue and will vary in intensity. With immunocytochemistry, identifying the adenovirus is easier. Immunocytochemistry would be more effective in keeping track of the adenoviruses that are difficult to detect even by staining and will aid in identifying ones that are present in low numbers.

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Broccoli is a green vegetable which belongs to the cabbage family and is mainly grown for its flowering head. If this is part of a radical diet overhaul then consult your physician first. Eating broccoli on a regular basis is very beneficial … How can you use broccoli at home in healthy recipes? As far back as the Roman Empire, it’s been considered a uniquely valuable food when it comes promoting health and longevity. So now, for the first time ever, not only do we know that the broccoli we eat ends up in the right place, but we know the final tissue concentration. No that is fine but remember to count the carbs and keep to 20 grams per day. But has to be some point at which it becomes toxic, and indeed there is. One cup of cooked broccoli nutrition has about: It’s important to buy organic broccoli whenever possible — considering that the Environmental Working Group lists it as one of the most chemically sprayed veggies there is year after year. Some even say that vitamin K builds bones better than calcium, and just one cup of broccoli nutrition provides over 270 percent of your daily vitamin K needs. Why is broccoli good for dieters? (Per day). If you have a thyroid issue, consume cruciferous vegetables that have been cooked and keep them to about one to two servings daily. To subscribe, select the "Subscribe via E-Mail" button above. It can be steamed, sautéed, roasted, stir-fried, puréed and more. By subscribing, you will automatically receive the latest videos emailed to you or downloaded to your computer or portable device. But has to be some point at which it becomes toxic, and indeed there is. This is just an approximation of the audio contributed by veganmontreal. Experts and scientists say that the daily recommended dose of these seeds is two tablespoon. It’s not as bitter as many dark leafy greens but not sweet like many red and orange veggies. An easy puppy feeding schedule to follow is to feed him when you eat—at breakfast, lunch and dinner. This video is a follow-up on yesterday’s video Liver Toxicity Due to Broccoli Juice? They conclude: “No sign of DNA lesions could be observed at nutritionally attainable concentrations.” But that’s not really true. This is due to their effects on estrogen within the body. 30 Gluten-Free Recipes Plus, eating too much fiber (like what you find in kale) could wreck havoc on your GI system, causing bloating, diarrhea, gas, constipation, and even improper absorption of nutrients. Ideally, you can have one to two tablespoons of dried chia seeds per day. Alice Twain. Furthermore, the possibility of food poisoning is one worry. The process of aging is largely attributed to oxidative stress and … Eating whole foods as part of a high-fiber diet promotes regular bowel movements, better gut and colon health, a more alkaline digestive tract (which boosts immunity), and prevention of constipation, IBS and other digestive disorders. A diet high in foods that provide antioxidants, vitamin C and vitamin A is a natural way to prevent macular degeneration, which is the leading cause of blindness in older adults. And he looked up at me, with an expression that I can only describe as rapture, and—no joke—said: “It was volcanic.”. For optimal health, according to the publication "Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010," Reasons why you should eat broccoli as a type 2 diabetic. Because it’s one of the most nutrient-dense foods on Earth. However, that number is flexible depending on a person’s activity level and overall health. I'd say half a bag sounds normal for a man. Almonds and sesame seeds each provide about 80 mg per serving. If you were to get all of your carbs for the day from broccoli, you could eat as much as 8-13 one-cup servings. Almonds and sesame seeds each provide about 80 mg per serving. of it. ... and broccoli. It positively impacts eye health thanks to high levels of the carotenoids called lutein and zeaxanthin, which are crucial for eye health and maintaining good vision into old age. There is some debate, however, over whether or not the benefits of orange consumption outweigh the potential drawbacks. One portion of broccoli is about the size of your closed fist. Leafy greens' calcium content also varies according to type, ranging from 100 to 250 mg per serving. Benefits of eating it include help with cancer prevention, heart health, weight management, eye and skin health, gut and digestive support, healthy bones and teeth, and slowed effects of aging. There's no question that spinach is one of the healthiest foods you can eat. This common vegetable can be eaten raw or cooked, and the whole plant (buds and stem) are edible. 93 g per serving sounds cute. Sestili P, Paolillo M, Lenzi M, Colombo E, Vallorani L, Casadei L, Martinelli C, Fimognari C. Sulforaphane induces DNA single strand breaks in cultured human cells. Oct 26, 2020. Too Much Dietary Fiber is bad for our stomach. Some experts encourage people to eat up to two oranges per day for the fruit's beneficial phytochemicals, flavenoids and vitamin C content. In addition to promoting heart health, high-fiber foods also keep the digestive system flushed and healthy. How Much Broccoli Sprouts Should You Eat Per Day? Cruciferous vegetables are linked with a reduced risk of breast and cervical cancers, which makes them especially important for women. German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, Rottweilers, and Bernese Mountain Dogs are all considered large breeds. Eating broccoli sprouts would be somewhat more efficient, but would still require a certain amount of dedication to the task. Based on the current research on broccoli sprouts, it's tough to determine how much sprouts you'd have to eat in order to get the full benefits. If your body doesn’t get enough calcium, it steals it from your bones to help keep a steady amount in your blood, so including more broccoli in your diet is a natural osteoporosis treatment and prevention method. The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Detox Metabolism. Ask any nutritionist, medical doctor, neuropath or nutrition researcher for his or her personal list of the most nutrient-dense foods, and cruciferous vegetables like broccoli are sure to show up on all of them. Broccoli provides about 35 mg per serving. If you don't have any potatoes or rice, one bag sounds ok, too, if you don't add too much fat/ sauce. In a 4-week study in 48 adults, eating 20 grams of sulforaphane-rich broccoli sprouts improved symptoms of constipation. They do this by reducing the poisonous effects of toxins from a poor diet, environmental exposure, heavy metals and the aging process. Isothiocyanate sulforaphane compounds abundant in broccoli also powerfully fight against harmful bacteria within the gut and prevent oxidation that can lead to cancer within the digestive organs. Raw tomatoes are good, but cooking them in olive oil is better. Not only will you have a tasty way to eat broccoli sprouts, but you’ll get the benefits of apple cider vinegar and lentils. This Dr. Axe content is medically reviewed or fact checked to ensure factually accurate information. A 15-pound cat with a lean body type needs about 360 calories per day. Cook Tomatoes. It is, however, important to note that eating broccoli doesn’t mean that you should stop taking your medication. - how much broccoli can I eat in induction? Detox, Functional Medicine, Women's Health. This now common vegetable was first brought to England in the mid-18th century and then was introduced to the United States by Italian immigrants, but it didn’t actually become widely known until the 1920s, which is surprising if you consider how popular it is today. March 20, 2020. See, they don’t know health nuts like I know some health nuts. If you haven’t yet, you can subscribe to my videos for free by clicking here. 2. In fact, sulforaphane is the most potent inducer of phase 2 enzymes of any known phytochemical and helps reduce the risk of some of the deadliest forms of cancer, including prostate cancer. March 20, 2020. Yes, you read that right, that’s over 15% of the total population. They advise against taking more than 2,000 milligrams of Vitamin C per day. Calories, carbs, fat, protein, fiber, cholesterol, and more for Broccoli (Frozen, spears, unprepared). This disease-preventing compound increases the activation of enzymes known as phase 2 enzymes that powerfully fight carcinogens in the body. Then there's still the question of how much to eat to register a clinically measurable effect. So a person who weighs 68kg (150lbs) should consume 4.08 mmol of nitrates daily. How much yogurt should I eat? Related: Mustard Greens Nutrition, Health Benefits & Recipes. Tofu contains about 260 mg calcium per serving but can contain up to 700 mg if calcium is used in its processing. In general, the US Academy of Sciences recommends 60 – 95 milligrams of Vitamin C per day for normal, healthy adults. Broccoli Helps You Eat Less While Feeling Fuller Broccoli is bursting with fiber. (17) So if you eat 1 cup of broccoli per day (whether it’s with a meal or snack), you’re nearly halfway to the recommended daily intake of vegetables for adults. They are available in many varieties and the most popular ones are Calabrese Broccoli, Sprouting Broccoli, and Purple Broccoli. You may not use our material for commercial purposes. However, the biological factors in broccoli only last for 24 hours in the body, so we need to consume some every day to reap the benefits of its protection. High-heating cooking can cause it to lose some of its delicate nutrients. They help protect night vision and stop UV damage from occurring within the eyes’ retina and cornea. A plant of the cabbage family, broccoli is low in calories and high in fiber, vitamins and minerals that offer numerous health benefits. One portion of broccoli represents something about the size of your fist - so, perhaps 3-4 decent sized pieces. Why is broccoli healthy for your body? A portion is 2 or more small fruit – for example, 2 … The specific serving size depends on whether you eat them raw or cooked, and the number of servings you eat a day corresponds to your age, gender and physical activity. Although it might be considered a newer vegetable, broccoli nutrition is now praised around the world, and it’s eaten as part of nearly every cuisine there is, from Indian and Japanese to American and French. Because it’s closely tied to cabbage and has many of the same nutrition benefits, the word broccoli comes from the Italian plural of broccolo, which means “the flowering crest of a cabbage.”. It also packs glucosinolates, carotenoids, chlorophyll, vitamins E and K, essential minerals, phenolic compounds, and more. A 2-cup serving of broccoli twice a week would provide about 178 calories—only 1% of the total weekly calories! Having just one to two cups per day is a great addition to your diet, since this is enough to provide many key nutrients. Yes, you read that right, that’s over 15% of the total population. “For someone on a 2,000 calorie diet, that would be about 55 to 66 grams of fat a day,” English says. Exceeding the 25% limit might send the dog into severe toxicity and even be fatal. To bookmark this site, press the Ctrl + D keys on your Windows keyboard, or Command + D for Mac. Note that the numbers in parentheses (1, 2, etc.) Vitamin K also positively affects calcium balance, a key mineral in bone metabolism. Nutritional experts say that too much broccoli and its relatives can cause hypothyroidism. Is broccoli anti-inflammatory? and is video number seven of my 13-part series on the latest science on cruciferous vegetables. Want to know a secret to losing weight fast? The recommended daily allowance for infants is between 2 and 2.5 micrograms. Individuals treated with warfarin should consult their physicians before adding lots of cruciferous veggies to their diets. However, the biological factors in broccoli only last for 24 hours in the body, so we need to consume some every day to reap the benefits of its protection. Take advantage of all that broccoli nutrition has to offer by: Broccoli goes well with lots of different flavors and types of cuisines, and it can be eaten with breakfast, lunch or dinner. Eating a variety of foods from each food group will help you get the nutrients you need.. & detox juicing guide. Curiously, young sprouts of broccoli (also known as broccolini) contain 20 to 50 times more sulforaphane than mature broccoli plants. Let's get into the topic; how much microgreens to eat per day - It is usually considered safe to eat microgreens. Monitor your dog and pay attention to any unusual behavior, vomiting or loose stools. Just because they’re raw doesn’t mean broccoli sprouts have to be boring! Broccoli is technically an edible green plant in the cabbage family, which is part of the larger plant family called Brassica oleracea. A plant of the cabbage family, broccoli is low in calories and high in fiber, vitamins and minerals that offer numerous health benefits. At the higher end of the spectrum, studies show that more broccoli might be needed to accomplish other cancer-preventing tasks. Dunking a tea bag up and down releases more cancer-fighting molecules than letting the bag just sit in the cup. Broccoli also has potential to cause allergic reactions and interactions with certain medications, including warfarin. I’d recommend aiming for three to five servings of broccoli per week. Having just one to two cups per day is a great addition to your diet, since this is enough to provide many key nutrients. It shouldn’t come as a surprise that these gentle giants put away a lot of food each day. As good as broccoli is for dogs, we must remember that it can be dangerous, too. And how often? For example, it’s well-known that calcium plays some pivotal roles in keeping bones healthy and strong, but it also helps your blood to clot and keeps your muscles and nerves working properly. Based on the current research on broccoli sprouts, it's tough to determine how much sprouts you'd have to eat in order to get the full benefits. As a snack you can eat fruit, just avoid or reduce your intake of that with a higher sugar content. Few people have broccoli … Broccoli provides about 35 mg per serving. Dunk Your Tea Bag. Reasons why you should eat broccoli as a type 2 diabetic. How much broccoli sprouts to eat per day. It’s also beneficial to eat broccoli with some sort of healthy fat like olive or coconut oil, since certain vitamins are fat-soluble, meaning they’re digested and absorbed or transported in the body only with fat. Some examples of the many species in existence include: Broccoli has a taste that is often described as grassy, earthy and mildly bitter. Also, there is a sort of blanching method (160 degree water for 10 minutes) that’s supposed to increase the available sulforaphane. It can easily burn and become water-logged when it’s overcooked — and we all know how unappetizing that can be. Eating a cup of broccoli will net you 93 micrograms of vitamin K, or between 75 and 100 percent of your daily needs. Including more high-volume, low-calorie, high-nutrient foods in your meals. Some of the many demonstrated broccoli benefits include: Why is broccoli a superfood when it comes to cancer prevention? Broccoli Sprouts Recipes. As a complex carbohydrate high in fiber, it is a great choice for supporting balanced blood sugar levels, ongoing energy and helping you to feel full. Its high levels of vitamin A and vitamin C prevent collagen breakdown, skin cancer, UV damage, wrinkles and skin inflammation. Broccoli sprouts can be found at health food stores or you can make your own using broccoli seeds. With strict editorial sourcing guidelines, we only link to academic research institutions, reputable media sites and, when research is available, medically peer-reviewed studies. Vegetables known as brassicas, such as kale, broccoli, cauliflower, arugula, cabbage and others contain some elements that could cause thyroid issues. Why should you eat broccoli if you’re concerned about protecting your heart? The information in our articles is NOT intended to replace a one-on-one relationship with a qualified health care professional and is not intended as medical advice. You get about 1.4 micrograms of vitamin from an 8oz serving of yogurt. Nutrition and cruciferous vegetable consumption with loads of phosphorus, potassium, iodine, riboflavin, vitamin B5, more. Is one worry cooks them and makes them especially important for women calories—only 1 % of food! Parentheses ( 1, 2, etc. 150 IU per day much chia per! 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Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I - 1658-1705 Leopold I (name in full: Leopold Ignaz Joseph Balthasar Felician; Hungarian: I. Lipót; 9 June 1640 – 5 May 1705) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary and Croatia and King of Bohemia. The second son of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, by his first wife, Maria Anna of Spain, Leopold became heir apparent in 1654 by the death of his elder brother Ferdinand IV. Elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1658, Leopold would rule as such until his death in 1705. Leopold's reign is known for the conflicts with the Ottoman Empire in the east, and the rivalry with Louis XIV, a contemporary and first cousin, in the west. After more than a decade of warfare, Leopold emerged victorious from the Great Turkish War thanks to military talents of Prince Eugene of Savoy. By the Treaty of Karlowitz, Leopold recovered almost all of the Kingdom of Hungary which had fallen under the Turkish yoke in the years after the 1526 Battle of Mohács. Leopold fought three wars against France – the Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. In this last, Leopold sought to give his younger son the entire Spanish inheritance, disregarding the late Spanish king's will. To this end, he started a war which soon engulfed much of Europe. The early years of the war went fairly well for Austria, with victories at Schellenberg and Blenheim. But this was a stubborn war that would drag on till 1714, nine years after Leopold's death which, in truth, barely had an effect on the warring nations of Europe. When peace returned at the end of it all, Austria could not be said to have emerged as triumphant as it did from the war against the Turks. Born on 9 June 1640 in Vienna, Leopold received a careful education by excellent teachers. From an early age Leopold showed an inclination toward learning. He became fluent in several languages: Latin, Italian, German, French, and Spanish. In addition to German, Italian would be the most favored language at his court. Leopold was schooled in the classics, history, literature, natural science and astronomy, and was particularly interested in music, having inherited his father's musical talents. Originally intended for the Church, Leopold had received a suitably ecclesiastical education. But Fate put in motion a different plan for him when smallpox took his elder brother Ferdinand on 9 July 1654 and made Leopold heir apparent. Nonetheless, Leopold's church education had clearly marked him. Leopold remained influenced by the Jesuits and his education throughout his life, and was uncommonly knowledgeable for a monarch about theology, metaphysics, jurisprudence and the sciences. He also retained his interest in astrology and alchemy which he had developed under Jesuit tutors. A deeply religious and devoted person, Leopold personified the pietas Austriaca, or the loyally Catholic attitude of his House. On the other hand, his piety and education may have caused in him a fatalistic strain which inclined him to reject all compromise on denominational questions, not always a positive characteristic in a ruler. Leopold was said to have typically Habsburg physical attributes. Short, thin, and of sickly constitution, Leopold was cold and reserved in public, and socially awkward. However, he is also said to have been open with close associates. Coxe described Leopold in the following manner: "His gait was stately, slow and deliberate; his air pensive, his address awkward, his manner uncouth, his disposition cold and phlegmatic." Spielman argues that his long-expected career in the clergy caused Leopold to have "early adopted the intense Catholic piety expected of him and the gentle manners appropriate to a merely supporting role. He grew to manhood without the military ambition that characterized most of his fellow monarchs. From the beginning, his reign was defensive and profoundly conservative." Hungary elected Leopold as its king in 1655, with Bohemia and Croatia following suit in 1656 and 1657 respectively. In July 1658, more than a year after his father's death, Leopold was elected Emperor at Frankfurt in spite of the French minister, Cardinal Mazarin, who sought to put the Imperial Crown on the head of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria, or some other non-Habsburg prince. To conciliate France, which had considerable influence in German affairs thanks to the League of the Rhine, the newly elected Emperor promised not to assist Spain, then at war with France. This marked the beginning of a nearly 47-year career filled with rivalry with France and its king, Louis XIV. The latter's dominant personality and power completely overshadowed Leopold, even to this day, but though Leopold did not lead his troops in person as Louis XIV did, he was no less a warrior-king given the greater part of his public life was directed towards the arrangement and prosecution of wars. Second Northern War Leopold's first war was the Second Northern War (1655–1660). This war saw King Charles X of Sweden try to become King of Poland with the aid of allies including György II Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania. Leopold's predecessor, Ferdinand III, had allied with King John II Casimir Vasa of Poland in 1656. In 1657, Leopold expanded this alliance to include Austrian troops (paid by Poland). These troops helped defeat the Transylvanian army, and campaigned as far as Denmark. The war ended with the Treaty of Oliwa in 1660. Early wars against the Ottoman Empire A more dangerous foe next entered the lists. The Ottoman Empire interfered in the affairs of Transylvania, always an unruly district, and this interference brought on a war with the Holy Roman Empire, which after some desultory operations really began in 1663. By a personal appeal to the diet at Regensburg Leopold induced the princes to send assistance for the campaign; troops were also sent by France, and in August 1664, the great Imperial general Raimondo Montecuccoli gained a notable victory at Saint Gotthard. By the Peace of Vasvár the Emperor made a twenty years' truce with the Sultan, granting more generous terms than his recent victory seemed to render necessary. Wars against France After a few years of peace came the first of three wars between France and the Empire. The aggressive policy pursued by Louis XIV towards the Dutch Republic had aroused the serious attention of Europe, and steps had been taken to check it. Although the French king had sought the alliance of several German princes and encouraged the Ottomans in their attacks on Austria the Emperor at first took no part in this movement. He was on friendly terms with Louis, to whom he was closely related and with whom he had already discussed the partition of the lands of the Spanish monarchy. Moreover, in 1671, he arranged with him a treaty of neutrality. In 1672, however, he was forced to take action. He entered into an alliance for the defence of the United Provinces during the Franco-Dutch War; then, after this league had collapsed owing to the defection of the elector of Brandenburg, the more durable Quadruple Alliance was formed for the same purpose, including, besides the emperor, the king of Spain and several German princes, and the war was renewed. At this time, twenty-five years after the Peace of Westphalia, the Empire was virtually a confederation of independent princes, and it was very difficult for its head to conduct any war with vigor and success, some of its members being in alliance with the enemy and others being only lukewarm in their support of the imperial interests. Thus this struggle, which lasted until the end of 1678, was on the whole unfavourable to Germany, and the advantages of the Treaty of Nijmegen were mostly with France. It can however be argued that the imperial intervention saved the Netherlands from a complete French invasion. Almost immediately after the conclusion of peace Louis renewed his aggressions on the German frontier through the Réunions policy. Engaged in a serious struggle with the Ottoman Empire, the emperor was again slow to move, and although he joined the Association League against France in 1682 he was glad to make a truce at Regensburg two years later. In 1686 the League of Augsburg was formed by the emperor and the imperial princes, to preserve the terms of the treaties of Westphalia and of Nijmegen. The whole European position was now bound up with events in England, and the tension lasted until 1688, when William III of Orange won the English crown through the Glorious Revolution and Louis invaded Germany. In May 1689, the Grand Alliance was formed, including the emperor, the kings of England, Spain and Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg and others, and a fierce struggle against France was waged throughout almost the whole of western Europe. In general the several campaigns were favourable to the allies, and in September 1697, England, Spain and the United Provinces made peace with France at the Treaty of Rijswijk. To this treaty, Leopold refused to assent, as he considered that his allies had somewhat neglected his interests, but in the following month he came to terms and a number of places were transferred from France to Germany. The peace with France lasted for about four years and then Europe was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession. The king of Spain, Charles II, was a Habsburg by descent and was related by marriage to the Austrian branch, while a similar tie bound him to the royal house of France. He was feeble and childless, and attempts had been made by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable division of his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent to any partition, and when in November 1700 Charles died, leaving his crown to Philippe de France, Duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV, all hopes of a peaceable settlement vanished. Under the guidance of William III a powerful league, a renewed Grand Alliance, was formed against France; of this the emperor was a prominent member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim on the Spanish monarchy to his second son, Charles. The early course of the war was not favorable to the Imperialists, but the tide of defeat had been rolled back by the great victory of Blenheim before Leopold died on 5 May 1705. The emperor himself defined the guidelines of the politics. Johann Weikhard Auersperg was overthrown in 1669 as the leading minister. He was followed by Wenzel Eusebius Lobkowicz. Both had arranged some connections to France without the knowledge of the emperor. In 1674 also Lobkowicz lost his appointment. In governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties in Hungary, where unrest was caused partly by his desire to crush Protestantism and partly by the so-called Magnate conspiracy. A rising was suppressed in 1671 and for some years Hungary was treated with great severity. In 1681, after another rising, some grievances were removed and a less repressive policy was adopted, but this did not deter the Hungarians from revolting again. Espousing the cause of the rebels the sultan sent an enormous army into Austria early in 1683; this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna, which was besieged from July to September, while Leopold took refuge at Passau. Realizing the gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some of the German princes, among them the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, led their contingents to the Imperial Army, which was commanded by the emperor's brother-in-law, Charles, duke of Lorraine, but the most redoubtable of Leopold's allies was the king of Poland, John Sobieski, who was already dreaded by the Turks. Austrian forces occupied the castle of Trebišov in 1675, but in 1682 Imre Thököly captured it and then fled from continuous Austrian attacks, so they blew the castle up, since then it is in ruins. They fled as supposedly Hungarian rebel troops under the command of Imre Thököly, cooperating with the Turks, and sacked the city of Bielsko-Bia?a in 1682. In 1692, Leopold gave up his rights to the property and he gave his rights to the property by a donation to Theresia Keglevi?. He also expelled Jewish communities from his realm, for example the Viennese Jewish community, which used to live in an area called "Im Werd" across the Danube river. After the expulsion of the Jewish population, with popular support, the area was renamed Leopoldstadt as a thanksgiving. But Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg, issued an edict in 1677, in which he announced his special protection for 50 families of these expelled Jews. Success against the Turks and in Hungary On 12 September 1683, the allied army fell upon the enemy, who was completely routed, and Vienna was saved. The imperial forces, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoy was rapidly becoming prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohács in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699, the sultan signed the treaty of Karlowitz by which he admitted the sovereign rights of the house of Habsburg over nearly the whole of Hungary (including Serbian Vojvodina). As the Habsburg forces retreated, they withdrew 37,000 Serb families under Pe? Patriarch Arsenije III ?arnojevi?. In 1690 and 1691 Emperor Leopold I had conceived through a number of edicts the autonomy of Serbs in his Empire, which would last and develop for more than two centuries until its abolition in 1912. Before the conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen his hold upon this country. In 1687, the Hungarian diet in Bratislava (called Pressburg at that time) changed the constitution, the right of the Habsburgs to succeed to the throne without election was admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph I was crowned hereditary king of Hungary. The Holy Roman Empire The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 had been a political defeat for the Habsburgs. It ended the idea that Europe was a single Christian empire; governed spiritually by the Pope and temporally by the Holy Roman Emperor. Moreover, the treaty was devoted to parceling out land and influence to the "winners", the anti-Habsburg alliance led by France and Sweden. However, the Habsburgs did gain some benefits out of the wars; the Protestant aristocracy in Habsburg territories had been decimated, and the ties between Vienna and the Habsburg domains in Bohemia and elsewhere were greatly strengthened. These changes would allow Leopold to initiate necessary political and institutional reforms during his reign to develop somewhat of an absolutist state along French lines. The most important consequences of the war was in retrospect to weaken the Habsburgs as emperors but strengthen them in their own lands. Leopold was the first to realize this altered state of affairs and act in accordance with it. The reign of Leopold saw some important changes made in the constitution of the Empire. In 1663 the imperial diet entered upon the last stage of its existence, and became a body permanently in session at Regensburg. This perpetual diet would become a vital tool for consolidation of Habsburg power under Leopold. In 1692, the duke of Hanover was raised to the rank of an elector, becoming the ninth member of the electoral college. In 1700, Leopold, greatly in need of help for the impending war with France, granted the title of king in Prussia to the elector of Brandenburg. The net result of these and similar changes was to weaken the authority of the emperor over the members of the Empire and to compel him to rely more and more upon his position as ruler of the Austrian archduchies and of Hungary and Bohemia. Character and overall assessment Leopold was a man of industry and education, and during his later years, he showed some political ability. Regarding himself as an absolute sovereign, he was extremely tenacious of his rights. Greatly influenced by the Jesuits, he was a staunch proponent of the Counter-reformation. In person, he was short, but strong and healthy. Although he had no inclination for a military life, he loved exercise in the open air, such as hunting and riding; he also had a taste and talent for music and composed several Oratorios and Suites of Dances. In 1666, he married Margarita Teresa of Austria (1651–1673), daughter of King Philip IV of Spain, who was both his niece and his first cousin. She was the blonde princess depicted in Diego Velázquez' masterpiece Las Meninas. The wonderful series of Velazquez portraits of this lovely Spanish princess at various stages of her childhood were sent from the court of Madrid to Leopold as he waited in Vienna for his fiancee to grow up. This beautiful girl, the representation of merry childhood, was married at fifteen. She gave birth to four children and finally died at the age of twenty-one, leaving Leopold heartbroken, as he had truly loved her. Leopold and Margarita Teresa of Austria's children: Archduke Ferdinand Wenzel (1667–1668). Archduchess Maria Antonia (1669–1692) married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. Archduke Johann Leopold (1670). Archduchess Maria Anna Antonia (1672). His second wife was Archduchess Claudia Felicitas of Austria, the heiress of Tyrol. She died at the age of twenty-two on 2 September 1676; their two daughters also died. She was buried in the crypt of the St. Dominic side chapel of the Dominican church in Vienna. Archduchess Anna Maria Sophia (1674). Archduchess Maria Josepha (1675–1676). His third wife was Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, a princess of the Palatinate. They had the following children: Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (1678–1711) married Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Archduchess Maria Christina (1679). Archduchess Maria Elisabeth (1680–1741) Governor of the Austrian Netherlands. Archduke Leopold Joseph (1682–1684). Archduchess Maria Anna (1683–1754) married John V of Portugal. Archduchess Maria Theresa (1684–1696). Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1685–1740) married Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Archduchess Maria Josepha (1687–1703). Archduchess Maria Magdalena (1689–1743). Archduchess Maria Margaret (1690–1691). Like his father, Leopold was a patron of music and a composer. He continued to enrich the court's musical life by employing and providing support for distinguished composers such as Antonio Bertali, Giovanni Bononcini, Johann Kaspar Kerll, Ferdinand Tobias Richter, Alessandro Poglietti, and Johann Fux. Leopold's surviving works show the influence of Bertali and Viennese composers in general (in oratorios and other dramatic works), and of Johann Heinrich Schmelzer (in ballets and German comedies). His sacred music is perhaps his most successful, particularly Missa angeli custodis, a Requiem Mass for his first wife, and Three Lections, composed for the burial of his second wife. Much of Leopold's music was published with works by his father, and described as "works of exceeding high merit." Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I - 1658-1705 Titles of Leopold I The full titulature of Leopold after he had become emperor went as follows: Leopold I, by the grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King of Germany, King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania, Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Higher and Lower Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Goritia, Landgrave of Alsace, Marquess of the Holy Roman Empire, Burgovia, the Enns, the Higher and Lower Lusace, Lord of the Marquisate of Slavonia, of Port Naon and Salines, etc. etc.

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In the first half of the 20th century, developmental biology and genetics were separate disciplines. The term epigenetics was coined in 1942 by developmental biologist Conrad H. Waddington to link the two fields. "Epi-" (a Greek prefix meaning “upon, over, on top of”) + “genetics” = “on top of genetics”. Epigenetics, essentially, affects how genes are read by cells, and subsequently, how they produce proteins. Technically, it is the study of mitotically heritable yet potentially reversible, molecular modifications to DNA and chromatin without alteration to the underlying DNA sequence. Certain circumstances in life can cause genes to be silenced or expressed over time. In other words, they can be turned off (dormant) or turned on (active). Basically, epigenetics is the study of biological mechanisms that will switch genes on and off or “modify” genes. Hence, modifications in gene expression that are independent of the DNA sequence of a gene are called epigenetic alterations. This modification of gene expression may affect numerous biochemical dysregulations and dysfunctions. These alterations may contribute to epigenetic inheritance and epigenetic carcinogenesis or any other disease related to alterations in an organism. The epigenetic modifications and/or information are propagated trans-generationally to daughter cells through multiple somatic cell divisions. An organism’s genome can be modified by various chemical compounds or species in the biological system leading to changes in gene expression. These modifications are called the epigenome. Genetics vs. Epigenetics Genes don't dictate our health. Genes load the gun, but environment pulls the trigger. Much less is known about the epigenetic inheritance system than traditional genetics. Genetics is based on cell lineages and clonal inheritance. Gametogenesis produces single haploid cells that fuse to form a diploid zygote. The organism thus starts as a single cell and ends up as a clone of cells. If a mutation or chromosomal change occurs in a somatic cell, then all its descendants would be expected to have the same genotype. In contrast, epigenetic changes often occur in groups of cells, for example, the induction of muscle tissue in mesoderm cells. This is due to a specific signal which impinges on a group of cells with the same receptor. Some epigenetic events are clonal, and X chromosome inactivation is an excellent example. Genetic changes are stable and rarely reversed, whereas epigenetic changes are often reversed. Environmental influences do not change the genotype (leaving aside mutagens), and there is no inheritance of acquired characteristics. Epigenetics is quite different, because normal development depends on communication between cells. Thus, a hormone, morphogen or growth factor may induce an epigenetic change that may be heritable. This means that the environment of a cell may be all important in determining its properties or its fate in the developing organism. It is said that, “Genes don't dictate our health. Genes load the gun, but environment pulls the trigger.” Epigenetics is that environment. Changes in the internal and external environment of a biological system, such as nutritional changes, oxidative and nitrosative stress, toxic exposures, drugs, and social influences lead to epigenetic alterations. Epigenetics are extremely important throughout one’s lifespan, but particularly during prenatal development. When a new human embryo is formed, roughly 99% of the epigenetic changes acquired during the lifetime of the parents are reprogrammed. This allows the cells of the developing embryo to accrue their own epigenome and differentiate into all the different tissues found in the fully formed organism. Epigenetic patterns or signatures change throughout our lifetime. Our environment, nutrition, psychoemotional experiences, and toxic exposures can trigger epigenetic changes that modify and shape our phenotype. These changes may have a positive physiological or evolutionary impact, allowing us to adapt to our environment, or they may be considered harmful, leading to processes that make us more vulnerable to disease and affect our well-being. Despite having the same DNA, different cell types have distinct gene expression (mRNA) patterns to perform different functions. One mechanism of this differential gene expression is through epigenetic changes, which some have argued may also explain some of the variation in behavioral phenotypes of humans. One key aspect of the “epigenome” is that, unlike the DNA sequence, it may be modified by environmental, dietary and even pharmaceutical interventions. In other words, epigenetics, in a broad sense, is a bridge between genotype and phenotype - a phenomenon that changes the outcome of a locus or chromosome without changing the underlying DNA sequence. A given genotype can confer a variety of phenotypes in the presence of different environmental factors. This ability is called “phenotypic plasticity” and refers to some of the changes in an organism's behavior, morphology and physiology in response to its unique environment. Modifications in gene expression are controlled by fundamental epigenetic mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin remodeling and microRNAs that act as regulatory molecules. Epigenetic modifications are of particular interest in the field of cancer research since their impact on the epigenome is involved in cell proliferation, differentiation and survival. Many other diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders, are also associated with epigenetic alterations. At least half of all tumor suppressor genes are inactivated through epigenetic mechanisms in tumorigenesis. The above diagram depicts primary mechanisms involved in epigenetic changes that affect modifications in gene expression: Non-coding RNAs (microRNAs) These mechanisms regulate gene expression as well as various cellular and biological functions related to homeostasis, allostasis and disease. Epigenetic mechanisms provide an interface by which the environment influences gene activity. In many diseases, including all cancers, the epigenetic control of the genome is heavily distorted. The following is a description of the three epigenetic mechanisms: DNA methylation is a chemical process that adds a methyl group (-CH3) to DNA. It is highly specific and always happens in a region in which a cytosine-nucleotide is located next to a guanine nucleotide that is linked by a phosphate; this is called a CpG site. DNA methylation is the most widely studied form of epigenetic modification and occurs within the one-carbon metabolism pathway, which is dependent upon several enzymes in the presence of dietary micronutrients as cofactors, including the availability of folate, choline, and betaine through the diet. Methyl groups are acquired via a specific metabolic pathway that involves important vitamins like folate, B12, and riboflavin. Thus, a deficiency of these dietary factors and exposures to toxic chemicals in the environment can increase the risk of a variety of diseases. Through an ATP-driven reaction methionine is converted into S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), the universal cellular methyl donor. DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) covalently attach methyl groups from SAM to the carbon-5 position of cytosine bases, generating 5-methylcytosine thus methylating DNA. In the context of nutritional biochemistry, it is significant that the one-carbon metabolism pathway is cyclical and is regenerated via dietary micronutrients. Substrates obtained via diet are highlighted in yellow. Vitamin B6 is a cofactor to serine hydroxymethyltransferase in the conversion of tetrahydrofolate (THF) to 5,10-methylene THF. Vitamin B2 is a precursor to FAD, which is a cofactor to methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) in the conversion of 5,10-methylene THF to 5-methyl THF. Vitamin B12 is a precursor to methionine synthase, involved in the production of methionine from homocysteine and betaine. Acronyms: dihydrofolate (DHF), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), dimethylglycine (DMG), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), tetrahydrofolate (THF). Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is crucial to one-carbon metabolism, catalyzing the conversion of homocysteine to methionine and generating 5-methyltetrahydrofolate. Because of this relationship, the role of MTHFR genotype in DNA methylation has been thoroughly investigated. Multiple processes, including gene expression, X-chromosome inactivation, imprinting, chromatin organization and other biological processes are controlled by DNA methylation. Proper methylation is vital in prenatal development after reprogramming has occurred, playing a key role in tissue differentiation. The addition of a methyl group to cytosine frequently occurs at gene promoter regions with CpG islands, which are regions of large repetitive CpG dinucleotides occupying 60% of the promoter region. Methylation of CpG dinucleotide(s) has been associated with disease states including cancer. The enzymes responsible for DNA methylation are the DNA methyltransferases, which currently are categorized into five classes based on their specific enzymatic and physiological functions. The process of methylation occurs through the transfer of a methyl group to a histone from adenosyl methionine (AdoMet), and S-adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy) inhibits the action of DNMTs. AdoHcy hydrolase can hydrolyze AdoHcy into adenosine and homocysteine, and therefore, could be employed as a therapeutic agent for epigenetic diseases. This image shows a DNA molecule that is methylated on both strands on the center cytosine. Image by Christoph Bock of CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna. Histones are proteins that are the primary components of chromatin, which is the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. Histones act as a spool around which DNA can wind. When histones are modified after they are translated into protein (i.e., post-translation modification), they can influence how chromatin is arranged, which, in turn, can determine whether the associated chromosomal DNA will be transcribed. If chromatin is not in a compact form, it is active, and the associated DNA can be transcribed. Conversely, if chromatin is condensed (creating a complex called heterochromatin), then it is inactive, and DNA transcription does not occur. There are two main ways histones can be modified: acetylation and methylation. These are chemical processes that add either an acetyl or methyl group, respectively, to the amino acid lysine that is located in the histone. Acetylation is usually associated with active chromatin, while deacetylation is generally associated with heterochromatin. The acetylation of histone proteins at various amino acid residues is regulated by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). The process of methylation occurs through the transfer of a methyl group to a histone from adenosyl methionine (AdoMet), and S-adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy) inhibits the action of DNMTs. AdoHcy hydrolase can hydrolyze AdoHcy into adenosine and homocysteine, and therefore, could be employed as a therapeutic agent for epigenetic diseases. Recently, it has become evident that RNA, particularly noncoding RNAs, have a hand in controlling multiple epigenetic phenomena. Genes can also be turned off (silenced) by RNA when it is in the form of antisense transcripts, noncoding RNAs, or RNA interference. RNA might affect gene expression by causing heterochromatin to form, or by triggering histone modifications and DNA methylation. Non-coding RNAs make up the vast majority of the human genome and play a regulatory role in the expression of our genes. The most well understood of these is microRNA. These roughly 22-nucleotide-long regions are believed to help regulate more than half of our protein-coding genes by reducing the transcription of proteins, thus holding a place of great importance in normal functioning of the cell and in disease. While epigenetic changes are required for normal development and health, they can also be responsible for some disease states. Disrupting any of the three systems that contribute to epigenetic alterations can cause abnormal activation or silencing of genes. Such disruptions have been associated with cancer, syndromes involving chromosomal instabilities, and mental retardation. The fact that many human diseases, including cancer, have an epigenetic etiology has encouraged the development of a new therapeutic option that might be termed “epigenetic therapy”. Many agents have been discovered that alter methylation patterns on DNA or the modification of histones in either a positive or negative way (see diagram below). Dietary factors have become agents of strong interest in the field of epigenetics. Several bioactive dietary components which exhibit potential to both prevent and treat disease have been identified and researched. In fact, several naturally occurring dietary phytochemicals have been demonstrated to have anticarcinogenic properties and have been shown to play a role in regulating biological processes. Studies have shown that natural products have epigenetic targets in cancer cells and can act as cancer preventive agents. Compounds found in dietary phytochemical preparations such as teas, garlic, soy products, herbs, grapes and cruciferous vegetables are now generally accepted to defend against the development of many different types of tumors as well as to act as epigenetic modulators that impact not only the initiation, but also the progression of diseases including cancer. Epigenetics and Dietary Factors (Nutri-epigenetics) One of the best examples of this is polyphenols that are present in fruits and vegetables. These classes include: flavonoids, stilbenes, phenolic acids, benzoquinones, acetophenones, lignins and xanthones. The chemo-preventative potential of dietary polyphenols can be traced to their ability to inhibit DNMTs as well as their ability to act as histone modifiers. Both of these properties of dietary polyphenols can significantly change the epigenome of cancer cells and are being used clinically as anticancer agents. Polyphenolic compounds in green tea may actively reduce the risk of diseases such as cancer. One subcategory of polyphenols, catechins, is the most abundant of the bioactive compounds in green tea. These include (−)-epicatechin (EC), (−)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG), (−)-epigallocatechin (EGC), and EGCG. While all of the aforementioned catechins have been found to share similar properties, the most efficient of these compounds in targeting factors like DNMTs is EGCG. EGCG accounts for more than 50% of the active compounds in green tea and has been extensively studied for its anticarcinogenic properties. An increasing number of studies have shown a positive correlation between the consumption of EGCG and the inhibition of oral, breast, prostate, gastric, ovarian, esophageal, skin, colorectal, pancreatic, and head and neck cancers. Another dietary polyphenol is resveratrol which is naturally found in several plants including peanuts, grapes, mulberries, cranberries and blueberries, and Polygonum cuspidatum or Japanese knotweed but is most abundant in the skin of grapes. Resveratrol acts as an antioxidant and inhibits the oxidation of low density lipoproteins, the aggregation of platelets, and eicosanoid synthesis and induces platelet nitric oxide production, which may help protect against atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. It also acts as an anti-inflammatory agent by inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity and by releasing cytokines from macrophages in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Antiproliferative properties of resveratrol have been reported in liver, skin, breast, prostate, lung and colon cancer cells. One of the most exciting dietary polyphenol rich plants is Curcuma longa. Curcumin is the main component of the spice turmeric and is responsible for the yellow pigmentation of curry. This bioactive dietary component appears to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiangiogenic and anti-cancer properties and is used as a therapeutic agent in Ayurvedic Indian and traditional Chinese medicine. Investigations indicate that curcumin inhibits DNMT activity by covalently blocking the catalytic thiolate of C1226 of DNMT1. Moreover, there is evidence that curcumin may be an effective DNA hypomethylating agent that could facilitate the expression of inactive pro-metastatic and proto-oncogenes. Curcumin also has epigenomic effects in that genomic DNA from leukemia cells show global hypomethylation after curcumin treatments. Isothiocyanates are a category of dietary compounds present in cruciferous vegetables including broccoli, cabbage and kale. Isothiocyanates are characterized by a sulfur containing functional group (N=C=S). Studies show that isothiocyanates have proapoptotic and antiproliferative properties. Several investigations have demonstrated evidence that isothiocyanates inhibit cancer cell growth and exhibit proapoptotic capabilities. Isothiocyanates are known to affect the epigenome and have anti-cancer properties. In fact, allyl-isothiocyanate, found in broccoli, has been shown to increase histone acetylation. Dietary folate is the most extensively studied micronutrient in animal and epidemiological DNA methylation research. Folate is reduced to dihydrofolate (DHF) and subsequently to tetrahydrofolate (THF), serving as a single carbon donor in the form of 5-methyl THF. Consequently, 5-methyl THF feeds into the one-carbon metabolism cycle by donating its methyl group to homocysteine converting it to methionine. Cofactor B vitamins provide the enzymatic support necessary for these transformations, making it possible for dietary folate to feed into the one-carbon metabolism cycle to replenish cellular SAM. The water-soluble vitamins B2, B6, and B12 have an important catalytic role in folate and one-carbon metabolism. Vitamin B6 serves as a coenzyme to serine hydroxymethyltransferase, the key enzyme in the folate cycle converting THF to 5,10-methylene THF. Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, is a precursor for flavin adenine dinucleotides (FAD), which is a cofactor to MTHFR, the enzyme responsible in the reduction of 5,10-methylene THF to 5-methyl THF. Vitamins B2, B6, and B12 Choline is an indirect methyl group donor for one-carbon metabolism. Within this pathway, dietary choline is oxidized to betaine. Betaine then contributes to methionine homeostasis through the donation of a methyl group to homocysteine, resulting in homocysteine’s conversion to methionine. Thus, several animal in vivo (and, to a lesser extent, human studies) have investigated the role of dietary choline and/or betaine and their impact on gene DNA methylation. Numerous other dietary nutrients and compounds have also been found to have positive epigenetic targets. As the field of nutri-epigenetics continues to emerge, it will enable clinical and public health practices to apply epigenetically-driven therapeutic and preventative strategies when evaluating a population or individuals in a certain disease state. Nutritional recommendations based upon individual epigenetic profiles are being clinically used to prevent and treat illness. Choline and Betaine Early life experiences exert a profound and long-lasting influence on physical and mental health throughout life. The efforts to identify the primary causes of this have significantly benefited from studies of the epigenome - a dynamic layer of information associated with DNA that differs between individuals and can be altered through various experiences and environments. Understanding the mechanisms involved in the initiation, maintenance, and heritability of epigenetic states is thus an important aspect of research in current biology, particularly in the study of learning and memory, emotion, and social behavior in humans. Moreover, epigenetics in psychology provides a framework for understanding how the expression of genes is influenced by experiences and the environment to produce individual differences in behavior, cognition, personality, and mental health. Research now shows how diverse social and environmental factors (the social determinants of health) such as maternal health and education, nutrition, environmental toxins, social conditions such as housing and poverty, and child rearing practices affect how our genetic building blocks (DNA) are expressed. The differences in gene expression contribute to individual differences in health, development and behavior. Social epigenetics is the process by which early life experiences influence chemical reactions that in turn alter the ways our genes function or are expressed. And these differences in expression influence lifelong health and wellbeing. The term "social determinant of health" often refers to any nonmedical factor directly influencing health, including: values, attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors. However, it can also refer to more external sources of influence such as family, neighborhood and social network context. A large and convincing body of literature over the last several decades shows that health across one's lifespan is strongly linked to social disadvantage. For example, neighborhoods can influence health through their physical and geographic characteristics, such as air and water quality, lead paint exposure, proximity to both health promoting and suppressing features (i.e. hospitals and nutritious food stores vs. toxic factories and fast food), access to green space, and so on. Additionally, more social aspects of neighborhoods such as strong social cohesion show far better health and safety. Substantial evidence indicates that pathways initiated by childhood social adversity can be interrupted. Studies show that high-quality early development interventions - including center-based programs to nurture and stimulate children and to support and educate parents - greatly ameliorate the effects of social disadvantage on children’s cognitive, emotional/behavioral, and physical development; the first five years of life appear to be most crucial, although opportunities for intervention continue throughout childhood and adolescence. In short, social environment, particularly social deprivation is associated with a wide range of epigenetic change in children and young adults. But more research exploring the overlap between social and natural environmental links to epigenetics and health is desperately needed. Personalized medicine is the application of an individual’s personal genetic profile to predict disease, prevent disease through medical interventions, and make decisions about lifestyle and disease management based on the needs of each individual patient. Moreover, genetic screening is important for the personalization of treatment for a patient. In conventional western medicine, patients are treated by a “one-size-fits-all” approach within a standard pharmaceutical protocol. Treatment decisions are mainly based on the clinical stage of the disease and the patient’s medical and family history - ignoring the individual’s underlying biology. While this approach has achieved some therapeutic efficacy in managing certain diseases and cancers (e.g., testicular cancers, and pediatric leukemias), the overall survival rate of cancer patients has improved little in the last decades, arguing for the need of novel ideas and strategies in disease management. The new epigenetic treatment approach should integrate comprehensive disease biology and individualized multi-therapeutics into other personal attributes (age, sex, nutrition, psychological conditions and gut microbiome). The epigenetics arena has become a rich and exciting global research environment, inspiring collaborations between commercial and academic partners that have identified many significant epigenetic biomarkers for a wide range of serious and debilitating diseases. Precise mapping and measurement of epigenetic biomarkers will continue to improve clinical practice by enabling diagnosis during early stages of disease development, even before genetic changes have taken place. Epigenetic-based diagnostics that can detect early disease signals will provide opportunities for clinical intervention before symptom progression has impacted on quality of life - when patients are still relatively healthy, and conditions favor treatment success. These highly-specific biomarkers can help to personalize disease management that allows treatment response to be monitored more precisely. Nutritional and lifestyle interventions may then be adjusted accordingly to optimize treatment outcomes. Unfortunately, a significant drawback to the prevailing approach to personalized medicine is its primary or myopic focus on pharmaceuticals and technology-driven diagnostics rather than on basic preventive public health measures. Abundant evidence exists that healthy nutritional choices, reducing personal or collective toxic exposures, exercise, and stress reduction, increase general health much more efficiently than pharmaceutical treatment of disease. Epigenetics offers great opportunities to improve both healthcare and, more proactively, health in general. However, the full potential of personalized medicine will remain untapped if current research stays focused in pharmaceutical intervention rather than prevention with nutrition, lifestyle and social modifications. 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Neurobiology of disease 39, no. 1 (2010): 66-72. • Milagro FI, Campión J, Cordero P, et al. A dual epigenomic approach for the search of obesity biomarkers: DNA methylation in relation to diet-induced weight loss. FASEB J. 2011;25(4):1378–1389. • Nephew KP, Huang TH-M. Epigenetic gene silencing in cancer initiation and progression. Cancer Lett. 2003;190(2):125–133. • Sallis JF, Glanz K. The role of built environments in physical activity, eating, and obesity in childhood. The Future of Children. 2006;16(1):89–108. • Szyf M. Early life, the epigenome and human health. Acta Paediatr. 2009 Jul;98(7):1082–1084. • Tollefsbol, Trygve O. Dietary epigenetics in cancer and aging. In Advances in nutrition and cancer, pp. 257-267. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2014. • Toraño et al. The Impact of External Factors on the Epigenome: In Utero and over Lifetime Biomed Res Int. 2016; 2016: 2568635. • Tu S-H, Ku C-Y, Ho C-T, et al. Tea polyphenol (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits nicotine- and estrogen-induced α9-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor upregulation in human breast cancer cells. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2011;55(3):455–466. • vel Szic, Katarzyna Szarc, Ken Declerck, Melita Vidaković, and Wim Vanden Berghe. From inflammaging to healthy aging by dietary lifestyle choices: is epigenetics the key to personalized nutrition? Clinical epigenetics 7, no. 1 (2015): 33. • Waddington CH. The epigenotype. Endeavour. 1942;1:18–20.

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The material on this web site is provided for educational purposes only, and is not to be used for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. This site offers information and is designed for educational purposes only. You should not rely on this information as a substitute for, nor does it replace, professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. If you have any concerns or questions about your health, you should always consult with a physician, or other health-care professional. Do not disregard, avoid or delay obtaining medical or health related advice from your health-care professional because of something you may have read on this site. The use of any information provided on this site is solely at your own risk. Developments in medical research may impact the health, fitness and nutritional advice that appears here. No assurance can be given that the advice contained in this site will always include the most recent findings or developments with respect to the particular material and videos. - Dental procedures during pandemic are no riskier than a drink of water, study finds A new study's findings dispel the misconception that patients and providers are at high risk of catching COVID-19 at the dentist's office. - AI helps predict treatment outcomes for patients with diseased dental implants Peri-implantitis, a condition where tissue and bone around dental implants becomes infected, besets roughly one-quarter of dental implant patients, and currently there's no reliable way to assess how patients will respond to treatment of this condition. - Independent evolutionary origins of vertebrate dentitions The origins of a pretty smile have long been sought in the fearsome jaws of living sharks which have been considered living fossils reflecting the ancestral condition for vertebrate tooth development and inference of its evolution. However, this view ignores real fossils which more accurately reflect the nature of ancient ancestors. - Comprehensive single-cell atlas of human teeth Researchers have mapped the first complete atlas of single cells that make up the human teeth. Their research shows that the composition of human dental pulp and periodontium vary greatly. Their findings open up new avenues for cell-based dental therapeutic approaches. - Study shows 2 percent of asymptomatic pediatric dental patients test positive for COVID-19 A new study has shown a novel way to track potential COVID-19 cases -- testing children who visit the dentist. The study also showed an over 2 percent positivity rate for the asymptomatic children tested. - Good dental health may help prevent heart infection from mouth bacteria Good oral hygiene and regular dental care are the most important ways to reduce risk of a heart infection called infective endocarditis caused by bacteria in the mouth. There are four categories of heart patients considered to be at highest risk for adverse outcomes from infective endocarditis, and only these patients are recommended to receive preventive antibiotic treatment prior to invasive dental procedures. - Imbalance in gum bacteria linked to Alzheimer's disease biomarker Older adults with more harmful than healthy bacteria in their gums are more likely to have evidence for amyloid beta -- a key biomarker for Alzheimer's disease -- in their cerebrospinal fluid, according to new research. However, this imbalance in oral bacteria was not associated with another Alzheimer's biomarker called tau. - New drug to regenerate lost teeth Scientists report that an antibody for one gene -- uterine sensitization associated gene-1 or USAG-1 -- can stimulate tooth growth in mice suffering from tooth agenesis. - People with severe gum disease may be twice as likely to have increased blood pressure Research shows that periodontitis, severe gum disease, is linked to higher blood pressure in otherwise healthy individuals. This study of 500 adults with and without gum disease found that approximately 50% of adults could have undetected hypertension. Promotion of good oral health could help reduce gum disease and the risk of high blood pressure and its complications. - How teeth sense the cold An ion channel called TRPC5 acts as a molecular cold sensor in teeth and could serve as a new drug target for treating toothaches. - Scientists find evidence that novel coronavirus infects the mouth's cells Scientists has found evidence that SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, infects cells in the mouth. The findings point to the possibility that the mouth plays a role in transmitting SARS-CoV-2 to the lungs or digestive system via saliva laden with virus from infected oral cells. A better understanding of the mouth's involvement could inform strategies to reduce viral transmission within and outside the body. - Dentists' tool boost as engineers get to root of tiny bubbles People's teeth-chattering experiences in the dentist's chair could be improved by fresh insights into how tiny, powerful bubbles are formed by ultra-fast vibrations, a study suggests. - Periodontal disease increases risk of major cardiovascular events People with periodontitis are at higher risk of experiencing major cardiovascular events, according to new research. - New hope for treating chronic pain without opioids According to some estimates, chronic pain affects up to 40% of Americans, and treating it frustrates both clinicians and patients -- a frustration that's often compounded by a hesitation to prescribe opioids for pain. - Bleeding gums may be a sign you need more vitamin C in your diet Bleeding of the gums on gentle probing, or gingival bleeding tendency, and also bleeding in the eye, or retinal hemorrhaging, were associated with low vitamin C levels in the bloodstream. - Ancient proteins help track early milk drinking in Africa Got milk? The 1990s ad campaign highlighted the importance of milk for health and wellbeing, but when did we start drinking the milk of other animals? And how did the practice spread? A new study led by scientists from Germany and Kenya highlights the critical role of Africa in the story of dairying, showing that communities there were drinking milk by at least 6,000 years ago. - Research establishes antibiotic potential for cannabis molecule The main nonpsychoactive component of cannabis has been shown to kill the bacteria responsible for gonorrhoea, meningitis and legionnaires disease, which could lead to the first new class of antibiotics for resistant bacteria in 60 years. - Research shapes safe dentistry during COVID-19 Research has been used to shape how dentistry can be carried out safely during the COVID-19 pandemic by mitigating the risks of dental aerosols. - Gum disease-causing bacteria borrow growth molecules from neighbors to thrive The human body is filled with friendly bacteria. However, some of these microorganisms, such as Veillonella parvula, may be too nice. These peaceful bacteria engage in a one-sided relationship with pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis, helping the germ multiply and cause gum disease, according to a new study. - Dental experts discover biological imbalance is the link between gum and kidney disease An imbalance of the body's oxygen producing free radicals and its antioxidant cells could be the reason why gum disease and chronic kidney disease affect each other, a new study has found. - The incredible, variable bacteria living in your mouth Researchers have examined the human oral microbiome and discovered tremendous variability in bacterial subpopulations living in certain areas of the mouth. In many cases, the team was able to identify a handful of genes that might explain a particular bacterial group's habitat specificity. - Coronavirus spread during dental procedures could be reduced with slower drill rotation Researchers have found that careful selection and operation of dental drills can minimize the spread of COVID-19 through aerosols. - How poor oral hygiene may result in metabolic syndrome Researchers have identified a novel mechanism by which periodontal disease may cause metabolic syndrome. By studying patients with metabolic syndrome, the researchers demonstrated high antibody titers against Porphyromonas gingivalis, the bacterium causing periodontal disease. In a mouse model, the researchers then showed that infection with this bacterium causes systemic insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction in skeletal muscle by altering the gut microbiome. This study shows the effect periodontal disease can have on the entire body. - Reversible stickiness is something to smile about Researchers report a cross-linker for dental cement that breaks down under UV light, making treatments easier to reverse. - Can we make bones heal faster? A new article describes for the first time how minerals come together at the molecular level to form bones and other hard tissues, like teeth and enamel. - Teeth grinding and facial pain increase due to coronavirus stress and anxiety The stress and anxiety experienced by the general population during Israel's first lockdown brought about a significant rise in orofacial and jaw pain, as well as jaw-clenching in the daytime and teeth-grinding at night, according to a new study. - Most dentists have experienced aggression from patients Roughly half of US dentists experienced verbal or reputational aggression by patients in the past year, and nearly one in four endured physical aggression, according to a new study. - A tiny jaw from Greenland sheds light on the origin of complex teeth Scientists have described the earliest known example of dentary bone with two rows of cusps on molars and double-rooted teeth. The new findings offer insight into mammal tooth evolution, particularly the development of double-rooted teeth. - Mechanical forces of biofilms could play role in infections Studying bacterial biofilms, scientists have discovered that mechanical forces within them are sufficient to deform the soft material they grow on, e.g. biological tissues, suggesting a 'mechanical' mode of bacterial infection. - Light stimulation makes bones heavier Researchers showed that laser ablation of bone inhibits expression of the osteogenesis inhibitor protein sclerostin without causing inflammation, unlike the conventional bur-drilling technique. Further investigations confirmed that this beneficial bio-stimulation works by inducing mechanical stress. These findings help advance research into the treatment of osteoporosis as well as specific enhancement of bone regrowth in orthopedic and dental surgery. - Researchers demonstrate how changing the stem cell response to inflammation may reverse periodontal disease Scientists have discovered that a specific type of molecule may stimulate stem cells to regenerate, reversing the inflammation caused by periodontal disease. - Breakthrough for tomorrow's dentistry New knowledge on the cellular makeup and growth of teeth can expedite developments in regenerative dentistry - a biological therapy for damaged teeth - as well as the treatment of tooth sensitivity. - Researchers ask: how sustainable is your toothbrush? Researchers have examined the sustainability of different models of the most commonly used oral health product - the toothbrush - to ascertain which is best for the planet and associated human health. - Polymers prevent potentially hazardous mist during dentist visit If the mist in a dentist's office -- sent flying into the air by spinning, vibrating tools -- contains a virus or some other pathogen, it is a health hazard. So researchers studied the viscoelastic properties of food-grade polymers and discovered that the forces of a vibrating tool or dentist's drill are no match for them. Not only did a small admixture of polymers completely eliminate aerosolization, but it did so with ease. - Stopping tooth decay before it starts -- without killing bacteria Eating sugar or other carbohydrates after dental cleanings causes oral bacteria to quickly rebuild plaque and to produce acids that corrode tooth enamel, leading to cavities. Today, scientists report a treatment that could someday stop plaque and cavities from forming in the first place, using a new type of cerium nanoparticle formulation. - Cancer mutations caused by bacterial toxin preventable Reports show that cancer is the second leading cause of death globally. Scientists have found DNA mutations in some cancers that link them to a bacterial toxin called colibactin. Their findings improve understanding of how some cancers develop, and could help in their prevention. - Atomic force microscopy reveals nanoscale dental erosion from beverages Researchers used atomic force microscopy to quantitatively evaluate how acidic and sugary drinks affect human tooth enamel at the nanoscale level. This novel approach is useful for measuring mechanical and morphological changes that occur over time during enamel erosion induced by beverages. - Smile: Atomic imaging finds root of tooth decay Researchers combined complementary imaging techniques to explore the atomic structure of human enamel, exposing tiny chemical flaws in the fundamental building blocks of our teeth. The findings could help scientists prevent or possibly reverse tooth decay. - Gum disease may raise risk of some cancers People who have periodontal (gum) disease may have a higher risk of developing some forms of cancer. - Robot jaws shows medicated chewing gum could be the future Medicated chewing gum has been recognized as a new advanced drug delivery method but currently there is no gold standard for testing drug release from chewing gum in vitro. New research has shown a chewing robot with built-in humanoid jaws could provide opportunities for pharmaceutical companies to develop medicated chewing gum. - Materials scientists drill down to vulnerabilities involved in human tooth decay Researchers have cracked one of the secrets of tooth decay. The materials scientists are the first to identify a small number of impurity atoms in human enamel that may contribute to the material's strength but also make it more soluble. They also are the first to determine the spatial distribution of the impurities with atomic-scale resolution. The discovery could lead to a better understanding of human tooth decay as well as genetic conditions that affect enamel formation. - Tongue microbes provide window to heart health Microorganisms on the tongue could help diagnose heart failure, according to new research. 'The tongues of patients with chronic heart failure look totally different to those of healthy people,' said one of the researchers. - Could the cure for IBD be inside your mouth? A new collaborative study reveals that inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) may be the latest condition made worse by poor oral health via a clash between the mouth and gut microbiomes. - Harnessing pickle power to promote dental health A research team evaluated 14 different types of Sichuan pickles from southwest China. They extracted 54 different strains of Lactobacilli and found that one, L. plantarum K41, significantly reduced the incidence and severity of cavities. K41 was also highly tolerant of acids and salts, an additional benefit as a probiotic for harsh oral conditions. It also could have potential commercial value when added to dairy products. - Cavity-causing bacteria assemble an army of protective microbes on human teeth It's not just the presence of bacteria that can lead to disease; their spatial arrangement also matters. When scientists examined the bacteria that causes tooth decay, they found it 'shields' itself under blankets of sugars and other bacteria in a crown-like arrangement, helping it evade antimicrobials and concentrate its tooth-damaging acids. - Fluoride in water is not associated with increase in osteosarcoma The results of a new study demonstrated that community water fluoridation is not associated with increased risk of osteosarcoma. - Immune-regulating drug improves gum disease in mice A drug that has life-extending effects on mice also reverses age-related dental problems in the animals, according to a new study. - AI to make dentists' work easier Researchers have developed a new automatized way to localize mandibular canals. - Improving the treatment of periodontitis For the first time, researchers have shown that a unicellular parasite commonly found in the mouth plays a role in both severe tissue inflammation and tissue destruction. - Teeth serve as 'archive of life,' new research finds Teeth constitute a permanent and faithful biological archive of the entirety of the individual's life, from tooth formation to death, a team of researchers has found. Its work provides new evidence of the impact that events, such as reproduction and imprisonment, have on an organism. - Commonly used mouthwash could make saliva significantly more acidic, change microbes The first study looking at the effect of chlorhexidine mouthwash on the entire oral microbiome has found its use significantly increases the abundance of lactate-producing bacteria that lower saliva pH, and may increase the risk of tooth damage. "In the face of the recent COVID-19 outbreak many dentists are now using chlorhexidine as a pre-rinse before doing dental procedures. We urgently need more information on how it works on viruses," said one of the researchers. - Stem cells and nerves interact in tissue regeneration and cancer progression Researchers show that different stem cell populations are innervated in distinct ways. Innervation may therefore be crucial for proper tissue regeneration. They also demonstrate that cancer stem cells likewise establish contacts with nerves. Targeting tumor innervation could thus lead to new cancer therapies. - Ouch: Patients prescribed opioids after tooth extraction report worse pain The use of opioids to soothe the pain of a pulled tooth could be drastically reduced or eliminated altogether from dentistry, say researchers. - Researchers discover tooth-enamel protein in eyes with dry AMD A protein that normally deposits mineralized calcium in tooth enamel may also be responsible for calcium deposits in the back of the eye in people with dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD), according to a new study. - Not only what you eat, but how you eat, may affect your microbiome Researchers found that post-stroke patients re-grow a healthy microbiota in their mouth and gut when they revert to normal food intake from tube feeding. These results emphasize the need to actively normalize feeding in these patients, not only to minimize the risks of tube feeding, but also because oral feeding significantly alters the microbiome of both the mouth and the gut, potentially with beneficial consequences for overall health. - The microbes in your mouth, and a reminder to floss and go to the dentist Most people know that good oral hygiene -- brushing, flossing, and regular dental visits -- is linked to good health. Microbiome researchers offer fresh evidence to support that conventional wisdom, by taking a close look at invisible communities of microbes that live in every mouth. Their study found a correlation between people who did not visit the dentist regularly and increased presence of a pathogen that causes periodontal disease. - Could this plaque identifying toothpaste prevent a heart attack or stroke? For decades, researchers have suggested a link between oral health and inflammatory diseases affecting the entire body -- in particular, heart attacks and strokes. Results of a randomized pilot trial of Plaque HD®, the first toothpaste that identifies plaque so that it can be removed with directed brushing, showed that it produced a statistically significant reduction in C-reactive protein, a sensitive marker for future risks of heart attacks and strokes, among those with elevations at baseline. - How too much fluoride causes defects in tooth enamel Exposing teeth to excessive fluoride alters calcium signaling, mitochondrial function, and gene expression in the cells forming tooth enamel -- a novel explanation for how dental fluorosis, a condition caused by overexposure to fluoride during childhood, arises. - Chemical found in drinking water linked to tooth decay in children Children with higher concentrations of a certain chemical in their blood are more likely to get cavities, according to a new study. Researchers found that higher concentrations of PFAS were associated with greater tooth decay in children. - Why eating yogurt may help lessen the risk of breast cancer One of the causes of breast cancer may be inflammation triggered by harmful bacteria suggest researchers. Scientists advise consuming natural yogurt, which contains beneficial bacteria which dampens inflammation and which is similar to the bacteria found in breastfeeding mothers. Their suggestion is that this bacteria is protective because breast feeding reduces the risk of breast cancer. The consumption of yogurt is also associated with a reduction in the risk of breast cancer. - Temporomandibular Joint Disorder Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMD) describes a variety of conditions that affect jaw muscles, temporomandibular joints and nerves associated with chronic facial pain. Symptoms may occur on one or both sides of the face, head or jaw, or develop after an injury. TMD affects more than twice as many women than men. Updated: November 2008 - What is Dental Amalgam (Silver Filling)? What is Dental Amalgam (Silver Fillings)? Most people recognize dental amalgams as silver fillings. Dental amalgam is a mixture of mercury, silver, tin and copper. Mercury, which makes up about 50 percent of the compound, is used to bind the metals together and to provide a strong, hard, durable filling. After years of research, mercury has been found to be the only eleme... - What is Orofacial Pain? Orofacial pain includes a number of clinical problems involving the chewing (masticatory) muscles or temporomandibular joint. Problems can include temporomandibular joint discomfort; muscle spasms in the head, neck and jaw; migraines, cluster or frequent headaches; or pain with the teeth, face or jaw. You swallow approximately 2,000 times per day, which causes the upper and lower teeth t... - What is a Composite Resin (White Filling)? What is a Composite Resin (White Filling)? A composite filling is a tooth-colored plastic and glass mixture used to restore decayed teeth. Composites are also used for cosmetic improvements of the smile by changing the color of the teeth or reshaping disfigured teeth. How is a composite placed? Following preparation, the dentist ... - Are You Biting Off More Than You Can Chew? In our fast-paced lives, many of us may be eating in a hurry, taking giant bites of our food to get done quickly and on to the next task. Fast-food restaurants advertise giant burgers and sandwiches as a selling point, but often those super-sized delicacies are larger than a human mouth. Taking bites that are too big to chew could be bad for your jaw and teeth, says the Academy of Genera... - The History of Dental Advances The History of Dental Advances Many of the most common dental tools were used as early as the Stone Age. Thankfully, technology and continuing education have made going to the dentist a much more pleasant – and painless – experience. Here is a look at the history of dentistry's most common tools, and how they came to be vital components of our oral health care needs. Where did t... - Check Menstrual Calendar for Tooth Extraction Dry socket, the most common postoperative complication from tooth extractions, delays the normal healing process and results when the newly formed blood clot in the extraction site does not form correctly or is prematurely lost. This blood clot lays the foundation for new tissue and bone to develop over a two-month healing process. Updated: October 2008 - Headaches and Jaw Pain? Check Your Posture! If you experience frequent headaches and pain in your lower jaw, check your posture and consult your dentist about temporomandibular disorder (TMD), recommends the Academy of General Dentistry (AGD), an organization of general dentists dedicated to continuing dental education. Poor posture places the spine in a position that causes stress to the jaw joint. When people slouch or hunch over... - Men: Looking for a Better Job? Start by Visiting the Dentist Men: Looking for a Better Job? Start by Visiting the Dentist An online poll of 289 general dentists and consumers confirms the traditional stereotype that men are less likely to visit the dentist than their female counterparts, according to the Academy of General Dentistry (AGD), an organization of general dentists dedicated to continuing dental education. Why? Nearly 45 percent... - Why is Oral Health Important for Men? Why is Oral Health Important for Men? Men are less likely than women to take care of their physical health and, according to surveys and studies, their oral health is equally ignored. Good oral health recently has been linked with longevity. Yet, one of the most common factors associated with infrequent dental checkups is just being male. Men are less likely than women to seek preventive ... - What is Baby Bottle Tooth Decay? What is Baby Bottle Tooth Decay? Baby bottle tooth decay is caused by the frequent and long-term exposure of a child's teeth to liquids containing sugars. Among these liquids are milk, formula, fruit juice, sodas and other sweetened drinks. The sugars in these liquids pool around the infant's teeth and gums, feeding the bacteria in plaque. Every time a child consumes a sugary liquid, acid... - Pacifiers Have Negative and Positive Effects Pacifiers Have Negative and Positive Effects It’s one of the hardest habits to break and can require a great deal of persuasion: Parents often struggle with weaning their child off of a pacifier. There is much debate regarding the use of pacifiers, but there is evidence to show that there are both pros and cons, according to a study in the January/February 2007 issue of Gene... - Is My Child at Risk for Early Childhood Tooth Decay? Is My Child at Risk for Early Childhood Tooth Decay? The average healthy adult visits the dentist twice a year. The average healthy 2-year-old has never been to the dentist. By kindergarten, 25 percent of children have never seen a dentist, yet dental decay is the single most common chronic childhood disease in America. The culprit? A combination of misinformation about when a c... - When Should My Child First See a Dentist? When Should My Child First See a Dentist? Your child's first visit to the dentist should happen before his or her first birthday. The general rule is six months after eruption of the first tooth. Taking your child to the dentist at a young age is the best way to prevent problems such as tooth decay, and can help parents learn how to clean their child's teeth and identify his or her fluori... - How Do I Care for My Child's Baby Teeth? How Do I Care for My Child’s Baby Teeth? Though you lose them early in life, your primary teeth, also called baby teeth, are essential in the development and placement of your permanent teeth. Primary teeth maintain the spaces where permanent teeth will erupt and help develop proper speech patterns that would otherwise be difficult; without maintenance of these spaces, crowding and misali...

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In the spring of 2009, a five-year-old boy in Mexico got sick: one of the first of thousands to become ill from a new strain of influenza. His family blamed his illness on the numerous pig farms that surround his village, although testing determined there was no connection. The new contagion, actually a variation on the familiar H1N1 virus, came to be known as the “Mexican swine flu,” or simply “swine flu.” The disease caused by this new flu bug (formally (H1N1) pdm09) became a pandemic. It killed more than 17,000 people, and continues to kill people every year as part of the seasonal flu threat, but this is true of other flu viruses too. But the nickname “swine flu” did billions of dollars in economic damage. People stopped buying and eating pork. Export markets dried up as countries free of the virus banned pork imports from countries known to have cases of the disease. In 1918, just as World War 1 was winding to its bloody end, a new, deadly strain of influenza appeared. While its origins are still uncertain, doctors in Spain – a neutral country – were free to publish what they were seeing. Hence the new disease, which went on to kill an estimated 50 million people in the worst pandemic of the 20th century, became forever known as the Spanish flu. Spain protested that their country was being unfairly stigmatized. There are echoes of this stigma today as in mid-March the U.S. president dubbed the current COVID-19 pandemic as the “Chinese virus.” Later, at a G7 conference near the end of March, the US secretary of state insisted on calling it the “Wuhan virus” after the Chinese city in which it first appeared. Officials from the other G7 nations refused, so no joint statement on the pandemic was issued. To be fair (or equally unfair), the Chinese, aided by conspiracy theory groups, have evidently been using social media to spread the story that COVID-19 was brought to Wuhan by U.S. troops stationed there, i.e. “it’s the American virus.” Names have great power particularly when adopted by those in authority. One possible consequence is that some gun stores in the U.S. have seen a marked uptick in sales of weapons and ammunition to Asian Americans who feel the need to protect themselves and their families. Some names demonize groups with horns, others sanctify people and places with halos. It’s something the World Health Organization recognized in 2015 with new guidelines in naming new pathogens to avoid any names or geographical locations. The COVID-19 virus, incidentally, is formally known as SARS-CoV-2. While the name doesn’t exactly roll off the tongue, nor does it stigmatize any given group. Horns and halos bypass people’s logical decision-making; they go straight to the gut for an emotional response. It’s a strategy well-known and well-used in marketing, communications, and yes, propaganda. In the supermarket, labels such as “organic,” “natural,” and “gluten-free” impart a positive halo to products, while “synthetic,” “GMO,” and “factory farm” evoke horns in the consumer mind. In fact, marketers can buy themselves a halo simply by stating what they are not, for example, “non-GMO.” Likewise, in energy generation, “renewables” such as wind and solar have been graced with halos, while “nuclear” and more recently “oil” have been burdened with horns. Facts are often irrelevant when it comes to giving products or messages halos or horns. For example, despite overwhelming evidence of vaccine safety and effectiveness, anti-vaccine groups are able to create enough doubt among parents that childhood diseases such as measles and whooping cough are making a comeback. Likewise, fear of GMOs and food biotechnology threatens adoption and retention of more productive and environmentally gentle farming techniques. It also keeps these tools from improving the lives of farm families in developing countries. Hot-button issues such as climate change and fluoride in public water supplies suffer from similar communications challenges. While the world works through this latest pandemic, science communicators can look to other contentious science issues for lessons. How does one put a halo on an issue, and how can that halo become tarnished? Once horns have been put on an issue, can it be redeemed, and if so how? the challenge was to fit the best of what they had shared into limited space. Other interview subjects took the classic cowboy approach: stoic answers of one or two words, no matter what leading questions I threw at them. While you can’t control your interview subject entirely, you can at least come prepared with some research, questions and some tricks to get them talking. Here are a few to start with. Be on time. One of my former profs used to tell a story of how she once went to interview a busy executive. She apologetically showed up 20 minutes late, but he graciously welcomed her into his office. Just as she was starting to hit her stride, the exec glanced at his wrist, thanked her for coming, and ushered her out of his office before heading to his next meeting. Be prepared. Research the person, their work, and their subject area. You’re after new material with an interview, so don’t waste time asking questions about foundation stuff you could easily find elsewhere. Create a cheat sheet. Take some quiet time to develop a set of questions. Often, you won’t use it much, but it will give you confidence that you won’t get tongue-tied with nothing to ask. I’ve found that I’ll start with my list but then generally ignore it as I run through the interview. At the end, I’ll check it to see if I’ve missed anything. Ask clear questions. While you want to avoid “yes, no” questions, you should keep it simple. Don’t ramble on, touching several subjects before finally coming to rest on a three-part question. Stay focused so your interview subject can easily grasp what you’re asking. Stay focused. Certainly, spend a little time on casual conversation to break the ice and get relaxed. But once you’re into the interview, don’t wander off into irrelevant alleys. Stay on topic, listen closely to your interview subject, and spot interesting avenues of conversation instead. “So, let me see if I’ve got this right…” Interviewing experts means translating expert-ese into plain language. If you’re not sure you understand something, paraphrase it and read it back to your subject to make sure you’ve got it down. Don’t pass up the chance to shut up. When conversation lags, you may feel the urge to fill the silence with your own chatter. Wait a moment. Master the pregnant pause. Let your interview subject tell you something interesting instead. Pay attention on the way out. You’ve turned off your recorder and closed your notebook. Everyone relaxes. Small talk ensues; you ask a few casual questions on the way out the door. And your interview subject suddenly gives you the best quote of the interview! Relax. Shake their hand, close the door, then pull out your notepad and get that quote down on paper while it’s still fresh, along with any other final observations. Evolution doesn’t necessarily create the best solution; just a solution that allows you to have more kids. In the case of Homo sapiens – us – evolution shaped our minds but left vulnerabilities and quirks that everyone from governments to marketers can exploit. A case in point is some people’s tendency to fear new foods – particularly those borne of hard-to-understand processes. “Eat nothing your grandmother wouldn’t recognize,” is a mantra in some circles. It’s also a common logical fallacy called the “appeal to antiquity.” From an evolutionary perspective, this is a perfectly reasonable, perhaps the best, standpoint. It’s safer to eat what you remember eating as a child and more risky to try something new.* Presumably, those bold individuals who tried a bevy of possible new edibles died more often. Their more wary cousins survived to become our ancestors and passed along their native caution to us. When potatoes were first introduced to Europe from South America, people would have nothing to do with them, rejecting them as unhealthy and even un-Christian (in Russia, they were suspiciously called “the Devil’s apples.”) Perhaps not an unreasonable reaction – potatoes are part of the nightshade family and parts of the plant contain toxic alkaloids. Yet with a little knowledge on how to prepare them, potatoes proved their value and eventually became the fourth largest food crop in the world, after rice, wheat, and corn (another crop from the Americas). As people became comfortable with new crops, they were not only accepted, but taken for granted. Eventually, they gained the tested-by-tradition stamp of Grandma’s kitchen. As science progressed, naturalists observed plants and animals and put them into neat slots based on their characteristics. Those able to breed and have viable offspring were put in discrete categories called species. Certainly, there were hybrids such as mules, geeps and ligers, but these were exceptions to what became accepted as the natural order of things. This setup served humanity well for hundreds of years. Agriculturalists could breed different kinds of sheep to produce varieties with finer wool or wheat with shorter stems and more seeds. Without realizing it, we were practicing a sort of forced evolution: those animals and plants with traits humans wanted got to survive and reproduce. Then we learned about genetics and everything changed. Plant breeders learned how to “speed up” evolution, using radiation or chemicals to cause changes, or mutations, in DNA, the molecule that stores the chemical blueprints for all life on Earth. Most mutations are either benign or harmful, but some are useful. For example, one set of mutations produced grapefruit with flesh that was pink and sweet rather than yellow and bitter. Later, humans learned how to take the next step – genetic engineering. Rather than cause a bunch of random mutations and hope for the best, we could identify the genes we were interested in and move only those genes into our target plant or animal. With this method, we created crops that can fight off insect pests all on their own and fish that grow faster, using less feed and energy to grow to market weight. Of course, people freaked out. Moving genes from bacteria to corn and eggplant? From an ocean pout to an Atlantic salmon? That’s unnatural! (Although, truth be told, cross-species gene transfer happens in nature all the time). Again, we might blame it on our own evolutionary baggage. Nature is perceived as good, wholesome, familiar. Even natural hazards such as poisonous snakes aren’t terribly scary – we just know to avoid them. But unknown hazards are a different story. Consider a couple of early Homo erectus out on the African savanna. That rustle in the grass? It might be the wind; it might be a lion. Keep on walking and you might get eaten. Sprint for the nearest tree and climb to safety and the worst that happens is you feel silly for being spooked so easily. But fraidy-cats survive to have kids. We are the descendants of fraidy-cats. Of course this leaves us vulnerable to savvy activists and marketers that know how to use our fear of the unknown to separate us from our money. “X causes cancer!” “GMOs are bad!” “Vaccines aren’t safe!” Evolution has shaped our minds and left flaws, but these minds also have the ability to reason. It is this quality that allows us to examine our fears. We can discover if our fears are real or simply imaginary monsters under our beds. *H/T to James Wong (@botanygeek) for this idea. A wispy, ghost image rotates on the screen, evoking an itch in my mind. Organic, alive, awe-inspiring, the image teases at a memory. Then I have it: The Pillars of Creation. The Pillars are part of the Eagle Nebula in the Serpens constellation (the “handle” of the Big Dipper points towards it). It’s a “stellar nursery,” that is, a place where gas and dust coalesce into greater and denser masses until pressure and heat sparks the nuclear fusion of new stars. But the image on the screen over my pint of Guinness at Café Sci Saskatoon depicts the beginning of something else. It is a three-dimensional, extremely high-resolution scan, done at the Canadian Light Source synchrotron. It isn’t an interstellar nebula spanning light years; it’s a chicken embryo a few millimetres across. What sparked my mental flight of fancy is a collaboration between an artist and a scientist: Saskatoon sculptor Jean-Sébastien Gauthier and Brian Eames, who uses the CLS to study embryology within the context of evolutionary developmental biology. As the pair define it, their “scientific art,” or “sciart” is more than simply taking attractive images and putting a frame around them. It is an act of intent, to purposely make a statement, or uncover a statement waiting to be made. In this case, that statement is one of connectedness, the commonality of all living things. Embryos of chordates – things with backbones like us – share similar structures. Indeed, at some stages, embryos of chickens, zebrafish and humans are hard to tell apart. Gauthier pulled in another comparison: the uncanny resemblance among embryos and the Venus figurines, the earliest artistic depictions of the human form carved tens of thousands of years ago, perhaps reflecting the birth of religion. Eames and Gauthier’s collaboration has so far resulted in several presentations and Dans la Mesure/Within Measure, an interactive multimedia installation presented at venues including Nuit Blanche and Gordon Snelgrove Gallery in Saskatoon. There were multicoloured projections where embryos grew and shrank, rotated and moved like holographic spirits. There were 3D printed models, including a two-metre zebrafish (life size is about two centimetres long), with light treatments that created the illusion of transparency with skeleton visible, adding layers and culminating in colourful scales. What struck me about this collaboration is how it sparked forth unbounded discussion at the Café on everything from the purpose and limits of science, what defines art, and the philosophy that may underpin it all. It seemed to tap into people’s creative impulses in unexpected ways. Five hundred years ago, the original Renaissance man, Leonardo da Vinci, wrote, “To develop a complete mind: Study the science of art; Study the art of science. Learn how to see. Realize that everything connects to everything else.” Too often today, artists, scientists and engineers put themselves in silos and peer over the ramparts with suspicion and even disdain at the denizens on the other side of the walls. “Their” values, “their” world views are too different than ours, and too difficult to understand. Difficult, but not impossible. I know a musician whose position on GMOs was what one might expect: suspicion and opposition. To her great credit, she sat down and had lunch with a scientist that had actually done the genetic engineering to develop new crops. To his credit, he listened to her concerns and accepted them as valid. They discussed, they listened, they learned. In the end, she changed her mind on GMOs. And I suspect he learned much about why intelligent, creative non-scientists might be suspicious of these technologies. As humans, we are rationalists and dreamers. Rationalists speak to our heads: they try to figure things out, find the facts, explain the world in ways that can be quantified and predicted. Dreamers, less bound by fact and enticed by imagination and possibility, speak to our hearts – and so many of our actions are driven by the heart. We live in a world where science is under attack. Vaccines, responsible for saving more lives than all other medical advancements combined, are under renewed suspicion. Modern agriculture technologies such as genetic engineering and pesticides are the targets of well-intentioned but misguided activism. Climate change, how we generate energy, whether or not we should put fluoride in our drinking water, all are contentious issues that would not be, if mere facts were enough. They are not. Science needs those who are expert in speaking to the heart: we need the artists. All of us, whether scientist or artist, rationalist or dreamer, are human. We share common ground in our urge to discover and create, our internal yearnings and compulsions, our responses to the world that surrounds us. We need both perspectives to progress. It’s an approach advocated by the late Hans Rosling, in his 2017 book Factfulness, written with his son Ola and daughter-in-law Anna Rosling Rönnlund. Yes, things are bad - but they’re getting better. If we reject despair, if we have hope that we can overcome the great challenges that face us as a species, we can get to work to fix things. Without hope, we react with denial or resignation. If there’s no hope, why bother? Why not, as the saying goes, “eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die?” “Think about the world,” Rosling wrote. “War, violence, natural disasters, man-made disasters, corruption. Things are bad, and it feels like they are getting worse, right? The rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer; and the number of poor just keeps increasing; and we will soon run out of resources unless we do something drastic. At least that’s the picture that most Westerners see in the media and carry around in their heads. I call it the overdramatic worldview. It’s stressful and misleading. In fact, the vast majority of the world’s population lives somewhere in the middle of the income scale. Perhaps they are not what we think of as middle class, but they are not living in extreme poverty. Their girls go to school, their children get vaccinated, they live in two-child families, and they want to go abroad on holiday, not as refugees.” British writer Matt Ridley, recently wrote a piece in his Rational Optimist blog and elsewhere entitled “We’ve just had the best decade in human history. Seriously.” While readers might be forgiven for spitting out their coffee in disbelief, he goes on to back it up with statistics. For example, he points out that in his lifetime, (Ridley was born in 1958) the number of the world’s people living in extreme poverty had dropped from 60 per cent to 10 per cent today. We so often focus on the negatives, and there are many. Climate change, plastic pollution, species extinctions, energy, food security, anti-science rhetoric, the rise of populism, and the weaponization of information to threaten democracy. How can we possibly have hope in the face of all this? “The answer is: because bad things happen while the world still gets better,” Ridley writes. “Yet get better it does, and it has done so over the course of this decade at a rate that has astonished even starry-eyed me.” While we struggle to rise and overcome the great challenges that face us, let’s pause to recognize and savour our successes. We have conquered diseases that once killed and crippled millions. We put a hole in our planet’s ozone layer, but we came together and fixed it. In the mid-20th century, war killed tens of millions, levelled cities and shattered economies. We have not yet conquered war, but seen in the light of these conflagrations, we have at least made progress. “Step-by-step, year-by-year, the world is improving,” Rosling wrote. “Not on every single measure every single year, but as a rule. Though the world faces huge challenges, we have made tremendous progress. This is the fact-based worldview." As the new year begins, let us step forward with hope, based on facts, encouraged by knowledge of our past successes. Yes, the challenges are enormous. But we’ve faced enormous challenges before. We’ve got this. Whether it's vaccines, nuclear power, fluoride in water or any number of issues, people's, fear comes from several sources and is then amplified by various facets of human nature and those who can gain by exploiting it. There are many factors that go into the fear of GMOs. Here are a few of the major ones, in my view: This is certainly not a comprehensive list of reasons why people fear GMOs, but these are a few major ones. The science, however, does not support these fears. Genetic engineering is no more risky, and arguably much less risky, than any other breeding method. I'm a science writer based in Saskatoon, Canada. While I write on a wide range of topics, I most often find myself exploring life and environmental sciences as well as the social science aspects of science communications. Examples include agricultural biotechnology, food and water security, and public response to innovations in genetic engineering and energy production.

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*** I have been reading in punk rock and music history for some time, for leisure, and I had the opportunity to draft a National Endowment for the Humanities grant for my friend Kerry Gallagher Semrad in Fall 2016. I re-purposed it a bit to feature it below.*** The subcultures of music in the United States in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries offer the means of circulation and communication that bind communities of listeners together that can be tens, hundreds, and even thousands of miles away. Musical subcultures embrace and reflect existing, individual notions of contemporary politics, social relations, and racial and ethnic identities that bridge the gap between local and international music communities. Music subcultures also gather individuals into political and cultural collectivities that transcend geography.[i] Music and its subcultures have been the basis for a number of social and cultural movements in the United States over the course of the twentieth century until today, exerting a powerful influence over regions and localities, thus the phrase “all politics are local.”[ii] So is all local music as well. During the 1970s and 1980s in urban areas, small cities, and small towns, underground music like glam rock, glitter rock, punk rock, and Americana music flourished against the tidal waves of major label music that shaped and controlled the domestic market for music at venues and on the airwaves. And in observing the actual foundation and constitution of the broad term “music industry,” it’s quite clear that the 100,000s of small, original bands keep the domestic music industry financially afloat from venues, to record stores, and music equipment stores that sell a variety of musical equipment, subsidizing instrument manufacturers profits and keeping them in business.[iii] Traditional American music and independent underground music have been the most highly-exploited genres of music in American history with respect to the origins of the commercial music publishing industry. Even though traditional American music has historically had more coverage than the punk/experimental underground, its early progenitors’ history is a product of the recent past by music historians.[iv] Early rhythm and blues and other folk music artists during the 1920s through the 1950s often gave away the rights to their music to either folklorists, ethnographers, or the hundreds of small and regional record companies that existed throughout the Northeast, mid-Atlantic, South, American Southwest, and California. It was a rare occasion when these artists could draw a living from the sales of their recordings and live performances, much of it going into the pocket of their producers, sponsors, or record labels. And this commercial exploitation continued into the 1960s and 1970s for soul, R & B, funk, folk, country, and other traditional American musical artists. This is one of the reasons that in the last ten to twenty years, many of the oldest living blues artists, for example, continue to tour well into their late 70s and early 80s; they had never originally profited equitably from their original recordings, with only the club circuit and its brutally late hours (at their age) to provide them with a living from live performances. Long ago, Richard Wright noted the way the infamous bluesman Lead Belly had been taken advantage of in this system, when he termed it “one of the most amazing swindles in Amazing history.”[v] During the 1970s and 1980s there was was a reliable itinerary of great rhythm and blues, bluegrass, country, and folk recording artists from Chicago, Kansas City, Tulsa, Oklahoma City, Dallas/Ft. Worth, St. Louis, and other Midwestern and Great Plains cities with vibrant scenes because of music markets located on Highway 77, Highway 34, and then I-70 and I-80 as a destination stop between Chicago, Denver, and the West Coast. It was nothing less than a political economy of the traditional American music touring scene during that era, which was reliable and robust for these traditional American recording artists who were engaged in economically recouping past treatment by record labels on this migratory club circuit. The origins of commercially-unviable rock and roll in the United States during the late 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s is comparable to the exploitation and difficulty experienced by recording artists in the traditional American music scene. In this decidedly Transatlantic phenomenon, glam and glitter rock, often termed proto-punk rock, evolved into an entirely new musical idiom in terms of composition, aesthetics, tempo, and sound, even dress and costuming. These new genres arose from the basic premise that in the lower echelons of the rock and roll scene, no small venue or small club in any locality in England, France, Canada, and the United States would book a band that played a full set solely composed of their original musical compositions.[vi] The “commercial record label system” controlled the industry from the airwaves and stadiums, to the mid-sized performance venues and small clubs. Small clubs across the Atlantic World booked only commercial bands (who played original music on commercial record labels) or cover bands. Bands that played their own original music who were not part of the commercial record label system or were an unsigned band had to seek other avenues for performing their music. In the creative search for music venues, which were usually illegally-zoned storefronts like The Masque in Los Angeles, basement venues in houses like the first Runaways show in L.A., art galleries like the Hard Art Gallery in Washington DC where the Bad Brains began, housing project courtyards (again, the Bad Brains), and union halls like Fairmont Hall in San Diego, the music itself evolved into a sort of “anti-commercial rock” aesthetic with a sound that deconstructed if not overtly and hostilely attacked commercial rock and roll music. It was also a reaction to the political and cultural inertness of 1960s rock and roll and its perceived lame and suburban underpinnings during a time of massive social upheaval. In the 1970s, the LA “Laurel Canyon scene” was a continuation of the politically-inert, easy-listening soft rock of the 1960s.[vii] During the 1970s and 1980s, glam, glitter, punk, hardcore, and post-punk music signaled a unique sound of the post-industrial, post-Fordist Era.[viii] With historic urban economic restructuring, two major recessions in 1973 and 1979, working class militancy, high unemployment particularly for young adults, and Vietnam war demobilization, young people in the Transatlantic World developed their own youth subcultures to find larger meaning in a future of diminished expectations, increased bureaucratization, consumerism, and alienation. In many ways, this youth cohort created a parallel, non-commodified youth culture that signaled this age cohort’s “great refusal,” differing dramatically from the Baby Boom generation’s media-saturated cultural rebellion during the 1960s and early 1970s.[ix] In the United States, the basis of the future American and English punk rock scenes began in Detroit in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with powerful and anarchic rock and roll bands like The MC5, The Stooges, Sonic’s Rendezvous Band, Death, and Destroy All Monsters among others. The Detroit proto-punk sound played a critical role in the Transatlantic hard, rock and roll subculture because The MC5 and The Stooges attracted major label interest and released their albums in the commercial music industry, even if they were at the lowest echelon of the commercial record label system, slogging through the club circuit with few large concert performances. Both bands were commercial failures for their record companies and proved resistant to the middlebrow image-making of the commercial record label system. They engaged in rude and wild stage performances; had a dangerous sound that eschewed virtuosity; and embraced a decidedly nihilistic and radical political message aimed at the emergent neoliberal order. However, both bands emerged as legendary inspiration through the commercial distribution and tour support they received, and spread their proto-punk rock sound around the globe in record stores, the music press, word-of-mouth grassroots mythology, and live performances.[x] Both of these bands played the East and West Coasts in the U.S. and also England. Every significant, future punk and hardcore band in the Transatlantic World drew their influences from the MC5, The Stooges, or both. Even more, Iggy Pop from The Stooges peripatetic life on the East Coast, West Coast, and Europe drew in young musicians and music fans who worshipped his nihilistic attitude and punk rock swagger. They became young acolytes of punk rock after meeting this legend.[xi] Hard rock and roll and punk bands influenced by the Detroit sound were The New York Dolls, The Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers, The Voidoids, and others from New York City; The Dead Boys and Rocket from the Tombs from Cleveland; The Runaways, The Cramps, The Germs, X, The Weirdos, Black Flag and others from Los Angeles; The Zeroes from San Diego; The Dead Kennedys, The Avengers, and others from San Francisco; the Bad Brains, Black Market Baby, The Slickee Boys and others in Washington DC; and The Damned, The Sex Pistols, The Clash, Generation X, The Buzzcocks and others in England. How this happened without the support of the commercial record label system, corporate music industry supply chains, commercial radio programming, and first-tier music magazine journalism exposure is yet one of the great, barely written about phenomena in the history of music and also for this youth cohort.[xii] There have been critics of punk rock, hardcore, and post-punk from the standpoint of race, class, and ethnicity, however, we must not forget there was no underground or parallel rock and roll scene in the Transatlantic World before this time. The kids and young adults, together, created it all by themselves.[xiii] All throughout the Transatlantic World, youth music subculture, independent punk record and clothing stores, new punk venues, independent record labels, and fanzines arose as modes of dissemination and communication for the punk rock and underground subculture outside of the dominant control of the commercial record label system and its industry and distribution supply chains.[xiv] An apt explanation for this subcultural movement in youth music has been offered by political philosophers Agnes Heller and Ferenc Feher during the 1970s and 1980s when they noted, “Modern cultural movements appeared in waves, and this happened for the simple reason that each new generation had to ‘come of age’ in the sense of creating a new ‘imaginary institution’ before it could take over the torch from the former generation.”[xv] Young punk rockers in the United States and Europe (particularly England) engaged in modes of cooperation, communication, and praxis in a “do-it-yourself” music culture completely outside the dominant modes of communication, distribution, venues, and control of the commercial record label system to create a non-commodified form of hard and fast rock and roll that challenged the aesthetics and system of corporatized music. The simultaneous and parallel phenomena to the dominant music industry emerged as a global “magmatic social imaginary signification” of the punk subculture that brought the yearnings of thought, and that thought put into praxis, in the service of creating an independent social geography for this new form of music.[xvi] Punk rockers formed bands because they were alienated by the arena rock of the commercial record label system, pre-packaged music consumerism, and its emphasis on virtuosity and celebrity. They created or found alternative venues where they could play their music because they were blacklisted or exiled from the club circuit. They paid to record and press their vinyl records and sold them in alternative and non-corporate retail outlets, by mail order, or at their own shows. And this youth cohort formed their own alternative, music journalism in the form of handmade fanzines to disseminate their scenes to other like-minded youth and young adults Music journalists and historians since the 1980s have written hundreds of books about the largest and most popular performing artists in the traditional American music, punk rock, and indie underground music scene. And much is known about acts like Lead Belly, Muddy Waters, Chuck Berry, Diana Ross, Little Richard, Elvis Presley, The Beatles, Bob Dylan, The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin among other commercial hit makers. However, much less is known about the talented performing artists that were influences upon the most commercially-viable musicians and bands as they were coming up through local music scenes in their pre-stardom days.[xvii] In this regard, focusing upon local music scenes and the contemporaries of eventual “star” underground bands also highlights the politics of public memory in American music history.[xviii] There has been much good work recently, often self-published, about local music scenes. Some may think it falls under the rubric of “nostalgia,” but longtime local scenesters appear to be motivated in capturing particular moments of vibrant local scenes that eventually launched successful performing artists and bands. The local memory presented within these books reveal cross-sectional layers of local music talent. Many of the commercially-published books about traditional American music, and the punk rock and indie underground favor the most commercially-viable bands and performing artists (because they are commercial brands), to the detriment of the local memory that still resides in the oral traditions and memories of local music scenesters. The rise and popularity of the Seattle band Nirvana is a case in point for the punk and indie music scene. Beginning in the mid-1990s to the present day, music journalists and others have written dozens of books on the band, and about its lead singer, Kurt Cobain. Their album Nevermind was released by DGC Records in 1991, and in subsequent retellings of the band’s origins, the year zero for punk rock and its variants (“grunge” for Nirvana) became 1991.[xix] Recent books and documentary films of local underground music scenes are beginning to move the corporate “year zero” back where it rightly belongs in the late 1960s in Detroit and its hard, proto-punk rock and roll.[xx] The history of the rise of hard rock and roll is only about 50 years old, and until recently, music critics were beginning about half way through the genre’s life course. Much the same could be said about works on Bob Dylan or The Beatles or The Rolling Stones or The Doors. In traditional American music, the history of its influences date to the 1920s and 1930s with the ethnographic recordings and popular books of John and Alan Lomax and others, and the first traditional American music records by purveyors of the genre like Moses Asch (Folkways Records, now at the Smithsonian Institution).[xxi] The majority of books, film documentaries, and radio programming on pop music, traditional American music, and the punk rock and indie underground serve as mnemonic erasures of fuller, dynamic, and vibrant local music scenes, where the popular memory of music scenes is submerged under the corporately-controlled public memory within all genres of music and book publishing about music in the United States. The fuller account of the rise of the American music underground is still relatively young, and recent books and documentaries will continue to restore those scenes, with their thousands of participants, back to the historical record and public memory. [i] George Lipstiz, Dangerous Crossroads: Popular Music, Postmodernism, and the Poetics of Place (London: Verso Books, 1994); Josh Kun, Audiotopia: Music, Race, and America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); See also Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); for the new basis of political economy that underscored the rise of popular music in the post-WW2 period, see Ernest Mandel, Late Capitalism, trans. by Joris de Bres (London: Verso Books, 1999), 474-561. [ii] Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (London: Verso Books, 1996); John Szwed, Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World (New York: Viking, 2010); Suzanne Smith, Dancing in the Street: Motown and the Cultural Politics of Detroit (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999). [iii] On the connection between cultural movements and politics after 1970, see Agnes Heller and Ferenc Feher, The Postmodern Political Condition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 132-145. [iv] See Szwed, Alan Lomax; George Lipsitz, Footsteps in the Dark: The Hidden Histories of Popular Music (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007). Lipsitz notes how the mass media in documentary and music journalism often obscures the social movement political basis of ethnic music subcultures like jazz, rap, or the hard techno underground in Black metropolises like Detroit, and also the musical nationalisms of Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and ethnic Mexicans on the East and West Coast. [v] Wright quoted in Szwed, 72. [vi] See John Savage, England’s Dreaming: Anarchy, Sex Pistols, Punk Rock, and Beyond (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992); Legs McNeil, Please Kill Me: The Uncensored Oral History of Punk (New York: Grove Press, 1996); Dewar Macleod, Kids of the Black Hole: Punk Rock in Postsuburban California (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010); Cynthia Connelly, Sharon Cheslow, and Leslie Clague, ed., Banned in DC: Photos and Anecdotes from the DC Punk Underground, 1979-1985 (Sun Dog Propaganda, 1988); Mark Andersen and Mark Jenkins, Dance of Days: Two Decades of Punk in the Nation’s Capital (New York: Akashic Books, 2003); Lucien Perkins, Alec MacKaye, and Henry Rollins, Hard Art: DC 1979 (New York: Akashic Books, 2013); Mark Spitz and Brendan Mullen, We’ve Got the Neutron Bomb: The Untold Story of LA Punk (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001); Brendan Mullen, Don Bolles, and Adam Parfrey, Lexicon Devil: The Fast Times and Short Life of Darby Crash of the Germs (Los Angeles: Feral House Press, 2002); Steven Blush, American Hardcore: A Tribal History, 2nd ed., (Port Townsend: Feral House Press, 2010); Scott Crawford, Salad Days: A Decade of Punk in Washington DC, 1980-1990 (New Rose Films, 2015); Danny Garcia, Searching for Johnny: The Legend of Johnny Thunders (Chip Baker Films, 2014); Wes Orshoski, The Damned: Don’t You Wish That We Were Dead (Three Count Films, 2016); Mojo Magazine, Punk: The Whole Story (London: DK Books, 2006). [vii] Macleod, Kids of the Black Hole; Keith Morris, My Damage: The Story of a Punk Rock Survivor (New York: Da Capo Press, 2016); On the Circle Jerks Group Sex album (Frontier Records, 1980), Keith Morris sang on the song, “Beverly Hills,” “Beverly Hills, Century City, everything’s so nice and pretty, all the people look the same, don’t they know they’re so damn lame, three-piece suits, spandex pants, cowboy boots….” This summed up much of punk’s revolt against the legacy of the 60s, and the cultural scene of the 1970s. [viii] Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream: Politics and Economy in the History of the US Working Class (London: Verso Books, 1986); Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); David Farber and Beth Bailey, ed., America in the Seventies (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernism: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (London: Wiley-Blackwell, 1991); Manuel Castells, The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Frederic Jameson, “Postmodernism, Or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism,” New Left Review 146 (July-August 1984); Deyan Sudjic, 100 Mile City (London: Harvest Books, 1992); ; Macleod, Kids of the Black Hole; Spencer Olin and Robert Kling, ed., Postsuburban California: The Transformation of Orange County since World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Edward Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London: Verso Books, 1989). [ix] See Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Macleod, Kids of the Black Hole; Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle, trans. by Donald Nicholson Smith (New York: Zone Books, 1995); Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011). When glam, punk, hardcore, or post-punk music did receive major and first-tier media coverage, it was usually sensationalist, negative, or cautionary. Every punk rocker remembers the alarmist Quincy episode. [x] Brent Callwood, The Stooges: Head On, A Journey through the Michigan Underground (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2011); Brent Callwood, MC5: Sonically Speaking, A Revolution of Rock ‘n ‘Roll (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2010); Mark Covino and Jeff Howlett, A Band Called Death (Drafthouse Films, 2013). [xi] Macleod, Kids of the Black Hole; Mullen, et. al., Lexicon Devil; Spitz and Mullen, We’ve Got the Neutron Bomb; Savage, England’s Dreaming. The critical mass of scene histories notes how Iggy Pop was also the main conduit for the spread of the use of heroin in the glitter and punk scenes of Los Angeles, New York (via CBGBs and Max’s Kansas City), and London (via Johnny Thunders), and New York; The great irony here, of course, is the recent nomination of The MC5 and the Bad Brains to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, bands that continually fought and struggled with their record labels, who now profit from the renewed interest in these bands; When one reads most of the books about the rise of punk rock in Los Angeles, the underlying narrative is quite clear: ex-hippies turned hipsters taking advantage of teenage and young adult punk musicians and their bands through band management, indie record labels, and club bookings. The exception to the LA scene was Lisa Fancher’s Frontier Records, which still is a fair custodian of its back catalog for the bands that have published music with the label. In Washington DC, Ian MacKaye and Jeff Nelson’s Dischord Records serves similarly as the custodian of the label’s recording artists, and has engaged in a massive remastering initiative of its entire back catalog. [xii] The relative lack of scholarly works on the origins of glam (glitter in LA), punk, and hardcore music, from an ethnographic or ethnohistorical point of view can be seen as similar to the questions raised by Eric Wolf and Marshall Sahlins in their pioneering works on indigenous peoples around the globe. See Eric Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Marshall Sahlins, How“Natives” Think: About Captain Cook, For Example (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). [xiii] Many music critics note that Malcolm McClaren, Kim Fowley, and Rodney Bingenheimer and others were from the upper or upper middle classes. However influential they thought they were in their small punk empires, there were thousands of bands that formed without backers or rich sponsors. The “posh” argument minimizes the real activity of thousands of punk rockers in the underground scene. In Washington DC, Ian MacKaye and Henry Rollins worked at a Hagen Daz ice cream store in Georgetown and the local movie theater to save money to put out records and pursue music. See Crawford, Salad Days. This could be the “two jobs” trope often found in Southern Plains country music lyrics. [xiv] David Park, Conglomerate Rock: The Music Industry’s Quest to Divide Music and Conquer Wallets (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007). Park notes that in 2005, all independent record labels had only 28% of domestic market share in sales annually; Universal Music Group held 26% DMSA; Sony BMG 22% DMSA; EMI 13% DMSA; and Warner 11% DMSA. The DMSA for all independents has stayed consistent since 2005 to 34.4% DMSA in 2015. A few of the significant new fanzines were Slash (Los Angeles); Flipside Magazine (Los Angeles); Maximum Rock and Roll (Berkeley, CA), and The Big Takeover Magazine (New York City); New York University has a new, punk rock and underground fanzine collection that researchers can utilize to understand the modes of music journalism at the local level from the 1970s to the present. The writer of this narrative has donated a substantial portion of his fanzine collection to the NYU library archives. [xv] Heller and Feher, The Postmodern Political Condition, 136. [xvi] Cornelius Castoriadis, The Imaginary Institution of Society, trans. by Kathleen Blamey (1974; Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), 340-373. Castoriadis explains “To say that social imaginary significations are instituted, or to say that the institution of society is the institution of a world of social imaginary significations, also means that these significations are presentified and figured in and through the actuality of the individuals, acts, and objects that they ‘inform.’ The institution of society is what it is to the extent that it ‘materializes’ a magma of the social imaginary significations, in reference to which individuals and objects alone can be grasped and even simply exist. Nor can this magma be spoken of in isolation from the individuals and the objects that it brings into being. What we have here are not significations that would be ‘freely detachable’ from any material support, purely ideal poles; rather, it is in and through the being and the being-thus of this ‘support’ that these significations exist and are such as they are,” 356. Heller and Feher’s formulation is drawn from their participation in the discourse on autonomy with Castoriadis, Juergen Habermas, Richard Rorty, Charles Taylor and others during the late 1970s and 1980s. See also Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. by Donald Nicholson Smith (1974; London: Wiley-Blackwell, 1992). [xvii] The writer of this narrative took his first guitar lessons from his high school band teacher in Coronado, CA, Bob Demmon. Demmon was the leader of the Boulder, CO surf-rock band The Astronauts. During the heyday of their popularity on tour in the early 1960s, the opening band on their first tours was The Beach Boys, who went on to great fame in the music industry. [xviii] The historical, philosophical, and sociological literature on memory is vast. See Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, trans. and ed. by Lewis Coser (1941; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Kerwin Klein, “On the Emergence of Memory in Historical Discourse.” Representations, 69, 4 (Winter 2000); Wulf Kansteiner, “Finding Meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies.” History and Theory, 41, no. 2 (May 2002); Norman Klein, The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory (London: Verso Books, 1997); Warren Susman, Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1984); Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1991); David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Henri Lefebvre, Introduction to Modernity: Twelve Preludes, September 1959 – May 1961, trans. by John Moore (1962; London: Verso, 1995); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (1983; London: Verso, 1991); see this writer’s book, Matthew F. Bokovoy, The San Diego World’s Fairs and Southwestern Memory, 1880-1940 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005). [xix] Macleod brings up this point in Kids of the Black Hole, which is testament to his training at The New School for Social Research and CUNY Graduate Center, and his courses with the remarkable Eric Hobsbawm. [xx] See Jim Jarmusch’s new documentary on The Stooges, Gimme Danger (Low Mind Films, 2016); see also the unreleased documentary on The MC5 by David Thomas, MC5: A True Testimonial (2004) that frequently gets posted on YouTube for a few weeks before it is taken off the web (due to litigation from Wayne Kramer with the film’s producers and director). [xxi] Conversation with Michael Asch, August 12, 2012: Victoria BC, Canada. Michael Asch is Moses Asch’s son and professor of anthropology at University of Victoria.

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online teaching tips for elementary teachers Đăng lúc 1 giây trước Young children look to their teachers as models for how to behave and think. Look at the camera to create eye contact with your students. How To Teach Spelling. Read for inspiration on how to work less (and smarter), have more fun, and make a greater impact. You need a reliable computer, a strong internet connection, and the best platform to meet your needs. I recommend Google Sites as a simple, easy-to-set-up platform. Online teaching positions are increasingly growing across all subject areas and grade levels across elementary, … 10 Virtual Teaching Tips For Beginners. Here are 5 different Zoom virtual backgrounds that are perfect to use as the backdrop of your remote therapy sessions. Distance learning should push educators to think about how they can be leaner and more concise with their delivery of new information. These are common, general distinctions: visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic learners. Efficiency is key when designing distance learning experiences. Learn what has and hasn’t worked on diverse topics; from motivating struggling students, to helping calm pre-standardized testing nerves, to dealing with bullies and helping younger students learn appropriate socialization skills. Digital citizenship and cyber safety are important concerns for all. Online teachers need to be engaging and supporting students right from the start and for the duration of the course, to maintain an effective learning community. 17. The farther away you are from your students, the more important it is to cultivate stability and practice norms. But what should we choose? But it doesn't need to be that way. 1. And if you’re a General Ed teacher, like most elementary school teachers), your job is even more complex. Whether teachers are entering their first year in the classroom, or they are classroom veterans, educators are always searching for new ways to improve the learning experience for students. Blog » 10 Tips for Success from New Online Teachers. Last Updated on January 4, 2021 . Virtual platforms like Zoom allow teachers to connect with their entire class at once to provide more engaging, effective online instruction. It is critical to design distance learning experiences that have very clear instructions and utilize only one or two resources. With so many options at their disposal, how do today’s educators ensure that they’re selecting the right online tools and applications for their students? A to Z Teacher Stuff. It’s an amazing resource, but it can be kind of daunting if you’ve never tried it before. This can be a district-provided learning management system like Canvas or Google Classrooms, or it can be a self-created class website. First and foremost, invest in the right hardware and software. “Be flexible, and tell the students they need to be flexible. I recommend Google Sites as a simple, easy-to-set-up platform. There are many options out there. Here are five great online forums for teachers to share ideas. Practical Strategies for Teaching Reading. E-learning videos, for example, may be more effective with younger students than PowerPoint presentations or simple documents & worksheets. For several years, I taught in communities where students struggled to attend school consistently. Julie, TeacherVision's Head of Content and Curriculum, shares tips and strategies for making the most of online learning during this trying time for teachers… Virtual platforms like Zoom allow teachers to connect with their entire class at once to provide more engaging, effective online instruction. Instead, the large bulk of learning time is inevitably going to be driven by tasks that require a high level of self-direction. Online teaching offers job opportunities for a wide range of educators, from elementary school teachers to college professors. When considering the most successful tactics for teaching literacy, a teacher should focus on modeling great literacy strategies throughout the day. It also highlights a number of popular elementary education blogs and social media accounts. Planning for synchronous online teaching should still utilize the backwards design process. Below are some links to free online resources, educational websites for teachers & online teaching tools that ensure communication between educators and students continues. It usually starts with a whole group walk-through, followed by an endless stream of questions from students to clarify next steps. But not all school systems and students are equally equipped to institute regular real-time remote class sessions, so you may need to think of other ways to keep your students as engaged as possible, with even less control over their attention. This infographic is a great resource for teachers as it encourages them to take that step back and calmly plan and prepare for teaching online. That’s OK! Gallery Balanced Literacy Approach Teaching Tips . There are hundreds of free online resources for online English teachers and their students. To solve this problem, some schools are allowing families to borrow computers and … Your students will see your investment and know that you care about them. How To Teach Spelling. In this article, I'll go over all the key differences between the TikTok and its 6 most interesting rival apps, from visual layout & video length to social feeds & monetization opportunity. Go to your Meeting tab in your settings, select Breakout Rooms, and toggle them to “Enabled.” This way, you can assign your students to their own breakout rooms during your class sessions and turn them off when you want to reconvene as a class. General resources for English teachers. Jeremiah Parry-Hill—During the spring semester, RIT’s Teaching and Learning Services hosted a series of workshops for faculty new to developing online courses. Online teaching required specialized knowledge, an understanding of the strategies that would allow teachers to adapt technology to suit their pedagogical needs—not the other way around. 6 Tips for the Successful Online Teacher. Printer-friendly version. I’ve been in your shoes before – I taught abroad in the UAE for six years and have been teaching English language learners (ELLs). Clearly, many academics don’t see the value of online courses or of trying to become a better online teacher. It can be tempting to jump around between all the cool edtech applications out there—especially as so many of them are offering free services right now—but simplicity and familiarity are invaluable. In the spirit of simplicity, it’s vital to have a digital home base for your students. Below are some links to free online resources, educational websites for teachers & online teaching tools that ensure communication between educators and students continues. This can be a district-provided learning management system like Canvas or Google Classrooms, or it can be a self-created class website. Choose your virtual platform. You can also see Brian in a bonus video as part of our documentary project, The Most Important Class You Never Had. Tips and Tricks for Virtual Lessons For your first class, set aside some time to introduce your students to Zoom and ensure that they’re able to connect their audio and video. Prioritise your teaching needs Teaching Tips. Not all teachers leave enough material planned. Focus on building toward long-term projects where students have autonomy and a clear set of checkpoints and deadlines that need to be met. This process ensures that we as teachers are giving … Be prepared to answer questions about why you are interested in the job, how you teach different types of learners within the same class, and how you handle challenges in the classroom. Alesia 2020-12-16T15:03:48-04:00. Have some extra activities that you can use as fill in.” —Leah W. 25. 10 Online Teaching TipsI reluctantly started teaching online 4 years ago. Okay, maybe there could be more. An online learning environment requires clear, concise instruction. You can use our resources in your classroom, or use them to create your own lesson plans. Certified K-12 teachers and others with teaching experience at elementary, middle school and high school levels can find online jobs in a variety of companies. Tackle the challenges step by step, keep your students updated on your progress, and stay positive. View all resources. 24. I’ve also struggled to reach students outside of class. Creating e-learning materials for your visual and auditory learners also takes some work. Try these 20 tested tips: Room design & layout. Icebreakers are an important part of any training program, as they encourage people to participate from the start of a session, to get to know each other and to feel comfortable working with others. Here are some pointers that can help you create a sustainable and engaging distance learning experience for your students. As teachers worldwide hastily cobble together resources and navigate an endless array of online teaching tools, one question remains: ... 2020 5 Tips to Get Distance Learners Motivated Right Now. Browse Elementary Classroom Survival Tips Resources . COVID-19 (the coronavirus) has already made a significant impact on schools. Live streaming, for example, lets students ask questions during a lecture or a Q&A session. Becker elaborates on the usefulness of smaller breakout sessions during Zoom meetings: To use Zoom’s breakout rooms feature, make sure you’ve enabled them in your Zoom settings. A poster infographic with internet safety tips for teachers is free to download. 20_Tips_Designing_Courses.pdf. Additionally, if attendance was a challenge before, distance learning is going to magnify it. Balanced Literacy Approach. Find both part-time and full-time jobs teaching online, for all student ages. Quizlet.com/live can be used to create keyword flashcards online and give out to students. This lively forum has it all – grade-range specific forums, forums for special subject teachers like music and physical education instructors, discussion on teacher examinations, and lots more. Here are some of your biggest priorities for the 2020 classroom. Check out a project set up by Modern Classrooms’ co-founder, Robert Barnett, that integrates choice and family engagement: Demographer Challenge. Create multiple opportunities for making student work visible on the course platform, such as turning in assignments, performance on machine-graded assessments, and posting in discussion forums. Online teaching is becoming increasingly popular in many different forms of higher education, ranging from fully online programs that provide a combination of on-site and online teaching, to distance education and virtual classes. Most online teaching job at college level require a Master's degree or PhD. Play free money games from the Measured Mom. In the spirit of simplicity, it’s vital to have a digital home base for your students. Becker elaborates: Prioritizing social-emotional learning can take many forms. Each resource below includes a link and a brief description of the resource and its relation to elementary … But during remote sessions, Becker explains, it’s much harder: Remote class platforms like Zoom, however, give you some other options to check on your students’ work during class sessions, and even have some fun while doing it. If you’re like most elementary teachers, you’re also teaching a variety of subjects. Elementary Classroom Survival Tips; Elementary Classroom Survival Tips. Planning is going to take more time and require a high level of attention to detail. 5 Tips for Elementary Teachers in 2020: Remote Learning, E-Learning, and SEL, 5 Free Zoom Virtual Backgrounds for Lawyers in 2021, How to Make a Happy Birthday Video Online. Teaching English in the classroom to students who have a limited English language understanding can feel like a daunting task.. Your e-learning videos should always include subtitles, image overlays, and graphic aids so visual learners can absorb your teaching more efficiently. Make the most of free online resources. Please visit our Learn at Home page to find online teaching resources and activities to help teachers, parents and students get the most out of learning at home. You can create assignments to be filled out in a 16:9 format, send students templates to customize, or have them take horizontal pictures with their phones. Just because you’re teaching online doesn’t mean there’s no interaction between the teacher and the learner. But most likely, you are gearing up for your first big teaching job and you just want everything to be perfect, right? Let Go of Perfectionism Remember, this is a challenge for everyone: teachers, families, and students. You can create these touchpoints through any medium you like: emails, video messages, phone calls, messages through your learning management system, comments on shared documents, etc. Balanced Literacy Approach. This post is a list of tips, ideas, and resources to get started with Google Classroom. We have a wealth of resources for teachers of English, wherever you are teaching. Substitute Teacher's Survival Kit. If you’re able to conduct classes real-time in Zoom or a virtual classroom setting, it simply means that your lesson plans need to be structured fairly densely & actively, keeping students’ limited attention spans engaged for the whole class. You can do this! Virtual teaching may sound like teaching at a more relaxed pace and flexible schedule, but in reality it involves as much work as teaching in a traditional classroom. Socrative.com allows teachers to create simple quizzes that students can take quickly. By Richard Rose; 06/18/12; In recent intake interviews with new students of education at West Texas A&M University, I found that teaching online is the new Holy Grail for many young K-12 educators. Give an agenda or plan for each class by Screen Sharing a document or slide at the beginning of class. No amount of free trials or complex digital tools will help. Teachers Pay Teachers (mix of free and paid): An extensive digital resources site where teachers can go to get resources, knowledge, and inspiration created by other teachers from grades PreK through 12. 5. If you’re a qualified teacher with experience in a classroom setting, then online teaching could be your next big career move. For video-based lessons, check out Lesson Stream from Jamie Keddie or Film English from Kieran Donaghy. View all resources. Rather than meeting in-person for parent-teacher conferences and student tut… Tips and Tricks for Teachers Educating on Zoom | April 2020 | 2 Teaching Over Video - Delivery Tips and Tricks Pre-set your meeting to mute participant’s microphones upon entry. K12 online teaching jobs. Norm Coombs, at the time a professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology. A shorter lesson video with questions interspersed may be a better option than a longer video lesson – this way, you can keep your students as focused as possible even though you can’t monitor their engagement directly. The coronavirus has caused widespread school closures for an unknown duration. Here are some tips to help make the leap to virtual teaching successful, followed by links to more resources for teachers venturing into online learning for the first time. Time Management Tips for Students (Grades K-2) WORKSHEETS. Filling in gaps is only going to get harder when the teacher cannot quickly engage in individual or small group instruction. Sure, you can find websites where you can create your lesson plans and exercises from scratch, but even with your newly earned TEFL qualification, this can be tricky (as I found to be the case! But at its core, teaching ELLs isn’t really all that … 5 Tips for Elementary Teachers in 2020: Remote Learning, E-Learning, and SEL. Here are five tips to get started with virtual special education services: This piece draws from an informal survey of five teachers* working in California public schools, four of them based in Laguna Beach. But in the absence of physical manipulatives in 2020, you’ll have to look elsewhere. But you have to be intentional about making it happen. What your students will miss the most is the human connection that is cultivated in your classroom. I’m going to focus on e-learning preparation strategies that can apply to all subjects. Online teaching is becoming increasingly popular in many different forms of higher education, ranging from fully online programs that provide a combination of on-site and online teaching, to distance education and virtual classes. 7 Essential Strategies for New Online Distance Teachers. Distance learning is new for many teachers. Here are 14 quick tips to make online teaching better, from an expert in online learning. Lots of free support, training and materials have quickly become available for teachers. Questions About You as a Teacher . WORKSHEETS. To help absent students access my courses, I developed a blended, self-paced, mastery-based instructional model that empowered all my students to learn, whether they were in my room or not. From dealing with behavior issues to enhancing existing lesson plans, here are some effective strategies for teaching elementary school students. M any special education teachers, paraprofessional s, and administrators are wondering how to provide online services to students with disabilities. You will not be able to correct mistakes on the fly or suddenly pivot when kids are disengaged. Online education jobs can be either full-time or part-time. Much of it comes down to choosing the right instructional methods. Here are 21 free to use icebreakers for online teaching that you can use. Online Teaching Tips 1. Here are some free mental health resources for students to begin with: E-learning materials don’t only include the things you send to students, but also the materials that students use to show you their own work. Online teaching starts with communication. We created a “Zoom for Teachers” guide to have you rocking a virtual Caribbean background in no time. Engage With Your Learners Online. With this increased popularity there has also been an increased need for qualified teachers who can effectively facilitate the training of … Establish a Digital Home Base. For more tips on getting started with Online Teaching see Part 1 of our Online Teaching series. The little interactions you have with them in the hallways, before and after class or during breaks in lessons, are irreplaceable. Teach on a website that has its own materials. It’s important to bear in mind that cultivating an engaging distance learning experience is hard. 06/18/12; In recent intake interviews with new students of education at West Texas A&M University, I found that teaching online is the new Holy Grail for many young K-12 educators.They dream about how wonderful it would be to spend part of their day working from home in their … Teachers should talk about what they are doing and thinking as they read aloud. With younger students, this is as simple as creating rich digital content that is nonetheless highly accessible. The result: Classrooms are moving online in droves, creating a whole new set of teaching challenges. Okay, maybe there could be more. Classroom Management Strategies, tips, and teaching concepts to help teachers succeed in the classroom; Instructional Design Insightful content to help you design the ultimate curriculum – for on-campus and online teaching; Lifestyle & Self-Care The best ways to implement self-care and resilience that are relevant to teachers; Online Higher Ed Teaching Helpful content addressing … 1. Teachers preparing to conduct most or all of their teaching remotely – even if the school year begins in person, are aware that it could change next week, next month, or next … Make sure you know who owns your online course and what happens to it if you leave or are not available to teach it in the future. As … Teaching online demands realistic support from your institution to facilitate quality production: before you consent to teach online, ascertain that you have adequate institutional resources to do this well. There are so many things a new teacher needs to know before he or she gets into the classroom, most of which have absolutely nothing to do with the Common Core Standards. Sometimes teachers know what needs to be taught and how, but it’s hard to explain on paper. 20 Tips For New Teachers There can only be one reason why you’re here, you are looking for tips for new teachers. Your students are going to need to take control of their own learning. 06/18/12; In recent intake interviews with new students of education at West Texas A&M University, I found that teaching online is the new Holy Grail for many young K-12 educators. Online math games add a kinaesthetic aspect to digital learning that can’t be achieved by class recordings or Zoom sessions. Edutopia® and Lucas Education Research™ are trademarks or registered trademarks of the George Lucas Educational Foundation in the U.S. and other countries. Another wants to know how to check if students really understand the lesson content online. Apart from the various social aspects of learning that are removed from students’ experiences in 2020, kinaesthetic learners also lose access to the learning methods they need most. An educator with experience in distance learning shares what he’s learned: Keep it simple, and build in as much contact as possible. Experienced elementary school teachers share their tips and strategies for teaching grade school students, from pre-kindergarten to fifth grade. You should also be ready to discuss … Share your enthusiasm for teaching, working with students, and examples of how you would teach your class. With this increased popularity there has also been an increased need for qualified teachers who can effectively facilitate the training of … The ISC Digital Strategy Group and Edtech UK have also published a Developing Digital Leadership Bulletin which includes advice and practical steps for schools in the event of closures. On top of it all, you’ve got to be prepared to keep things fresh and change what you’re doing faster than an elementary can spill glue on the floor. During an in-person class, you could have students hold up their assignments or use whiteboards, and you could circulate through the class to check on students’ work. Teachers are scrambling to find ways to support students from afar through distance and online learning. Are you a new teacher gearing up for your first ESL classroom?. “I always have extra pencils and notebook paper.” — Use aggressive deadlines to force interaction. Teach Online. If you’re feeling overwhelmed by this daunting task, you’re certainly not alone. Gallery How To Teach Spelling Teaching Tips. You don’t want to screw […] TEACHING RESOURCE. And one teacher worries that, after the novelty of online learning wears off, students will lose motivation. Ask for help if you need it. Educators experienced in face-to-face classroom instruction methods may need to develop stronger written communication skills. Quick tips for teachers and schools about personal online conduct and how to navigate internet safety in the classroom. It also feels more personal than simply watching a video of … So students need a place to go when they fall out of the loop. Elementary Classroom Survival Tips; Elementary Classroom Survival Tips. TIP #1 Learn about your E-learning Platform I talked to Denver area 5th grade teacher Adin Becker about his own preparation for remote learning in 2020, materials for virtual classes, and extra efforts to get ready for the unprecedented fall term. While we have had technology in our classrooms, we have received immediate feedback from students about whether or not the technology was working and whether or not the assignment was appropriate for them. I hope this article has helped you move forward with your Fall 2020 class preparation if you're involved in remote classes or e-learning. It is designed to be practical and easy to access for time-poor teachers. What we really need are best practice strategies. Today, I run The Modern Classrooms Project, where I help other teachers do the same. First Day at the Elementary Level. WORKSHEETS. Page 2 of 2. Start with a targeted SHAPE America Grade Level Outcome (GLO), determine success criteria for that GLO, develop an assessment to measure that GLO, and then plan your individual activities to help get your students there. And for auditory learners, it’s a good idea to speak in an engaging way, include sound effects, and even use unobtrusive background music at appropriate times. I’ll share a few tips below, and if you’re looking for further support on developing effective distance learning beyond what I discuss in this piece, explore the resources on our website or start our free online course, Building Modern Classrooms. It … Keep in mind that simple structures can still require rigorous work: Tasks with few instructions often lead to the greatest amount of higher-order thinking, as students figure out what to do within defined parameters. It takes time and an incredible amount of patience. Not all devices can support Zoom virtual backgrounds, so you need to be flexible to your students’ varying needs, but most machines are likely to support the feature. You need a single digital platform that your students can always visit for the most recent and up-to-date information. Classroom Management Strategies, tips, and teaching concepts to help teachers succeed in the classroom; Instructional Design Insightful content to help you design the ultimate curriculum – for on-campus and online teaching; Lifestyle & Self-Care The best ways to implement self-care and resilience that are relevant to teachers; Online Higher Ed Teaching … You might want to check out a unit I created on probability and statistics to see how I provided instructions and set up checkpoints for my students. This preparation looks different for every subject too. We also have apps, games, … Getty. While it can be tempting to focus on content in your distance learning assignments and instructional videos, what matters more is creating structures for personalized touchpoints with your students. While we have had technology in our classrooms, we have received immediate feedback from students about whether or not the technology was working and whether or not the assignment was appropriate for them. 1. Create multiple workstations. Most jobs listed below are online tutoring or teaching, but some of the K-12 jobs here are in instructional design and test writing, scoring and reviewing. With the introduction of online teaching in many areas, many teachers are using Zoom for classroom instruction. Now I absolutely love it. 1. We’ve mentioned several useful resources already, including Slack, Google Hangouts, Google Docs. Free Online Resources & Online Teaching Tools for Communicating with Students. Anything formatted with a 16:9 aspect ratio can be quickly turned into a Zoom virtual background that students can display behind them during class, so students can display their work the whole time, and you can monitor the entire class while you teach. Coloring Page. Without your physical presence in the classroom, it’s vital that you establish a virtual presence at the very beginning of the eLearning course. Moodle, for example, is an online platform that leans toward the … If you’re a teacher preparing for the new school year in Fall 2020, you know just how different things will look this semester. As teachers worldwide hastily cobble together resources and navigate an endless array of online teaching tools, one question remains: How do we actually do online teaching? You may also need to schedule socially-distanced in-person visits with your students, check in with them regularly over Zoom, loosen some of your class requirements, and advocate with your school district’s educators for mental health resources for students. We have included tips and tricks for designing course content, facilitating and teaching online, developing learning objects, assessment ideas, and tutorials for Blackboard, just to name a few. blended, self-paced, mastery-based instructional model, unit I created on probability and statistics. Your goal is to create a clear framework that allows them to do that. They dream about how wonderful it would be to spend part of their day working from home in their bunny slippers and … Teachers preparing to conduct most or all of their teaching remotely – even if the school year begins in person, are aware that it could change next week, next month, or next quarter. 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This essay by Tim Cacciatore and Patrick Johnson on the biomechanics of sit-to-stand was originally published in STAT News, Fall 2016. Sit-to-stand is one of the essential movements that Alexander Technique teachers use to teach. We generally leave the mechanical details of the movement aside and focus on teaching inhibition and direction. But understanding the basic physics of sit-to-stand offers insights into fundamental aspects of the movement that can assist in understanding the student’s postural habits. It may also inspire new ways of communicating with more technically minded students as well as doctors and physical therapists. Furthermore many teachers already use words and concepts from physics and engineering, such as gravity, momentum, stability, efficiency, mechanical advantage, stiffness, and mobility, in their description of Alexander Technique. This article introduces the physics of sit-to-stand with respect to teaching and learning Alexander Technique. It also demonstrates how different executions of sit-to-stand can challenge students in physically different ways. Six “games” that you can play while reading are included to give you a feel for what is being discussed. We’ve tried to keep the level of technical detail manageable for most readers. If the text gets overwhelming at times, feel free to skip ahead to the next game and return later to the text. Many of the principles of sit-to-stand can be applied directly to the reverse movement (stand-to-sit) though there are some key differences. To keep the article concise, we will focus on sit-to-stand in our explanations and note a few of the key differences with stand-to-sit. Some general body physics At the heart of all actions, according to Newtonian mechanics, are forces. A force is a push or a pull. As you move through the world, every change in your state of motion is associated with a collection of forces that cause the change. These forces can be divided into external forces which act on the body from outside and internal forces which act inside the body. Two kinds of external forces affect you, gravity and contact forces. Gravity pulls every part of you down towards the ground. Most of us know this. Less well known is that the ground also pushes on you with a contact force. If you are sitting in a chair right now both the chair and floor are pushing up on your bum and your feet. Another contact force is friction which prevents your feet from sliding as you stand up. As the name implies, contact forces only work when the objects are in contact with each other. By contrast gravity is constantly pulling you down, even if you are jumping in the air. You can visualize the effect of the external forces by imagining what would happen if they were not there. If gravity were not there, the slightest movement would send your body floating up off the ground. If the contact forces were not there you would fall down through the floor as if it had no substance, or in the case of friction you would not be able to avoid sliding any which way along the floor. Internal forces are generated inside the body by bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other tissue. Some of these forces consume energy, such as the force from muscles. Others consume no energy, such as the forces from bones, ligaments, and tendons. Without the internal forces from the body, it would collapse due to the external forces gravity and contact forces. The balance of all of these forces, both internal and external, determines whether and how movement will happen. Balanced forces are associated with a state of either rest or constant motion. Imbalanced forces are associated with change in the state of motion. To discuss how this works we must first define momentum. The momentum of an object describes both its motion and its resistance to change of motion. The more mass and/or speed an object has, the more momentum. A car passing a cyclist has more momentum both because it has more mass and because it is travelling faster. The car will therefore be much harder to slow down than the bike. Momentum also has direction. A car heading south and an identical car heading north at the same speed have opposite momenta. The human body is a bit more complicated than the car because it can fold, bend, and twist in so many ways. In motion, the different parts of the body can be moving in different directions with different speeds and masses. Thus every part of the body can have its own momentum. For example at the beginning of the tipping phase of sit to stand the head has a forward momentum while the feet have hardly any momentum Forces and momentum are intimately related. A change in momentum requires a net force. If a moving car tries to suddenly skid to a stop, an external force—the frictional force from the ground rubbing on the tires—is needed to slow it down. The tendency for objects to resist changes in momentum is called inertia. In the example of the car trying to stop, if the road is very icy and slippery the car continues forward because the frictional force is gone and inertia maintains its motion. In sit to stand, a combination of forces, both internal and external, are needed to speed up, slow down, or change the direction of the various parts in motion, while inertia can be used to carry a movement forward. The last terms to know about are torques and rotational motion. Much of the motion of the body involves rotation of objects around joints. In these cases, it can be easier to talk about torques rather than forces and rotational momentum/inertia rather than linear momentum/inertia. Precisely defining these terms goes beyond the scope of this article. But for our purposes it is enough to remember that torque and rotational momentum/inertia are to rotating objects what forces and momentum are to objects moving in a straight line. Slow, smooth sit to stand We start our discussion of sit-to-stand by considering very slow continuous movement. Picture a Tai Chi master moving very slowly. Not only is the movement slow but there are also no jerks or sudden shifts during the movement. In this case the momentum and changes in momentum are nearly zero. With little momentum, all forces must stay approximately balanced throughout the movement. This means that as the movement slowly flows forward, the mover can pause at any moment with no adjustments and stay in balance. This absence of momentum and subsequent balance of forces makes the physics easier. It also means that the direction of the motion does not affect the physics. I.e. very slow sit-to-stand and stand-to-sit are, from a physics perspective, identical. Physicists call this kind of extremely slow smooth movement “quasistatic”, which means practically not moving. Game 1: Try moving quasistatically from sitting to standing and vise versa now. Be sure that you are really moving slowly with no jerks and that you are never “throwing” yourself or falling from one balance point to another. Check that you can stop at any moment with no adjustment. Try in particular to eliminate any jerks at the moment that your bum leaves the chair (in this article we will call this moment liftoff). Quasistatic movement requires that your center of mass stay above your base of support at all times—i.e. that you stay continually in balance. Roughly speaking, the center of mass is the point about which mass is evenly distributed. In the sitting position it is located roughly around the belly button but it will shift its position as the body changes shape during the movement. Only when the center of mass is directly above its base of support can the object balance at rest. The base of support in sitting is the area defined by the sits bones and the two feet, while in standing it is the single rectangle defined by the outer edges of the two feet. To stay in balance throughout the slow movement, you must first move your center of mass forward, across the sitting base of support, until it is above your feet. Only then can you lift your bum off from the chair without falling. If you try to liftoff before the center of mass reaches the feet you will either need to suddenly lurch forward in preparation (to generate forward momentum) or else you will fall backward to the chair. Getting the center of mass over the feet is achieved by tipping the trunk (Fig. 1). The closer the feet are to the chair the less the trunk needs to tip forward to get the center of mass above the feet. The trunk tilt at lift off is also reduced when the weight is in your heels rather than the center or balls of the feet. One advantage of sit-to-stand compared to stand-to-sit is that the distance between the bum and the feet can be chosen before the movement thus defining what kind challenges that the mover will face. Game 2: Try quasistatic sit-to-stand now with different feet positions. Remember to move very slowly and smoothly throughout the movement. Notice that the further the feet are positioned from the chair the further you must tip forward and the more challenging it is to maintain quasistatic movement. Notice what changes when you initiate liftoff on the heels of the feet as opposed to the balls of the feet. Now try quasistatic stand to sit. Notice that the depth of the trunk tilt determines how far back the bum can land on the chair. We can think of the slow movement as a force matching task. Gravity would collapse the spine forward and fold the body at the hips and knees (flexion) were there no internal muscle action. To prevent this collapse and control the movement, activation of extensor muscles is needed in the trunk, hip, and leg to match gravity. Note that in principle no flexor activation of the trunk, hip, or knee flexors is required for the movement to happen. Up through liftoff gravity drives the movement and the extensors control it. In technical terms, the hip and knee extensor muscle contractions are eccentric. After the pelvis leaves the chair, these extensors continue to work to unfold the body to the standing position. Thus both the tipping forward phase and the unfolding to standing phase require constant extensor activity. Tipping the trunk to shift the center of mass above the feet shifts more weight to the feet, pushing the feet onto to the floor. This is balanced by the external contact force from the floor upwards. This contact force can be measured with a bathroom scale. Game 3: You can feel and/or measure the contact force from the ground. Place a bathroom scale under your feet and watch the contact force, measured by the scale, increase as the feet are weighted (you need an analogue scale or a digital scale that continually updates). When the sit-to-stand is performed slowly and smoothly you (or a friend) can track the continuous increase until you reach roughly your body weight at liftoff. If you don’t have a scale, just turn your attention to the changing pressure on the bottom of the feet. Interestingly, you can also weight and unweight the feet without tipping the trunk. Generating a horizontal force with the feet against the floor, either forward or backwards, generates horizontal frictional forces from both the floor and the chair. These generate torques that either push down or lift up the feet. It is beyond the scope of this article to explain the physics of this in more detail, but you can easily feel this happening and/or measure it with a scale. Perhaps you can figure out exactly what is going on yourself. Game 4: Sit in the chair with your feet on the ground or on a scale and try to slide your feet forward (knee extension) while keeping your feet stuck to the ground (don’t actually move the feet). You will feel and/or measure more weight come onto the feet. Likewise if you pull your feet backwards you will lesson the weight of the feet on the ground. This kind of static weighting and unweighting of the feet without change of position is unnecessary in sit to stand. As you experienced in game 3, it is enough to bring the center of mass forward for the feet to be weighted. No extra pushing is needed. Furthermore, if the bum leaves the chair while this extra horizontal force is still active, the body will suddenly be either pushed backwards or forwards by the horizontal force from the floor. While a student can weight the feet without tipping forward she will never be able to stand quasistatically without getting the center of mass above the feet. If she tries, she will just fall back into the chair. However if a teacher’s hand is delivering a force to keep the student from falling backwards, she can indeed slowly rise up vertically. In this case the contact force from the ground can be more than the body weight at lift off depending on the feet position. At liftoff, the student’s feet need to generate both a horizontal backward force to meet the force of the teacher’s hand as well as a vertical force to meet the full weight of the body. The vector sum of these two forces adds up to more than the student’s weight. This hand assisted movement poses some interesting challenges for both the student and the teacher, beyond just the novelty of the trajectory. The student is challenged to continuously match not only gravity and the contact forces from the ground but also the force of the teacher’s hand. The teacher is also challenged; providing a steady force match to the student is quite a subtle task. Both student and teacher need to smoothly ramp up the matching forces together, with no jerks or momentum generating strategies. At liftoff itself, the student needs to generate a force greater than their body weight. Finally, all of these challenges need to be achieved while minimizing cocontraction (stiffening of the joints) which would just add unnecessary resistance to the motion. In general, when the teacher pushes the student forward with a hand it can change the physics quite dramatically, allowing the teacher more control of the use of momentum and the forces at liftoff. Using momentum smoothly Thus far we’ve been discussing the quasistatic limit. But we typically use a fair bit of momentum to rise up out of a chair. From a balance perspective, the role of momentum can be compared to throwing a ball to a friend. The ball is first in static balance in your hand. The motion of your hand generates momentum in the ball. This momentum allows it to fly off its support and then land and decelerate back into balance in the hand of your friend. Let’s see how this image applies to smoothly using momentum to quickly rise from a chair (Fig. 2). You start by allowing gravity to generate momentum in the torso by keeping the hip extensor action low during the beginning of the tipping phase. The forward momentum of the trunk allows you to launch the trunk from the chair before the center of mass is above the feet. After liftoff, momentum carries the body forward while the rearward, off balance, position of the center of mass slows this motion so that the center of mass comes to a soft landing above the feet. This use of momentum speeds up the overall movement and limits the amount that the trunk needs to tip forward. You can generate plenty of momentum this way, using only gravity with no net activation of the flexors, to stand up in about 1.5 seconds (Cacciatore 2014). Adding momentum to the movement also requires additional forces for overcoming inertia. As mentioned, changing the momentum of an object, be it at rest or moving, requires a force. In the ball throwing analogy both slowing down and speeding up the ball both require contact forces from the hands. Likewise, a rotating object will require torques to speed or slow down rotation. For example a long springy rod being waved back and forth bends and springs back. Inertia created by momentum bends the rod while the springiness of the rod resists bending. Just like the ball and the rod, accelerating and decelerating the trunk in sit to stand requires forces. Acceleration during the tipping forward phase can be accomplished using gravity alone. In this case the trunk falls forward due to release of hip joint resistance. Deceleration is then required to extend into liftoff. This deceleration requires extensor activity in the back and hips to overcome both gravity and slow the flexion motion. Like the springy rod, tipping motion the trunk creates forwards inertia which tends to flex the spine as soon as the hip extensors slow the tipping motion. The back extensors prevent this flexion thus maintaining spinal length throughout liftoff. Thus extensors need to smoothly both to adjust to gravitational forces and to overcome the inertia of the trunk. If the extensors under or over compensate the mover will either collapse or arch the back respectively. Using momentum is a tradeoff: the more vertical trunk reduces the gravitational torques but additional extensor torques are needed to slow the body’s forward momentum. Game 5: Move from sit-to-stand first quasistatically, and then using momentum smoothly. Notice that for the same foot position, the trunk can tip less forward when using momentum. Notice however that considerable direction of the spine is needed to prevent the trunk from collapsing in both cases—in the quasistatic case to resist gravity and in the momentum case to additionally resist forward inertia. Momentum offers an additional range of challenges for mobilizing and stabilizing the body against external forces in different positions. Depending on what the teacher wants to test, the student can be coached or guided through the movement along a variety of trajectories at different speeds. While momentum can be used to traject the center of mass through positions of static instability, similar strategies are not so smooth when sitting down. If the student throws himself off balance as he heading to the chair he has no choice but to land with a thump on the chair. We will leave the physics of this for the reader to think about further. Using extra momentum Often a student will generate a burst of momentum even when they are explicitly instructed to move smoothly. Having a student perform sit-to-stand very slowly can make this evident. Despite the instruction to stand slowly the student lurches at the moment just before liftoff. One plausible explanation for this is that the student relies on the burst of momentum to overcome stiffening in the hip joints, effectively throwing himself through the point of stiffness . In stand-to-sit a similar pattern causes the student to fall back into the chair rather than landing smoothly. The alternative, in this model, would be to free the hip joints to allow the movement to happen without the extra burst. This is quite a challenge for most students, especially in the extreme feet forward position. Another excess use of momentum in sit-to-stand is the activation of hip and knee flexors during the tilt phase in order to accelerate the trunk forward. This strategy is not necessary even for a brisk paced movement. Gravity accelerates the trunk with plenty of speed to stand up quickly without activating flexors . Ever have a student that pulls the chair with them at liftoff so that the chair tips forward? The student is likely pulling the pelvis forward (and helping to flex the hip) using knee flexion. This can be thought of as either a momentum trick—to throw the trunk quickly above the feet after liftoff—or a sliding trick—the student chooses to slide the top of the chair with them to get the center of mass over the feet rather than just bending at the hips. Or it could be a remnant of the artificial pushing or pulling of the legs that we discussed earlier. Either way it is a strangely counterproductive action since knee flexion also unweights the feet. Sometimes a teacher will take a student’s trunk backwards from vertical before taking them forwards into the motion. This can be pedagogically very useful for emphasizing a number of aspects of good use (for example testing the integrity of the trunk and freedom of hips in a backward tilt position). It also challenges the trunk flexors, rather than extensors, to counteract the collapsing force of gravity on the spine. But the teacher should realize that they may be generating extra momentum at the vertical position that would otherwise not be there. It allows the student to rise up with a more vertical trunk than would be possible without the extra momentum generating preparation. Most teachers intuitively use a variety of pathways to take the student from sit-to-stand—slow, fast, deep, shallow, with and without backward tilts, with and without support from the teacher’s hands. This variety allows the teacher to place a wide range of demands on the student’s system and thus explore the student’s use and weaknesses therein from a number of perspectives. Sit-to-stand tests students’ response to gravity, momentum, and contact forces. Do they collapse? Do they stiffen? Do they use momentum efficiently? What mechanical strategies are they employing? The answers to these questions give both the student and teacher insight into fundamental psychophysical patterns. In this article we have aimed to clarify the mechanical side of these questions. Other factors in sit-to-stand beyond the scope of this article include the use of the arms or trunk flexion/extension to generate momentum and transfer forces and the role of the ankle flexors and extensors to name a few. Nor have we discussed any underlying neuromuscular mechanisms or pedagogical methods which are at the heart of Alexander Technique and certainly more mysterious from a scientific perspective. The basic physics can be very useful when working with students. For example understanding the quasistatic challenge can make postural problems and moments of extra lurching more evident for both the student and the teacher especially when combined with playing with the position of the feet. Understanding the variety of challenges that can be introduced by changing the speed of movement, position of feet, liftoff moment, and varying the pressure from the teacher’s hand can also bring diversity to a lesson. Finally the language of physics can be useful for communicating with certain kinds of students and teachers. The physics also gives insight into the complexity of the matching task. Perfectly matching the various forces at the feet, chair, and teacher’s hands requires requires continuous smooth adjustment of the whole body’s response. Given this complexity, it is unlikely that the student can complete the task by simply choreographing the movement—i.e. by consciously deciding what and when to push or pull. Any imperfectly matched forces will result in small jerks in movement or the level of resistance which the teacher or student will be able to either see or feel. It is therefore likely that the response being trained occurs at all levels of the student’s system, from reflexive to higher level fine processes. Speculating further about the nature of this learning process is beyond the scope of this article. Finally, understanding the physics clarifies how different positions and executions challenge the body in different ways. In the past there have been debates amongst teachers from different streams about the “best” pathways and feet positions in sit-to-stand. Grasping the physics can guide discussion more towards how one meets the various challenges, rather than the specific parameters of the challenge itself. Game 6: Take a moment to think about the different sit to stand pathways you have your students execute during your lessons. Do you highlight certain challenges more than others? Are there any pathways that you might explore to challenge your students in new ways? How might you incorporate some of the language of physics to appeal to your more technically minded students? T. W. Cacciatore, O. S. Mian, A. Peters, B. L. Day (2014) “Neuromechanical interference of posture on movement: evidence from Alexander Technique teachers rising from a chair”, Journal of Neurophysiology 112 (3), 719–729

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Millions of plant and animal types present in the world stand out as evidence that prove the existence and might of our Creator. All of these living beings, a limited number of which will be described as examples here, deserve to be examined individually. They all have different body systems, diverse defence tactics, unique ways of feeding, and interesting reproduction methods. Unfortunately, it is not possible to describe all living beings with all their features in a single book. Encyclopaedias of many volumes would not be enough for this task. However, even the few examples we will discuss here will be sufficient to prove that life on earth can in no way be explained by coincidences or accidental happenings. From Caterpillar to Butterfly If you had 450-500 eggs and if you had to preserve them outside, what would you do? The wisest course for you would be to take precautions to prevent them from being scattered around, say, by the wind, or other environmental factors. Being one of the animals that lay the most eggs at one time (450-500), the silkworms use a very intelligent way to protect their eggs: they unite the eggs with a viscous substance (thread) they secrete to prevent them from being scattered around. The caterpillars that pop out of their eggs firstly find a safe branch for themselves and then get tied to this branch with the same thread. Later, to promote their own development, they start to spin a cocoon for themselves with the thread they secrete. It takes 3-4 days for a caterpillar that has opened its eyes very recently to life to complete this process. During this period, the caterpillar makes thousands of turns and produces a thread an average of 900-1,500 metres long. At the end of this process, it starts a new task through which it undergoes a metamorphosis to become an elegant butterfly. Neither the action taken by the mother silkworm to protect its eggs, nor the behaviour of a tiny caterpillar devoid of any awareness, education or knowledge can be explained by evolution. First of all, the ability of the mother to produce the thread it uses to secure its eggs is miraculous. The newly-born caterpillar’s knowing the most suitable environment for itself, its spinning a cocoon in accordance with it, its undergoing a metamorphosis, and its coming through this metamorphosis without any problem are beyond human comprehension. Hence, we can simply say that each caterpillar is born into the world with a foreknowledge of what to do, which means that it was ‘taught’ all of these things before it was born. Let us explain this with an example. What would you think if you saw a new-born baby standing up a few hours after his birth, getting together the things he needs to make his bed (like quilt, pillow, mattress), and later putting all these together neatly, making his bed and lying down on it? After you recover from the shock of the event, you would probably think that the baby must have been taught in an extraordinary way in his mother’s womb to perform such a process. The case of the caterpillars is no different from the baby in this example. This again leads us to the same conclusions: these living creatures come into life, behave and live in the way determined by Allah Who has created them. The Qur’anic verse stating that Allah has inspired the honeybee and commanded it to make honey (Surat an-Nahl, 68-69) provides an example of the great secret of the world of living beings. This secret is that all living beings have bowed to Allah’s will and follow the fate determined by Him. This is why the honeybee makes honey and the silkworm produces silk. The Symmetry in Wings When we look at the butterfly wings in the pictures, we see a perfect symmetry prevailing over them. These lace-like wings are so adorned with patterns, spots and colours that each of them is like a work of art. When you look at the wings of these butterflies, you notice that the patterns and colours on both sides are fully identical, no matter how intricate they may seem. Even the smallest dot is present on both wings, thereby introducing a flawless order and symmetry. In addition, none of the colours on these thin wings mixes with the other, each being sharply set apart from the other. Actually, these colours are formed by the amassing of tiny scales clustered one on top of another. Isn’t it a wonder how these small scales that are easily dispersed with your hand’s slightest touch can be arranged in both wings without any mistake in their disposal so as to produce exactly the same pattern. Even the replacement of a single scale would destroy the symmetry in the wings and impair their aesthetics. However, you never see any muddle in the wings of any butterfly on the earth. They are as neat and elegant as if made by an artist. And they are indeed made by an Exalted Creator. The Animal with the Longest Neck: The Giraffe Giraffes have many amazing characteristics. One of these is that their neck stands on 7 vertebrae, just like that of all other mammals, even though it is so long. Another amazing fact about giraffes is that they do not have any problem pumping blood up to their brain on top of their long neck. A little thinking would make one notice how difficult it must be to have the blood pumped so high. But giraffes do not have any problem about this, because their hearts are equipped with features to pump blood as high as necessary. This enables them to carry on with their lives effortlessly. Yet they still face another problem while they drink water. Essentially, giraffes should have died of high blood pressure every time they bent down to drink water. However, the perfect system in their necks completely eliminates this risk. When they bend down, the valves in their neck vessels are shut down and they prevent excess blood from flowing to the brain. There is no doubt that the giraffes did not acquire these traits by planning them in accordance with their needs. It is even more implausible to say that all these vital features were shaped over time through a gradual evolutionary process. In order for a giraffe to stay alive, it is vital for it to have a pumping system to transmit blood to the brain and a valve system to prevent high blood pressure the minute it bends own. If any one of these characteristics did not exist or did not function properly, then it would be impossible for the giraffe to go on living. The conclusion to be derived from all this is that the giraffe species was born into the world with all the characteristics vital for its living. It is impossible for a non-existent being to master its body and acquire essential traits consciously. So, giraffes unquestionably prove that they are created by a conscious creation, that is by Allah. Sea turtles living in the oceans surge in crowds towards the beach when it is time for them to reproduce. This is no ordinary beach though. The beach they arrive at to reproduce has to be the one where they were born. Sometimes sea turtles have to travel as far as 800 kilometres to arrive there. But a long and tough journey does not change the situation. They arrive at the beach where they were born to give birth to their offspring, no matter what. It is quite unaccountable how a living being can find its way back to the very same beach 20-25 years after its departure from there. It is all the more extraordinary that it can find the direction of its birthplace in the depths of the ocean where so little light penetrates, and then spot it from among numerous similar beaches. Finally, thousands of travellers with no compass meet on the same beach at the same time. Initially a mystery, the reasons underlying this insistent meeting came as a great surprise when finally revealed. Since turtles know that their offspring cannot survive in sea conditions, they bury their eggs under the sand on the beach. But why do all of them meet on the same beach, at the same time? Would not the hatchlings survive if they did the same thing at different times and on different beaches? Those who did research on this topic were faced with a very interesting situation. Thousands of offspring under the sand have to overcome a number of formidable obstacles after breaking their eggs with the hard lump on their head. The hatchlings of an average of 31 grams cannot dig the earth layer above them on their own and they all help each other. When thousands of hatchlings on the beach start to dig the earth, they make it to the sand surface in a few days. Yet before they appear on the surface, they wait for a while for nightfall. For in the day time, there is the danger of falling a prey to predators. In addition, it would be quite difficult for them to proceed by crawling on sands scorched by the sunlight. When night falls, they go up to the surface after completing the digging process. Although it is dark, they rush to the sea and depart from the beach to return there as much as 20-25 years later. It is impossible for these hatchlings to know that they have to dig their way up after they pop out of their eggs and wait for a while at a certain distance from the sea. It is by no means possible for them to know, when they are still buried in the earth, whether it is day or night, that predators exist outside and that they could fall a prey to them, that the sand is scorching because of the sun, that this could harm them, and that they must rush to the sea. So, how does this conscious conduct come about? The only answer to this question is that these hatchlings have been somehow ‘programmed’ to behave in this way, which means that their Creator has inspired in them the instinct that helps them protect their lives. The bombardier beetle is an insect on which an enormous amount of research has been done. The trait that renders this insect so popular is that it uses chemical methods to protect itself from its enemies. In moments of danger, the insect squirts hydrogen peroxide and hydroquinone stored in its body towards the enemy to protect itself. Prior to battle, specialised structures called secretory lobes make a very concentrated mixture of these two chemicals. The mixture is stored in a separate compartment called the storage chamber. This compartment is connected to a second one called the explosion chamber. The two compartments are kept separate from one another by a sphincter muscle. The moment the insect senses danger, it squeezes the muscles surrounding the storage chamber while simultaneously relaxing the sphincter muscle, and the chemical in the storage chamber is transferred to the explosion chamber. A large quantity of heat is released and a vaporisation occurs. The released vapour and the oxygen gas exert pressure on the walls of the explosion chamber and this chemical is squirted at the enemy through a annel leading outward from the beetle’s body. It is still a great mystery to researchers how an insect can harbour inside itself a powerful system potent enough to trigger a chemical reaction that could easily cause it harm while also isolating itself from the effects of that system. No doubt, the existence and working of this system is too complicated to be attributed to the insect itself. It is still a matter of discussion how the bombardier beetle makes such a system work within its tiny body measuring about 2 cm in length, when human experts can perform it only in laboratories. The only apparent truth here is that this insect is a concrete example completely refuting the theory of evolution, because it is impossible for this complex chemical system to have been shaped by a series of coincidental variations and passed on to future generations. Even a minor deficiency or ‘defect’ in a single piece of the system would leave the animal defenceless, so that it would soon be killed or it would cause it to blow itself up. Therefore, the only explanation is that the chemical weapon in the insect’s body had come into being with all its parts all at once and without any defect. No one can help feeling surprised at the sight of a termite nest erected on the ground by termites. These nests are architectural wonders, rising as high as 5 or 6 metres. When you compare the size of a termite and its nest, you will see that the termite has successfully completed an architectural project about 300 times bigger than itself. But what is even more astonishing is that the termites are blind. A person who has never seen the huge nests built by blind termites would probably think that they are made up of sand piles heaped upon each other. However, a termite nest proves to be of a marvellous design comprehensible to the human mind: inside there are intersecting tunnels, corridors, ventilation systems, special fungus production yards and safety exits. If you assemble thousands of blind people and give them all kinds of technical tools, you can never make them set up a nest similar to the one made by the termite colony. So, just think: – How could a termite measuring 1-2 cm. in length have learnt the architectural and engineering information needed to make such a subtle design? – How could thousands of blind termites manage to work in harmony to build this construction which is an artistic wonder? -If you divide a termite nest into two during the first stages of its construction, and then reunite it, you will see that all passage-ways, canals and roads fit each other. How can this miraculous event be explained? The conclusion to be derived from this example is that Allah has created all living beings uniquely and without any prior example. Even one termite nest is enough for a person to comprehend Allah and believe that He is the One Who created all. As we all know, woodpeckers build their nests by boring holes in tree trunks with their beaks. This may sound familiar to most people. But the point many people fail to examine is why woodpeckers suffer no brain haemorrhage when they beat a tattoo so vigorously with their heads. What the woodpecker does is in a way similar to a human being driving a nail into the wall with his head. If a man ventured to do something like that, he would probably undergo a brain shock followed by a brain haemorrhage. However, woodpecker can peck a hard tree trunk 38-43 times in just two or three seconds and nothing happens to it. Nothing happens because the head structure of woodpeckers is ideally created for such a task. The skull of the woodpecker has a remarkable suspension system that absorbs the force of the blows. Its forehead and some skull muscles adjoined to its beak and the jaw joint are so robust that they help lessen the effect of the forceful strokes during pecking. Design and planning do not end here. Preferring primarily pine trees, woodpeckers check the age of the trees before boring a hole in them and pick those older than 100 years, because pine trees older than 100 years suffer an illness that causes the hard and thick bark to soften. This was only recently discovered by science and perhaps you may be reading of it here for the first time in your life; woodpeckers have known it for centuries. This is not the only reason why woodpeckers prefer pine trees. Woodpeckers dig cavities around their nests, the function of which was not originally understood. These cavities were later understood to protect them from a great danger. Over time, the sticky resin that leaks from the pine trees fills up the cavities and the outpost of the woodpecker’s nest is thus filled with a pool whereby woodpeckers can be protected from snakes, their greatest enemies. Another interesting feature of woodpeckers is that their tongues are thin enough to penetrate even ants’ nests in the trees. Their tongues are also sticky, which allows them to collect the ants that live there. The perfection in their creation is further revealed by the fact that their tongues have a structure which prevents them from being harmed by the acid in the bodies of the ants.Woodpeckers, each of whose characteristics is discussed in a different paragraph above, prove with all their detailed features that they are ‘created’. If woodpeckers had evolved coincidentally as the theory of evolution claims, they would have died before they acquired such extraordinarily consistent traits and hey would be extinct. However, as they were created by Allah with a special ‘design’ adapted to their life, they started their lives by bearing all the vital characteristics. One of the defence strategies of animals is camouflage. Some animals have the special protection of a body structure and coloration which are totally adapted to their habitat. The bodies of these living beings are so harmonious with their environment that when you look at their pictures, you cannot tell if they are plants or animals, or distinguish them from their surroundings. As will be seen in the following pages, the incredible similarity of an insect to a leaf helps it escape the notice of its enemies. It is obvious that this tiny animal has not made its body look like a leaf. Maybe it is not even aware that it is being protected because it looks like a leaf. However, the camouflage is so deft that it readily impinges as a defence tactic planned specially and ‘created’. There are some incredible and unimaginably interesting defence methods in the animal world. One of these is false eyes. With such false eyes, various butterfly, caterpillar and fish species convince their enemies that they are ‘dangerous’. The butterflies in the left pictures open their wings as soon as they sense a danger and display a pair of eyes on each of their wings which appear quite threatening to their enemies. Let us take our time and think: can these extremely convincing eyes be the result of a coincidence? How does the butterfly know that a pair of scary eyes appear when it opens its wings and that this view would frighten its enemy? Has the butterfly happened to see the pattern on its wings and decided that this pattern was frightening and that it could use it in a moment of danger? Such a convincing pattern can be the result only of a conscious design, not of coincidences. Moreover, it is by no means possible to think that the butterfly is aware of the patterns on its wings and discovered this as a defence tactic by itself. It is obvious that Allah, Who created the butterfly, bestowed on its body such a pattern and inspired in the animal the instinct to use it in moments of danger. Little flowers on the earth are mostly considered commonplace by people, notwithstanding their overall perfection. What prevents people from grasping the creation miracles in these flowers is the familiarity brought about by seeing them everywhere and every day. Therefore, flowers that grow in a totally different place, under totally different conditions and in totally different sizes will be assessed without the ‘glasses of familiarity’ and thus help us grasp the existence of Allah. Amazon water lilies that grow in the sticky mud covering the bottom of the Amazon River are interesting enough to remove the ‘glasses of familiarity’ from people, because they continue their lives not in the way people are accustomed to and witness everyday, but with a very different struggle. These plants start to grow in the mud at the bottom of the Amazon River, and then reach out towards the river surface. Their goal is to reach the sunlight which is vital to their existence. When they finally reach the water’s surface, they stop growing and develop thorny, round buds. The buds develop into gigantic leaves with a reach of 2 metres in as short a time as a couple of hours. ‘Knowing’ that the more they cover the river surface with abundant leaves, the more will they be able to make use of sunlight, these water lilies make ample use of daylight to perform photosynthesis. They ‘know’ that otherwise they will not be able to survive at the bottom of the river due to the scarcity of light. It is certainly quite inspiring for a plant to employ such an ‘intelligent’ tactic. However, sunlight alone does not suffice for the Amazon water lilies. They also need oxygen equally, yet it is obvious that this oxygen does not exist in the muddy ground in which their roots are located. This is why water lilies stretch out stems developing from their roots upwards towards the water surface where their leaves float. Sometimes these stems grow as tall as 11 metres; they are tied to the leaves and function as oxygen-carriers between the leaves and the root.How can a bud in its initial stages in life in the depths of a river know that it needs oxygen and sunlight to survive, that it would not be able to live in their absence, and that everything it needs is present on the water surface? A being recently introduced to life is aware neither of the fact that this water has an ending point, nor of the existence of the sun or oxygen. Therefore, if the whole event is assessed from the standpoint of evolutionists, these plants should long before have been defeated by environmental conditions and become extinct. Nevertheless, water lilies are still present today in all their perfection. The unbelievable life struggle of water lilies continues well after they reach light and oxygen on the water surface, where they curl the brims of their huge leaves upward to prevent them from sinking. They can continue their lives with all these precautions, yet they also know that these are not enough for their reproduction. They need a living being that will carry their pollen to another water lily, and this living being is a beetle (coleopterans) which has been created with a special weakness for white colour. They prefer these white water lilies out of all the attractive flowers of the Amazon River. When Amazon water lilies are visited by creatures which will continue their species, they close all their leaves, imprison them, and offer them ample pollen. They let them free after keeping them for one night, and then change their colour so that they do not bring the same pollen back to them. The once pure white, glorious water lilies will now go on adorning the Amazon river in pink. Could such flawless and finely calculated plans be the work of a bud unaware of everything? Of course not. They are the work of the wisdom of Allah, Who created all things. All the details summarised here show that plants, like all other living beings in the universe, came into existence already furnished with the most convenient systems, and this was thanks to their Creator. Can the wind form an airplane by coincidence? The famous physicist Sir Fred Hoyle makes a very striking observation about the origin of life. In his book The Intelligent Universe he writes: The chance that higher life forms might have emerged in this way (by coincidence) is comparable with the chance that a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein. This comparison of Hoyle’s is quite inspiring. The examples that we have discussed above also reveal that both the existence of life and the perfection of its present systems force us to look for the great power making these come into being. Just as a hurricane cannot produce an airplane as a result of coincidences, neither is it possible for the universe to have come into being as a result of unanticipated happenings and moreover to harbour extremely complex structures therein. In truth, the universe is furnished with myriad systems of an infinitely greater complexity than those of an airplane Everything we have said in this chapter confronts us with the evidence of the flawless planning not only in our immediate surroundings but also in the depths of space. One who assesses these signs which are so evident as to be undeniable by both reason and conscience can come to only one conclusion: there is no room for coincidence in the universe; the universe was CREATED with all the minutiae contained in it. And Allah, the Creator of this flawless system, is He Who has infinite might and knowledge.

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Cuisine of Macau Annabel Jackson, Independent Scholar The Portuguese have engaged in cross-cultural culinary conversations for centuries. They introduced chilies to China, tempura and pão de ló cake to Japan, and coffee to Brazil. They created vindaloo in India when Portuguese carne de vinha d’alhos (meat braised in vinegar) was infused with chopped fresh chilies and Indian spices. But it was in Macau that an entirely new cuisine, based on Portuguese cooking techniques and traditions, would emerge. As food anthropologist Sidney Mintz has observed: “Human movement is a primary cause of changes in food behavior” (Mintz 2008). To study Macanese cuisine, the indigenous cooking of Macau, is to study the Macanese people, positioning food and its consumption at the heart of an understanding of history, geography, and culture. Origins of an Enclave and the Macanese The Portuguese were allegedly and begrudgingly granted the rights to land in Macau (Macau was never an official colony, but was referred to as an enclave), the Chinese considering them as an at least efficient means of policing pirate activity in the South China Sea. They arrived in the mid-1500s, some three-hundred years before the British would annex Hong Kong. Early artworks suggest that the place was uninhabited, bar a few fishing Tanka families who lived on their fishing vessels. But the Portuguese sailors did not arrive alone; they came with wives and servants from Portuguese colonial outposts such Goa, Malacca, and Timor, and from countries such as Japan and the Philippines, where the Portuguese were engaged in trade. Officially, no Portuguese women travelled on the ships or resided in the colonies. Integration with locals through marriage was encouraged by Lisbon. The Macanese, then, were Eurasians born into Christian families: offspring of Portuguese men and women from various Asian and southeast Asian countries. It is particularly important to note that there was no local existing culture: Chinese blood would only much later make up part of the Macanese ethnicity, and even when the Chinese did start to work in Macau—cleaning ships, for example—they would return home (to China-“proper”) at night, through the border gate. There was thus no direct Chinese influence on the cuisine except for the utilization of locally available perishables. Works by the British artist George Chinnery (1774–1852), who lived for some years in Macau, show Chinese traders selling Cantonese snacks on the streets; so, the community in Macau would have had early exposure to Guangdong cooking. “Until the 19th century Macao was just a transit city for foreigners and Portuguese from the mainland, and although the Chinese afforded the city its character, its soul lay with the Macaenses (Macanese) or ‘sons of the land’” (Pons 1999, 100). The Macanese have also historically followed the Chinese in their commitment to “looking after people’s health by way of the food they eat” (Jorge 2004, 17). Thus we find a dish like chau chau parida, which is traditionally made with pork kidneys and served to postnatal women: parida means “delivered of a birth.” The Macanese would also enthusiastically take part in local festivals such as Chinese New Year, in addition to Christian celebrations. Origins of Macanese Cooking The Macanese call themselves the filhos da terra, the children of the land, and consider themselves the indigenous people of Macau. A peninsula on a southern tip of Guangdong Province, on the South China Sea, Macau also includes a pair of islands, Coloane and Taipa, though these three land masses are now entirely co-joined. They form part of the Pearl River Delta, with land on either side of the river meeting in Guangzhou (Canton), the capital city of Guangdong, China’s most southerly province, and traditionally Cantonese-speaking. The Pearl River Delta is rich in agriculture, sustaining a rice-based diet including plentiful fish and vegetables, with pork and chicken the favored meats. The staples of the Portuguese diet, then, from which Macanese cuisine would develop—fish and seafood, pork and chicken; potatoes, cabbage, and onions; and eggs—were in plentiful supply. The defining Asian flavors of the cuisine would emerge as the fermented seafood preparation balichão, coconut milk, and turmeric. The Portuguese did not arrive empty-handed either, being already heavily involved in the spice trade; the heady aromas of peppercorns, star anise, cinnamon, and cloves rose from the ships’ holds. They carried provisions as well: bacalhau (salt cod), Madeira wine, cured meats, and olives and olive oil. They carried, too, thanks to the varying backgrounds of wives and servants, the intangible cultural skills and knowledge that spanned many Asian cuisines, and ingredients that were not native to southern China. Dishes incorporating non-native ingredients clearly had their origins from far away, and intra-Asia movement of people would already have been spurning culinary interchange. Conditions were ripe for a new, hybrid cuisine to emerge. What is Macanese Cooking? The emergence of Macanese cuisine can be traced through a variety of strands: from saudade (the longing for home experienced by the Portuguese, an intense suffering expressed in the mournful music tradition fado) to another kind of longing: for the varied aromas, flavors, and textures of Asian cuisines on the part of wives and servants. Attempts to exactly define it can be problematic, and there are linguistic complications. Within the Chinese language, the people referred to as Macanese, or the food referred to as Macanese, do not necessarily exist. While in English the term “Macanese” (or, in Portuguese, Macaense) refers to a specific people and a specific cuisine: “[T]he Chinese attribute the term Macanese to everything found in the territory” (Augustin-Jean 2002, 123). For the people of Macau, “although they are often unable to identify Macanese food, they still call themselves Macanese and justify it by the fact that they live in the territory. Consequently, it is probable that the associations of the following terms are made by the Chinese population: Macanese food equals food of Macau (regardless of origin)/Macanese population equals inhabitants of Macau” (Augustin-Jean 2002, 123). There’s little consensus in the Macanese community itself. Macanese writer and researcher Antonio Jorge da Silva asserts that this is because “some families in Macau have closer ethnic ties to Portugal than do others: many mainland Portuguese have married into local Macanese families. This has a direct impact on the culinary preferences…[and] some mainland traditional dishes have been integrated in Macanese cuisine” (Jackson 2003, 30). The scholars Yang Zhang and Ching Lin Pang (2012, 939) take the question further: “The development of Macanese food is fraught with ambiguities and dissonant voices and views. Macanese food is constantly reconfigured by different actors, at the imagined and material level in response to the tension between the discursive narratives and practical enactment.” Food writers have created mythologies around its emergence. Sir arrives back at the colonial waterfront villa tired and hungry from an exhausting voyage, and longs for the cooking of his mother. He goes to the kitchen with one of his servants and, as best as he can, shows her how to first reconstitute a piece of bacalhau in water and, later, how to prepare it in a stew with thickly sliced potatoes, bell peppers, and onions. The dish is richly flavored with liberal amounts of olive oil and garlic, and becomes a regular in this household: an essentially Portuguese dish but one cooked with local vegetables. It is “Macanese” though it would be recognizable as Portuguese in Lisbon. Scenes such as this were repeated across Macau’s domestic kitchens. A Malay servant would be preparing a beef stew with bay leaf and rosemary from the kitchen garden. The aromas are acceptable, but she considers the gravy rather thin on flavor. So, she stirs in the star anise and cinnamon stick she knows from home, and a truly hybrid dish is created. Similarly, fried crab is deemed lacking in flavor, so a wife of Goan descent adds fresh chilies and tamarind pulp (for a hot-sour sensation) which, in turn, remind her of home. (Augustin-Jean 2002, 122; Doling 1994, 56–57). Fish pie, made with a sweetened pastry, is imaginatively flavored with ground coriander and saffron (saffron almost always means turmeric in Macanese recipes). In the absence of fresh milk, coconut milk is used to make a tapioca dessert. Papaya flowers from the tree growing outside the kitchen door are tossed into a stir-fried crab dish at the suggestion of a neighbor; and everyone is intrigued by the cooking smells of highly seasoned tripe emanating from the house on the hill. One wife tries to emulate it, and her version is now considered superior. As for components, Macanese cuisine does not feature much of a range of vegetable dishes, with the exception of creations such as bitter gourd cooked in coconut milk, and eggplant sambal—both bitter gourd and eggplant being widely available in markets because they are very popular with the Cantonese. Most Macanese cook Cantonese-style vegetable dishes at home, such as stir-fried bok choy or steamed pea shoots; or serve a simple Portuguese-inspired salad of local lettuce, tomato, onion, and green bell pepper, studded with brined olives. The breadth of the Macanese cannon attests to the breadth of the ethnicities represented in the community, and Macanese can thus be deemed to have sophisticated palates that appreciate a broad range of flavors, textures, and sensations. Flavor combinations were born that were unfamiliar to both Asian and European palates. Dishes range from subtle noodle soup or deep-fried vegetarian pastries, to rich meat stews and spicy seafood curries, to sweet snacks, cakes, and desserts. Macanese cuisine has also absorbed Portuguese dishes to the point that they would be considered Macanese, particularly salt-cod dishes such as pastéis de bacalhau. Balichão is not used in every dish, but is a condiment unique to Macanese cuisine. Almost certainly inspired by the belacan of Malaysia and Indonesia, and redolent of Vietnamese nuoc mam, it is a fermented fish sauce made with krill. These tiny shrimps, which used to abound in the upper reaches of the Pearl River Delta, but are now difficult to access, are combined with Portuguese brandy or wine, chili, lemon, peppercorns, and bay leaf—all left in a clay urn for three months or so. These days, almost no one is making it in this traditional way, instead taking belacan as the base ingredient and mixing it with the other component parts. This sauce is fried and then used as a component part of dishes—it is not a dipping sauce. Like all fermented fish or seafood products, it is highly pungent, and a good source of nutrition, as well as flavor. It forms a particularly central role in the Malay-inspired dish porco balichão tamarindo, where it adds an extra layer of flavor, and in the noodle soup dish lacassa (based on Malaysian laksa) where it heightens aromas together with sprigs of coriander. Balichão is almost certainly the precursor of the Cantonese salted-shrimp paste, haam ha cheung, showing how Macanese cuisine in turn would influence local culinary culture. One of the most iconic dishes in the Macanese repertoire, African chicken is believed to be one of the more modern, dating to the 1940s. It is thought to have been created by chef America Angelo (who died in 1979) at the former Pousada de Macau, though there’s an almost identical dish from Goa, and both bear a resemblance to India’s butter chicken. It is also known as galinha à cafreal, perhaps because of its final, rather blackened appearance: African slaves who worked on the ships were known as cafres (Jorge 2004, 82). Culinary links with Africa seem likely following a visit to one of Portugal’s colonies (probably Angola or Mozambique) by Angelo. The recipe attributed to him involves a marinade of butter, garlic, chilies, coconut milk, and bay leaves, although versions available in Macau today are almost always made with a tomato-based sauce. Many chefs cooking the dish in Macau today maximize the amount of sauce, which is then mopped up with bread. Macau novelist and lawyer Henrique de Senna Fernandes (1923–2010) said that not a day had gone by when he had not eaten minchi (personal communication, 1994), and it is a dish which appears in Macanese literature. There are many different versions, but it is always served with rice and a flipped-over fried egg on top. It is usually made with a combination of ground beef and ground pork (preferably cut by hand with two choppers) cooked in Portuguese olive oil, with the addition of diced onions and tiny cubes of fried potato, and a sauce composed of dark soy, light soy (and possibly kecap manis, the sweet soy sauce of Indonesian derivation) and Lea & Perrins Worcestershire sauce. The inclusion of the latter suggests the dish may have been created following the arrival of the British in Hong Kong, this being an iconic British seasoning (which originated in colonial India). Alternatively, it may have been added to the sauce later; in any case, it points to a close relationship between the British and the Macanese, who were able to speak English in addition to Cantonese and Portuguese (and the Macanese patau, which has all but died out now). The term minchi is thought to be a corruption of the English word “mince” (Jackson 2003, 79). Other theories suggest that minchi could be based on the Indian ground lamb dish keema, which the Portuguese could have been exposed to in much the same way as the British Scotch Egg has its origins as an Indian kebab—a hard-boiled egg wrapped in spicy ground lamb. Additional Iconic Dishes Chamussas are pastries clearly related to the Indian samosa, and can be stuffed with a pea-based vegetarian filling or spicy minced beef. Unlike samosas, however, they are deep-fried, like Cantonese spring rolls. Even more specifically Asian is lacassa, a soupy rice-noodle dish flavored with balichão and coriander and a spot of Shaoxing (Chinese rice wine), and traditionally served the night before Christmas. Though deriving from Portuguese cozido, tacho is the most Cantonese of the repertoire: a hearty winter casserole using Cantonese cuts of meat picked up at the local market—including roast duck, Chinese bacon (lap yuk), Chinese sausage (lap cheong), pig skin, and pig trotter—and white cabbage cut into large chunks. On the other hand, the post-Christmas dish of diabo (meaning “devil”: the dish is said to be a devil for the stomach) reflects how the Macanese Christmas spread in some families is more British in flavor, incorporating roast turkey, ham, and braised duck. The main flavors are derived from pickles and Dijon mustard, and chili is often added too. Portuguese chicken, also known as Macau chicken (and po kok gai in Cantonese pinyin), cannot be found in Portugal as it is decidedly Macanese: a chicken marinated in white wine and bay leaf, but with coconut milk and light spicing. Ade cabidela is duck cooked in its own blood, with ade being an ancient Portuguese term no longer in use in Portugal. Bebinca de rabano is a steamed radish dish, eaten in the winter, and topped with Chinese sausage, torn coriander leaves, and chili. Macanese Cuisine in Restaurants Only as recently as the 1980s and early 1990s, dining in Macau was a relatively simple affair. The upmarket hotels would perhaps have a grill room, but these were the days before the ubiquity of upmarket Japanese and Italian restaurants. Dining in Macau was inexpensive, and casual, whether Cantonese, Portuguese, or Macanese. Street food abounded, with some stalls only setting up shop after dark. Delicacies long since banned in Hong Kong (owl, for example) or dishes considered too humble, such as worms baked with pork, mushroom and orange peel, were still to be found in Macau. When gambling was deregulated, with the Sands casino being the first to open on Chinese New Year in 2002, catering took a whole new turn. Mistakes were made: the typical gambler did not want to spend 45 minutes in front of a 100 meter-long buffet, he wanted to spend seven minutes (exactly seven minutes, researchers found) slurping a bowl of noodles. The five star-plus hotels raised the bar high with their Michelin-starred restaurants, and the quality of Cantonese food at the high-end has surpassed even that of Hong Kong. At street level, there are myriad choices. There are more Portuguese restaurants than ever, and much evidence of “Macau food” such as Lord Stow’s egg tarts, pork chop buns, and almond cookies. It is harder to find Cantonese street food these days; meanwhile Macanese dishes, cafes and restaurants occupy their own space in the midst of this dynamism. Culture and Tradition in Macanese Cooking There’s little recorded history of Macau culture. Thus, as the Macanese writer Cecilia Jorge puts it: “It is not easy to describe reliably and accurately what used to be served at the table of our Macanese forebears or what people once ate as their ‘daily bread’ in Macau’s early days” (Jorge 2004, 7). As she points out, more is known about what the English and Americans ate in Macau in the 1800s, thanks to diaries such as those recorded by the American Harriett Low who lived in Macau from 1829 to 1833. Much of what is known has been information gleaned by those elderly Macanese who have worked as private chefs, or in hotels and restaurants. It is not unusual to sit down at a Macanese table where steamed rice, fried potatoes, and bread rolls are served simultaneously, and while tea or beer would be served these days, the traditional drink of the dining table would have been Portuguese red wine. In similar style to the Cantonese, meal times would traditionally comprise of a number of dishes placed at the center of the table for sharing. Instead of chopsticks, however, spoons and forks would be used. Crucially, soup does not play an important role in the meal, although it is important on both the Portuguese and the Cantonese table. There may be some Cantonese-style (but with a twist) steamed or fried green vegetables served, but usually Cantonese dishes would be served alongside other Cantonese dishes. Fewer and fewer Macanese cook traditional food at home, but family gatherings such as baptisms and weddings are occasions when the traditional chá gordo is served. This is a series of dishes cooked for celebrations and presented buffet style, with often bite-sized sweet and savory dishes sharing the table. Dishes would include chamussas (stuffed pastries, deep-fried), minchi, ade cabidela, porco balichão tamarindo (a salty and sour pork braise), arroz gordo (literally “fat rice”—meats layered with rice), mango pudding (distinguishable from the Cantonese version as its contains chopped pieces of fruit), and bagi (rice pudding made with coconut milk). Since this is a standing buffet, nothing served requires a knife for cutting. Macanese cooking can be very time consuming (and expensive), both in terms of gathering and preparing ingredients. Families were large, and guests were often invited to share a meal, so elaborate preparation was justified, particularly for special occasions. The dessert called bebinca (rice flour, sugar, egg yolk, coconut milk, and dairy milk) is left to rest for a whole day before it is baked. Macanese roast soup requires cooking meats for three hours before removing the meat from the bones, baking it in the oven, and only finally combining it with the soup preparation. Bolo menino, a cake prepared with grated coconut and almonds, requires someone to beat twenty eggs which, in the days before electricity, would have been a time-consuming task. In an anthology of recipes circulating in the Macanese community of Hong Kong, the method for some recipes covers an entire sheet of paper, suggesting the time available to be spent in the kitchen (or the availability of servants), while others start with phrases such as: “Prepare the pheasant in the usual way.” Hunting was a popular pastime on Taipa among the menfolk. The huge pots of meat-based tacho and diabo would have traditionally been prepared by men, while the making of sweets and desserts, including bolo vestido (literally “dolled up” cakes), would have been the preserve of talented female confectioners. Geographical and Cultural Influences In its early trading days, Macau was called the Venice of the East and was considered one of the most wealthy ports in the world. It enjoys similar prestige today, having overtaken Las Vegas as the gambling capital of the world. The fortunes of different Macanese families have been similarly up and down. The 1920s and 1930s, notes David Brookshaw, a scholar of postcolonial history, “were decades when the Macanese felt secure, unaware of the great upheavals that were to come, when their culinary arts were practised by the old families and patua was still spoken among an older generation” (Brookshaw 2004, ix). Many Macanese either chose or were forced to travel overseas for university educations and jobs, and the Macanese in diaspora—particularly in Portugal, the United States, and Australia, in addition to Portuguese-speaking countries such as Brazil—has for a considerable time been larger than the domestic population. Critically, in the run up to the transfer of sovereignty from Portugal to the People’s Republic of China in December 1999, there was a strong sense that the Macanese were losing their homeland—their terra—and being quashed by the Chinese. Many more left at this time. Their fears to some extent have not come to pass, as the Macau government has shown itself very keen to preserve aspects of Macanese (and Portuguese) culture. Clubs, or casas, in cities from Lisbon to Melbourne to San Diego are partially (Macau) government-funded, and have become meeting places where Macanese food is central. Every three years, the Macau government funds a conference for a thousand members of the Macanese diaspora, which always includes a cooking competition. The hotels and casinos, which have been opening in bewildering numbers in the past fifteen years, are encouraged to list Macanese and Portuguese dishes, and Portuguese wine. Independent “Portuguese” restaurants such as A Lorcha and Litoral list Macanese dishes on their menus. Yet there is a sense among Macanese that their status has changed. “In the colonial era, the Macanese were hierarchically subordinate to the Portuguese but enjoyed superior social status when compared with the Chinese” writes the researcher and production director Maria Eusébio. “Yet, in the plays of the postcolonial era, the Macanese are portrayed as clearly subordinate to the Chinese.” She continued with some specific lines from a play: “‘I really don’t understand, for our whole lives, we learnt to admire the red and green flag (Portuguese flag). Sing the national anthem, if we are not Portuguese, not Chinese, then who are we?’” (Eusebio 2013, 33). Within this rather precarious arena of identity, Macanese food assumes a central role in representing a lost “space” or “place” and comes to embody identity and a distinct racial validity (Zhang and Pang 2012, 939). The exponential growth of the hospitality industry, however, has given the younger generation of Macanese career opportunities at home in Macau. Many young Macau Chinese are similarly delighted to be able to return home after studies, rather than remaining abroad. Macanese culture remained strong through to the 1960s, when Macanese women would almost certainly marry members of the Portuguese military if they didn’t marry a fellow Macanese. When the military left, however, the Macanese started to be more aligned with Cantonese culture, which was considered rather dominant. Yet whereas families with strong Portuguese identity (the wealthier, the better educated) would almost certainly have eaten Portuguese and Macanese food every day, the families which would also eat simple Cantonese-style dishes such as tofu stir-fried with cabbage would have been seen to be of slightly lower class. Identity Through Cuisine Historically, the Macanese would have defined themselves by that great cultural triumvirate: language, religion, and food. While Portuguese remains an official language of Macau, it is spoken far less today by young Macanese, who increasingly use Mandarin in addition to English. Their patua has all but vanished (though there is a theatre group trying to revive it, in Macau), and Catholicism is no longer the binding force it once was. Macanese cuisine is therefore pivotal to cultural identity, and members of the diaspora say they cling to memories of food as the main way of being or feeling Macanese. This centrality of Macanese cuisine to Macanese cultural identify has revealed itself in some interesting ways. It has often been mooted that the lack of Macanese restaurants (the first, Riquexó, opened as recently as 1978) is because this cuisine is not restaurant food; as it was created in the domestic kitchens, aesthetics were rarely if ever given consideration. The question is whether or not the Macanese simply wanted to keep their cuisine to themselves. Until the 1990s, almost nothing had been written about Macanese food, and recipes were only handed down orally, and only within families. Sometimes they were not handed down at all, or were “whispered into the ear of a younger family member before being recorded on paper and duly ‘interpreted’ by their descendants” (Jorge 2004, 24). One hand-written recipe found contains a diagram showing how to wrap a pastry triangle. It was written on a Hong Kong hospital notepad. “It is quite possible that the best recipes for each special delicacy has gone to the grave along with the people famous in their day for their culinary arts” (Jorge 2004, 10). Restaurateurs such as Isabel Eusebio (Balichão) and Sonia Palmer (Riquexó) were concerned that the cuisine was dying out and began to share recipes and ideas. It was still being cooked well, but by an increasingly older group of mostly women (such as Isabel’s mother, Maria Eusebio, and Sonia’s mother, Aida de Jesus), who were becoming too elderly to continue. With increasing interest in world cooking and cultural tourism emerging, Macanese cuisine caught the wave and books began to be published about Macau and the place of Macanese cuisine therein, in several languages. The secrets contained within recipes in regards to cultural identity, and even contained in their names, are a focus for Cecilia Jorge. “Rather than strive to determine what is or not Portuguese heritage among the delicacies we still so enjoy today, we should try to ‘read’ between the recipe lines,” she writes in the introduction to Macanese Cooking (Jorge 2004, 8). “We should take note of the names (or various names) of the dish, its native and foreign ingredients, how it is prepared, cooked and when it is served. From this ‘reading’ we can form a notion as to our collective identity.” She concludes that: “Macanese miscegenation is, in cultural terms, the result of a process still in transformation and at different rhythms as set by historical events” (Jorge 2004, 8). There is no one recipe, no perfect recipe, and everything is in a state of flux. Recipes that have been circulated previously, for example among the Macanese community in Hong Kong, are illuminating. One anthology, typed on a manual typewriter and amounting to more than a hundred pages, had gathered recipes from Macanese all over the world. The editor credits many of the recipes with names (Guilly appears most frequently; Delmira Alves is sometimes denoted as D.A.; and one recipe is from “Melita’s cook, Adi”). Where more than one recipe for the same dish is included, the editor might comment on which one appears better or more authentic. A footnote for a recipe for porco balichão tamarindo suggests a “modern” version, which is essentially a far less time-consuming version: evidence already of busier lives and fewer servants, perhaps. The presentation of such recipes indicates the travelled and cosmopolitan nature of the community; and, interestingly, they are presented in English. Cantonese ingredients are typed in pinyin: such as lap cheong (Chinese sausage) and kai choi, which are Cantonese bitter vegetables. Ingredients such as rice flour and white wine are listed in Portuguese (farina arroz pulu, vinho branco), or in both English and Portuguese (turnip/rabono and garlic/alho). One recipe converts ounces to catties, the traditional measurement in a Cantonese market (1 catty = 22 ounces). Measurements might be in (Portuguese) coffee spoons rather than teaspoons, and soup spoons rather than tablespoons; and some ingredients, such as ginger, are listed not by weight or by size but by cost: 20c. Prices were clearly stable, and inflation was not a consideration. Modern Adaptation and Preservation Veteran Macanese cook Aida de Jesus oversaw the daily running of Riquexó along with her daughter, but both here and at APOMAC, a club for Macanese but with a restaurant open to the public, young Filipinos have been taught how to prepare Macanese dishes. Principally, Portuguese restaurants such as A Lorcha and Litoral serve Macanese dishes, as does the restaurant at IFT—Macau’s Institute of Tourism Studies. There’s the risk though, that Macanese cuisine will be reduced to a repertoire of just a handful of dishes, all adapted to suit the hotel guest. Perhaps adaptation is not quite the threat it might be seen as: the nature of Macanese food is adaption, as is particularly true for domestic kitchen-based cuisines. Some dishes probably never made it past the first post, or remained the domain of just one family. Other changes simply reflect the times. Lard would be seen as an essential part of the flavor and texture of arroz carregado, a firmly textured pressed rice dish pricked with spring onions and traditionally served with porco balichão tamarindo. Yet cooking with lard has ceased to be popular (or essential, in terms of using every single last piece of the pig) and has been replaced by butter, or elsewhere with olive oil, altering flavors and texture in the recreation of a typical dish. Musing on the Macanese concoction po kok gai (Portuguese Chicken Curry), chef and restauranteur Abraham Conlon addresses the decoration of this dish, which might include hard-boiled egg, olives, and chouriço. “[They were] likely added much later,” he writes, “by clever twentieth-century restaurateurs who either wanted to make the dish more ‘exotic’ for Chinese tourists or more ‘Portuguese’ for visiting Portuguese dignitaries” (Conlon and Lo 2016, 181). Geography would suggest that Macanese cuisine can be defined as a hybrid Portuguese-Cantonese cooking, but the movement of the Portuguese, and their wines and servants, across the world but most particularly in Asia, inform its nature. Macanese cuisine is grounded in Portuguese culture and traditions, but accented by Asian culture and traditions, as well as ingredients. The construction of Macanese cuisine began in domestic kitchens 450 years ago, but remains a dynamic process to this day. A distinction can be drawn, then, between Macanese cuisine’s place of origin and its continual reinterpretation. “Macanese cuisine has become…a full-fledged cuisine, evolving from home food enjoyed at home to a home food cuisine offered in restaurants” (Zhang and Pang 2012, 935).

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Here are comments from teenagers that attended the Keys to Success Anger Management Class. It’s always amazing to me how teenagers know what they need to do but often times ignore making the right choices. I haven’t met many teenagers who don’t sincerely regret the wrong choices they have made. It’s our responsibility to forgive them and help to do better in the future. What did you learn from the Anger Management Class? - I learned easier ways to handle situations, how to control your attitude and actions and to have a positive attitude. - When you look at a problem different instead of letting your attitude take over the problem. - I learned to stay positive and not to get down on myself. Also, I learned that if you control your attitude and temper you can live a lot more stress free and open. - I learned that attitude and temper can be controlled that a person has to control it for the betterment in their environment. - Control my attitude and temper on a positive way. - I learned how to control my attitude and temper that only I can control. - Say sorry when wrong, think positively and respect adults. - I learned how to control my attitude and temper and to accept what others see of me and how they think of me. - Learned how to control my attitude and temper. - I learned that there are many people out there that have anger too and I’m not the worst at all or the only one. - I learned that controlling your attitude and temper can get you way further in life. - I learn that attitude and temper can hurt your future even your peers. - That there are many ways to stay calm. - That it taught me to work well with others and help change my life to make things easier. What will you do differently as a result of this Anger Management Class? - Look at the problem and make if funny so I won’t get the police called on me. - I will take advice from this class and from this book. - Take situations carefully and respect others more and myself as well. - React to situations differently and control my actions. - Respect myself and others and communicate respectfully in a kind way. - I will work hard on my attitude; try to be respectful, helping and considerate to others. - Control myself and try as hard as I can. - To be control means I can better control myself. - I will see myself trying hardest to make a lot more friends at school and get good grades and be kind to parents. - I will think about my actions first. - Think about Mr. and Mrs. Attitude and Temper. - By thinking before speaking and watching what I say. Article by Billy J. Strawter, Sr. © 2012 EnviCare Consulting, Inc. All Rights Reserved Worldwide Mistakes Parents Made with Their Children through Their Adolescence Years Parents, have you ever made mistakes with your children and wished you had handled the situations differently? I personally don’t know of a single parent that hasn’t made mistakes with their children. I have counseled parents that deliberately hurt their children because of their own negative experiences during childhood. One thing I do know is that you can’t take back the mistakes but you can learn from them and make better choices in the future. I encourage mothers and fathers to avoid making mistakes that will damage your children emotionally for the rest of their lives. The core foundations of families in society are broken such as in the development of the emotional, educational, physical and spiritual needs of the children. During a life skills workshop, I had a fantastic dialog with mothers and fathers relative the mistakes they made with their children. I ask the parents what mistakes you made raising your children. I hope you enjoy reading their responses listed below. What mistakes have you made raising your children? “I did not listen enough when they were trying to tell me something and there was not sufficient communication with my children. I yelled back at them when they were yelling at me and I did not follow through with discipline. I said many negative things in arguments we had. I did not give my youngsters enough attention when they needed it most. I did not praise them enough on their accomplishments. I put some of my own needs before theirs. I said negative things about their father a few times to the children, and I did n0t set boundaries. I did not build a great family relationship. I did not keep them in sports so they were not out in the streets which would have stopped them from getting into trouble. There was not enough trust and love toward my children.” “I let my teenage son always get what he wants. I would bribe him with money. I let him miss school when he wanted to. I never really sat down and talked to my son. I never gave him a chance to let me know how he felt. I used to choose my friends and partying over my son. I would put my girlfriend before him” “I did not give my youngsters rules as they got older. I yelled first and had guilt afterward. I tried to be their friend instead of their parent. I gave in often after I punished in quilt. I yelled a lot to get my point across then I just forgot about the situation.” “As a single parent, I gave and gave instead of them earning or working for things. I feel things would have been better if I had set more boundaries. As a single parent, I had so many grounds to cover as a mom and dad. I was their mother and father. They are older now and not really respecting my struggles and responsibility as a concerned mother. I can’t hold their hands and walk them through life, and they have to do their part; such as school, getting a job, and move out on their own, and live a life of love.” “I was not there all the time for my children. I did not listen to them more about their feelings. I didn’t show them the right and the wrong way. I should have been more responsible. I said the wrong thing too much and I did not do enough discipline with my children.” “Some mistakes I made were not listening and I sometimes say things off the handle instead of listening. I sometimes say things out of anger which sometimes hurt as bad as being shot. I spoiled my kids to the point that my daughter thinks every pair of Jordan’s shoes that come out she should get them. I think I let my son get away with too much which makes my daughter think it is okay to do. When I put my kids on punishment they should stick to it. But I let them off punishment early which made the youngsters think mom is mad today but I can leave tomorrow. I talked bad things about the kids’ father when frustrated and the kids heard it. Sometimes, I lose my temper and just acted in a way my kids should not see. So what I am saying is that what I do is a prime example of what my kids do. But I will never give up and will change with the help of God.” “I have been distance, selfish and wrapped up in my own personal problems” “I have not paid sufficient attention to them and taken their concerns seriously. I have been distance, selfish and wrapped up in my own personal problems. I have not shown enough love to my children nor told them enough. I forgot promises made and did not follow through with the obligations. I have not spent enough time with them nor been involved with their lives. I fought with their mother over unimportant things. I have not financially supportive my children enough. I have pushed them for the bad things but I have not’ praised them enough for the good things my children do.” “I gave my children too much and I let them do things after we said no. I spoiled my children and yelled at them too much. I got angry at some of the silly things. Not talking to grandparents about what we do and do not want our children to have. Not listening to spouse when making decisions because of different points of view. Not being aware of who my children are socializing with. Not discussing situation with my spouse before either one sets punishment and spouse not being on the same page.” You have read about the mistakes parents made with their children. I am hopeful you will seriously look at the dynamics of your family. Perhaps there are some changes you need to make in your household with your children. Here are 20 steps parents can use to avoid making damaging mistakes with your youngsters. - Spend time with your children - Stop what you are doing and listen to your children when they are trying to tell you something - Follow through when disciplining your youngsters - Praise your children sufficiently on their accomplishments - Avoid saying negative things to your children during conflict - Don’t’ talk negatively to your children about mother or father - Model the right way you want your children to live - Give your children rules and boundaries - Know who your children spent time with - Avoid losing your temper in front of your children - Don’t forget the promises you made to your youngsters - Take your children concerns seriously - Get your children counseling if needed - Follow through on your obligation for your adolescences - Work together with spouse when disciplining your children - Avoid saying the wrong things too much - Support the family financially - Inform grandparents the thing you prefer them not to give to your children - Avoid spoiling your children too much - Do not be your children friend but instead be the parent Finally, you can not control your children but you must give them the skills needed to make the right choices when they are not around you. When you make a mistake with your children, please apologize and ask them to forgive you. You have the power and the ability to invest wisely in your children’ lives. Written by: Billy J. Strawter, Sr © EnviCare Consulting Inc. All Rights Reserved Listed below are simple strategies parents can use to control their feelings and emotions when faced with major obstacles. If you are facing problems in a relationship; such as the workplace or with your children, these simple strategies will work. Parents, you face many challenges every day whether you are a working mom or a stay at home mom or dad. Parents, it is very important to understand the magnitude of the daily challenges you face. If you deal with them improperly, you can damage your relationship with your teenager and younger children as well as with your spouse if married. When you are out of control, undesirable negative consequences may occur. Life is never simple but the more resources you have in your arsenal to combat difficult issues during conflicts, you will become more successful. Listed below are potential negative consequences due to uncontrolled attitude and temper. Negative Consequences of Uncontrolled Attitude and Temper - Closed mindedness - Create insecurity Reduced creativity, innovation & productivity - Fosters Broken relationships - Lead to physical sickness - Creates uncontrolled depression and stress - Use of drugs, tobacco and alcohol - Isolate self from peers - Perform just enough to complete the task - Abandon responsibility - Poor eating habits - Foster Low self-esteem - Lead to potential divorce - Negative impact on family and others - Lead to potential incarceration - loss of credibility - Leads to negative impact on character - Causes an individual to potential run away from responsibilities Strategies to Control Attitude and Temper - Motivate self and others to move in the same direction - Accept changes - Accept constructive criticism - Avoid being jealous of peers - Avoid overreacting to a negative situation - Take time out before you react to a negative situation - Apologize when you are wrong or hurt a person’s feelings and or emotions - Avoid over use of your power - Believe in self and others - Communicate precisely and consistently with each other - Communicate your feelings with respect - Take time to relax and exercise - Eat a balanced and nutrient meal - Encourage each other to be innovative and creative - Perform regardless of the obstacles you face - Forgive those who disappoint or hurt you, it limits the pain - Take time to relax and exercise - Network when necessary to accomplish success - Resolve conflict quickly without submitting to Mr. and Mrs. Attitude and Temper I am convinced that the greatest challenge we face as parents and individuals is the task of controlling our attitude and temper. I hope with a sincere heart that those of you struggling with controlling your attitude and temper that you seek the help you need. This is necessary to avoid destroying relationships you have with your family and others. You must believe that you can control Mr. and Mrs. Attitude and Temper which is you. I pray you will have the commitment and strength to apply the above simple strategies to control attitude and temper. Written: Mr. Wisdom (c) 2011 EnviCare Consulting, Inc. All Rights Reserved Worldwide I enjoy listening to teenagers. They have a lot to offer to society if we would only understand and listen to them. They are valuable to society and we shouldn’t ignore their great potential. Recently, I worked with some teenagers in my Keys to Success Program (Anger Management Class). The program is designed to give teenagers strategies and encouragements to control their feelings and emotions when Mr and Mrs. Attitude and Temper (Mr and Mrs. A.T.) take control of them. They are taught that they are Mr. and Mrs. A.T. They are informed of their responsibility to control them because they can’t defeat them. I am hopeful that these two young men will be very successful in life. The keys to success must also include support from the family. It is absolutely fascinating to see changes in a teenager’s life when they learn to control their feeling and emotions. They have a since of accomplishment and value in their lives when they are in control. It also helps teenagers to build their self-esteem. When a teenager is equipped to control their emotions and feelings positively, they will overcome any obstacles in life. Listed below are comments shared by Toney and Logan. “When I first came to the anger management class, I had my mind made up that I wouldn’t learn anything. I felt the class would be a waste of time. As the day went by, we stated to talk more about life and about what was going on in our lives, then the class became interesting. I had an opportunity to share why I get mad. I learned about what I needed to work on to control my attitude and temper. Being in the small group environment, helped made it easy to open up and share the real things that were going on in my life. I learned how attitude causes pain and frustration and how temper causes angry and destruction toward self and others. That really helped me out the most. There were times when I would get mad for no reason. I never knew the consequences of being angry or anything. I learned that everything is not going to be perfect. When you react to things in a disrespectful way, you are going to receive what you invested in your life. I have learned how to respect others.” “The anger management class helped me see that getting angry and frustrated over needless situations and arguments are pointless. You can control your attitude and temper with self-control and you must have the ability to want to succeed. Without allowing attitude and temper to control you, life can be a lot more stress free and enjoyable. If you are happy with yourself and the people you surround yourself with, it makes life happier, and less frustrating. Uncontrolled Attitude and temper are attributes you don’t need in your life, because they can make someone into somebody they don’t want to become. The anger management has made me see clear in areas that I wasn’t fond of before and has guided me into building better character and becoming a better person. The anger management class helped me to deal with my attitude and temper which is helping me in everyday life. I also learned the importance of being successful and maintaining that success. You must put effort into being successful. Success is what drives me to become more determined toward living a successful life. The anger management has made me see clear in areas that I wasn’t fond of before and has guided me into building better character and becoming a better person.” Written by: Mr. Wisdom (c) 2011 EnviCare Consulting, Inc. All Rights Reserved Worldwide My name is Colleen. I was arrested for shoplifting. I was angry when I got arrested but for some reason it was towards everyone around me and not myself. I was stubborn and very hard headed. I had a bad attitude and my temper was out of control. At first, when I was told I had to attend a class for shoplifting, I thought it was going to be a boring class with bad kids. It turned out the class was amazing and the kids weren’t bad at all. Keys to Success is the class and I learned many life-changing lessons by attending it. “I would just walk away any time things weren’t going my way, or when I was getting angry” I learned many things that I will never forget. I agree when it is said people don’t change overnight. But after one month in the Keys class, I did change in many ways and all were for the better. I learned to control my attitude and temper and to stop and think before reacting to a problem. I never thought in a million years I would change from a stubborn teenager to a more mature young woman. This class has matured me in many ways. I have always had problems trusting and opening up to people. I would like to thank my instructor for giving me the strength to do just that. The main thing I learned from the Keys class was to communicate. I use to just walk away any time things weren’t going my way, or when I was getting angry. However, now I feel I can communicate my feelings with respect. I recommend that any young teen in my situation that needs an eye opener take the Keys to Success class. I know it will help you, just as it has me. Thank you again, you have truly changed my way of thinking and from now on I will make wiser investments in my piggy bank. Colleen’s is a typical teenager that sometimes struggles with making right choices when things are difficult at home. She chose to allow stubbornness, attitude, temper and anger to control her when things became difficult at home. Colleen has a wonderful heart but needed someone to inspire and encourage her to move beyond her past. She has a new opportunity to create a positive story on her new journey in life. It won’t be easy but she has already won the battle because she has acknowledged the error of her ways. Teens, as you read this post, you too can overcome stubbornness, attitude, temper or anger if you obtain the help you need. Life is short and you must do your very best to not allow these four things to control your life in a negative manner. Learn to communicate your feelings with respect as Colleen did with her parents. Learn to agree to disagree without destroying relationships with your parents, siblings or friends. Remember even if you have made wrong choices as a result of your stubbornness, attitude, temper or anger, you can choose a new direction for your life and rebuild broken relationships. Written by Mr. Wisdom (c) 2010 EnviCare Consulting Inc. All Rights Reserved World Wide This post is about Shirley, a parent, who never wanted to control her attitude. Shirley’s attitude negatively impacted her relationship with her children. “The life skills workshop impacted my life because it helped me to learn how to control my attitude and temper. Before, I never liked to control my attitude. Before learning to control my attitude, I would be frustrated with everything! Now I don’t feel that way. I am able to bask in the great feeling I have when I control my attitude. It makes me feel better. I enjoyed reading “Behind the Eyes of Juvenile Delinquents” as it had stories to which I could relate. The book helped me to deal with some situations I previously didn’t know how to handle. I appreciate having taken the life skills workshop as I now understand my life more clearly and I have become a better person and parent.” “Before learning to control my attitude, I would be frustrated with everything but now I don’t feel that way.” Shirley is just one of thousands of parents struggling to control their attitude and temper. You might be one of those parents who have failed to model to your children how to control your attitude and temper. Like Shirley, you no longer need to be in bondage to your attitude and temper. Shirley found the keys to controlling her attitude and temper when she admitted she had a problem. Now, Shirley is better equipped to deal with her attitude and broken relationships with her family. Things will get better because of Shirley’s desire and commitment to build better relationships with her family. Parents, if you have a problem controlling your attitude and temper, seek help. You will not regret seeking help as you experience the benefits that come from reduced anger and frustration in your life. You should always strive to do your very best to improve your attitude in order to be filled with joy and peace. Never let stress, frustration, and anger keep you from loving yourself, your spouse and children. Let your home become filled with laughter and joy. Joy is very contagious so allow it to infect your family along with teaching the skills needed for each family member to control their attitude and temper. Parents, you are your children’s greatest hope for success. Parenting is not easy, but when you do it right, your family will experience success from generation to generation. Believe that one day your offspring will be sitting around the table or campfire reflecting on the love, warmth, compassion, grace, mercy, and listening skills you passed down to them and they in turn to their children. Parenting children should be fun and exciting during both the good times and the difficult times. Love and commitment are the driving forces that will help you to control your feelings and emotions in a very positive way. Parents, we hope these words have inspired you to never let your attitude and temper destroy yourself or your relationship with family. Trust God to give you the strength you need to endure. Release your heart, soul and mind to Him and the blessings will come as you patiently wait. Written by: Mr. Wisdom (c) 2010 EnviCare Consulting, Inc. All Rights Reserved Worldwide In this post, you will learn valuable information from comments adults wrote after attending an anger management workshop. Listed below are their responses to two basic questions: - What did you learn from the anger management workshop? - What will you do differently as a result of attending the anger management workshop? Hopefully, you will use this information to reflect on changes you might need to make in your own life relating to anger and lack of self-control. Question 1: What did you learn from the anger management workshop? - How to control my anger and temper. How to turn the other cheek. - My attitude and my temper must be in control at all times in order to change my surroundings and myself. - How to be yourself and have control. - Several ways to control anger and temper. - I learned it’s about balancing the positive and negative. - How to deal with situations when people get on your nerves. Don’t get mad and handle it very professionally. - To be a better person and how to respond to different situations positively. - How to deal with stress. - Controlling my attitude and temper. Difference in effect of attitude and temper. Strategies to work towards improving our attitude/temper. - Having a positive attitude and good outlook. - I learned that I don’t give people the appropriate amount of credit sometimes. - Strategies to help to develop success and how to overcome obstacles as we live. - To control my anger. We can’t please everyone. - How to control my anger so that I can be productive. - I learned that everyone is different and no two people think the same. By controlling our attitude and temper, accepting those who are different is easier. - A little about myself and that my anger is coming from lack of self-control. - I learned some great ideas for life skills. I also learned to make the right choice, use the right words and that my actions speak louder than words. - How to overcome obstacles in a positive way. I also was reminded that I have to believe in myself. - Learned about life skills that I knew and will continue to build upon them in my life. What will you do differently as a result of attending the anger management workshop? - Take more time for myself. Think before I speak. Use my piggy bank (brain) wisely. - I will continue to have self-control and be more sensitive to others. - Try things out and be heard. - Try to forgive others that hurt me and my feelings. - Think before responding to a bad situation and not to be hurtful with words. - Stand my ground but not angrily. Keep a cool head. - Control my attitude and temper. - Be the bigger person and apologize. - Work towards improving my negative attitude which will improve my personality. - Have a better attitude. - Continue working on improving my teamwork skills. - Don’t let other’s burdens weigh me down. Keep moving forward. - Control myself and not be too bossy. - This has helped me to continue my path in forgiving and learning that we are all different. I would not change a thing. - I will express myself more so that I can go on with what I need to do with respect - More self control and finding why I feel the way I do. Set goals for myself. Store positive things in my piggy bank (brain). - I will reevaluate my attitude and actions. I will always think before I speak so that I will choose the right words. - I will work on me and as I work on me, try to be the better person. I will also work on letting things go. Look over the handout as a reminder to deposit positively into my piggy bank (brain). Life is never simple and you will face challenges as long as you live. You have a responsibility to control your attitude and temper without destroying yourself and others. If you are currently experiencing problem with anger, consider attending an anger management workshop. It could improve your relationships with your children, family and friends. Learn to communicate your feelings with respect and you will feel better about yourself. Written by Mr. Wisdom (c) 2010 EnviCare Consulting, Inc. All Rights Reserved Worldwide

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Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Posted in Worksheet, by Kimberly R. Foreman The exterior angle theorem date period find the measure of each angle indicated. v r u t t p u v u y t s r p s t d c t e u s j t g t e f q p g r solve. The exterior angle theorem says that an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the nonadjacent interior angles. taking our above example, would equal whatever a b equaled because those are the two angles not connected to the exterior angle. lets try two fairly basic examples and then try a few tougher ones. Write the exterior angle theorem as it applies to this triangle. List of Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Step substitute the given angle measures. Worksheet. use the figure at the. right for problems. find if and. find if and. exterior angle theorem triangle theorem last modified by G. co. c. exterior angle theorem answer section ans ref ans , so ref ans ref ans ref ans ref ans x x ref ans x x. Worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle theorem name. find the measure of each angle. . x x x x x x title word worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle. doc author. Dec, exterior angle theorem exterior angles of a triangle the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of its two remote interior angles. 1. Angle Sum Property Exterior Angle Theorem Triangle Apr, visit the post for more. exterior angles and remote interior worksheet angles of triangles worksheet answers project list triangle interior angles worksheet and answer key questions on this topic triangle angle sum worksheet answers resource plans triangle interior angles worksheet answers resource sum theorem new. 2. Regular Polygon Theorems Find the of sides for each, a b find the measure of an interior and an exterior angle of a regular gon. View homework help triangle sum and exterior angle theorem worksheet with key from math geometry at walled lake central high school. x m. worksheet triangle sum and the measure of the angle indicated. find. u w e v a b c d find. e d a f a b c d find. r f p q a b c d find. u q w Page of exterior angles name worksheet use the figure at the right for problems. find m if m and m. find m if m and m. Angle sum and exterior angle theorems find the measure of each angle indicated. 3. Finding Exterior Angle Triangle Worksheet Exterior Solve for x. x x find the measure of angle a. x x a a Id language school subject math age main content triangles other contents add to my workbooks download file embed in Test and worksheet generators for math teachers. all worksheets created with infinite geometry. worksheets. algebra worksheets. algebra worksheets. triangle angle sum the exterior angle theorem triangles and congruence and congruence and congruence, , and, the primary rule that the triangle exterior angle theorem is equivalent to the total of the two non adjacent points. They write conditional statements based upon given criteria. this worksheet contains problems. answers are. In this conditional statement worksheet, graders read conditional statements and then identify its converse. this worksheet contains problems. answers are listed on Circle the conclusion of the conditional statement below. a car with poor brakes is a menace on the highway. conditional ex rewrite the statement below as a conditional statement, underline the hypothesis and circle the conclusion of the conditional statement below. geometry teachers give their students homework on days that end in y. Geometry conditional statements worksheet with answers. a conditional statement symbolized by p q is an if then statement in which p is a hypothesis and q is a conclusion. write each of the following statements as a conditional statement. 5. Interior Exterior Angles Worksheet Triangle Right triangle. a triangle with one right angle. Obtuse angles angles above are called obtuse angles. straight angles an angle made by a straight line is of and is called a straight angle. reflex angles an angle above is called a reflex angle. complete angles an angle of is called a complete angle because it is made by a complete circle. 6. Introduction Interior Exterior Angles Exterior angles of a polygon worksheet. even though we know that all the exterior angles add up to, we can see, by just looking, that each angle a text and and angle b are not congruent. determine number of sides from angles. About this quiz worksheet. test your ability to use the exterior angle theorem with this quiz and worksheet. you will have to identify the definition and formula of the exterior angle theorem. Use the exterior angle inequality theorem to list all of the angles that satisfy the stated condition. 7. Math Explorations Using the interior exterior angle sum theorems the measure of one exterior angle of a regular polygon is given. find the of sides for each, a b find the measure of an interior and an exterior angle of a regular. the measure of an exterior angle of a regular polygon is, and the measure of an interior angle is. Math club worksheet. triangles. all triangles have sides and angles. the sum of the triangles angles is degrees. isosceles triangles are triangles with two sides of equal length and two angles of equal degree. equilateral triangles are triangles with three sides of equal length and three angles of equal degree. 8. Median Worksheets Triangle Worksheet Geometry Here is a collection of our printable worksheets for topic area of rectangles and triangles of chapter area in section measurement. a brief description of the worksheets is on each of the worksheet widgets. click on the images to view, download, or print them. all worksheets Area of triangle finding area of triangle using the formula half base times height id language school subject math. more area interactive worksheets. week math by area counting squares by area by grade area of compound shapes by find the perimeter area of triangle worksheets all come with a corresponding printable answer page. teachers, parents, and students can print these out and make copies. by. perimeter of triangles worksheet b. perimeter of triangles worksheet b answers. In this area of a triangle worksheet, students solve problems in which the area of triangles are calculated. 9. Parallel Line Proofs Interior Exterior Angles Geometry We hope your happy with this proving lines parallel. Quiz worksheet proving lines are parallel with converse statements quiz. choose an answer and hit next. you will receive your score and answers at the end. question of. Proving lines parallel worksheet answers fresh parallel lines and proportional parts worksheet answers one of template library free resume template for word education on a resume example ideas, to explore this proving lines parallel worksheet answers fresh parallel lines and proportional parts worksheet answers idea you can browse by and. 10. Projects Images Geometry Worksheets Angles in polygons worksheet answers in math maths revision math notes. A r u y. y pa y. v worksheet by software software infinite geometry name the exterior angle theorem date period find the measure of each angle indicated. v r u t t section angles and parallel lines objectives understand the parallel lines cut by a transversal theorem and its converse find angle measures using the theorem use algebra to find unknown variable and angle measures involve parallel lines and use auxiliary lines to find unknown angle measures parallel lines and angle pairs when two parallel. Prior to speaking about worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle theorem, make sure you are aware that schooling is usually our own step to a more rewarding another day, as well as discovering just halt when the classes bell rings. that currently being stated, most of us provide number of basic however informative posts and web templates built suited to any kind of instructional purpose. 11. Theorem Worksheet Answer Key Find the measure of angle a. x x a x x a a x a create your own worksheets like this one with infinite geometry. free trial available at kutasoftware. comThe triangle sum theorem states that the sum of the three interior angles in a triangle is always. the triangle sum theorem is also called the triangle angle sum theorem or angle sum theorem. example find the value of x in the following triangle. solution x sum of angles is x This worksheet contains problems that focuses on using the angle sum theorem to solve algebraic equations. 12. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Worksheet Triangle Sum Grade triangle its properties exterior angle theorem worksheet the exterior angle theorem the measure of exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of other two interior angles. Practice the polygon angle sum theorem worksheet for angle sum property and exterior angle theorem triangle i discovering exterior angles of a triangle triangle interior angles and answer key geometry exterior angle theorem part same side exterior angle theorem. 13. Triangle Angle Sum Worksheet Answers Practice 3 4 Parallel You can find lots of free worksheets on our website. Here are some printable number family and number bond worksheets to show the relationships between addition and subtraction problems. fact family flashcards a complete set of addition and subtraction fact family flashcards. Mar, theorem sheet math worksheets kids. main menu math language arts science social studies workbooks holidays login become a member. at pleasure is homemade we share tons of totally free for all those occasions. triangle sides theorem worksheet for grade children. 14. Triangle Angle Sum Worksheet Fresh Worksheet Triangle Sum Shade in the box with the correct answer. there will be boxes remaining that are. write the letters from those boxes in the order they appear in the spaces at the bottom of the page to reveal the answer to the following riddle. Test and worksheet generators for math teachers. all worksheets created with infinite geometry. worksheets. algebra worksheets. algebra worksheets. worksheets. classifying triangles triangle angle sum the exterior angle theorem triangles and congruence and congruence and will review the characteristics of six types of triangles, then complete vocabulary, identification, application, and reasoning questions. 15. Triangle Exterior Angle Theorem Video Lesson Notes Two interior angles of a triangle are in the ratio. the opposite exterior angle is degrees. find the measure of all the angles of the triangle. find the value of. Oct, some of the worksheets for this concept are triangle relationship between exterior and remote interior angles angles in a triangle find the measure of the indicated angle in each sum of the interior angles of a triangle triangles angle measures length of sides and classifying the exterior angle theorem. . A r u y. y pa y. v worksheet by software software infinite geometry name the exterior angle theorem date period find the measure of each angle indicated. v r u t t by software math exterior angle theorem name date period x ulblqcc. l jrnemsaeurlvueidz. 16. Triangle Inequality Theorem Worksheet In a triangle, we can order the lengths of the legs from shortest to longest if we know what the three angles of the triangle are. there is a nice rule that says, in a triangle, the shortest leg is opposite the smallest angle, the longest leg is opposite the. 17. Triangle Inequality Theorem Worksheet Exterior Angle Printable in convenient format. finding angles of triangles finding side lengths of triangles. systems of equations and inequalities. linear equations and inequalities finding slope from a graph finding slope from two inequality theorem worksheets this triangle worksheet will produce triangle inequality theorem problems. 18. Triangle Inequality Theorem Worksheet Fresh Geometry Nov, showing top worksheets in the category inequalities of triangles. this cluster of classifying triangles worksheets consists of skills like identifying triangles based on the sides as isosceles equilateral and scalene and based on angles as acute obtuse and equilateral. 19. Triangle Worksheets Images Triangle Worksheet Right triangle trig evaluating ratios right triangle trig missing angles and angle in one triangle worksheets lesson worksheets reaffirm the triangle inequality theorem with this worksheet pack for high school students. greatest possible measure of the third side the length of a side of a triangle is less than the sum of the lengths of the other two sides. 20. Triangles Worksheets Triangle Worksheet Exterior Angles Kids and grownups have the sensation of feel. Use the exterior angle inequality theorem to list all of the angles that satisfy the stated condition. measures less than, by the exterior angle inequality theorem, the exterior angle is larger than either remote interior angle and also, and. by substitution,. therefore, must be larger than each individual angle. Id language school subject math age main content triangles other contents triangle exterior theorem add to my workbooks download file embed in my website or blog add to google exterior angles sheet. 21. Exterior Angle Triangle Theorem Notes Exterior Printable worksheets www. mathworksheetskids. com name answer key find the measure of the indicated angle in each triangle. m m m m m May, exterior angle theorem worksheet in from exterior angle theorem worksheet, image source pinterest. 22. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Triangle Exterior Angle Fill in the missing angles. Triangle sum theorem the sum of the angle measures in a triangle equal isosceles triangles congruent sides congruent base angles isosceles triangles angle sum theorem e w h w h e w base angles are congruent. Triangle sum theorem id name date period l pk jlco. i r y. a practice problems find the measure of each angle indicated. solve for x. Polygon angle sum theorem worksheet a tangent is a line that just skims the surface of a circle. it hits the circle at one point only. 23. Angles Triangle Worksheet 4 Diff Levels Angle sum property this can be termed as a mere extension of the exterior theorem or vice versa. one of them can be used to prove the other. the sum of angles in a triangle is always degrees. For a new angle on teaching angles, try these great worksheets students will love these remarkable lessons about angles, including measuring with a protractor, rays, and classifying various kinds of angles, all the way up to the theorem. 24. Exterior Angle Theorem Places Visit Exterior Try your best. name pair of alternate interior angles and . what is the sum of m m m if m and m , what is m . find all the angle measures vocabulary adjacent angles. Mar, exterior worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle theorem from exterior angle theorem worksheet, sourceguillermotull. 25. Circle Geometry Worksheets Geometry Worksheets Printable geometry worksheets. kids are familiar with circles and squares even before they begin school, but geometry can become quite challenging for some as they grow older. geometry worksheets are valuable resources for parents and teachers who are looking for ways to give students extra practice solving geometry problems. 26. Exterior Angle Sum Theorem Examples Color Purpose We hope your happy with this angles of polygon worksheet View triangle sum angle worksheet. pdf from math misc at high school, city. worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle theorem Interior angle sum theorem. interior angles of a polygons worksheet. 27. Exterior Angle Theorem Interior In this geometry worksheet, graders determine if a polygon is convex or concave and apply the polygon angle sum theorem and the polygon exterior angle sum theorem to determine the measures of interior and exterior angles of a. Regents exam questions g. 28. Exterior Angle Theorem Lecture Notes Worksheet Lectures Co. c. exterior angle theorem name www. jmap. org in the accompanying diagram of, , and side is extended to a and to e. find. in the accompanying diagram of isosceles. which two angles are the remote interior angles to angle w answer choices. angle x and angle top worksheets found for third angles theorem. 29. Exterior Angle Theorem Maze Finding Angle Measures Some of the worksheets for this concept are measuring angles, trigonometry to find angle measures, trigonometry to find angle measures, find the measure of the indicated angle in each, assignment, finding unknown angle measures, measuring and classifying angles, assignment. Angle measures in polygons worksheet in a triangle, the measure of the largest angle is. the measure of a second angle is. what is the measure of the remaining angle a. b. c. d. in a quadrilateral, each of two angles has a measure of. the measure of a third angle Equipped with free worksheets on identifying the angle relationships, finding the measures of interior and exterior angles, determining whether the given pairs of angles are supplementary or congruent, and more, this set is a for your practice to thrive. 30. Exterior Angle Theorem Maze Solving Equations L m t r a b figure. in either case m m by the exterior angle inequality theorem. note that the converse of theorem holds in euclidean geometry but fails in hyperbolic geometry. theorem. Triangle exterior theorem worksheet. worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle theorem answers printable worksheets and activities for teachers parents tutors and families. 31. Exterior Angle Theorem Maze Solving Equations Worksheet We are here to assist you with your math questions. you will need to get assistance from your school if you are having problems entering the answers into your online assignment. phone support is available, . you may speak with a member of our customer support team by calling. 32. Exterior Angle Theorem Places Visit Dec, thoughts on the exterior angle theorem the inscribed angle theorem proofs from the book. year in review the most popular posts. zack on, at am said this should be proven in neutral geometry. you cannot assume triangles have angle sum in neutral geometry. 33. Exterior Angle Theorem Task Cards Exterior Angles Task They add to. each exterior angle is Q. find the angle find the angle sum of the interior angles of the polygon. of the polygon. This angles worksheet worksheet is suitable for grade. in this geometry activity, graders analyze angles created by a transversal. 34. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Triangle , identifying types of triangles questions such as determining whether each triangle is sharp a, or and whether it is an, or, drawing. So, the measure of each angle in the equilateral triangle is x. by the triangle sum theorem, we have x x x simplify. 35. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Worksheet triangle inequalities answers worksheets for all. worksheet triangle inequalities answers. , curt , , triangle inequality. Triangle inequality theorem with answers showing top worksheets in the category triangle inequality theorem with answers. 36. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Beautiful Angles Find the value of x sun x an l add x an ho s am x a custom math course visit httpwww. mathhelp. com. this lesson covers the exterior angle theorem. students are asked to solve word problems that. Parallel lines, and angles notes and worksheet. 37. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Exterior . divide both sides by to solve for x. x. solution ii in the diagram shown above, y represents the measure of a base angle of an isosceles triangle. Isosceles triangle theorems and proofs. theorem angles opposite to the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are also equal. 38. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Exterior Angle Theorem Triangle angle sum theorem the sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is. in the figure at the right,The angle sum theorem for triangles states that the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle is always sum of. triangle angle sum worksheets this triangle worksheet will produce triangle angle sum problems. 39. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Free Worksheet Displaying top worksheets found for triangle angle sum theorem. some of the worksheets for this concept are angles in a triangle, triangle, work triangle sum and exterior angle theorem, the exterior angle theorem, name geometry polygons n, sum of the interior angles of a triangle, sum of the interior angles of a triangle. These free geometry worksheets will introduce you to the triangle sum theorem, as you find the measurements of the interior angles of a triangle. the interior, or inside, angles of a triangle always add up to degrees. in addition to your geometry skills, be able to polish your algebra skills as you set up and solve equations on some of the tougher triangles. 40. Exterior Angle Theorem Worksheet Images . According to theorem, the sum of the squares on the triangles two smaller sides is equal to the side opposite to the right angle triangle the square on hypotenuse. using a theorem worksheet is a good way to prove the aforementioned equation. All the angles inside the triangle are interior angles. Worksheet triangle sum and exterior angle theorem name. find if and. example find x. M worksheet by software geometry id name. a. exterior angle and triangle sum theorem find the measure of each angle indicated. g c d e fa g h a angles worksheets geometry from exterior angle theorem worksheet, source. me best geometry images on from exterior angle theorem of angles worksheet. student name score. b. use the alternate exterior angles converse theorem. c. use the alternate interior angles converse theorem. d. use the corresponding angles converse postulate.

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|c. 100–150 million| |Regions with significant populations| |Austria||c. 7,600,000 (disputed)| |United States||c. 44,000,000–49,000,000| |Switzerland||c. 4,200,000 (disputed)| |New Zealand||c. 200,000| |United Kingdom||c. 100,000| |South Africa||c. 75,000| |Mexico||c. 70,000 (disputed)| |1/3rd Roman Catholic | |Related ethnic groups| |Other Germanic peoples| The Germans (German: Deutsche) are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. Speaking the German language is the most important characteristic of modern Germans, but they are also characterized by a common German culture, descent and history. The term "German" may also be applied to any citizen, native or inhabitant of Germany, regardless of whether they are of German ethnicity. Estimates on the total number of Germans in the world range from 100 to 150 million, and most of them live in Germany. The German ethnicity developed among early Germanic peoples of Central Europe in the Early Middle Ages. The Kingdom of Germany emerged from the eastern remains of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, and formed the core of the Holy Roman Empire. In subsequent centuries the German population grew considerably and a substantial number of Germans migrated to Eastern and Northern Europe. Following the Reformation in the 16th century, the German lands became divided into Roman Catholic and Protestant states. The 19th century saw the dismemberment of the Holy Roman Empire and the growth of German nationalism, with the state of Prussia incorporating most of the Germans into the German Empire, while a substantial number of Germans also inhabited Austria-Hungary. During this time a large number of Germans emigrated to the New World, particularly to the United States, Canada and Brazil, as well as establishing prominent communities in New Zealand and Australia. The Russian Empire also contained a substantial German population. In the aftermath of World War I, Austria-Hungary and the German Empire were partitioned, resulting in many Germans becoming ethnic minorities in newly established countries. In the chaotic years that followed, Adolf Hitler became the dictator of Nazi Germany and embarked on an genocidal campaign to unify all Germans under his leadership. This endeavour resulted in World War II and the Holocaust. In the aftermath of Germany's defeat in the war, the country was occupied and partitioned, while millions of Germans were expelled from Eastern Europe. In 1990, the states of West and East Germany were reunified. In modern times, remembrance of the Holocaust has become an integral part of German identity (Erinnerungskultur). Owing to their long history of political fragmentation, the Germans are culturally diverse and often have strong regional identities. The arts and sciences are an integral part of German culture, and the Germans have produced a large number of prominent personalities in a number of disciplines. The German endonym Deutsche is derived from the High German term diutisc, which means "ethnic" or "relating to the people". This name was used for Germanic peoples in Central Europe since the 8th century, during which a distinct German ethnic identity began to emerge among them. The English term Germans is derived from the ethnonym Germani, which was used for Germanic peoples in ancient times. Since the early modern period, it has been the most common name for the Germans in English. The term "Germans" may also be applied to any citizen, native or inhabitant of Germany, a person of German descent, or member of the Germanic peoples, regardless of whether they are of German ethnicity. The German ethnicity emerged among early Germanic peoples of Central Europe, particularly the Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringii, Alemanni and Baiuvarii. Germanic culture originated in parts of what is now Northern Germany, and has been associated with the Nordic Bronze Age and the Jastorf culture, which flourished in Northern Germany and Scandinavia during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age. The Germanic peoples have inhabited Central Europe since at least the Iron Age. From their northern homeland, the Germanic peoples expanded southwards in a series of great migrations. Much of Central Europe was at that time inhabited by Celts, who are associated with the La Tène culture. Since at least the 2nd century BC the Germanic peoples began displacing Celts. It is likely that many of these Celts were Germanized by migrating Germanic peoples. Detailed information about the Germanic peoples is provided by the Roman general Julius Caesar, who campaigned in Germania in the 1st century BC. By this time Germanic peoples are believed to have dominated an area stretching from the Rhine in the west to the Vistula in the east, and the Danube in the south to Scandinavia in the north. Under Caesar's successor Augustus, the Romans sought to conquer the Germanic peoples and colonize Germania, but these efforts were significantly hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, which is considered a defining moment in German history. The early Germanic peoples are famously described in Germania by the 1st century Roman historian Tacitus. At this time, the Germanic peoples were fragmented into a large number of tribes who were frequently in conflict with both the Roman Empire and one another. By the 3rd century, Germanic peoples were beginning to merge into great coalitions, and had begun conquering and settling areas within the Roman Empire. During the 4th and 5th centuries, in what is known as the Migration Period, Germanic peoples overran the decaying Roman Empire and established new kingdoms within it. Meanwhile, formerly Germanic areas in parts of Eastern Europe were settled by Slavs. The beginnings of the German states can be traced back to the Frankish king Clovis I, who established the kingdom of Francia in the 5th century. In subsequent centuries the power of the Franks grew considerably. By the 8th century AD, the Germanic populations of Central Europe were known as diutisc, an Old High German term meaning "ethnic" or "relating to the people". The endonym of the Germans is derived from this word. From this time on, a distinct German ethnic identity began to emerge. By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Central Europe had been united under the rule of the Frankish leader Charlemagne, who defeated the Lombards, Saxons and other Germanic peoples and established the Carolingian Empire. Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo I in 800. During the rule of Charlemagne's successors, the Carolingian Empire descended into civil war. The empire was eventually partioned at the Treaty of Verdun (843), resulting in the creation of the states of West Francia, Middle Francia and East Francia (led by Louis the German). Beginning with Henry the Fowler, Saxon dynasties dominated the German lands, and under his son Otto I, Middle Francia and East Francia, which were mostly German, became part of the Kingdom of Germany, which constituted the core of the Holy Roman Empire. Leaders of tribal duchies such as Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Saxony and Lorraine continued to wield considerable power independent of the king. German kings were elected by members of the noble families, who often sought have weak kings elected in order to preserve their own independence. This prevented an early unification of the Germans and contributed to the formation of strong German national groups, such as the Bavarians, Swabians and Franconians. A warrior nobility dominated the feudal German society of the Middle Ages, while most of the German population consisted of peasants with few political rights. The church played an important role among Germans in the Middle Ages, and competed with the nobility for power. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, Germans actively participated in five Crusades to "liberate" the Holy Land. During the Middle Ages, German political power was imposed on Slavic populations in the east. This process was accompanied by the migration of Germans into conquered territories, in what is known as the Ostsiedlung. Over time, some Slavic populations were assimilated by Germans, resulting in many Germans acquiring substantial Slavic ancestry. From the 11th century, the German lands came under the domination of the Swabian Hohenstaufen family. The German population expanded significantly during this time. Trade increased and there was a specialization of the arts and crafts. From the 12th century, many Germans settled as merchants and craftsmen in the Kingdom of Poland, were they came to constitute a significant proportion of the population in many urban centers such as Gdańsk. The late 13th century saw the election of Rudolf I of the House of Habsburg to the German throne, and the Habsburg family would continue to play an important role in German history for centuries afterwards. They competed for power in the German lands with several noble families, most notably the Limburg-Luxemburg dynasty and the House of Wittelsbach. During the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights began conquering the Old Prussians, and established what would eventually become the powerful German state of Prussia. The German territories continued to grow in the late Middle Ages. Great urban centers increased in size and wealth and formed powerful leagues, such as the Hanseatic League and the Swabian League, in order to protect their interests, often through supporting the German kings in their struggles with the nobility. These urban leagues significantly contributed to the development of German commerce and banking. German merchants of Hanseatic cities settled in cities throughout Northern Europe beyond the German lands. The introduction of printing by the German inventor Johannes Gutenberg contributed to the formation of a new understanding of faith and reason. At this time, the German monk Martin Luther pushed for reforms within the Catholic Church. Luther's efforts culminated in the Protestant Reformation. The resulting religious schism was a leading cause of the Thirty Years' War, a conflict that tore apart the Holy Roman Empire and led to the death of millions of Germans. The terms of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ending the war, included a major reduction in the central authority of the Holy Roman Emperor. Among the most powerful German states to emerge in the aftermath was Protestant Prussia, under the rule of the House of Hohenzollern. After centuries of political fragmentation, a sense of German unity began to emerge in the 18th century. The Holy Roman Empire continued to decline until being dissolved altogether by Napoleon in 1806. In central Europe, the Napoleonic wars ushered in great social, political and economic changes, and catalyzed a national awakening among the Germans. By the late 18th century, German intellectuals such as Johann Gottfried Herder articulated the concept of a German identity rooted in language, and this notion helped spark the German nationalist movement, which sought to unify the Germans into a single nation state. Eventually, shared ancestry, culture and language (though not religion) came to define German nationalism. The Napoleonic Wars ended with the Congress of Vienna (1815), and left most of the German states loosely united under the German Confederation. The confederation came to be dominated by the Catholic Austrian Empire, to the dismay of many German nationalists, who saw the German Confederation as an inadequate answer to the German Question. Throughout the 19th century, Prussia continued to grow in power. In 1848, German revolutionaries set up the temporary Frankfurt Parliament, but failed in their aim of forming a united German homeland. The Prussians proposed an Erfurt Union of the German states, but this effort was torpedoed by the Austrians through the Punctation of Olmütz (1850), recreating the German Confederation. In response, Prussia sought to use the Zollverein customs union to increase its power among the German states. Under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, Prussia expanded its sphere of influence and together with its German allies defeated Denmark in the Second Schleswig War and soon after Austria in the Austro-Prussian War, subsequently establishing the North German Confederation. In 1871, the Prussian coalition decisively defeated the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War, annexing the German speaking region of Alsace-Lorraine. After taking Paris, Prussia and their allies proclaimed the formation of a united German Empire. In the years following unification, German society was radically changed by numerous processes, including industrialization, rationalization, secularization and the rise of capitalism. German power increased considerably and numerous overseas colonies were established. During this time, the German population grew considerably, and many emigrated to other countries (mainly North America), contributing to the growth of the German diaspora. Competition for colonies between the Great Powers contributed to the outbreak of World War I, in which the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires formed an the Central Powers, an alliance that was ultimately defeated, with none of the empires comprising it surviving the aftermath of the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires were both dissolved and partitioned, resulting in millions of Germans becoming ethnic minorities in other countries. The monarchichal rulers of the German states, including the German emperor Wilhelm II, were overthrown in the November Revolution which led to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. The Germans of the Austrian side of the Dual Monarchy proclaimed the Republic of German-Austria, and sought to be incorporated into the German state, but this was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and Treaty of Saint-Germain. What many Germans saw as the "humiliation of Versailles", continuing traditions of authoritarian and antisemitic ideologies, and the Great Depression all contributed to the rise of t heAustrian-born Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, who after coming to power democratically in the early 1930s, abolished the Weimar Republic and formed the totalitarian Third Reich. In his quest to subjugate Europe, six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust. WII resulted in widespread destruction and the deaths of tens of millions of soldiers and civilians, while the German state was partitioned. About 12 million Germans had to flee or were expelled from Eastern Europe. Significant damage was also done to the German reputation and identity, which became far less nationalistic than it previously was. The German states of West Germany and East Germany became focal points of the Cold War, but were reunified in 1990. Although there were fears that the reunified Germany might resume nationalist politics, the country is today widely regarded as a "stablizing actor in the heart of Europe" and a "promoter of democratic integration". German is the native language of most Germans. It is the key marker of German ethnic identity. German is a West Germanic language closely related to Frisian, English and Dutch. The main dialects of German are High German and Low German. Standard literary German is based on High German, and is the first or second language of most Germans, but notably not the Volga Germans. The Germans are marked by great regional diversity, which makes identifying a single German culture quite difficult. The arts and sciences have for centuries been an important part of German identity. The Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era saw a notable flourishing of German culture. Germans of this period who contributed significantly to the arts and sciences include the writers Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Johann Gottfried Herder, Friedrich Hölderlin, E. T. A. Hoffmann, Heinrich Heine, Novalis and the Brothers Grimm, the philosopher Immanuel Kant, the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, the painter Caspar David Friedrich, and the composers Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Johannes Brahms, Franz Schubert, Richard Strauss and Richard Wagner. A steadily shrinking majority of Germans are Christians. About a third are Roman Catholics, while one third adheres to Protestantism. Another third does not profess any religion. Christian holidays such as Christmas and Easter are celebrated by many Germans. The number of Muslims is growing. There is also a notable Jewish community, which was decimated in the Holocaust. Remembering the Holocaust is an important part of German culture. It is estimated that there are between 100 and 150 million Germans today, most of whom live in Germany, where they constitute the majority of the population. There are also sizable populations of Germans in Austria, Switzerland, the United States, Brazil, France, Kazakhstan, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Poland, Italy, Hungary, Australia, South Africa, Chile, Paraguay, and Namibia. German-speaking peoples such as the Austrians and the German-speaking Swiss are sometimes referred to by scholars as Germans, although most of them do not identify as such. |Country||Estimated populations of Germans| |Austria||c. 7,600,000 (disputed)| |United States||c. 5,000,000| |Switzerland||c. 4,200,000 (disputed)| |Argentina||c. 500,000 (disputed)| |United Kingdom||c. 100,000| |South Africa||c. 75,000| |Mexico||c. 70,000 (disputed)| A German ethnic identity emerged among Germanic peoples of Central Europe in the 8th century. These peoples came to be referred to by the High German term diutisc, which means "ethnic" or "relating to the people". The German endonym Deutsche is derived from this word. In subsequent centuries, the German lands were relatively decentralized, leading to the maintenance of a number of strong regional identities. The German nationalist movement emerged among German intellectuals in the late 18th century. They saw the Germans as a people united by language and advocated the unification of all Germans into a single nation state, which was partially achieved in 1871. By the late 19th and early 20th century, German identity came to be defined by a shared descent, culture, and history. Völkisch elements identified Germanness with "a shared Christian heritage" and "biological essence", to the exclusion of the notable Jewish minority. After the Holocaust and the downfall of Nazism, "any confident sense of Germanness had become suspect, if not impossible". East Germany and West Germany both sought to build up an identity on historical or ideological lines, distancing themselves both from the Nazi past and each other. After German reunification in 1990, the political discourse was characterized by the idea of a "shared, ethnoculturally defined Germanness", and the general climate became increasingly xenophobic during the 1990s. Today, discussion on Germanness may stress various aspects, such as commitment to pluralism and the German constitution (constitutional patriotism), or the notion of a Kulturnation (nation sharing a common culture). The German language remains the primary criterion of modern German identity. - Ethnic groups in Europe - Die Deutschen, ZDF's documentary television series - Anti-German sentiment - Persecution of Germans - Moser 2011, p. 171. - Haarmann 2015, p. 313. - Moser 2011, pp. 171-172. - Haarmann 2015, p. 313. "Populations of Germans live elsewhere in Central and Western Europe, with the largest communities in Austria (7.6 million), Switzerland (4.2 million), France (1.2 million), Kazakhstan (900,000), Russia (840,000), Poland (700,000), Italy (280,000), and Hungary (250,000)." - "U.S. Census Bureau, 2019 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". data.census.gov. Retrieved 25 February 2021. - "Ancestry of the Population by State, 1980" (PDF). 23 December 2019. - Moser 2011, pp. 171–172. "The Germans live in Central Europe, mostly in Germany... The largest populations outside of these countries are found in the United States (5 million), Brazil (3 million), the former Soviet Union (2 million), Argentina (500,000), Canada (450,000), Spain (170,000), Australia (110,000), the United Kingdom (100,000), and South Africa (75,000)." - Bade, James N. (2015). "Germans". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2021. - Burchard, Gretha (April 2010). "The German Population in Mexico: Maintenance of German culture and integration into Mexican society" (PDF). - Moser 2011, p. 176. - Haarmann 2015, p. 313. "Germans are a Germanic (or Teutonic) people that are indigenous to Central Europe... Germanic tribes have inhabited Central Europe since at least Roman times, but it was not until the early Middle Ages that a distinct German ethnic identity began to emerge." - Moser 2011, p. 171. "The Germans live in Central Europe, mostly in Germany... Estimates of the total number of Germans in the world range from 100 million to 150 million... - Minahan 2000, p. 288. "The Germans are an ancient ethnic group, the basic stock in the composition of the peoples of Germany... The Germans include a number of important national groups, including the Bavarians, Rhinelanders, Saxons, and Swabians. The standard language of the Germans, called Deutsch or Hochdeutsch (High German), is spoken as the first or second language by all the German peoples in Europe except some of the Volga Germans in Russia." - Moser 2011, p. 172. "German identity developed through a long historical process that led, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, to the definition of the German nation as both a community of descent (Volksgemeinschaft) and shared culture and experience. Today, the German language is the primary though not exclusive criterion of German identity." - Haarmann 2015, p. 313. "After centuries of political fragmentation, a sense of national unity as Germans began to evolve in the eighteenth century, and the German language became a key marker of national identity." - "Obtaining German Citizenship".; Alois Angleitner; Fritz Ostendorf; Oliver P. John (1990). "Towards a taxonomy of personality descriptors in German: A psycho‐lexical study". European Journal of Personality. 4 (2): 89–118. doi:10.1002/per.2410040204. S2CID 18837321.; "Who is a German?". The Economist. 3 April 1997.; David Danelo (12 May 2015). "Germany in the 21st Century, Part III: Who is a German". Foreign Policy Research Institute. - "German". Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press. 2010. p. 733. ISBN 978-0199571123. - "German". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 22 December 2020. - Hoad, T. F. (2003). "German". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192830982.001.0001. ISBN 9780192830982. Retrieved 22 December 2020. - "Germans". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2020. - Drinkwater, John Frederick (2012). "Germans". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 613. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001. ISBN 9780191735257. - Todd, Malcolm (2004b). "Germans and Germanic Invasions". In Fagan, Brian M. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 250–251. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195076189.001.0001. ISBN 9780199891085. - Wells, Peter S. (2010). "Germans". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195388398. - Heather, Peter. "Germany: Ancient History". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Within the boundaries of present-day Germany... Germanic peoples such as the eastern Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, Alemanni, and Bavarians—all speaking West Germanic dialects—had merged Germanic and borrowed Roman cultural features. It was among these groups that a German language and ethnic identity would gradually develop during the Middle Ages. - Minahan 2000, p. 288. - Minahan 2000, pp. 288-289. - Moser 2011, p. 172. - Haarmann 2015, pp. 313-314. - Haarmann 2015, p. 314. - Minahan 2000, pp. 289-290. - Moser 2011, p. 173. - Minahan 2000, p. 290. - Moser 2011, pp. 173-174. - Minahan 2000, pp. 290-291. - Moser 2011, p. 174. - Minahan 2000, pp. 291-292. - Haarmann 2015, pp. 314-315. - Haarmann 2015, p. 316. - Troebst, Stefan (2012). "The Discourse on Forced Migration and European Culture of Remembrance". The Hungarian Historical Review. 1 (3/4): 397–414. JSTOR 42568610. - Moser 2011, pp. 176-177. - Waldman & Mason 2005, pp. 334-335. - Minahan 2000, p. 174. - Rock 2019, p. 32. - Rock 2019, p. 33. - Rock 2019, pp. 33-34. - Rock 2019, p. 34. - Haarmann, Harald (2015). "Germans". In Danver, Steven (ed.). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. pp. 313–316. ISBN 978-1317464006. - Moser, Johannes (2011). "Germans". In Cole, Jeffrey (ed.). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 171–177. ISBN 978-1598843026. - Minahan, James (2000). "Germans". One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 287–294. ISBN 0313309841. - Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2005). "Germans". Encyclopedia of European Peoples. Infobase Publishing. pp. 330–335. ISBN 1438129181. - Craig, Gordon Alexander (1983). The Germans. New American Library. ISBN 0452006228. - Elias, Norbert (1996). The Germans. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231105630. - James, Harold (2000). A German Identity (2 ed.). Phoenix Press. ISBN 1842122045. - Mallory, J. P. (1991). "Germans". In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language Archeology and Myth. Thames & Hudson. pp. 84–87. - Rock, Lena (2019). As German as Kafka: Identity and Singularity in German Literature around 1900 and 2000. Leuven University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvss3xg0. JSTOR j.ctvss3xg0. - Todd, Malcolm (2004a). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405117142. - Wells, Peter S. (2011). "The Ancient Germans". In Bonfante, Larissa (ed.). The Barbarians of Ancient Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 211–232. ISBN 978-0-521-19404-4. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Germans.| |Wikiquote has quotations related to: Germans|

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Note: This article was originally published in June 2018. It has been fully updated to be current as of September 2019. Networking in Hyper-V commonly confuses newcomers, even those with experience in other hypervisors. The Hyper-V virtual switch presents one of the product’s steeper initial conceptual hurdles. Fortunately, once you invest the time to learn about it, you will find it quite simple. Digesting this article will provide the necessary knowledge to properly plan a Hyper-V virtual switch and understand how it will operate in production. If you know all about the Hyper-V virtual switch and you can skip to a guide on how to create one. For an overall guide to Hyper-V networking read my post titled “The Complete Guide to Hyper-V Networking“. A side note on System Center Virtual Machine Manager: I will not spend any time in this article on network configuration for SCVMM. Because that product needlessly over-complicates the situation with multiple pointless layers, the solid grounding on the Hyper-V virtual switch that can be obtained from this article is absolutely critical if you don’t want to be hopelessly lost in VMM. What is the Hyper-V Virtual Switch? The very first thing that you must understand is that Hyper-V’s virtual switch is truly a virtual switch. That is to say, it is a software construct operating within the active memory of a Hyper-V host that performs Ethernet frame switching functionality. It can use single or teamed physical network adapters to serve as uplinks to a physical switch in order to communicate with other computers on the physical network. Hyper-V provides virtual network adapters to its virtual machines, and those communicate directly with the virtual switch. What are Virtual Network Adapters? Like the Hyper-V virtual switch, virtual network adapters are mostly self-explanatory. In more detail, they are software constructs that are responsible for receiving and transmitting Ethernet frames into and out of their assigned virtual machine or the management operating system. This article focuses on the virtual switch, so I will only be giving the virtual adapters enough attention to ensure understanding of the switch. Virtual Machine Network Adapters The most common virtual network adapters belong to virtual machines. They can be seen in both PowerShell (Get-VMNetworkAdapter) and in Hyper-V Manager’s GUI. The screenshot below is an example: I have drawn a red box on the left where the adapter appears in the hardware list. On the right, I have drawn another to show the virtual switch that this particular adapter connects to. You can change it at any time to any other virtual switch on the host or “Not Connected”, which is the virtual equivalent of leaving the adapter unplugged. There is no virtual equivalent of a “crossover” cable, so you cannot directly connect one virtual adapter to another. Within a guest, virtual adapters appear in all the same places as a physical adapter. Management Operating System Virtual Adapters You can also create virtual adapters for use by the management operating system. You can see them in PowerShell and in the same locations that you’d find a physical adapter. The system will assign them names that follow the pattern vEthernet (<name>). In contrast to virtual adapters for virtual machines, your options for managing virtual adapters in the management operating system are a bit limited. If you only have one, you can use Hyper-V Manager’s virtual network manager to set the VLAN. If you have multiple, as I do, you can’t even do that in the GUI: PowerShell is the only option for control in this case. PowerShell is also the only way to view or modify a number of management OS virtual adapter settings. All of that, however, is a topic for another article. Modes for the Hyper-V Virtual Switch The Hyper-V virtual switch presents three different operational modes. Private Virtual Switch A Hyper-V virtual switch in private mode allows communications only between virtual adapters connected to virtual machines. Internal Virtual Switch A Hyper-V virtual switch in internal mode allows communications only between virtual adapters connected to virtual machines and the management operating system. External Virtual Switch A Hyper-V virtual switch in external mode allows communications between virtual adapters connected to virtual machines and the management operating system. It uses single or teamed physical adapters to connect to a physical switch, thereby allowing communications with other systems. Deeper Explanation of the Hyper-V Switch Modes The private and internal switch types only differ by the absence or presence of a virtual adapter for the management operating system, respectively. In fact, you can turn an internal switch into a private switch just by removing any virtual adapters for the management operating system and vice versa: With both the Internal and Private virtual switches, adapters can only communicate with other adapters on the same switch. If you need them to be able to talk to adapters on other switches, one of the operating systems will need to have adapters on other switches and be configured as a router. The external virtual switch relies on one or more physical adapters. These adapters act as an uplink to the rest of your physical network. Like the internal and private switches, virtual adapters on an external switch cannot directly communicate with adapters on any other virtual switch. Important Note: the terms Private and External for the Hyper-V switch are commonly confused with private and public IP addresses. They have nothing in common. Conceptualizing the External Virtual Switch Part of what makes understanding the external virtual switch difficult is the way that the related settings are worded. In the Hyper-V Manager GUI, it says Allow management operating system to share this network adapter. In the PowerShell New-VMSwitch, there’s an -AllowManagementOS boolean parameter which is no better, and its description — “Specifies whether the parent partition (i.e. the management operating system) is to have access to the physical NIC bound to the virtual switch to be created.” — makes it worse. What happens far too often is that people read these and think of them like this: The number one most important thing to understand is that a physical adapter or team used by a Hyper-V virtual switch is not, and cannot be, used for anything else. The adapter is not “shared” with anything. You cannot configure TCP/IP information on it. After the Hyper-V virtual switch is bound to an adapter or team (it will appear as Hyper-V Extensible Virtual Switch), tinkering with any other clients, protocols, or services on that adapter will at best have no effect and at worst break your virtual switch. Instead of the above, what really happens when you “share” the adapter is this: The so-called “sharing” happens by creating a virtual adapter for the management operating system and attaching it to the same virtual switch that the virtual machines will use. You can add or remove this adapter at any time without impacting the virtual switch at all. I see many, many people creating virtual adapters for the management operating system by clicking that Allow management operating system to share this network adapter checkbox because they believe it’s the only way to get the virtual switch to participate in the network for the virtual machines. If that’s you, don’t feel bad. I did the very same thing on my first 2008 R2 deployment. It’s OK to blame the crummy wording in the tools because that is exactly what threw me off as well. The only reason to check the box is if you need the management operating system to be able to communicate directly with the virtual machines on the created virtual switch or with the physical network connected to the particular physical adapter or team that hosts the virtual switch. If you’re going to use a separate, dedicated physical adapter or team just for management traffic, then don’t use the “share” option. If you’re going to use network convergence, that’s when you want to “share” it. If you’re not certain what to do in the beginning, it doesn’t really matter. You can always add or remove virtual adapters after the switch is created. Personally, I never create an adapter on the virtual switch by using the Allow… checkbox or the -AllowManagementOS parameter. I always use PowerShell to create any necessary virtual adapters afterward. I have my own reasons for doing so, but it also helps with any conceptual issues. Once you understand the above, you can easily see that the differences even between the external and internal switch types are not very large. Look at all three types visualized side-by-side: I don’t recommend it, but it is possible to convert any Hyper-V virtual switch to/from the external type by adding or removing the physical adapter/team. What are the Features of the Hyper-V Virtual Switch? The Hyper-V virtual switch exposes several features natively. - Ethernet Frame Switching The Hyper-V virtual switch is able to read the MAC addresses in an Ethernet packet and deliver it to the correct destination if it is present on the virtual switch. It is aware of the MAC addresses of all virtual network adapters attached to it. An external virtual switch also knows about the MAC addresses on any layer-2 networks that it has visibility to via its assigned physical adapter or team. The Hyper-V virtual switch does not have any native routing (layer 3) capability. You will need to provide a hardware or software router if you need that type of functionality. Windows 10 and Server 2016 did introduce some NAT capabilities. Get started on the docs site. - 802.1q VLAN, Access Mode Virtual adapters for both the management operating system and virtual machines can be assigned to a VLAN. It will only deliver Ethernet frames to virtual adapters within the same VLAN, just like a physical switch. If trunking is properly configured on the connected physical switch port, VLAN traffic will extend to the physical network as expected. You do NOT need to configure multiple virtual switches; every Hyper-V virtual switch automatically allows untagged frames and all VLANs from 1-4096. - 802.1q VLAN, Trunk Mode First, I want to point out that more than 90% of the people that try to configure Hyper-V in trunk mode do not need trunk mode. This setting applies only to individual network adapters. When you configure a virtual adapter in trunk mode, Hyper-V will pass allowed frames with the 802.1q tag intact. If software in the virtual machine does not know how to process frames with those tags, the virtual machine’s operating system will treat the frames as malformed and drop them. Very few software applications can even interact with the network adapters at a point where they see the tag. Not even Microsoft’s Routing and Remote Access Service can do it. If you want a virtual machine to have a layer 3 endpoint presence in multiple VLANs, then you need to use individual adapters in access mode, not trunk mode. - 802.1p Quality of Service 802.1p uses a special part of the Ethernet frame to mark traffic as belonging to a particular priority group. All switches along the line that can speak 802.1p will then prioritize it appropriately. - Hyper-V Quality of Service Hyper-V has its own quality of service for its virtual switch, but, unlike 802.1p, it does not extend to the physical network. You can guarantee a minimum and/or limit the outbound speed of a virtual adapter when your virtual switch is in Absolute mode and you can guarantee a minimum and/or lock a maximum outbound speed for an adapter when your switch is in Weight mode. The mode must be selected when the virtual switch is created. Use this when you need some level of QoS but your physical infrastructure does not support 802.1p. - SR-IOV (Single Root I/O Virtualization) SR-IOV requires compatible hardware, both on your motherboard and physical network adapter(s). When enabled, you will have the option to connect a limited number of virtual adapters directly to Virtual Functions — special constructs exposed by your physical network adapters. The Hyper-V virtual switch has only very minimal participation in any IOV functions, meaning that you will have access to very nearly the full speed of the hardware. This performance boost does come at a cost, however: SR-IOV network adapters cannot function if the virtual switch is assigned to an LBFO adapter team. It will work with the new Switch-Embedded Team that shipped with 2016 (not all manufacturers and not all adapters, though). Microsoft publishes an API that anyone can use to make their own filter drivers for the Hyper-V virtual switch. For instance, System Center Virtual Machine Manager provides a driver that enables Hardware Network Virtualization (HNV). Other possibilities include network scanning tools. Why Would I Use an Internal or Private Virtual Switch? There is exactly one reason to use an internal or private virtual switch: isolation. You can be absolutely certain that no traffic that moves on an internal or private switch will ever leave the host. You can partially isolate guests by placing a VM with routing capabilities on the isolation network(s) and an external switch. You can look at the first diagram on my software router post to get an idea of what I’m talking about. Internal and private virtual switches do not provide a performance boost over the external virtual switch. This is because the virtual switch is smart enough to not use the physical network when delivering packets from one virtual adapter to the MAC address of another virtual adapter on the same virtual switch. However, if layer 3 traffic requires traffic to pass through an external router, traffic might leave the host before returning. The following illustrates communications between two virtual adapters on the same external virtual switch within the same subnet: If the virtual adapters are on different subnets and the router sits on the physical network, this is what happens: What’s happened in this second scenario is that the virtual adapters are using IP addresses that belong to different subnets. Because of the way that TCP/IP works (not the virtual switch!), packets between these two adapters must be transmitted through a router. Remember that the Hyper-V virtual switch is a layer 2 device that does not perform routing; it is not aware of IP addresses. If the way that Ethernet and IP work are new to you, or you need a refresher, I’ve got an article about it. How Does Teaming Impact the Virtual Switch? There are a great many ifs, ands, and buts involved when discussing the virtual switch and network adapter teams. The most important points: - Bandwidth aggregation does not occur the way that most people think it does. I see this sort of complaint a lot: “I teamed 6 1GbE NICs for my Hyper-V team and then a copied a file from a virtual machine to my file server and it didn’t go at 6Gbps and now I’m really mad at Hyper-V!” There are three problems. First, file copy is not a network speed testing tool in any sense. Second, that individual probably doesn’t have a hard disk subsystem at one end or the other that can sustain 6Gbps anyway. Third, Ethernet and TCP/IP don’t work that way, nevermind the speed of the disks or the Hyper-V virtual switch. If you want a visualization for why teaming won’t make a file copy go faster, this older post has a nice explanatory picture. I have a more recent article with a more in-depth technical description. The TL;DR summary: using adapter teaming for the Hyper-V virtual switch improves performance for all virtual adapters in aggregate, not at an individual level. - Almost everyone overestimates how much network performance they need. Seriously, file copy isn’t just a bad testing tool, it also sets unrealistic expectations. Your average user doesn’t sit around copying multi-gigabyte files all day long. They mostly move a few bits here and there and watch streaming 1.2mbps videos of cats. - Using faster adapters gives better results than using bigger teams. If you really need performance (I can help you figure out if that’s you), then faster adapters gives better results than big teams. I am as exasperated as anyone at how often 10GbE is oversold to institutions that can barely stress a 100Mbps network, but I am equally exasperated at people that try to get the equivalent of 10GbE out of 10x 1 GbE connections. - SR-IOV doesn’t work in LBFO, but it might with SET. I mentioned this above, but it’s worth reiterating. What About the Hyper-V Virtual Switch and Clustering? The simplest way to explain the relationship between the Hyper-V virtual switch and failover clustering is that the Hyper-V virtual switch is not a clustered role. The cluster is completely unaware of any virtual switches whatsoever. Hyper-V, of course, is very aware of them. When you attempt to migrate a virtual machine from one cluster node to another, Hyper-V will perform a sort of “pre-flight” check. One of those checks involves looking for a virtual switch on the destination host with the same name of every virtual switch that the migrating virtual machine connects to. If the destination host does not have a virtual switch with a matching name, Hyper-V will not migrate the virtual machine. With versions 2012 and later, you have the option to use “resource pools” of virtual switches, and in that case it will attempt to match the name of the resource pool instead of the switch, but the same name-matching rule applies. Starting with the 2012 version, you cannot Live Migrate a clustered virtual machine if it is connected to an internal or a private virtual switch. That’s true even if the target host has a switch with the same name. The “pre-flight” check will fail. I have not tried it with a Shared Nothing Live Migration. When a clustered virtual machine is Live Migrated, there is the potential for a minor service outage. The MAC address(es) of the virtual machines virtual adapter(s) must be unregistered from the source virtual switch (and therefore its attached physical switch) and re-registered at the destination. If you are using dynamic MAC addresses, then the MACs may be returned to the source host’s pool and replaced with new MACs on the destination host, in which case a similar de-registration and registration sequence will occur. All of this happens easily within the standard TCP timeout window, so in-flight TCP communications should succeed with a brief and potentially detectable hiccup. UDP and all other traffic with non-error-correcting behavior (including ICMP and IGMP operations like PING) will be lost during this process. Hyper-V performs the de-registration and registration extremely quickly — the duration of the delay will depend upon the amount of time necessary to propagate the MAC changes throughout the network. Should I Use Multiple Hyper-V Virtual Switches? In a word: no. That’s not a rule, but a very powerful guideline. Multiple virtual switches can cause quite a bit of processing overhead and rarely provide any benefit. The exception would be if you really need to physically isolate network traffic. For instance, you might have a virtualized web server living in a DMZ and you don’t want any physical overlap between that DMZ and your internal networks. You’ll need to use multiple physical network adapters and multiple virtual switches to make that happen. Truthfully, VLANs should provide sufficient security and isolation. You should definitely not create multiple virtual switches just to separate roles. For instance, don’t make one virtual switch for management operating system traffic and another for virtual machine traffic. The processing overhead outweighs any possible benefits. Create a team of all the adapters and converge as much traffic on it as possible. If you detect an issue, implement QoS. What About VMQ on the Hyper-V Virtual Switch? VMQ is a more advanced topic than I want to spend a lot of time on in this article, so we’re only going to touch on it briefly. VMQ allows incoming data for a virtual adapter to be processed on a CPU core other than the first physical core of the first physical CPU (0:0). When VMQ is not in effect, all inbound traffic is processed on 0:0. Keep these points in mind: - If you are using gigabit adapters, VMQ is pointless. CPU 0:0 can handle many 1GbE adapters. Disable VMQ if your 1GbE adapters support it. Most of them do not implement VMQ properly and will cause a traffic slowdown. - Not all 10GbE adapters implement VMQ properly. If your virtual machines seem to struggle to communicate, begin troubleshooting by turning off VMQ. - If you disable VMQ on your physical adapters and you have teamed them, make sure that you also disable VMQ on the logical team adapter. Is Your Office 365 Data Secure? Did you know Microsoft does not back up Office 365 data? Most people assume their emails, contacts and calendar events are saved somewhere but they're not. Secure your Office 365 data today using Altaro Office 365 Backup - the reliable and cost-effective mailbox backup, recovery and backup storage solution for companies and MSPs Not a DOJO Member yet? Join thousands of other IT pros and receive a weekly roundup email with the latest content & updates!

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How Hindu Rights Have Been Seriously Damaged By Article 30 And RTE Act The key question is: is there any other country in the world where the majority community is discriminated against like this? Article 30 must be amended immediately and all sections of Indian society must be granted equal rights for running educational institutions. We are repeatedly told that all Indians are equal before the law but not told how some laws apply unequally to the majority community. The right to managing educational institutions is an example. Article 30 (1) of the Constitution states: “All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice”. What Is The Background To Article 30? The initial draft versions of the Indian Constitution prepared by Dr K M Munshi had proposed explicit, and equal, educational rights to all communities. However, when this section was referred to the minorities sub-committee of the Constituent Assembly, what came out was a very different version. All minorities, whether of religion, community or language, shall be free in any unit to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice, and they shall be entitled to state aid in the same manner and measure as is given to similar state-aided institutions. The origin of Article 30 lies in the discussions held primarily in the Second Round Table Conference held in 1931. It was derived from the memorandum submitted by Indian Christian representatives then. The version of the clause in the memorandum actually asked for “equal rights for all religions”. However, in the joint agreement version, that particular phrase was left out. Therefore, Indian Christians, whose schools received preferential treatment during British Protestant rule, wanted special rights to continue after Independence (the co-author of this piece went to a convent school that started around 1870). When the Constitution was adopted, the majority community was anyway expected to enjoy complete freedom in matters of culture, religion and educational rights. Alas! That was not to be. This article looks at various provisions of Article 30 and the Right to Education Act (RTE), their interpretation by courts and how they have been implemented. It is presented in a frequently-asked-questions (FAQs) format for easy reading. Article 30 provides similar benefits to religious and linguistic minorities. The first question is who is a religious minority? The Indian Constitution does not define the word ‘minority’ and assumes that Sanatana Dharma is an organised monolith like Abrahamic religions, based on one book and one founder. In 1950, religious minority meant Muslims, Christians and Parsis. Today it includes Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains. The Constitution does not specify a population percentage beyond which a community ceases to be a minority. This is absurd for it means even at 500 million, Muslims would still be considered a minority because their population is less than that of the Hindus. This lack of definition has resulted in quaint situations. In Punjab, Sikhs constitute more than 50 per cent of the population but are considered a minority for the purposes of Article 30 since their population, on an all-India basis, is less than that of the Hindus. Ditto for Muslims in the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir or Christians in Meghalaya or Nagaland. Next, who is a linguistic minority? Since the creation of linguistic states, a community whose mother tongue is the language of the state is the majority and the others minority. So, a school started by a Gujarati-speaking Hindu in Maharashtra is a linguistic minority because Marathi is the language of the state. If the majority of the trustees of a charitable trust that run a school in Maharashtra are Gujaratis, the school is deemed to be run by a linguistic minority. Needless to say, this provides scope for misuse. What Is The Current Scenario? Over time, courts received numerous cases relating to educational rights, and passed judgements interpreting the provisions of the Constitution from the point of view of the majority and minority communities. Here are some significant court orders and their impact. Q1. What type of institutions can be started by minorities given protection under Article 30 (1)? According to ‘Kerala Education Bill’ judgement, the Supreme Court, in 1958, made it very clear that Article 30 (1) allows minorities to open and run “any kind of institution”. There are no limitations placed on the subjects to be taught in such institutions, and a particular religion or language may or may not be taught. The SC judgement said, In other words, the Article leaves it to their choice to establish such educational institutions as will serve both purposes, namely, the purpose of conserving their religion, language or culture, and also the purpose of giving a thorough, good general education to their children. Thus, minorities can open schools, colleges, management institutions, medical colleges, etc. It will be deemed a minority institution if the religion or language of the management is minority. It does not matter if the nature of the institution has no relation to preserving the minority community’s culture and religion. Does this not put the majority community at a disadvantage? Q2. Do minority institutions teach or evaluate in a different way? Notwithstanding the special rights, minority institutions teach the same way and evaluate using the same tools. In the ‘Ahmedabad St Xavier’s College….’ case, the Supreme Court said: With regard to affiliation to a University, the minority and non-minority institutions must agree in the pattern and standards of education. Regulatory measures of affiliation enable the minority institutions to share the same courses of instruction and the same degrees with the non-minority institution. Q3. Since the rights under Article 30(1) are meant to further the religious and cultural aspirations of minorities, one would assume its students are limited to those belonging to the minority community that runs the institution. No. A minority institution can admit students from all communities. It does not have to admit a pre-determined percentage of students from that community to qualify as a minority institution. The courts support this view. In the ‘TMA Pai Foundation vs Others 2002’ Case, the Supreme Court quoted one of its earlier judgements in the matter and stated: …The real import of Article 29(2) and Article 30(1) seems to us to be that they clearly contemplate a minority institution with a sprinkling of outsiders admitted into it. By admitting a non-member into it, the minority institution does not shed its character and cease to be a minority institution. Indeed, the object of conservation of the distinct language, script and culture of a minority may be better served by propagating the same amongst non-members of the particular minority community… Does the order tacitly support the propagation of religion by minority communities? What is a good percentage in terms of ‘outsiders’ versus ‘insiders’ is left to individual state governments to decide. The figure for minority community students in Karnataka is a maximum of 25 per cent and in Maharashtra 50 per cent. It is doubtful if these percentages are in the public domain and monitored by state governments. Thus, we see that in this market segment of ‘education’, the majority and minority communities are operating on the same material (institutions), performing the same processing (teaching, standards, evaluation) and delivering the same products (graduates) and yet only one market operator — the minorities — get special privileges. More about this later. The British created a concept of majority and minority that does not exist in their country. They sowed the seeds for discrimination against the majority community that the Protestant majority does not suffer from in England. This idea of giving specific concessions to minority communities that do not apply to majority communities is, to the best of our knowledge, not found in any country. Q4. Like Article 30(1) for minorities, do Hindus have similar rights? The Supreme Court has on various occasions said that non-minority communities derive a ‘similar’ right from Article 19(1) (g) of our Constitution which gives every citizen the right to carry on any occupation etc. Article 19 reads: “Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech etc (1) All citizens shall have the right (g) to practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business” However, the difference between the two sources of rights is that while Article 30(1) is unhinged and carries no exceptions, Article 19(1) (g) has a restrictive clause under Article 19(6) that imposes certain restrictions on the rights and reads: (6) Nothing in sub clause (g) of the said clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes, or prevent the state from making any law imposing, in the interests of the general public, reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub clause, and, in particular, nothing in the said sub clause shall affect the operation of any existing law in so far as it relates to, or prevent the state from making any law relating to, (i) the professional or technical qualifications necessary for practising any profession or carrying on any occupation, trade or business, or…… Since 1950 governments have, supported by the judiciary, used Article 19 (6) to bring in laws that control each and every aspect of establishing and administering majority community educational institutions. Why is the majority community being denied the right to conserve their language, culture and religion? Q5. What are the rights that minority have, but majority community institutions do not have? In the ‘TMA Pai Foundation vs Others…’ judgement, the Supreme Court has listed these rights. “50. The right to establish and administer broadly comprises of the following rights, i.e. to: (a) Admit students (b) Set up a reasonable fee structure (c) Constitute a governing body (d) Appoint staff (teaching and non-teaching), and (e) Take action if there is dereliction of duty on the part of any employees.” The table below compares rules for majority versus minority community educational institutions. Let us look at some of these rights in some detail. 1. What does right to admit students mean? This involves the type of students being admitted and the procedure to admit them to the institution One, minority institutions need not reserve 25 per cent of the seats under the Right to Education (RTE) Act. Conversely, Hindu schools have to do so. The RTE was held to be valid by the Supreme Court in the ‘Pramati Educational Society’ case in 2014. Why is the responsibility for educating children from the economically-weaker sections of society placed on the majority community alone? Two, there is a huge disparity in the procedure to be adopted with respect to selection of students. Section 13 of The RTE Act says: No capitation fee and screening procedure for admission: (1) No school or person shall, while admitting a child, collect any capitation fee and subject the child or his or her parents or guardian to any screening procedure. It means that an RTE-compliant institution cannot screen any child to determine whether or not he/she will fit well into the school for students admitted under the RTE quota. A Mumbai-based school administrator told this author that many parents moved their children out of their school due to the poor quality of students admitted under RTE. It is not that the school did not want to take students under RTE, but there has to be a profile match. Minority institutions have always enjoyed complete freedom in selecting students. This has been highlighted by the Supreme Court in the ‘Sindhi Education Society Judgement: A minority institution may have its own procedure and method of admission as well as selection of students, but such a procedure must be fair and transparent, and the selection of students in professional and higher education colleges should be on the basis of merit. The words fair and transparent allow scope for misinterpretation and abuse. As a result, minority institutions have freedom to select students that are not available to non-minority institutions. 2. How are schools paid for students taken under RTE? There is invariably a large gap between expenses incurred and reimbursements by state governments. Reimbursements are not prompt either. In February 2019, over 4,000 schools threatened a one-day bandh in Maharashtra due to a delay in the reimbursement of student fees to schools. The state government tried to reduce its liability by modifying the norms for RTE reimbursement stating that “if a private school is using any government land and benefiting from the same, then the school would not receive reimbursement for students who have been admitted in the 25 percent RTE quota,” says a Mumbai Mirror report. A Mumbai-based school was told that it could claim exemption from this provision if it paid property taxes in excess of Rs 1 lakh per year. Delays in reimbursements adversely affect school cash flows, increase costs and puts them at a disadvantage as compared to minority community schools. Members of the majority community complain why so few schools are run by them and most are unaware of this discrimination. Q3. How has RTE negatively affected Hindu schools? According to the trustee of a Mumbai school that belongs to the majority community, The number of students is restricted to 40. The subsidy does not cover all expenses. There is no clarity on what is covered under subsidy, for e.g. books, uniforms, fees for additional facilities, sports, etc. This leads to constant arguments with the education department who advice parents to demand the same from schools inspite of the department not being clear on the matter. If parents do not pay, the school has to bear the cost as you cannot single out these students. There is no clarity on how the fee subsidy is fixed. It allows unfettered intrusion and interference by the education department and parents. It is very difficult to expel students for harmful activities, bad behaviour, etc. Vacancies on account of shortfall (difference between the 25 percent quota and the actual admissions taken under the quota) in the number of RTE students cannot be filled up at all, so seats remain vacant. This results in financial loss for majority community schools. This is also a national loss as some students lose the opportunity to learn in private schools, which are better than government schools. Why must schools of the majority community be discriminated against like this? 4. Right to appoint teaching staff. In Maharashtra, majority community schools are given a copy of Teachers Rules Handbook. The name of the book by which they govern secondary schools is called SS Code. The minority community has to adhere to this only if they receive government aid. Further, state governments can transfer surplus teachers from one aided school to another without consulting management. Also, according to a March 2018 Madras High Court order, irrespective of whether the institution receives government aid or not, teachers in schools run by minorities are exempt from the Teachers Entrance Test (TET). In short, teachers of majority community schools have to go through TET but not minority-run ones. Minority institutions have complete autonomy in the selection of teachers, the only restriction is that the process must be fair and transparent — a subjective judgement, to say the least. The Sindhi Education Society judgement elucidates on this matter as well: …in the matter of day-to-day management, like the appointment of staff, teaching and non-teaching, and administrative control over them, the management should have the freedom and there should not be any external controlling agency. However, a rational procedure for the selection of teaching staff and for taking disciplinary action has to be evolved by the management itself… Conversely, state governments have made laws detailing multiple qualifications for the appointment of teaching staff to educational institutions. Majority community-run institutions have to strictly adhere to these norms. According to the trustee of a school in Maharashtra, all schools can fire teachers after conducting an inquiry as mandated by the law. But except for aided schools, the education department is not involved. He adds that generally education laws in Maharashtra are applicable to every school, but the education department is reluctant to challenge the minority schools or take action on complaints. Also, all boards make it compulsory to adopt state qualifications for teachers. So indirectly, it is applicable to minority schools also. When there is no standardisation of teacher qualifications, can the quality of teaching be consistent? Further, a minority institution can appoint a teacher for a secular subject based on religious considerations, whereas a majority community-run institution cannot do the same, even if it intends to further the cultural and religious education of Hindus. For example, in a minority school, even a teacher of mathematics or science can be selected in such a way that their adherence to the religious principles of the particular minority is taken into account. On the other hand, no Hindu school can make choices of similar teachers involving any religious or dharmik factors. This makes it difficult for Hindu-run schools to teach their culture and religion, and children grow up in a cultural void. This is one of the many reasons why those who want to seriously study or teach Sanatana Dharma migrate abroad, mostly to the US, because there is freedom to learn and a better appreciation of Indian thought in that country. 4. Right to appoint management (principal) Article 30 (1) provides minority institutions with a large amount of flexibility in the matter of appointment of a principal or headmaster. The Supreme Court ruled thus in the ‘The Secretary, Malankara Syrian….’ Judgement: Section 57(3) of (the Kerala University) Act (1974) provides that the post of Principal, when filled by promotion, is to be made on the basis of seniority-cum-fitness. Section 57(3) trammels the right of the management to take note of merit of the candidate, or the outlook and philosophy of the candidate which will determine whether he is supportive of the objects of the institution. Such a provision clearly interferes with the right of the minority management to have a person of their choice as head of the institution and thus violates Article 30(1). Section 57(3) of the Act cannot therefore apply to minority-run educational institutions even if they are aided. Only a minority institution can appoint a principal keeping aside concerns of seniority and merit in order to further the objectives of the institution. One wonders why the principals of majority should be controlled by state laws when the same does not apply to those run by minorities. 5. Restrictions on Fees Hindu schools have to get their fee structure approved by the state education department. Unaided schools do not require prior approvals from the state government for fixation of fees. If the increase in fees is challenged by the parents, then procedure laid down by the law is followed. In practice, minority school parents do not complain about increases in fees. 6. Right to provide religious education Article 28 of the Indian Constitution states that no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of state funds. Simply put, no government school can provide any religious education. Whenever the government provides aid to a Hindu-run institution (even private), the same becomes ‘aided’, thus teaching ‘religious practices’ is disallowed. Conversely, when the same government provides aid to a private minority institution, it does not stop it from teaching religious principles and practices. What is difficult to fathom is this disdain for teaching of Sanatana Dharma in educational institutions by those who drafted and interpret the Constitution. No wonder children grow up without an understanding or appreciation of Indian culture and thought. Even if a government school has 100 per cent Hindu students, it cannot provide any religious education to them. On the other hand, even if a minority institution has only 1 per cent of the student body belonging to the actual community, it can still offer religious education to all students belonging to any religion. This continues even if the said institution is aided significantly by the same government! 7. Based on Article 28, can the state government deny aid to a minority institution because it imparts religious education? The Constitution, however, prohibits such a possibility through Article 30(2), which reads: The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language. Other Regulations For Hindu Schools Hindu-run schools face multiple other regulations for which individual states have prepared rules — for example, mandatory requirement of a certain amount of real estate, infrastructure, sports and play equipment, compulsory establishment of libraries, setting up of school management committees with 75 per cent representation from parents etc. Being exempt from the above, minority institutions have complete flexibility to set up any kind of educational institution — from a budget school to a premier institution. In case of mismanagement in a majority community institution, the state can appoint an administrator but not if the school is a minority institution. Further, the state cannot insist on having its own nominees on the managing body in case of a minority institution. It has become difficult to ensure security of tenure to teachers in minority institutions. Net Impact Of Article 30 And RTE One, numerous Hindu-run institutions face threats of closure due to excessive government regulations. Many institutions, especially schools, have indeed closed down. Two, RTE has given the Christian minority a disproportionate advantage in the education sector. First, they inherited the management of schools set up by the British. Second, they get freedom under Article 30. Third, those who wrote the Constitution did not visualise large funding from multinational Church-based organisations. For example, the Ryan International Group of Institutions, founded by Dr A F Pinto in 1976, has over 130 institutions today in India and abroad. We sent a questionnaire to Madam Grace Pinto, managing director of the Ryan Group, on various aspects of Article 30, including how much of this success would you attribute to your being a minority educational institution? Her office responded, “Thank you for your email. However, we would not like to be part of this questionnaire. Hope you understand.” A similar questionnaire was sent to the principal of Cathedral and Sir John Connon School, Mumbai, on 7 November 2019 (founded in 1860), but we are yet to receive a response. By virtue of being a part of a global church network, Christian schools receive foreign donations. For example, the Tirunelveli Diocesan Trust Association received Rs 3.72 crore in 2015-16 and the Warangal Catholic Diocese received Rs 2.89 crore in 2016-17. Did those who drafted the Constitution and interpret it visualise that Article 30 would be used by the minority community to set up a huge business and receive foreign funding from multinational church organisations to set up schools? Three, minority schools are useful in facilitating religious conversions. This is what Arihant Pawariya wrote in Swarajyamag.com with respect to the admission process in the Central Entrance Test (CET) for BEd courses in universities and colleges of Andhra Pradesh. The Supreme Court stated in its order of 25 September 2019 that “67 out of 200 students in New College of Education, Nizamabad, 90 out of 136 in Rayalaseema College of Education, Kurnool, etc, were admitted on the basis of Baptism Certificates. In most of these cases, the candidates declared themselves to be Christians subsequent to the date of submitting their applications for the Entrance Test.” Former Infosys director T V Mohandas Pai wrote in Economic Times, “Two house maids who converted said that the school where their children went raised fees and due to their inability to pay they were told they would waive it if they converted (which they were forced to do). Of course, the school was rabid in their evangelism with these children.” And these are only a few instances. Four, slowly and steadily, institution building is slowing down amongst Hindus. Without institutions, Hindu society becomes weak — culturally, spiritually and educationally. Five, communities resist being labelled as Hindu because of excessive government control. No wonder an institution as respected as the Ramakrishna Mission petitioned the courts in the 1980s that they are not Hindus. Dr S Radhakrishnan, former President of India, wrote in ‘Recovery of Faith’, page 184: When India is said to be a secular state, we hold that no one religion should be given preferential status. Today, all excluding the religion of the majority community are given preferential status. Article 30 must, therefore, be amended immediately and all sections of Indian society must be granted equal rights for running educational institutions. Let us hope that in the near future, Article 30(1) of our Constitution shall read as follows: All citizens shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. Those who speak about minority rights must read what the Supreme Court judgement in Mudgal vs Union of India (1995 SC 1531), para 35, had to say: Those who preferred to remain in India after partition fully knew that the Indian leaders did not believe in the two-nation or three-nation theory and that in the Indian Republic there was to be only one nation – the Indian nation – and no community could claim to remain a separate entity on the basis of religion. Is there any country in the world where the majority community is discriminated against like this? Was the purpose of Article 30 to give minority institutions unbridled rights to set up educational empires and support conversions? When there is so little freedom given to Hindu schools in education, will not the quality of education suffer? Has not Article 30 led to a serious study of Indic faiths outside India rather than in India? The Indian educational sector is divided into majority and minority institutions, one subject to excessive control and another to minimal government control. As you are no doubt aware, Swarajya is a media product that is directly dependent on support from its readers in the form of subscriptions. We do not have the muscle and backing of a large media conglomerate nor are we playing for the large advertisement sweep-stake. Our business model is you and your subscription. And in challenging times like these, we need your support now more than ever. We deliver over 10 - 15 high quality articles with expert insights and views. From 7AM in the morning to 10PM late night we operate to ensure you, the reader, get to see what is just right. 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John CLARK (1575 – 1623) was Alex’s 11th Great Grandfather; one of 4,096 in this generation in the Shaw line. He was the pilot of the Mayflower and while the Pilgrims were exploring Cape Cod and Plymouth Harbor in their shallop, he brought them safely ashore at an Island, which is to this day known as Clark’s Island. There the Pilgrims celebrated their first Sabbath. Click for Google Map’s Satellite View of Clark’s Island We have more unrelated Clark families in our tree than any other surname. In addition to John CLARK (Plymouth) our Clark family founders are: John CLARK (Hingham) (1560 – 1615), Arthur CLARK (Boston) (1620 – 1665) and Lt. William CLARKE (Northampton) (1610 – 1690) In a strange coincidence, another ancestor, John PARKER Sr., was also pilot for the Plymouth Company. He was a mate on the 1607 voyage to found the Popham Colony, a short-lived English colonial settlement in North America loccated in the present-day town of Phippsburg, Maine, making him our first ancestor to arrive in North America. For a long time historians believed John Parker came over to New England as mate on the Mayflower. But here one of our earliest historians was guilty of a false assumption that has been so often repeated by later writers that it has assumed the quality of being factual. He based this on a deposition found in the Mass. Superior Court files. It was sworn to by John Phillips 3rd of Charlestown on Nov. 20, 1750 stating that John Parker, his father’s uncle “was mate of the first ship that came from England with Plymouth people. “That historian concluded that “Plymouth People” were the Pilgrims and the first ship was the Mayflower. But it actually was referring to the town of Plymouth in England and the Plymouth Company ships in 1607. John Clark was born 26 Mar 1575 in Redriffe (Rotherhithe) Surrey, England. His parents were William CLARKE (1553 – 1624) and Margaret WALKER (1553 – 1601). He married Mary MORTON on 19 Feb 1599 in Stepney, Middlesex, England. John died in 1623 in Jamestown, Virginia. After Mary died, he may have married Sybil Farrar on 18 Apr 1610 in St. Mary Morton, Stepney Parish, London, England. My feeling is that a different John Clark married Sybil. Rotherhithe (pronounced /ˈrɔðəhaɪð/) is a residential district in inner southeast London, England and part of the London Borough of Southwark. It is located on a peninsula on the south bank of the Thames, facing Wapping and the Isle of Dogs on the north bank, and is a part of the Docklands area. Rotherhithe was a port from the 12th century or earlier until the 20th century, and has been a shipyard since Elizabethan times. With the arrival of the Jubilee line in 1999, the area is now rapidly gentrifying. Mary Morton (Woton) was born in 1577 in St. Elins, London, England. Mary died in 1603 in of Westhorpe or St Dunstons, Stephney Parish, Suffolk, England. Sybil Farrar (Ferron or Farr) was born Abt 1575 in Thriploe, Cambridge, England. Children of John and Mary: |1.||Deacon Thomas CLARK||8 Mar 1599/1600 in St. Dunstan’s, Stepney, London , England||Susanna RING, before Jul 1631 in Plymouth Colony Alice Hallet Nichols Prenuptial agreement signed 20 Jan 1664. |24 Mar 1697 His gravestone, one of the oldest extant on Burial Hill in Plymouth John had a number of children, Susannah, Edward, Katherine, Thomas and George, but records about them are spotty. John Clark’s son, Edward Clark, 1590-1630 remained in England, and Edward was the father of Michael Clark 1610-1678. Alternatively, Edward was born about 1603 and was the son of John Clarke and Sybil Farr. He married Diana Hayward (Haywood) Child of Edward Clarke is Michael Clark, born Abt. 1625 in England; died October 05, 1678 in Christ Church, Barbadoes, West Indies; married Margaret [__?__] Bef. 1648 in England. John’s father,William Clark, was born 1553 in Stevenage, Hertsfordshire, England. He is said to be the son of Sir Thomas Clarke. He married Margaret Walker on 22 January 1570 in Foulmere. Children of William Clark and Margaret Walker were: 1. John Clarke (see below) 2. Agnes Clarke 3. Susan Clarke 4. William Clarke 5. Katheryn Clarke 6. Thomas Clarke John Insley Coddington argued forcefully that Thomas Clark was the son of John Clark, pilot of the Mayflower, and that he was identical with the “Thomas son of John Clarke of Ratliff” who was baptized 8 March 1599/1600 at St. Dunstan’s, Stepney, Middlesex [TAG 42:201-02]. The hypothesis is very attractive, and was accepted by Jacobus [TAG 47:3], but remains underproven. Glazier, (“John Clarke, Mate of the ‘Mayflower’ in 1620” by Prentiss Glazier, Sr. in Detroit Society for Genealogical Research Magazine, 47:42) however, says the TAG 42 article “erroneously assumed that the Mate had been the John Clarke of Ratcliff who married Mary Morton at St. Dunstan’s in Stepney, Middlesex, in 1599, becoming parents of a son Thomas christened there 8 March 1599/1600, just eight weeks before the Rotherhithe Thomas Clarke. This mistake is understandable, since the churches are within sight of each other, just across the Thames from each other. It should be pointed out, however, that St. Dunstan’s records (Memorials of Stepney Parish p. 199) show that ‘Mr. John Clarke was chosen warden for Ratcliffe in 1627.’ The mate had died in 1623. The error was unintentionally included in the 1973 Thomas Clark Family by Mr. and Mrs. Arthur H. Radasch.” John Clark was perhaps the John Clark baptized on 26 March 1575 in Rotherhithe, Surrey, England. He first went to Jamestown, Virginia in March 1610 as a ship’s pilot. There, at Point Comfort, he was captured by the Spanish in June 1611. He was taken captive to Havana, Cuba, where he was interrogated, and then sent to Seville, Spain, and then on to Madrid in 1613. He was held as a prisoner until he was exchanged for a Spanish prisoner held by the English in 1616. He immediately went back to his occupation as a ship’s pilot, and took a shipment of cattle to Jamestown, Virginia in 1619 under some-time pirate Thomas Jones. In 1620, he was hired to be the master’s mate and pilot of the Mayflower, on its intended voyage to Northern Virginia. While the Pilgrims were exploring Cape Cod and Plymouth Harbor, the shallop was caught in a storm and Clark brought them safely ashore at an Island, which is to this day known as Clark’s Island. After returning, John Clark decided to settle in Virginia himself. He went to Jamestown in 1623 on the ship Providence, with the intention of settling there, but died not too long after his arrival. Much of John Clarke’s biographical history is known, but his genealogical history is less certain. He is possibly the John Clarke who was baptized in Redriffe (Rotherhithe), Surrey, England on 26 Mar 1575, and may have been the father of Thomas Clarke, an early Plymouth settler. A baptism for Thomas Clark, son of John Clark of Rotherhithe is found on 8 Mar 1599/1600 at St. Dunstans, Stepney, Middlesex, England. He may be the John Clarke who married Sibil Farron 18 Apr 1610 in Rotherhithe, or the John Clarke who married Mary Morton on 18 Feb 1598/9 in Stepney, Middlesex–or perhaps he was married twice. John Clarke had made several trips to Jamestown, Virginia, as well as to New England. According to his depositions, he began sailing in about 1603 and was a pilot by 1607. He was in Malaga in 1609 and in March of 1611, made his first voyage to America with Sir Thomas Dale, coming to the English Colony of Jamestown. He sailed as pilot of a small squadon of merchant ships. He had visited Virginia only once before, or so he said. One wonders how he got the job based on that rather slim experience. But there weren’t many English mariners experienced on the coasts of America, so Clark’s voyage may not have been out of the ordinary. There were three ships bound for the four year old colony. THe cargo was 600 barreles of flour, fifty tons of gunpower and a consignment of arquebusses, 17th C handguns. In addition 100 cows, 200 pigs, 100 goats, 17 mares and 300 soldiers were crowded into the vessels. In mid June, after an uneventful crossing, the soldiers were off loaded at Fort Algernon on Point Comfort, just inside the Chesapeake Bay and the supplies were taken upriver to Jamestown. John was in Jamestown for several months when a Spanish ship was caught by the English making observations of the colony. Tensions between England and Spain were high. When Don Pedro de Cuniga, the Spanish ambassador in London sent word to Madrid of the Virginia Company’s plan to send 2,000 more setters to Jamestown the Spanish King Philip was alarmed about the threat the English settlers might pose to the Spanish treasure ships. Tow English Jesuit priests from the Catholic English seminary at Seville, loyal to Spain were dispatched to stake out Jamestown, spy on the fortifications and report back to Madrid. On Jun 14, 1610, as Jamestown recovered from a winter famine, a new Spanish ambassador in London, Don Alonso de Velasco, reported back to Madrid that the colony was in trouble and “it would be easy to undo it completely by sending a few ships to finish off the survivors.” Instead, Captain Diego de Molina and his ensign, Marco Antonio de Perez were sent on a spy mission, departing from Lisbon harbor April 13, 1611 on the caravel La Nuestra Senora del Rosario bound for Havana. Their cover story was that they were going to recover the artillery of a wrecked ship. Their real job, however, was to reconnoiter Jamestown. If there was any diplomatic fallout, the Spanish would deny it and blame their renegade Florida governor for overstepping his authority. Also aboard the Nuestra was a confidente, an Englishman who was a Spanish spy. Some mystery still shrouds his identiy, but he was known as James Limry or Limrick. The story of what happened when the Nuestra sailed into Chesapeake Bay varies depending on whether you read the English or Spanish accounts. According to the account Clark later gave to his Spanish interrogators, Molina, posing as a sailor, ensign Marco Antonio de Perez and Francisco Lembri, their English pilot-interpreter came ashore at Point Comfort from the ship’s boat and were met in all civility by Clarke, Captain James Davis and English troops. Later, Clarke says they all sat down for a meal. The caraval, the boat and the crews remained offshore. Old Point Comfort is a point of land located in the city of Hampton. It lies at the extreme tip of the Virginia Peninsula at the mouth of Hampton Roads in the United States. It formed the beginning of the boundary of colonial Virginia. After eating, Davis suggested the caravel be brought into a safe anchorage for the night and Clark was ordered to help pilot the Nuestra into position. But when Clark was safely aboard the Spanish vessel, the crew thought he was trying to move the ship into better range of an English attack for seizure. They refused to budge and Clark became a Spanish prisoner. In Clark’s report, it was the Spanish who had started it all. The Nuestra’s captain said that it was the “dirty English” who had double-crossed them by taking Molida, Perez and their interpreter prisoner and that Clark was trying to lure the Spanish ship into danger. They claimed Clark was made captive by the Spanish crew when they discovered that their leaders were being held by the English. The captain of the La Nuestra upped anchor and escaped back to Havana, leaving behind the two Spaniards and the English spy as prisoners of the Virginians. King Philip instructed his ambassador to appeal to King James “to procure the liberty” of the two Spaniards and to insist that the Nuestra had been on a search for a lost vessel, not spying. All the Spaniards had to show for the mission was John Clark, or Juan Clerg as he is named in the transcripts. From the record of his interview of July 23, 1611 it is obvious that Clark told the Spanish what they wanted to hear. He drew charts of the bay showing the fathoms. He described the fortifications in detail, the placement and sizes of the guns, the number of men and boats. He explained how the colonists grew corn and gathered walnuts for food and sometimes there was fish and sometimes there was not. Clark expanded on the truth which might have saved his life. He said a hundred leagues into the mountains, there was gold in Virginia. Hearing that his ambassador in London was arranging atransfer of prisoners, King Philip ordered that Clark be shipped from Cuba and “brought henceforth to the prison of the Casa de la Contratacion in Madrid,” and treated well. He was then taken to Seville, Spain, and then to Madrid where there exists a record of his 18 Feb 1613 examination. Little changed in his account, except that this time he said he was forty years old and a Roman Catholic. He calls himself 35 years old in his 1611 deposition, and calls himself 40 years old in 1613, giving his residence as London. He was released to the English in 1616, in a prisoner exchange between England and Spain. Alternatively, he was ransomed by King James I of England. The records of the Virginia Company allege a Spanish effort to “turn” John Clark into a double agent. They say he was carried to Spayne and there deteyned fower years thinkinge to have made him an instrument to betray the Plantacion Clark was still in Madrid under house arrest in 1616, four years after his arrival. The Council of War saw to it that his keepers maintained him “in good custody and guard, givng him good entertainment and comforts” and paid the prison charges as well as his food and lodging. Finally, the spy-swap deal was done. For the release of John Clark in Madrid, Captain Molina was the only prisoner handed over to the Spanish ambassador in London. Ensign Perez died in captivity and it was reported that the traitorous English spy was hanged by Sr Thomas Dale, Virginia’s governor. John Clarke is mentioned in a letter written by [our ancestor and the Pilgrim’s business agent] Robert CUSHMAN on 11 Jun 1620: “We have hired another pilot here, one Mr. Clarke, who went last year to Virginia with a ship of kine.” This 1619 trip was to deliver another cargo of cattle to Virginia with Captain Thomas Jones of the Falcon, a some-time pirate. John was the Masters Mate and pilot of the Mayflower, although he did not sign the Mayflower Compact. He accompanied the Pilgrims on many of the exploring parties, piloting the shallop. Clarks Island in Duxbury Bay is named after him, because he miraculously brought the shallop ashore during a strong storm on one of these expeditions. John Clarke was hired to be the Masters Mate on the Mayflower by the Virginia Company and the Merchant Adventurers because he had been to the American coast on several prior occasions. The Mayflower was used primarily as a cargo ship, involved in active trade of goods (often wine) between England and other European countries, (principally France, but also Norway, Germany, and Spain). Like many ships of the time, the Mayflower was most likely a carrack with three masts, square-rigged on the foremast and mainmast but lateen-rigged on the mizzenmast. At least between 1609 and 1622, it was mastered by Christopher Jones, who would command the ship on the famous transatlantic voyage, and based in John Clarks hometown, Rotherhithe, London, England.Details of the ships dimensions are unknown, but estimates based on its load weight and the typical size of 180 ton merchant ships of its day suggest an estimated length of 90–110 feet and a width of about 25 feet. The ship had a crew of twenty-five to thirty, along with other hired personnel; however, the names of only five are known. August 15, 1620 Sailed from Southampton, England. September 16. Sailed from Plymouth, England. November 16. William Butten died at sea. Nov 19. First sighted Cape Cod. Nov 21. Signed “The Compact.” Anchored in Cape Cod Harbor and went ashore. Nov 23. Took the shallop ashore for repairs. Nov 25. First exploring party set out by land. Nov 26. Discovered Truro Springs, Pamet River, Cornhill December 7. Second exploring party set out with the shallop. The new First Encounter Monument reads: NEAR THIS SITE THE NAUSET TRIBE OF THE WAMPANOAG NATION SEEKING TO PROTECT THEMSELVES AND THEIR CULTURE HAD THEIR FIRST ENCOUNTER 8 DECEMBER 1620 MYLES STANDISH, JOHN CARVER, WILLIAM BRADFORD, EDWARD WINSLOW, JOHN TILLEY, EDWARD TILLEY, JOHN HOWLAND, RICHARD WARREN, STEPHEN HOPKINS, EDWARD DOTEY, JOHN ALLERTON, THOMAS ENGLISH, MASTER MATE CLARK, MASTER GUNNER COPIN AND THREE SAILORS OF THE MAYFLOWER COMPANY. THIS TABLET IS PLACED IN 2001 BY THE SOCIETY OF COLONIAL WARS IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS. Dec 12. Found the wigwams, graves, etc. Dec 14. Edward Thomson died. The first death after reaching Cape Cod. December 16. Third exploring party set out with the shallop. Jasper More died. Dec 17. Dorothy (May) Bradford died. Dec 18. James Chilton died. First encounter with the Indians. Reached Clarks Island at night. [Due to our ancestors extraordinary piloting skills! Sat. Dec. 19 Spent on Clark’s Island Dec 20. Third exploring party spent the Sabbath on Clark’s Island. Dec 21. FOREFATHERS DAY.Third exploring party landed on Plymouth Rock, and explored the coast. Dec 25. The Mayflower set sail from Cape Cod for Plymouth, but was driven back by a change in the wind. Dec 26. The Mayflower arrived at Plymouth Harbor. During the winter the passengers remained on board the Mayflower, suffering an outbreak of a contagious disease described as a mixture of scurvy, pneumonia and tuberculosis. When it ended, there were only 53 passengers, just more than half, still alive. Likewise, half of the crew died as well. On March 21/31, 1621, all surviving passengers, who had inhabited the ship during the winter, moved ashore at Plymouth, and on April 5/15, the Mayflower, a privately commissioned vessel, returned to England. On 13 February 1622, the Virginia Company records state: Mr. Deputy acquainted the court, that one Mr. John Clarke beinge taken from Virginia long since by a Spanish ship that came to discover that plantation; that forasmuch as he hath since that time done the companie good service in many voyages to Virginia, and of late went into Ireland for transportation of cattle to Virginia, he was an humble suitor to this court, that he might be admitted a free brother of the companie, and have some shares of land bestowed upon him. John was given two shares in the Virginia Company for his service. He sailed to Virginia on 10 April 1623 in Daniel Gookin’s ship, the Providence, and died shortly after he arrived. According to The First Republic in America: An Account of the Origin of this Nation, by Alexander Brown, the colonists Clarke brought over were among the men who fell at the Indian Massacre of 1622 in Jamestown. The massacre was orchestrated by the Powhatan Confederacy as a warning to other settlers. John Smith wrote that the Powhatan “came unarmed into our houses with deer, turkeys, fish, fruits, and other provisions to sell us.” It was absolutely ruthless – all men, women and children were killed and their crops burned to the ground A day or so after [14 Apr 1622] Mr. Gookin’s ship, the Providence, with John Clarke as pilot, arrived at New Port Newce with forty men for him and thirty passengers besides. Which ship had also been long out and suffered extremely in her passage. “Of all Mr Gookin’s men which he sent out the last year we found but seven — the rest being all killed by the Indians, and his plantation ready to fall to decay.” After the arrival of these ships the colonists appealed ” to God to send us some ships with provisions” Massachuetts Historical Society Proceedings, 3d series, 54 (1920):61-77, “John Clark of the Mayflower”. American Historical Review 25:448-479, “Spanish Policy toward Virginia, 1606-1612; Jamestown, Ecija, and John Clark of the Mayflower”. The American Genealogist 42:201-202, 47:3-16 Of Plymouth Plantation, by William Bradford, written 1630-1654 The Genesis of the United States, by Alexander Brown, 1964, pages 854-855. Records of the Virginia Company

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This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)(Learn how and when to remove this template message) A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke the feelings of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not solid food. In cases where an entity (usually the state) has or is able to obtain custody of the hunger striker (such as a prisoner), the hunger strike is often terminated by the custodial entity through the use of force-feeding. This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Fasting was used as a method of protesting injustice in pre-Christian Ireland, where it was known as Troscadh or Cealachan. Detailed in the contemporary civic codes, it had specific rules by which it could be used. The fast was often carried out on the doorstep of the home of the offender. Scholars speculate that this was due to the high importance the culture placed on hospitality. Allowing a person to die at one's doorstep, for a wrong of which one was accused, was considered a great dishonor. Others say that the practice was to fast for one whole night, as there is no evidence of people fasting to death in pre-Christian Ireland. The fasts were primarily undertaken to recover debts or get justice for a perceived wrong. There are legends of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, using the hunger strike as well. In India, the practice of a hunger protest, where the protester fasts at the door of an offending party (typically a debtor) in a public call for justice, was abolished by the government in 1861; this indicates the prevalence of the practice prior to that date, or at least a public awareness of it. This Indian practice is ancient, going back to around 750 to 400 BC. This can be known since it appears in the Ramayana, which was composed around that time. The actual mention appears in the Ayodhya kanda (the second book of the Ramayana), in Sarga (section) 103. Bharata has gone to ask the exiled Rama to come back and rule the kingdom. Bharata tries many arguments, none of which work, at which point he decides to engage in a hunger strike. He announces his intention to fast, calls for his charioteer Sumantra to bring him some sacred Kusha grass (which Sumantra will not do, since he is too busy looking at Rama's face, so Bharata has to get the grass himself), and lies down upon the grass in front of Rama. Rama, however, is quickly able to persuade him to abandon the attempt. Rama mentions it as a practice of the brahmanas. In the first three days, the body is still using energy from glucose. After that, the liver starts processing body fat, in a process called ketosis. After depleting fat, the body enters a "starvation mode". At this point the body "mines" the muscles and vital organs for energy, and loss of bone marrow becomes life-threatening. There are examples of hunger strikers dying after 46 to 73 days of strike, for example the 1981 Irish hunger strike. British and American suffragettes In the early 20th century suffragettes frequently endured hunger strikes in British prisons. Marion Dunlop was the first in 1909. She was released, as the authorities did not want her to become a martyr. Other suffragettes in prison also undertook hunger strikes. The prison authorities subjected them to force-feeding, which the suffragettes categorized as a form of torture. Emmeline Pankhurst's sister Mary Clarke died shortly after being force-fed in prison, and others including Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton are believed to have had serious health problems caused by force feeding, dying of a heart attack not long after. William Ball, a working class supporter of women's suffrage, was the subject of a pamphlet Torture in an English Prison not only due to the effects of force-feeding, but a cruel separation from family contact and mental health deterioration, secret transfer to a lunatic asylum and needed lifelong mental institutional care. In 1913 the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913 (nicknamed the "Cat and Mouse Act") changed policy. Hunger strikes were tolerated but prisoners were released when they became sick. When they had recovered, the suffragettes were taken back to prison to finish their sentences. About 100 women received medals for hunger striking or enduring force-feeding. Like their British counterparts, American suffragettes also used this method of political protest. A few years before the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, a group of American suffragettes led by Alice Paul engaged in a hunger strike and endured forced feedings while incarcerated at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia. Hunger strikes have deep roots in Irish society and in the Irish psyche. Fasting in order to bring attention to an injustice which one felt under his lord, and thus shame him, was a common feature of early Irish society and this tactic was fully incorporated into the Brehon legal system. The tradition is ultimately most likely part of the still older Indo-European tradition of which the Irish were part. The tactic was used by physical force republicans during the 1916–23 revolutionary period. Early use of hunger strikes was countered with force-feeding, culminating in 1917 in the death of Thomas Ashe in Mountjoy Prison. During the Anglo-Irish war, in October 1920, the Lord Mayor of Cork, Terence MacSwiney, died on hunger strike in Brixton prison. Two other Cork Irish Republican Army (IRA) men, Joe Murphy and Michael Fitzgerald, died in this protest. Over a period of 94 days, from August 11 to November 12, 1920 John and Peter Crowley, Thomas Donovan, Michael Burke, Michael O'Reilly, Christopher Upton, John Power, Joseph Kenny and Seán Hennessy, demanding reinstatement of political status and release from prison, undertook a hunger strike at Cork County Gaol. Arthur Griffith called off the strikes after the deaths of MacSwiney, Murphy and Fitzgerald. During the 1920s, the vessel HMS Argenta was used as a military base and prison ship for the holding of Irish republicans by the British government as part of their internment strategy post Bloody Sunday. Cloistered below decks in cages which held 50 internees, the prisoners were forced to use broken toilets which overflowed frequently into their communal area. Deprived of tables, the already weakened men ate off the floor, frequently succumbing to disease and illness as a result. There were several hunger strikes, including a major strike involving upwards of 150 men in the winter of 1923. By February 1923, under the 1922 Special Powers Act the British were detaining 263 men on Argenta, which was moored in Belfast Lough. This was supplemented with internment at other land based sites such as Larne workhouse, Belfast Prison and Derry Gaol. Together, both the ship and the workhouse alone held 542 men without trial at the highest internment population level during June 1923. After the end of the Irish Civil War in October 1923, up to 8,000 IRA prisoners went on hunger strike to protest their continued detention by the Irish Free State (a total of over 12,000 republicans had been interned by May 1923). Two men, Denny Barry and Andrew O'Sullivan, died on the strike. The strike, however, was called off before any more deaths occurred. The Free State subsequently released the women republican prisoners. Most of the male republicans were not released until the following year. Under de Valera's first Fianna Fáil government in 1932, military pensions were awarded to dependants of republicans who died in 1920s hunger strikes on the same basis as those who were killed in action. During the state of emergency of World War II another De Valera government interned many IRA members, three of whom died on hunger strike: Sean McCaughey, Tony D'Arcy and Sean (Jack) McNeela. Hundreds of others carried out shorter hunger strikes during the de Valera years. The tactic was revived by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) in the early 1970s, when several republicans successfully used hunger strikes to get themselves released from custody without charge in the Republic of Ireland. Michael Gaughan died after being force-fed in Parkhurst Prison in 1974. Frank Stagg, an IRA member being held in Wakefield Prison, died in 1976 after a 62-day hunger strike which he began as a campaign to be repatriated to Ireland. Irish hunger strike of 1981 In 1980, seven Irish Republican prisoners, six from the IRA and one from the Irish National Liberation Army, in the Maze Prison launched a hunger strike as a protest against the revocation by the British Government of a prisoner-of-war-like Special Category Status for paramilitary prisoners in Northern Ireland. The strike, led by Brendan Hughes, was called off before any deaths, when the British government seemed to offer to concede their demands; however, the British Government then reneged on the details of the agreement. The prisoners then called another hunger strike the following year. This time, instead of many prisoners striking at the same time, the hunger strikers started fasting one after the other in order to maximise publicity over the fate of each one. Bobby Sands was the first of ten Irish republican paramilitary prisoners to die during the 1981 hunger strike. There was widespread sympathy for the hunger strikers from Irish republicans and the broader nationalist community on both sides of the Irish border. Sands was elected as an MP for Fermanagh and South Tyrone to the United Kingdom's Houses of Parliament and two other prisoners, Paddy Agnew (who was not a hunger striker) and Kieran Doherty, were elected to Dáil Éireann in the Republic of Ireland by electorates who wished to register their opposition to the British Government's policy. The ten men survived without food for 46 to 73 days, taking only water and salt, before succumbing. After the deaths of the men and severe public disorder, the British Government granted partial concessions to the prisoners, and the strike was called off. The hunger strikes gave a significant propaganda boost to a previously severely demoralised IRA. Gandhi and Bhagat Singh This section does not cite any sources. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned in 1922, 1930, 1933 and 1942. Because of Gandhi's stature around the world, British authorities were loath to allow him to die in their custody; Gandhi engaged in several famous hunger strikes to protest British rule of India. In addition to Gandhi, various others used the hunger strike option during the Indian independence movement, including Jatin Das, who fasted to death, and Bhagat Singh. It was only on the 116th day of their fast, on October 5, 1929 that Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt gave up their strike (surpassing the 97-day world record for hunger strikes which was set by an Irish revolutionary). During this hunger strike that lasted 116 days and ended with the British succumbing to his wishes, he gained much popularity among the common Indians. Before the strike his popularity was limited mainly to the Punjab region. This section does not cite any sources. (June 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Potti Sriramulu was an Indian revolutionary who died after undertaking a hunger strike for 58 days in 1952 after Indian independence in an attempt to achieve the formation of a separate state, to be known as Andhra State. His death became instrumental in the linguistic re-organisation of states. He is revered as Amarajeevi (Immortal being) in Coastal Andra for his role in achieving the linguistic re-organisation of states. As a devout follower of Mahatma Gandhi, he worked for much of his life to uphold principles such as truth, non-violence and patriotism, as well as causes such as Harijan movement to end the traditional alienation of, and accord respect and humane treatment to those traditionally called "untouchables" in Indian society. On April 3, 1972, Pedro Luis Boitel, an imprisoned poet and dissident, declared himself on hunger strike. After 53 days on hunger strike, receiving only liquids, he died of starvation on May 25, 1972. His last days were related by his close friend, poet Armando Valladares. He was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cólon Cemetery in Havana. Guillermo Fariñas did a seven-month hunger strike to protest against the extensive Internet censorship in Cuba. He ended it in Autumn 2006, with severe health problems although still conscious. Reporters Without Borders awarded its cyber-freedom prize to Guillermo Fariñas in 2006. Jorge Luis García Pérez (known as Antúnez) has done hunger strikes. In 2009, following the end of his 17-year imprisonment, Antúnez, his wife Iris, and Diosiris Santana Pérez started a hunger strike to support other political prisoners. Leaders from Uruguay, Costa Rica, and Argentina declared their support for Antúnez. On February 23, 2010, Orlando Zapata, a dissident arrested in 2003 as part of a crackdown on opposition groups, died in a hospital while undertaking a hunger strike that had been ongoing for 83 days, in Cuba's "Kilo 8" prison. He had declared the hunger strike in protest of the poor conditions of the prison in which he was held. Charged with an array of offenses, including "resistance", "contempt", and "disrespect", he was one of 55 Cuban prisoners of conscience to have been adopted by Amnesty International. Article 8 of the 1975 World Medical Association Declaration of Tokyo states that doctors are not allowed to force-feed hunger strikers. They are supposed to understand the prisoner's independent wishes, and it is recommended to have a second opinion as to the capability of the prisoner to understand the implication of his decision and be capable of informed consent. - Where a prisoner refuses nourishment and is considered by the physician as capable of forming an unimpaired and rational judgement concerning the consequences of such a voluntary refusal of nourishment, he or she shall not be fed artificially. The decision as to the capacity of the prisoner to form such a judgement should be confirmed by at least one other independent physician. The consequences of the refusal of nourishment shall be explained by the physician to the prisoner. The World Medical Association (WMA) recently revised and updated its Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers. Among many changes, it unambiguously states that force feeding is a form of inhumane and degrading treatment in its Article 21. The American Medical Association (AMA) is a member of the WMA, but the AMA's members are not bound by the WMA's decisions, as neither organization has formal legal powers. The AMA has formally endorsed the WMA Declaration of Tokyo and has written several letters to the US government and made public statements in opposition to US physician involvement in force feeding of hunger strikers in contravention of medical ethics. The United States Code of Federal Regulations rule on hunger strikes by prisoners states, "It is the responsibility of the Bureau of Prisons to monitor the health and welfare of individual inmates, and to ensure that procedures are pursued to preserve life." It further provides that when "a medical necessity for immediate treatment of a life or health threatening situation exists, the physician may order that treatment be administered without the consent of the inmate." - Ellis, Peter Bereford. The Druids (Eerdmans, 1998). pp. 141-142. - ‹See Tfd›Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 490. - Joyce, Patrick Weston, A Smaller Social History of ancient Ireland (Longman, Green & Co, 1906), Chapter IV: The Administration of Justice, p.86. Found online at https://www.libraryireland.com/SocialHistoryAncientIreland/I-IV-6.php - Beresford, David (1987). Ten Men Dead. New York: Atlantic Press. ISBN 978-0-87113-702-9.[page needed] - Coffee, C. J. (2004). Quick Look: Metabolism. Hayes Barton Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-1593771928. - Wilson, Simon; Ian Cumming (2009). Psychiatry in Prisons: A Comprehensive Handbook. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 156. ISBN 978-1843102236. - Atkinson, Diane (2018). Rise up, women! : the remarkable lives of the suffragettes. London: Bloomsbury. pp. 289, 293. ISBN 9781408844045. OCLC 1016848621. - D.A. Binchy, "A Pre-Christian Survival in Mediaeval Irish Hagiography," in Ireland in Early Mediaeval Europe (Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 168–178 - Rudolf Thurneysen, "Das Fasten beim Pfändungsverfahren," Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie 15 (1924–25) 260–275. - "END HUNGER STRIKE OF CORK PRISONERS; Sinn Féin Leader Absolves Them and They Take Food After 94 Days' Fast. AMBUSH FIVE JOURNALISTS Soldiers Kill Two and Capture Seven of the Attackers--Mrs. MacSwiney Coming Here" (PDF). The New York Times. November 13, 1920. - Guinness Book of Records 1988, p. 21 - "Army Pensions Act, 1932, Section 5(2)". Irish Statute Book. Retrieved July 17, 2017. the word "killed" includes ... death as an immediate result of refusing to take nourishment while detained in prison - White, Robert (2006). Ruairí Ó Brádaigh: The Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary. Indiana University Press. pp. 246–247. ISBN 978-0253347084. - O'Donnell, Ruán (2012). Special Category: The IRA in English Prisons Vol.1: 1968-78. Irish Academic Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-7165-3142-5. - White, Robert (2017). Out of the Ashes: An Oral History of the Provisional Irish Republican Movement. Merrion Press. p. 173. ISBN 9781785370939. - Dillon, Martin (1991). The Dirty War. Arrow Books. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-09-984520-1. - Taylor, Peter (1997). Provos The IRA & Sinn Féin. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 237. ISBN 0-7475-3818-2. - The Starry Plough on 1981 Irish hunger strikes - "Guillermo Fariñas ends seven-month-old hunger strike for Internet access". Reporters Without Borders. January 20, 2016. - "Cyber-freedom prize for 2006 awarded to Guillermo Fariñas of Cuba". Reporters Without Borders. January 20, 2016. - "Additional Latin American Leaders Join in Solidarity with Antúnez". Archived from the original on October 27, 2012. - "Young Uruguayans Support Antúnez, Cuban Political Prisoners". Archived from the original on October 27, 2012. - "Cuban prison hunger striker Orlando Zapata Tamayo dies". BBC News. February 24, 2010. - "WMA - the World Medical Association - WMA DECLARATION OF TOKYO – GUIDELINES FOR PHYSICIANS CONCERNING TORTURE AND OTHER CRUEL, INHUMAN OR DEGRADING TREATMENT OR PUNISHMENT IN RELATION TO DETENTION AND IMPRISONMENT". - "WMA - the World Medical Association-WMA Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers". - "American Medical Association Opposes Force-Feeding Prisoners On Hunger Strike At Gitmo". - "Title 28: Judicial Administration". Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved September 1, 2010. - "Hunger Strikes, Force-feeding, and Physicians' Responsibilities" - Fasting as a Method To Demand International Protection For the People of Darfur, Sudan - Bibliography on hunger strikes and force-feeding in the IFHHRO Right to Health Wiki - "The long history of the Irish hunger strike: New exhibition in Kilmainham Gaol tells the story from Thomas Ashe to Bobby Sands" Irish Times 2017-09-21

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Part I — Derrick Johnson The Construction and wartime use of the deep shelters With the rise to power of Adolf Hitler in 1933 and the resulting rearmament of Germany there was a gradual realisation that war was inevitable and in 1937 the Government passed the Air Raid Precautions (ARP) Act which compelled local authorities to prepare plans for the protection of citizens in the event of attacks from the air. Most authorities responded to this by providing gas masks and domestic shelters such as the Anderson shelter with which some of you will be all too familiar. However, there was some agitation, notably from Communists and other left-wing sympathisers, for a more elaborate system of deep shelters. This was partly as a result of their experience of aerial bombardment during the Spanish Civil War when the tunnels below the streets of Barcelona had provided good protection. The Government was unenthusiastic — partly on the grounds of cost and also in the belief that people might stay in the shelters when the raids had ceased. It was reluctant even to allow shelterers to use the existing underground railway stations. However, during the blitz bombing of London on 8 September 1940 a large crowd broke through the locked gates at Liverpool Street Station and took refuge on the platforms. The next day the Minister for Home Security solemnly announced that the Government had reconsidered the matter of the tubes being used as shelters. The Ministry now commissioned a report from engineers on the options available for deep shelters and consulted with the London Passenger Transport Board, later to become London Transport. The eventual decision was to build the deep shelters beneath the train running tunnels and linked to existing underground stations. The idea, never realised, was that the deep shelter tunnels could be joined up after the war to provide a new express tube parallel to the Northern Line. An ingenious scheme by London Transport to get part of the line built at Government expense. The illustrations: Please click on thumbnail or text link to see a larger version. We regret that for copyright reasons we are unable to show thumbnails for all pictures. Plan of construction |Here is a drawing of a deep shelter beneath an existing tube station. There are two train running tunnels with the escalator to the surface. Beneath these and parallel to them are the shelter tunnels themselves with cross passages. At either end are the ventilation shafts and the stair shafts from which arise the very recognisable shaft head portals, which will be familiar to you all, above the surface. Things were now moving quickly and on 20 November 1940 London Transport set out firm plans. There would be five sites south of the river — at Clapham South, Clapham Common, Clapham North, Stockwell and Oval — and five to the north. The shelters would have twin parallel tunnels 16'6" (5 m) in diameter and 400 yards (366 m) long divided into two decks that would accommodate 9600 people in bunks. This figure was later reduced to 8000 in order to provide better living standards. Access would be primarily by stairs rather than lifts as studies showed that 8000 people per hour could negotiate stairs whereas lifts could only carry 1000 in the same period. Because of the need for speed, hand tunnelling rather than the use of shields was the only viable option. To gain experience of laying and fitting out the tunnels London Transport erected on Clapham Common a full scale model of a section of tube complete with bunks and ventilation. One of the problems was what to do with the enormous amounts of spoil removed — estimated at 200,000 cubic yards (153,000 cubic metres) south of the river. London Transport negotiated the purchase of 130 second-hand lorries at £425 — £500 each to carry it away. The London County Council gave permission for 125,000 cubic yards (96,000 cubic metres) to be dumped on Clapham Common and the height of this dump rose to 20 feet (6 metres). A site in Nightingale Lane was identified for the deposit of 20,000 cubic yards (15,300 cubic metres) and this was close enough to allow a gantry for spoil transfer. A further 20,000 cubic yards (15,300 cubic metres) were similarly dumped at Clapham North on the site of three bomb damaged houses in Clapham Road after allotment holders there had been given £5 each to relocate. 1671 cast iron tunnel segments were shipped from Middlesborough to Clapham Common and this 1941 picture shows some of them in place. Building the shelters On 21 October 1942 Clapham South and Clapham North deep shelters were fitted out and were handed over, with Clapham Common ready by the end of the month. London Transport's original view that the total cost of all the shelters would not be less than £1.5 million was correct. It was later calculated that the eight completed shelters and the abandoned Oval shaft had cost over £3 million by 1942 — over twice the original estimate. A shelter nearing completion |So, what was it like inside a deep shelter up to 300 ft ( 91 m) below ground? This photograph taken in September 1942 shows Clapham South nearing completion with its three layers of bunks — the mobile apparatus is described as an air purifier. An entrance staircase Imperial War Museum |Here is an entrance staircase, painted white with unshaded lighting and two of the volunteer wardens. The welcoming committee After the Battle |And here is the welcoming committee in a rather more reassuring view. It was realised that because of the size and similarity of the shelters people might become disorientated and have difficulty in finding a particular spot. The staircases were therefore colour coded, red or blue, and each of the 16 sections in a shelter was given a name starting with a different letter of the alphabet. Patriotically Clapham South was given the names of British naval commanders starting with Anson and proceeding via Beatty, Collingwood and Drake to Parry. Clapham Common was named after engineers whilst Clapham North was more artistic with writers from Arnold to Wordsworth. Signs to different sections of a shelter After the Battle |You can see some of the names in this picture in the distinctive London Transport Johnston lettering. The man wheeling the stretcher is wearing a standard civil defence ARP boiler suit. Another matter which had to be addressed was that of food and drink. The Ministry of Food concluded that if the deep shelters were to be given over to the general public then light refreshments would be sufficient. Canteens were provided with cakes and sandwiches prepared by London Transport and delivered by trains called 'refreshment specials'. The price of tea was a contentious issue. There was a complaint to the Minister of Home Security when a cup served by the voluntary helpers was increased from 1d (0.4p) to 2d (0.8p) to conform with the price charged by London Transport, who had to pay their staff Day to day operations of the eight shelters were administered by a Mr Copeman, who was based at a compound next to the south entrance of the Clapham South shelter. He had joined the International Brigade at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, had been wounded and elected to the Executive Committee of the Communist Party. Disillusioned, he worked closely with Herbert Morrison and was awarded the OBE in 1945. He subsequently worked as a foreman for the Ford Motor Company at Dagenham. Tickets were printed at Clapham South and distributed to the various boroughs. They were to be issued to people without adequate shelter, especially those who had recently lost their homes. Making up bunks for the night Imperial War Museum |Here we see shelterers making up their bunks for the night. Although the first complete shelter was ready for occupation in March 1942, and the others were finished later that year there had been a fall off in bombing raids on the capital and the Ministry of Home Security was reluctant to bring them into use. Goodge Street shelter was made available to General Eisenhower's staff towards the end of 1942 and Chancery Lane was used for billeting troops. It was eventually realised that the exercise would be a good way of getting practical experience of shelter management, and Stockwell was opened to soldiers in January 1943. National Fire service personnel were allowed to benefit, with men allowed into Clapham North and women into Goodge Street — well separated you will note — in May 1943. Later that year Stockwell was converted into a hostel for American troops and sections of Clapham North and Clapham South were used to billet British servicemen on leave. These military uses were maintained despite agitation that the shelters should be used for their proper purpose. It was not until the arrival of the VI rockets from 13 June 1944, and the even more powerful V2s from 8 September that a decision was taken to open the deep shelters to the public. Stockwell, Clapham North and Clapham South all opened in July 1944. Shelter shaft head at Clapham South This picture was taken at that time. You will note the flower shop (Dover) still bears the same name today. The ventilation outlets have since been removed. A full house at Clapham South The Times 22 July 1944 |There was a full house at Clapham South when this picture was taken in July 1944. However, three months later numbers sleeping underground had declined to such an extent that some shelters could be closed. Final closure of the deep shelters took place on 7 May 1945 and shelters in the tube stations closed at the same time. Shelter shaft head in Clapham High Street |In considering whether the construction of the deep shelters was justified, we must remember that they were built in reaction to a threat and not in anticipation of it. Had they been ready before the war began they would have been valuable during the Blitz. It was only during the, mercifully short, period of the V1 and V2 rocket attacks that they came into their own. Even then, the highest recorded population, on 24 July 1944 was only 12,297 — about 33% of their total nightly capacity. From final planning stage to being ready for use took less than two years — quite impressive bearing in mind that they were dug by hand. They fulfilled their purpose in providing secure accommodation from air raids and, apart from a fire at Goodge Street in 1956, they have served a number of other purposes since, without incident or failure. Today the only signs of the existence of the deep shelters are the twin shaft heads, looking like giant public conveniences, and in a greater or lesser state of dereliction. No attempt was made to blend them into their surroundings but the architectural merit of the Balham Hill shaft at Clapham South has been recognised in the Grade II listing accorded to it. So, what happened to the deep shelters after the last wartime shelterer left in May 1945? Clapham North was used for document storage by the Board of Trade and the Public Record Office until August 1951, and as a billet for naval personnel on duty during the Coronation in 1953. Clapham Common was used by the Admiralty and the Principal Probate Office for document storage from July 1945 until 1951 and closed entirely on 3 October 1952. It was then leased to various private data management companies. Clapham South was used by the War Office as troop billets in June 1946, as hotel accommodation for the Festival of Britain in 1951, as a billet for troops lining the route for the funeral of George V1 in 1952 and for Coronation visitors in 1953. However, it was its use in 1948 that, as we shall hear, had a profound effect on the population of South London. Part II — Alyson Wilson Arrival of MV Empire Windrush from Jamaica in 1948 The most well-known use of the deep shelter at Clapham South is, undoubtedly, as the temporary home for the first immigrants from the Caribbean who arrived on MV Empire Windrush in June 1948. The Empire Windrush was a former German troop ship which had been seized by the British at the end of the war, refitted as a British troop ship and renamed in 1947. En route from Australia to England via the Atlantic the ship docked at Kingston, Jamaica in May 1948. An advertisement had appeared in Jamaica's Daily Gleaner on 13 April offering transport to the UK, for a fare of £28.10s (£28.50), for anyone who wanted to come to work in the UK. Many of those who took up the offer were ex—RAF servicemen, who already knew England and hoped to rejoin the services. Typical of these was Sam King who had been a Leading Aircraftman in the RAF, stationed in Britain. When he was demobbed in 1947 and returned to Jamaica the economy was suffering from a recent hurricane that had destroyed most of the banana, coconut and coffee crops, and he could not find a job. His family, who farmed a small piece of land, sold three cows to raise the money for his fare. Others simply wanted to try their luck in what they regarded as 'the mother country' reports of which had come back to them from those who had served in the UK during the war. These men had received a good traditional British education and were generally well informed about British history. Many had qualifications of some sort. There were strict controls on who was allowed to come at this time. Sam King wrote: 'To get papers to leave, a Justice of the Peace had to sign to say you were a responsible citizen and the police had to sign to say you were not a trouble maker.' MV Empire Windrush And so they set out on their journey, arriving at Tilbury on 22 June, 1948. The next day the Daily Mirror reported their arrival: (clearly somewhat surprised by their appearance): 'Some of the 492 Jamaican emigrants who arrived in Britain yesterday in the Empire Windrush wore expensive suits. There were even emigrants wearing zoot-style suits — very long-waisted jacket, big padded shoulders, slit pockets and peg-top trousers — costing 15 to 28 pounds. There were flash ties (from 10s 6d [52.5p] to one pound 1s [£1.05p]) and white-and-tan shoes. (75s) [£3.75p] . The explanation was given last night by one quietly dressed Jamaican, Oswald Denniston, 35, sign-painter. Mr Denniston told me: "Most of us are job-seekers but others are here to finish their trades and education. The very poor can't leave Jamaica. They must have 28 pounds for their passage and another five pounds when they sail."' About half of those who arrived on that day already had contacts in the country and somewhere to go and live, but it was those who had nowhere to go who were bussed from Tilbury to Clapham and housed in the deep shelter at Clapham South. Several reports tell what a surprise the endless streets of shabby run-down terraced houses were to these new arrivals from the Caribbean. Even on an English June day they were a strong contrast to the West Indian sunshine and light the immigrants were used to. Reception tent at entrance to the shelter On arrival at Clapham they found a reception tent at the top of the entrance shaft to the shelter. They lined up to check in there and each man was given a coarse white linen sheet and a grey blanket, and allocated a bunk. They then descended in the rickety lift into what one immigrant described as 'the bowels of South London', where he said: 'They curiously eyed the network of poorly lit, clammy, musty tunnels that had been offered to them as residence. It was primitive and unwelcoming, like a sparsely furnished rabbit's warren. But in a strange new land, there were few alternatives'. Unpacking in the deep shelter Here we see the men unpacking their belongings and settling in to their temporary accommodation. Cramped quarters for dressing Lining up in the canteen tent The Women's Voluntary Service provided refreshments in the tent on Clapham Common at the head of the entrance shaft. One of the immigrants wrote that he was 'served with a cheery cup of traditional English tea and coarse white bread with dripping' and warned to be grateful since post-war Britain still had strict rationing, and it was not easy to find food. The Daily Express reported: 'All of them sat down to their first meal on English soil: roast beef, potatoes, vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, suet pudding with currants and custard.' The report continued '…a bed and three hot meals cost them 6s.6d. (33p) a day. Most of the Jamaicans have about £5 to last them until they find work.' A meal in the canteen tent Some men obviously relaxed down in the shelters as this man here reading the paper — is he looking for a job or for accommodation? Sitting about above ground .. but not surprisingly many preferred to relax on the Common rather than underground. One of the first men to get a job was Mr Denniston, quoted above, who was employed on the site at £4 per week where a newspaper reported: 'Wrapped in two blankets to keep warm, he settled in as night watchman of the meals marquee in Clapham Common, SW, where 240 of the Jamaicans are staying in deep wartime shelters.' To find work most of the immigrants went to the nearest Labour Exchange (Job Centre) which was in Coldharbour Lane, Brixton. Many found jobs in the National Health Service, some worked in factories and mills locally but by far the largest employer was London Transport. Sam King recorded that within three weeks each person had a job. Another immigrant wrote that none of them stayed long in the shelters. He said most were there only a few days, and he stayed about two weeks. Gradually the immigrants moved on to rented houses and rooms, mostly in the Brixton and Clapham areas. As time went on those who had already settled were more ready to take in their compatriots than some local landlords. There are stories of great problems in finding accommodation, signs saying 'No blacks' (also 'No Dogs' and 'No Irish') and plenty of advertisements offering accommodation, which mysteriously turned out to have been taken already when an immigrant arrived. Some were reluctant to rent property, because they did not wish to be beholden to anyone and they clubbed together to purchase houses, often in family groups. The actual time the shelters were occupied by the immigrants from the Caribbean was relatively short, but the impact of their arrival on the area was dramatic and long-lasting — the origins of the multi-racial community in South London. Some of the early immigrants made a lasting impact individually. Sam King, whom I quoted earlier, went on to become a prominent member of the South London black community. He was a Southwark councillor, mayor of Southwark, a leader of the Pentecostal Church and he was awarded the MBE. He has written about his experiences quite extensively and described the Empire Windrush as 'a little Mayflower', adding 'Immigration to this country really started with that boat'. The end of the What happened to the Windrush afterwards? Well, in March 1954 she was bringing troops back from the Korean War when, with 1700 men, women and children on board, she caught fire and sank dramatically in the Mediterranean. All except four crew members were saved in what is remembered as one of the greatest rescues in maritime history. Peter Jefferson Smith |This summer in Clapham we had our own celebration of the 60th anniversary of the arrival of the Empire Windrush with the first immigrants from the West Indies. An appropriately dressed singer, even carrying the correct period suitcase, entertained a large multi-racial crowd by the Bandstand on Clapham Common. Recordings of memories of three people who actually experienced using the deep shelters were then played. Transcriptions follow: (1) Margaret Barford and her family lived in the deep shelter at Clapham South for two years after their home had been destroyed by a VI. We are grateful to Anne Isherwood and Janet Dickinson for arranging the interview and recording. 'I was born in a nursing home in Nightingale Lane, Clapham South and lived in Balham with my parents and grandmother. I was six years old when the war started, and living in the road adjacent to the old St James' Hospital and the railway line at Wandsworth Common, which made us a target for bombing when it started. We had our cellar reinforced and a Morrison table shelter installed in the dining room and survived the Blitz when it started, fairly well. Then the VIs or doodlebugs as they were known started and everything changed. When I was nine years old, I think, a daytime doodlebug came over, and the engine cut out and it crashed on about five houses in a row in our road. I was at school, my father at work. My mother, grandmother and uncle who were in the cellar were safely dug out and rescued. I came home from school to find the shell of our house leaning over and most of our belongings destroyed. We moved to my uncle's house, also in Balham, but two weeks later the same thing happened there, so we then had two families homeless. My father was advised that if we went and explained our position at the local town hall we might be eligible for places to sleep in the deep shelters. There were three of these in South London and until now very little was known about them. Rumours abounded that they had been built to house troops in the event of an invasion, but whether this was true was never confirmed. We only knew they were deep beneath the underground, and that was all. As we were homeless our two families were allocated passes and told the conditions of using them, and so about a year of this type of living began. We were allowed to go down to the shelter from 6 pm onwards and had to come up by 7 am next morning. My father managed to find two rooms for us to use during the day. I was sent to school, he was at work and mother and grandmother stayed in the rooms all day. Then after tea we began the trek to the shelter. We were allowed to leave bedding on our allocated bunks but nothing else, so personal things were packed and unpacked daily. We caught the bus to Clapham South station, used our passes to go down on the escalator to underground level and then through a door we had never noticed before in the corner, and down spiral stairs to the shelter. These stairs wound round a small lift which the elderly and disabled could use by having a special pass allocated to them. I cannot remember how many stairs there were but it was a great many, and these all had to be climbed again in the morning. Once down, we made our way to our allocated section of bunks. These sections were named after British admirals. I think ours was Grenville. The steel bunks we had been given were ours to use every day and were positioned in sixes, so a family could be as private as possible. We had two sections for our two families. There was one chair to each six bunks. I slept at the bottom, opposite my grandmother. The floor was concrete and rather cold. There was a tannoy system which relayed news, information and canned music which could be quite annoying for some people after a while. We could not hear anything at all from above ground, although we knew air raids were going on which was quite frightening. At the head of each section were block toilets and basic washing facilities, rather like a camping site with no real privacy. Also each section had a canteen run by the Red Cross and I particularly remember the jam tarts — a real treat in those days. I don't know why! These and other edibles and endless cups of tea were on sale and all these canteens were run by volunteers. Frequently a section would have a concert party to entertain them, which was free, and we thought was great fun. Other sections were invited and it was like a big party. Sometimes there would be dances or sing-songs to keep us occupied and as happy as possible. Children were eventually persuaded to bed and sleep and the air-conditioners would be turned up full strength and I remember it being very cold during the night. Lights were dimmed but never out, so we were not in the dark. My mother always put me in a nightdress and I went to bed as usual, but I do not think many of the adults undressed fully. They just had shelter clothes. It was always an early start in the morning which I hated, but we all had to be out by 7 am. We must have looked like a stream of refugees emerging into the daylight. Then back to our own two rooms for breakfast, hoping they were still standing! I presume some type of cleaning took place in the shelters during the day, but I really did not worry much at that age. Looking back, in my innocence, I loved this type of living. I was an only child which meant I found many friends and raced around the shelter in comparative safety and had a freedom I did not have at home. However, I can remember my mother being very worried. She was never settled until my father was safely home from work. He was a newspaper man, just too old to be called up. She worried about my grandmother who was not in the best of health, and about me as she did not think this was the right way to bring me up. She worried about our constant packing and unpacking every day, whether I had enough sleep, and was concerned about the amount of bomb damage we would find when we came up each morning. However, we were lucky. We were the privileged ones with passes to comparative safety. We all survived and on the whole were fairly happy and optimistic. I remember the time with affection. I was a child and thought everyone lived like this. I would love the opportunity to go down there again. I often wonder what the shelters are used for now.' (2) The memory of Clapham resident and Society member, Michael Green, relates to the Goodge Street deep shelter (which was in the North London part of the scheme), where as a young officer doing his National Service he stayed with his men overnight en route to embark at Southampton in 1951. 'Fifty-seven years ago I was a young officer in the Northamptonshire regiment on National Service, and was stationed at Colchester. During any transit to the ports on the south coast it was necessary to stay in London overnight if an early start was required the following day. We were accommodated in the shelter system under the London Underground, of which that under Goodge Street station brings back certain memories. There was, I recollect, rather a pokey entrance somewhere in the vicinity of the station. Once the necessary documentation had been sorted out at the entrance there was a trip down in an old noisy steel lift which seemed to go on downwards for ever. The accommodation below was off a warren of tunnels with duck-boarded floors. The bedding on the steel bunks was quite comfortable, but my abiding memory was the stuffiness of the atmosphere. There was, of course, a ventilation system of sorts, but no movement of air such as you get in the underground system proper. Another aspect of staying in such a place was a sense of time dislocation. The electric lighting was on 24 hours a day and on waking in the morning it was difficult psychologically to be sure what time of day it might be, without a watch. Prisoners subject in recent times to extreme rendition must have much worse experiences of such time-disorientation. I do not recollect any arrangements for food, which I must have brought with me from Colchester. My memories of such an occasion are bound up with one of the more uncomfortable experiences of my young life at the time. I had been ordered to escort a company of infantry from the Colchester barracks to Portsmouth for embarkation to the Far East. My job was to take down all their documentation and see them on to the boat. It was when we were about to board the train at Waterloo that I discovered that although I had all their personal documentation with me I had failed to bring the travel passes — effectively passports — which were sitting back in my room at Colchester. I was worried sick since there was no way I could get back to Colchester and return in time to catch the boat. I remember a porter saying to me as I wandered disconsolately down the platform "Are you alright, mate? You look as if you have just seen a ghost." Fortunately, the NCOs to the unit had a set of blank forms which I got them to fill in for each of the 50 men, all the way down to Portsmouth. They were not amused. But such were the exigencies of the service for a 20-year old subaltern in 1951.' At about this time the deep shelter at Clapham South was used as inexpensive hotel accommodation and named the Festival Hotel, which judging by the following report and pictures provided very basic accommodation Deep shelter hotel accommodation The Dining Room (3) Finally, we are grateful to Clare Dow for putting us in contact with Bernard Masson, who as a French student visiting England in 1950 and again in 1951 stayed overnight in the deep shelter at Clapham South. 'In 1950 and 1951 I travelled from Paris to London on my way to the west of England to attend student camps. We needed somewhere to stay, and the address of the deep shelters was given to us by the Concordia organisation, which had sent us to England. There was a hut reception area at the surface level. We just had to turn up, check in, and were issued with a rough sort of hairy, army-type blanket and a pillow and allocated a specific bunk. The cost was about two shillings [10p] or half-a-crown [12½ p] if I remember rightly. It was very, very, very primitive. The bunks were quite stiff, but in fact, we didn't mind too much because we were all excited to be in a foreign country. The war was just behind us, so we had been in difficult situations and 1951 was the Festival of Britain and it was a great pleasure to see the revival after so many dark years, and seeing for example, the new Festival Hall, the Skylon and even Donald Campbell's Bluebird. So this was quite exciting. In 1951 I even came with my bicycle on the ferry from Dieppe to Newhaven and then I just left my bicycle on the Common, where I was told it was quite safe. And I found it the next morning. This is my recollection of these exciting years.' Part IV — AlysonWilson A visit to the Deep Shelter at Clapham North in 2006 As we have already heard access to the deep shelters has been very restricted for many years. We always knew that the shelters at Clapham South and Clapham Common have been rented out to private companies for document storage. But we did not know that for some reason the one at Clapham North was still unused in 2006. Through contact with London Transport officials and an underground shelter enthusiast a small group of us were fortunate enough to go down this shelter just before it was let out for the same purpose. A lot of photos were taken, but the conditions were not ideal, so they are not very good. However, you can get an idea of the present condition from just a few pictures. The shelter was really rather unpleasant, musty, airless, with minimal lighting, though it was obviously maintained to a reasonable level. Entrance to the shelter at Clapham North |The entrance is extremely unprepossessing! The group inside |Having found how to actually get inside here is the group appropriately kitted up with fluorescent jackets, but not oddly enough hard hats. You can see the by now familiar structure well in this picture An original sign |Many of the original notices survive, including this one at the entrance to the shelter. A view along |Here you can see quite clearly a good length of tunnel, with what appear to be some stored items. Now that it is stripped of its bunks and other furniture one can see how well it matches the descriptions you heard at the beginning of this talk Another tunnel view |Again this slide shows the curve on the wall and the tunnel shape, and sections which we have seen all along this evening. Doors to side chambers |This is one of the main tunnels and on both right and left you can see the big steel doors leading to side chambers, which were washrooms and lavatories. the men's toilet |This picture also gives some idea of the rather bad condition of the shelters, with rusting ironwork and general debris lying around. Again original signs still survive. |Here is the rather basic lift shaft - the lift is certainly not in operation now and presumably has not been for some time, but you can see alongside it the staircase twisting round it, which was remembered by Mrs Barford in the first recording we heard. It is interesting that she said that even then it was not for general use. Condition of ironwork |Again another graphic demonstration of the condition of the ironwork, and in the distance you can clearly see the shape of the tunnel. |Water has clearly penetrated quite badly here. |These are the steps alongside the lift shaft again. |Here you can see what has happened to the roof with water penetrations. Stockwell shaft head To return to the surface and end on a more cheerful note I show the exterior of one of the tunnel entrances (this is Stockwell) which has been brightly decorated. There you have the story of the Clapham deep shelters from their conception and building in the early 1940s to their condition today — a story which has always fascinated local people. The curious thing is that local people knew about them when they were being built, but had no idea what they were or why. And the same has always been true. Even today one can hardly fail to notice the unsightly surface constructions near the three Clapham underground stations, but until we started this investigation not many of us knew much about the shelters and their uses. Clapham Society, Clapham in the Twentieth Century, 2002 Emmerson, Andrew & Beard, Tony, London's Secret Tubes, 2004 Francis, Viviene, With Hope in their Eyes, 1998 Pennick, Nigel, Bunkers Under London, 1988 Phillips, Mike & Phillips, Trevor, Windrush:The Irresistible Rise of Multi—Racial Britain, 1998 Trench, Richard & Hilman, Ellis, London Under London, 1984 Wicks, Ben, Waiting for the All Clear, 1990 Subterranea Britannica: www.subbrit.org.uk The Greater London Industrial Archaelogy Society: www.glias.org.uk Underground History www.underground-history.co.uk After the Battle www.afterthebattle.com Getty Images Ireland www.gettyimages.ie

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Boiling, a dynamic and multiscale process, has been studied for several decades; however, a comprehensive understanding of the process is still lacking. The bubble ebullition cycle, which occurs over millisecond time-span, makes it extremely challenging to study near-surface interfacial characteristics of a single bubble. Here, we create a steady-state vapor bubble that can remain stable for hours in a pool of sub-cooled water using a femtosecond laser source. The stability of the bubble allows us to measure the contact-angle and perform in-situ imaging of the contact-line region and the microlayer, on hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces and in both degassed and regular (with dissolved air) water. The early growth stage of vapor bubble in degassed water shows a completely wetted bubble base with the microlayer and the bubble does not depart from the surface due to reduced liquid pressure in the microlayer. Using experimental data and numerical simulations, we obtain permissible range of maximum heat transfer coefficient possible in nucleate boiling and the width of the evaporating layer in the contact-line region. This technique of creating and measuring fundamental characteristics of a stable vapor bubble will facilitate rational design of nanostructures for boiling enhancement and advance thermal management in electronics. Boiling is one of the most efficient heat transfer mechanisms that allows a large amount of heat to be transferred over small surface areas due to the associated phase-change process. It has been widely used in industry1, from cooling small electronics to large power plants. However, it is a complex phenomenon which involves multiple length scales present at the base of a bubble in the contact line region2,3. The three-phase contact line region (Fig. 1a), where the liquid-vapor interface meets the solid surface, can be divided into three sub-regions of varying thicknesses: non-evaporating film region (of nanometer-scale thickness), evaporating film region (of micrometer-scale thickness) and bulk meniscus region (of micrometer- to millimeter-scale thickness)4,5, with these regions constituting the microlayer. Contact line models6,7, together with transient conduction8 and microlayer evaporation9,10, have been widely accepted as the basic heat-transfer mechanisms in boiling. The dynamics of contact line region and the microlayer dictate bubble growth and departure and are of significant importance in understanding the fundamental behavior of the boiling phenomenon11. Visualization of the boiling process and the contact line region has recently been pursued12,13,14,15,16,17 with tremendous impact in providing a realistic depiction of the boiling process; however, the unsteady nature and a short time-span of the bubble ebullition cycle has made in-situ imaging of a single bubble very challenging. The contact line region is incorporated into predictive boiling models through contact angle values18,19,20. The intricacies involving the shape of an interface and the behavior of the contact line are implicitly accounted for in the contact angle, thus making the bubble contact angle parameter of significant importance in boiling models. Methods that have been applied to determine the contact angle include the captive-bubble technique (involves an air-bubble)21,22,23, the flotometric technique (involves solid particles interacting with a bubble)24 and high-speed photography (involves visual approximation of the contact line region and angle)25. In addition, equilibrium or advancing contact angles of a liquid droplet on the surface at room temperature are often used boiling models19,26, although it is difficult to relate the boiling process to the droplet wetting characteristics due to the highly transient conditions associated with liquid-vapor phase change27,28,29. Thus, the contact angle of a vapor bubble in pool boiling has yet to be measured in the early growth stages due to the dynamic nature of the bubble ebullition cycle; making it all the more necessary to image the contact line region to advance our understanding of boiling process and enhance boiling heat transfer efficiency. In this work, we create a steady-state vapor bubble in a pool of sub-cooled water by heating the surface with a femtosecond laser source. The bubble remains stationary for hours, allowing in-situ imaging of the microlayer and the contact line region, as well as measurements of the contact angle. A Ti:Sapphire ultrafast laser (pulse length ≈120 fs, repetition rate = 80 MHz, center wavelength λ0 = 800 nm) in conjunction with a second-harmonic generation (SHG) unit was used to generate high-power laser pulses at a free-space wavelength of λSHG = 400 nm. The laser pulses were passed through a 5× or 50× objective lens and focused on an absorbing 40 nm thick Au film that was sandwiched between a silica glass substrate (bottom-surface) and sputter-deposited 400 nm thick layer of SiO2 (top-surface). The focused laser beam creates a highly localized heating area corresponding to the beam-diameter ≈170 μm. To achieve boiling, a pool of water was created inside a 6 cm long and 1.4 cm inner diameter glass tube bonded to the SiO2 top-surface of the substrate. Although laser-initiated bubbles have been used in literature30,31,32, fundamental characteristics of formation of such bubbles or their in-situ imaging to understand the boiling process have not been explored. Experiments were performed in both regular deionized (DI) water with dissolved air and degassed DI water. The latter was prepared by boiling regular DI water for one-hour and filling it inside the glass-tube using a 220 nm filter syringe to remove any particulates. Based on the one-dimensional (1D) diffusion equation, it would take >24 hours for the atmospheric air to diffuse to the bottom of the 6 cm long tube whereas each experimental measurements lasted for <2 hours. Convection currents due to bubble formation can increase diffusion of air in water; however, experimental observations show that water remained degassed near the surface as the vapor bubble condensed when the laser was turned off (video V1 in the supplementary material). Using regular DI water, we tested hydrophilic SiO2 surfaces (where experiments were performed immediately after plasma cleaning) and normal SiO2 surfaces. Similarly, using degassed DI water, we tested both the normal SiO2 surface and a hydrophobic tridecafluoro−1,1,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl-trichlorosilane (FOTS) surface. In Table 1, we list the drop contact angle on these surfaces measured using a goniometer (drop images in supplementary information). After a bubble is formed on the surface through heating with a laser pulse, we increase the average power of the laser by 20 mW for every subsequent reading of the bubble base, bubble diameter and contact angle. The measurements were stopped before the average laser power could reach the damage threshold of the SiO2 surface (corresponding to an average power ≈240 mW). The uncertainty in all the contact angle measurements are one standard deviation for repeated experimental measurements (five in total). Please refer to the supplementary information for details on the experimental setup, sample fabrication and preparation. Figure 2a–c show the bottom view, obtained using an inverted optical microscope, of a single bubble formed on hydrophilic SiO2, FOTS and normal SiO2 surfaces, respectively, with increasing laser heating power. The vapor bubble instantly achieves steady-state in degassed DI water as the heat transfer from the surface leads to continuous evaporation of water in the microlayer which is balanced by the continuous condensation of vapor at the liquid-vapor interface away from the surface due to the sub-cooled pool of water (temperature of water was ≈75 °C lower than the saturation temperature ≈100 °C). The bubble contact angle for the hydrophilic SiO2 surface was obtained by measuring the bubble base diameter, and the height of bubble middle plane, , (Fig. 2d1) and determined by the equation: ; whereas for the hydrophobic surface (FOTS), was obtained by the first-order derivative of the parabolic curve of the interface (Fig. 2d2) and given by where the height of the bubble is . In these equations, the bubble base diameter, , was obtained directly from the calibrated optical images acquired using a CCD camera; while the z positions of the bubble middle plane (for hydrophilic and normal SiO2) or the bubble height (for the FOTS surface) were obtained by translating the focal plane of the objective to the appropriate z height and reading the z-offset from the controller of the motorized translation stage. Figure 2e,f show the variation in the bubble base/bubble diameter and contact angle, respectively, with increasing laser power for the various cases studied. The bubble sizes were consistently smaller in degassed DI (D) water when compared to regular DI (R) water due to the contribution of dissolved air in the bubble growth phenomenon in regular water. This effect was further confirmed by turning the laser off; the bubble in degassed DI water disappeared in < 20 seconds (due to condensation of vapor) while the bubble in regular DI water decreased slightly in diameter but stayed on the surface for days (videos V1, V2 and V3 in the supplementary material). Our results are also consistent with a recent study33 where air nanobubbles were found to be stable for days due to the slow-rate of dissolution of air into an already saturated surrounding liquid. For the normal SiO2 surface with degassed water, the bubble contact angle decreased with increasing laser power (from 73.6° ± 3.9° at 120 mW to 45.3° ± 5.2° at 200 mW). In all the other cases, the bubble contact angle was found to be independent of the laser power studied. Average bubble contact angle in regular water was determined to be 31.9° ± 0.5° on normal SiO2 surface, which is similar to the drop contact angle (Table 1) and in good agreement26 with the drop receding contact angle after boiling experiments (32.3° ± 0.4°). The average contact angle was 29.3° ± 0.4° on the hydrophilic SiO2 surface which is slightly smaller than the bubble contact angle on normal SiO2 surface. Contact angle of the bubble on FOTS surface was 96.8° ± 0.2° which is also similar to the measured drop contact angle. These variations in contact angle, especially between degassed and regular water on the same surface, depend on the dynamics of the microlayer and contact line region as studied and explained below. A stable bubble enables in-situ imaging of the contact line region present at the base of the bubble. Using femtosecond laser illumination through a 50× microscope objective, bubbles were formed on a normal SiO2 (Fig. 3a) surface with regular water, a normal SiO2 surface with degassed water (Fig. 3b) and a FOTS surface with degassed water (Fig. 3c). The contact line region is imaged (Fig. 3) using the inverted optical microscope under illumination from both a white halogen lamp source (Fig. 3a1) and a 632 nm HeNe laser (Fig. 3a2). The microlayer and the contact line region were identified based on the juxtaposition of these two sets of images. Under coherent HeNe laser illumination, two sets of fringes were observed in the images that are a result of thin-film interference associated with interaction between regions of different refractive index. The first set of fringes, F-1 (dark thick partial rings), have fringe-gaps decreasing in the outward radial direction and are associated with interference resulting from the top curved interface of the bubble (and not due to the contact line region). The second set of fringes, F-2, are relatively closely packed and the fringe-gap for these set of fringes increase in the outward radial direction. These fringes are a result of thin-film interference of incident light with the partially reflected light within the thin liquid microlayer present at the base of the bubble14, with the increase in fringe-gap attributed to the increase in radius-of-curvature of the microlayer in the outward radial direction. The second set of fringes is clearly evident in degassed DI water (Fig. 3b2) showing the presence of a liquid microlayer over the entire bubble base. However, in regular DI water (Fig. 3a2), the fringes are absent from the center of the bubble base and are only present in the equivalent bright regions of Fig. 3a1. This observation implies the presence of a dry-spot region at the center of the bubble base and the formation of the three-phase contact line region (liquid-vapor-solid) interfacing with the SiO2 surface, with a significantly reduced microlayer. The microlayer shape obtained for a bubble on normal SiO2 in regular water and degassed water and on FOTS surface in degassed water is plotted in Fig. 2a3 respectively. As the interference of the monochromatic light source generates dark and bright fringes corresponding to constructive and destructive interference respectively, these fringes are separated by an optical path difference equal to effective half wavelength, nλ0/2, where n is the refractive of the medium, λ0 is the free-space wavelength of light. The position of these fringes is used to construct the shape of the microlayer, where the difference in local thickness at the adjacent bright/dark fringe location tm + 1 and tm is given by tm + 1 – tm = λ0/2n cos(θ) for the light refracted at angle θ into the microlayer. The fringes observed in the contact line region are also used to explain the experimentally measured contact angle values. In the regular DI water on normal SiO2 surface, the larger size of the bubble (due to contribution of dissolved air) at low laser power creates a dry spot at the center causing the creation of a three-phase contact line; and hence, the bubble contact angle is similar to the drop contact angle (where a similar three-phase contact line is present). However, with degassed DI water on normal SiO2 surface, the microlayer covers the entire bubble base preventing the formation of the three-phase contact line and the contact angle is governed by the microlayer curvature relative to the bubble curvature. Hence, the contact angle decreases with increasing laser power as the radius of curvature of the microlayer increases significantly faster compared to the radius of curvature of the bubble. Similarly in FOTS, the larger radius of curvature microlayer along with the parabolic bubble shape results in large contact angle values. The parabolic shape of bubble is attributed to the larger bubble base diameter as the reduced wettability of the hydrophobic surface requires a larger microlayer to remove the same amount of heat from the surface. However, for degassed DI water on both normal SiO2 and FOTS surfaces, it is expected that after a critical bubble size is reached – the microlayer would reduce in thickness, form the three-phase contact line and the bubble contact angle would converge to that of the drop contact angle.Further, bubbles with the microlayer wetting the entire bubble base will not depart the surface as the capillary and disjoining suction force (due to reduced liquid pressure in microlayer) is estimated to be larger than the buoyancy force and capillary force at the top of the bubble (please refer to supplementary information for detailed analysis). Maximum heat flux occurs in the thin evaporating region10 and is of critical importance in bubble growth dynamics; however, knowledge of heat transfer coefficient and corresponding width of this region is currently lacking in literature. We use experimental data from in-situ imaging of the contact line region together with finite-element-method based numerical simulations to characterize the evaporating region in the microlayer. We first focus on the bubble formation in regular DI water on normal SiO2 surface to obtain experimental data. Interestingly, it was found that the bubble grew gradually at constant laser power. The source of bubble growth results from the air dissolved in the water, which is released into the bubble during the vaporization of water from the evaporating region of the microlayer. The bubble grew steadily (Fig. 4a) at a volumetric rate of (5.60 ± 0.06) × 10−3 mm3/min (please refer to supplementary information for bubble volume calculations) and the contact line region at the bubble base grew radially outward at a speed of (1.9 ± 0.1) μm/min during the initial 40 min, but stopped after it reached a diameter of ≈270 μm (Fig. 4b); this limiting diameter approximately corresponds to the measured laser beam diameter (≈170 μm) with additional radial heat conduction in the Au layer. The uncertainty in the measurements of the bubble growth rate and bubble base are standard deviation of the fit parameter. Contact angle of the bubble (Fig. 4c) decreased with time as the bubble base remained nearly constant while the bubble diameter grew uninhibited. Similar to Fig. 3a1, the central dry spot diameter was identified from in-situ imaging of the contact line region. Based on these experimental data, the heat transfer rate q in the evaporating region, , is obtained from the air-water solubility mass balance calculation. Here, is the vaporization rate of water in evaporating region, is the mass flow rate of air into the vapor bubble from evaporating region, Sa is the solubility of air in water and ΔH is the latent heat of vaporization. The heat transfer rate in the evaporating region q is also dependent on the overall heat transfer coefficient h and the area of the evaporating region through (please refer to Supplementary Information): where Dbb is the central dry spot diameter, w is the width of evaporating region and ΔT is the temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid. Unknown parameters h and w characterize the evaporating region (Fig. 4d) and we performed finite-element-method based simulations to determine the range of h and w for which the simulated release rate of air from the evaporating region agreed with that obtained through measured bubble geometry in the experiments (Fig. 4a). An axi-symmetric domain was considered that included the glass substrate, 40 nm Au layer and 400 nm SiO2 layer (Fig. 4d). A parametric study was performed where h and w were varied from 5000 Wm−2K−1 to 200,000 Wm−2K−1 and from 0.5 μm to 19.5 μm, respectively for a total of 3500 simulation cases. Figure 3e shows the range of h and w for which simulation results were in good agreement with experiments within a standard uncertainty of 4.5%. The temperature profile of the surface is plotted for this range (Fig. 4f). Interestingly, the surface temperature at r ≈135 μm was ≈39 °C, which is the critical temperature when Marangoni flow inhibits fluid flow towards the contact line34, thus equilibrating the incoming mass flow to the evaporation rate and causing the contact line to become stable at bubble base diameter of ≈270 μm. The temperature at the center of the bubble is calculated to be ≈82 °C, which is also in good agreement with experiments35, where it has been shown that the formation of a bubble in pool boiling in sub-cooled water at room temperature occurs at ≈84 °C. The thermal boundary layer thickness prior to bubble nucleation is simulated to be ≈200 μm and around the steady bubble is estimated to be ≈280 μm for h = 120 kW/m2K and w = 10 μm (please refer to Supplementary Information). In summary, a steady-state vapor bubble is created in a pool of sub-cooled water by femtosecond laser heating which allows for in-situ imaging of the microlayer and the contact line region. The bubble can remain stable for hours as the evaporation of water at the surface is balanced by condensation of vapor at the liquid-vapor interface inside the bubble. Experiments are conducted on hydrophilic (SiO2) and hydrophobic (FOTS) surfaces in regular (with dissolved air) and degassed DI water. The contact angle of the vapor bubble is measured for various cases and the microlayer and contact line region are imaged with white light and a coherent laser source. For the laser powers studied, it was found that the three-phase contact line readily forms in regular DI water, while the microlayer covers the entire bubble base in degassed DI water. The contact angle for the bubble is found to resemble the drop contact angle on the same surface if the three-phase contact line forms, otherwise the contact angle is dependent on the curvature of the microlayer and the bubble and decreases with increasing laser power. The evaporating region in the contact line region is characterized by numerical simulations and experimental results and permissible values of heat transfer coefficient and corresponding width are calculated, thus providing an estimate to the upper limit of the heat transfer coefficient attainable in nucleate boiling as well as thin-film evaporation. The work presented here will advance the design of nanostructures to enhance heat transfer by optimizing the width of microlayer and improve our understanding of boiling phenomenon, particularly in outer-space where lack of gravity causes the bubbles to stay stationary on a heated surface. In-situ imaging of the microlayer and contact line region in a steady state bubble is a powerful technique for understanding the physical dynamics of the bubble growth process. How to cite this article: Zou, A. et al. Steady State Vapor Bubble in Pool Boiling. Sci. Rep. 6, 20240; doi: 10.1038/srep20240 (2016). Dhir, V. K. Boiling heat transfer. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 30, 365–401 (1998). Wayner, P. C. & Kesten, A. S. Suction nucleate boiling of water. AIChE Journal 11, 858–865 (1965). Carey, V. P. Liquid-Vapor Phase-Change Phenomena: An Introduction to the Thermophysics of Vaporization and Condensation Processes in Heat Transfer Equipment, 2nd ed. (Taylor & Francis, 2007). Maroo, S. C. & Chung, J. N. Heat transfer characteristics and pressure variation in a nanoscale evaporating meniscus. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 53, 3335–3345 (2010). Maroo, S. C. & Chung, J. N. Nanoscale liquid-vapor phase-change physics in nonevaporating region at the three-phase contact line. J. Appl. Phys. 106, 064911 (2009). Wayner, P. C., Jr., Kao, Y. K. & LaCroix, L. V. The interline heat-transfer coefficient of an evaporating wetting film. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 19, 487–492 (1976). Stephan, P. & Hammer, J. A new model for nucleate boiling heat transfer. Warme- und Stoffubertragung 30, 119–125 (1994). Mikic, B. B. & Rohsenow, W. M. A New Correlation of Pool-Boiling Data Including Effect of Heating Surface Characteristics. J. Heat Transf. 91, 245–250 (1969). Moore, F. D. & Mesler, R. B. The measurement of rapid surface temperature fluctuations during nucleate boiling of water. AIChE Journal 7, 620–624 (1961). Judd, R. L. & Hwang, K. S. A Comprehensive Model for Nucleate Pool Boiling Heat Transfer Including Microlayer Evaporation. J. Heat Transf. 98, 623–629 (1976). Lu, Y. W. & Kandlikar, S. G. Nanoscale Surface Modification Techniques for Pool Boiling EnhancementA Critical Review and Future Directions. Heat Tran. Eng. 32, 827–842 (2011). Jung, S. & Kim, H. An Experimental Study on Heat Transfer Mechanisms in the Microlayer using Integrated Total Reflection, Laser Interferometry and Infrared Thermometry Technique. Heat Tran. Eng. 36, 1002–1012 (2015). Gerardi, C., Buongiorno, J., Hu, L. W. & McKrell, T. Study of bubble growth in water pool boiling through synchronized, infrared thermometry and high-speed video. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 53, 4185–4192 (2010). Koffman, L. D. & Plesset, M. S. Experimental Observations of the Microlayer in Vapor Bubble Growth on a Heated Solid. J. Heat Transf. 105, 625–632 (1983). Jawurek, H. H. Simultaneous determination of microlayer geometry and bubble growth in nucleate boiling. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 12, 843–848 (1969). Gao, M., Zhang, L., Cheng, P. & Quan, X. An investigation of microlayer beneath nucleation bubble by laser interferometric method. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 57, 183–189 (2013). Ahn, H. S. & Kim, M. H. The boiling phenomenon of alumina nanofluid near critical heat flux. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 62, 718–728 (2013). Dhir, V. K. & Liaw, S. P. Framework for a Unified Model for Nucleate and Transition Pool Boiling. J. Heat Trans.-T. ASME 111, 739–746 (1989). Kandlikar, S. G. A theoretical model to predict pool boiling CHF incorporating effects of contact angle and orientation. J. Heat Trans.-T. ASME 123, 1071–1079 (2001). Zou, A. & Maroo, S. C. Critical height of micro/nano structures for pool boiling heat transfer enhancement. Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 221602 (2013). Drelich, J. The effect of drop (bubble) size on contact angle at solid surfaces. J. Adhes. 63, 31–51 (1997). Drelich, J., Miller, J. D. & Good, R. J. The effect of drop (bubble) size on advancing and receding contact angles for heterogeneous and rough solid surfaces as observed with sessile-drop and captive-bubble techniques. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 179, 37–50 (1996). Xue, J. et al. A modified captive bubble method for determining advancing and receding contact angles. Appl. Surf. Sci. 296, 133–139 (2014). Kowalczuk, P. B. & Drzymala, J. Contact Angle of Bubble with an Immersed-in-Water Particle of Different Materials. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 50, 4207–4211 (2011). Ramanujapu, N. & Dhir, V. K. Dynamics of contact angle during growth and detachment of a vapor bubble at a single nucleation site. (5th ASME/JSME Thermal Engineering Joint Conference, San Diego, CA (US), American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY (US), 1999). Chu, K. H., Enright, R. & Wang, E. N. Structured surfaces for enhanced pool boiling heat transfer. Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 241603 (2012). Kim, J. Review of nucleate pool boiling bubble heat transfer mechanisms. Int. J. Multiphase Flow 35, 1067–1076 (2009). Mukherjee, A. & Kandlikar, S. G. Numerical Study of an Evaporating Meniscus on a Moving Heated Surface. J. Heat Transf. 128, 1285–1292 (2006). Kunkelmann, C. et al. The effect of three-phase contact line speed on local evaporative heat transfer: Experimental and numerical investigations. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 55, 1896–1904 (2012). Ando, K., Liu, A.-Q. & Ohl, C.-D. Homogeneous Nucleation in Water in Microfluidic Channels. Phys. Rev. Lett. 109, 044501 (2012). Parker, S. & Granick, S. Unorthodox bubbles when boiling in cold water. Phys. Rev. E 89, 013011 (2014). Lajoinie, G. et al. Ultrafast vapourization dynamics of laser-activated polymeric microcapsules. Nat. Commun. 5, 3671 (2014). Weijs, J. H. & Lohse, D. Why Surface Nanobubbles Live for Hours. Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 054501 (2013). Liu, X., Guo, D., Xie, G., Liu, S. & Luo, J. “Boiling” in the water evaporating meniscus induced by Marangoni flow. Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 211602 (2012). Petrovic, S., Robinson, T. & Judd, R. L. Marangoni heat transfer in sub-cooled nucleate pool boiling. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 47, 5115–5128 (2004). This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 1445946. This work was performed in part at the Cornell NanoScale Facility, a member of the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network, which was supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant ECCS-15420819). A. A. acknowledges support under the Cooperative Research Agreement between the University of Maryland and the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Award#70NANB10H193, through the University of Maryland. The authors declare no competing financial interests. About this article Cite this article Zou, A., Chanana, A., Agrawal, A. et al. Steady State Vapor Bubble in Pool Boiling. Sci Rep 6, 20240 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20240 International Journal of Multiphase Flow (2021) Applied Physics Letters (2020) Effect of subatmospheric pressures on heat transfer, vapor bubbles and dry spots evolution during water boiling Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science (2020) Scientific Reports (2020) Journal of Heat Transfer (2019)

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Final Report for LNC05-259 Increased domestic production of oat with its economic and environmental benefits is impeded by oat susceptibility to crown rust (Puccinia coronata Corda). Simple variety blends have recently been successful in rice, wheat, and barley: blend components were all top agronomic varieties and combining them reduced disease. The epidemiological mechanisms of blend effects entail that this approach be tested in very large plots as are used in on-farm research. We evaluated 19 commercially available oat varieties for their resistances to specific pathogen isolates and chose to test the blend of three that were divergent. In three years of on-farm testing at eight locations per year (four in Minnesota and four in Iowa) the blend experienced significantly less rust severity and yielded significantly more than the average of the component varieties grown in pure stands. While we believe that this simple ecological diversity technology could benefit farmers who grow oats, the infrastructure for collecting and disseminating the necessary information and knowledge are not trivial. The loss of crop diversity in the Upper Midwest has lead to increased pathogen and insect pest problems in the remaining crops. Though Midwest agriculture has turned away from oat (Avena sativa L.), it has a long history on farms in the U.S. and remains a critical component of most sustainable farms. An oat crop breaks weed and pathogen cycles, builds soil tilth, protects soil from erosion, scavenges nutrients left from other crops, can serve as a nurse crop for the establishment of forages, and provides an irreplaceable feed ingredient for young livestock. Disruption of corn and soybean pests by oat reduces input costs and increases yields of these crops and improves returns to farmers while oat also diminishes the row crops’ potential negative environmental impacts. Increased domestic production of oat with its economic and environmental benefits is impeded by oat susceptibility to crown rust (Puccinia coronata Corda). While crown rust is not always severe, it can be devastating, and this variability may dissuade farmers from planting oat. Yield statistics understate the economic impact of rust epidemics, which can lower grain quality below market grade. Breeders have sought to enhance oat crown rust resistance using single-gene resistances introgressed from wild relatives. The pathogen, however, has rapidly evolved virulence to all such single-gene approaches. Thus, the use of genetic resistance for disease management poses two problems. First, how can resistance be used to minimize disease severity in the crop? Second, how can the evolution of pathogen virulence be managed? Increasing host-crop diversity by planting variety blends rather than single varieties can reduce disease severity and delay the evolution of pathogen virulence and has been long recognized but insufficiently explored. In the 1950s, an ecological approach was pursued against crown rust: “multiline” oat varieties were bred for diversity in disease resistance but uniformity in other traits. Though multilines managed both disease severity and virulence evolution, they were not adopted because they performed less well agronomically and were expensive to maintain. Simple variety blends, however, have recently been successful in rice, wheat, and barley: blend components were all top agronomic varieties and combining them dramatically reduced disease. The epidemiological mechanisms of blend effects entail that this approach be tested in very large plots as are used in on-farm research. A significant proportion of variety improvement efforts are devoted to increasing crop resistance. We review crop-pathogen interactions, at the level of the plant then, from an ecological perspective, at the level of the plant population. We discuss approaches to improve resistance within the constraints imposed by the biology and genetics of resistance. Plants possess mechanisms of resistance that are either simply inherited (monogenic resistance), or that derive from multiple genes and their interactions with each other and the environment (polygenic resistance). In single gene resistances, the gene in the host plant enables it to recognize the product of a single gene in the pathogen; this form of resistance is called gene-for-gene resistance. A salient feature of single-gene resistances is the dramatic differences in virulence that they elicit between pathogen races. In particular, pathogen races that carry the gene whose product the host recognizes are avirulent, while genotypes that do not carry such a gene can be highly virulent. There are no accepted models for the mechanisms that underlie polygenic resistances to disease. These resistances differ in their phenomenology in two important ways from single-gene resistances. First, the resistance is generally not complete, but partial. Second, differences among pathogen races in virulence are not as great against polygenic as against monogenic resistances. In addition to these plant-level resistances, a population-level mechanism contributes to preventing explosive disease epidemics. Natural populations of a plant species exist as complex blends of genotypes in which components differ in their single-gene and polygenic resistances. There are many mechanisms through which blends protect components from disease, which we will detail below. These characteristics of resistances have had important consequences on breeding approaches to disease resistance. Incorporating monogenic resistances provides the easiest and most rapid solution. Single-gene resistances have therefore been used longest and most widely by plant breeders. The reliance on single-gene resistances has met with short-term success but long-term failure. When a novel single gene is introduced into a variety, the dramatic resistance that it provides often leads that variety, or others possessing the same gene, to be grown over large areas. At the same time, pathogen races that are virulent against that gene have a very strong selective advantage and proliferate, “defeating” the resistance gene. Shifts in crown rust populations that defeat resistance genes have been swift: single genes, once released in varieties, have lost effectiveness in less than five years. In response to these pathogen population shifts, crop breeders have developed strategies that include gene pyramiding, selection for partial resistance, and the development of multilines. Gene pyramiding involves the introgression of two or more effective resistance genes into a single pure-line variety. Gene pyramids have sometimes retained effectiveness and sometimes have been defeated. Pyramids are more difficult to breed than single gene introgressions. Selection for partial resistances involves handling disease resistance as a quantitative trait, seeking to increase the frequencies of the genes that have small but favorable effects. The heritability of partial resistance is generally reported to be low. Selecting partial resistance in the presence of segregating single-gene resistances is difficult. Two approaches to increasing host diversity have been considered, variety blends and multilines. Variety blends involve physically mixing the seed of varieties bred as pure lines. Multilines involve selecting a single agronomically adapted variety and creating several sublines of that variety, with each subline containing a distinct single-gene resistance. Each subline derives from the simple but time-consuming process of crossing the variety to a carrier of the single-gene resistance of interest, then repeatedly back-crossing progeny to the original variety. The subline becomes genetically almost identical to the original variety, with the exception of the new resistance gene. The multiline variety is then also produced by physically mixing the seed of the sublines. Given these different approaches, the individual oat plants of a field planted to a multiline will be virtually identical for their polygenic resistances. In contrast, the individual plants of a blend will differ in both their monogenic and polygenic resistances, and added diversity that may confer overall resistance benefits. Variety blends enjoy several advantages over multilines. In the 1960’s the Iowa Experiment Station released two multiline varieties that were quite effective in preventing economic losses from crown rust but never became popular because, by the time the multiline had been created, the single variety forming the basis of the multiline had become agronomically obsolete. A major breeding advantage of variety blends is that current agronomically competitive varieties can be used. Other advantages include that variety seed sources are easier and less expensive to maintain than multiline seed sources; creation of multilines are a burden to breeding programs that must also develop pure-breeding varieties; and most importantly, variety blends are controlled by farmers, who can tailor them to their farms, while multilines are controlled by breeding programs. Biological Bases for Variety Blend Efficacy The reduction in disease severity in variety blends may arise from several factors. Probably the most important cause of reduced disease is the reduction in the proportion of susceptible host plants available for infection. Because only a fraction of the pathogen population will be virulent on any component of a blend, pathogen infection efficiency decreases. The reduced frequency of susceptible plants also means that susceptible plants are physically further apart, which slows the spread of disease from plant to plant in the blend. Resistant host plants may also physically block the dispersal of inoculum between susceptible plants. Compensation and competition among host plants may also play an important role. Disease will affect competitive ability of blend components, leading to increased production by resistant components. Thus, the impact of an equal amount of disease may be less in the blend than in a monoculture. Another possible mechanism of the blend effect in reducing disease may be induced resistance. An incompatible reaction around an infection site may prevent subsequent infection by an otherwise compatible isolate of the pathogen. Since blends may maintain more variable pathogen populations and high proportions of races avirulent to blend components, they may also enhance induced resistance effects. Competition between pathogen races may also play a role in the blend effect. Modeling of competition between races of stem rust (Puccinia graminis Pers. sp. tritici) of wheat has shown that the more competitive races may not be the most virulent. Finally, in a variety blend, even if two components lack major gene resistances, they will have different polygenic resistances to which some virulent races will not be adapted. Thus blends may have an important biological advantage over multilines: they provide diversity for polygenic and single-gene resistance. Similarly, the variety blend may also beneficial diversity for other traits. Diversity in resistance to other pests (e.g., insects) will make it more difficult for any pest population to adapt to the variety blend environment. Diversity in tolerance to weather-related stresses may make blends more stable in the face of unpredictable weather conditions. Compensating growth and yield of the blend components tolerant of the stress experienced in a specific season may cause a blend to out-perform or attain greater stability than a multiline from purely agronomic perspectives. The importance of epidemiological factors in the effectiveness of blends has consequences for the empirical study of blend effects. In particular, these effects are most prominent when they can be assessed on large areas. In small plots, evaluation of the blend effect on the build up of the disease over the season can be swamped by border effects. Rather than assessing how the disease inoculum builds up in the blend itself, small plots ultimately show only how much disease built up elsewhere and blew in. This fact provides an important rationale for conducting the experiments we propose in large plots on farms. The most compelling examples of blend benefits come from studies over large areas. Stated project targets were: In the short term, this project will: 1) determine the extent to which variety blends can control oat crown rust, caused by Puccinia coronata Corda, and increase the profitability and stability of the crop; 2) provide the data on the disease resistance specificities of Upper Midwest oat varieties that farmers will need for variety selection; and 3) increase farmer content knowledge and foster communication to and among producers on the value and use of this information. In the intermediate term, project outreach will: 1) provide farmers and seed houses procedural knowledge of how to increase and stabilize oat yield and quality by combining complementary commercial varieties; 2) increase discussion among oat breeders on how to develop varieties with diverse disease resistance specificities; and 3) by improving oat profits, increase the diversity of Upper Midwest cropping systems, enabling longer, environmentally healthier, and more profitable rotations. In the long term, this project will: 1) contribute to highlighting the value and increasing the adoption of within-crop genetic diversity in sustainable farming systems by showing its effectiveness in oat and 2) encourage research on within-crop diversity approaches in other crop/ pest systems. Variety Resistance Specificities and Blend Component Selection The Cereal Disease Lab collected 47 and 139 single-pustule isolates of the crown rust fungus in the upper Midwest in the summers of 2004 and 2005, respectively. In the fall of 2005 each of these isolates was used to inoculate 19 commercially available oat varieties. Rust reactions were scored as susceptible = -3; moderately susceptible = -1; moderately resistant = 1; resistant or highly resistant = 3. The functional difference between pairs of varieties was assessed by the covariance of their reactions across the 186 isolates. A low (possibly negative) covariance indicated functional diversity in a pair of varieties. For three varieties (say A, B, and C) there were three pairwise combinations (AB, AC, and BC). A three-variety blend was therefore be characterized by the sum of three pairwise covariances. Blends with a low sum of pairwise covariances were blends with the most functionally diverse components. Based on this analysis, a blend of the varieties ‘Blaze’, ‘Kame’, and ‘Spurs’ was chosen for further study. Measuring Disease Development in Field Plots and Overall Blend Performance Approximately one-half hectare plots of the blend and of each of its three components were planted in eight environments (three farms and one experiment station in each of Minnesota and Iowa) in 2006, 2007, and 2008. One experimental block consisted of one plot of each of the pure line varieties and two plots of the blend, for a total of five plots. Blocks were replicated twice on station at Ames, IA but only once elsewhere. Experimental replication was therefore obtained mainly across environments rather than within environments. The farms and stations ranged from central MN to central IA, the farms and were primarily in southern MN and northern IA. The high number of environments over the study ensured that blends were challenged with a range of weather and initial inoculum conditions. Plots were planted using full-scale farm equipment. The percent disease severity on the flag and flag – 1 leaves of 20 plants along a transect in the center of plots was estimated twice during the grain-filling period. Percent of leaf area infected was scored visually by a modified Cobb’s scale (Peterson et al., 1948). Measurement of plot yield varied from environment to environment and depended farm equipment available. On the cooperating farms, the oat was cut and windrowed, the center windrows of each plot were harvested with a farm combine, and weigh wagons or drive-on scales were used to measure yields. Windrows were at least 14 m. wide and 66 m. long. Seed moisture was measured and yield adjusted to a standard moisture of 13.5%. Yields are reported in bushels per acre. With a standard oat bushel of 32 lb, one bushel per acre is 35.8 kg ha-1. For rust severity analysis, we retained only environments where rust was detected on at least ten percent of flag leaves sampled in the environment; four, four, and seven environments were retained for 2006, 2007, and 2008, respectively. Percent severity was arcsine square root transformed. Yield data were lost from one environment in 2008. Yield measurements were untransformed. Data were analyzed using the following model: Yijk = Ti + Ej + ETij + Rk(j) + e Where Yijk is the measurement of treatment i (treatments were pure line Blaze, Kame, or Spurs, and the blend), Ti was the effect of treatment i and was considered fixed, Ej was the effect of environment j (random), ETij was the effect of the interaction between environment j and treatment i, Rk(j) was the effect of replication within environment j (random), and e was an error term (random). This linear model was fit in a Bayesian framework using WinBUGS (Lunn et al. 2000). In the Markov chain Monte Carlo analysis implemented by WinBUGS, random effects were sampled from normal distributions with zero mean and effect-specific variances. Those effect-specific variances were sampled from inverse gamma distributions with shape parameter equal to 1 and scale parameter set so that the expectation of the variance was equal to variances calculated from ANOVA. A single chain was run with 500,000 burn-in iterations and 500,000 sampled iterations. The blend effect was calculated as (TBlaze + TKame + TSpurs) / 3 – TBlend. Probabilities given below are the frequencies with which a particular condition (e.g., a positive blend effect) occurred over the sampled iterations of the Markov chain. To analyze the stability of the blend relative to the pure line varieties, a further analysis was run in which environment by treatment interaction variances were estimated separately for each of the treatments. In this analysis, the blend effect was calculated as (vExTBlaze + vExTKame + vExTSpurs) / 3 – vExTBlend, where vExTi denotes the treatment-specific interaction variance. Blend Effects on Rust Severity Each of the three component oat varieties showed different levels of rust severity. In prior assays of rust resistance against single-spore isolates, the ranking of the components had differed, with Kame being resistant to the highest percentage of isolates (95.7%), followed by Spurs (53.2%) and Blaze (48.4%). In this case, at least, seedling assays of resistance were not highly predictive of rust severity under field conditions. The probability that the blend had a rust severity that was below the average severities of the pure components was 97%, indicating strong support for the fact that some mechanism reduced rust severity below what might have been predicted from observation of the components. Furthermore separate estimation of the variety by environment interaction variance for rust severity for the blend (4.7 × 10-3) had a 98% probability of being lower than that of the pure line components (13.6 × 10-3). Thus, the blend was also more stable in the face of different environments than were the pure lines. One hypothesis for this greater stability is that at least one component of the blend was resistant to a greater fraction of the rust inoculum arriving into the field. Another hypothesis is that induced resistance played a greater role in reducing rust severity in the blend than in the pure component fields. We can view these results from two perspectives. First, if we assume that we knew at the outset which component was the most resistant, would it nevertheless be worth planting a blend? Here, we consider the difference between the blend and Spurs, which was in our trials the component with the lowest rust severity. Under this assumption, it seems clear that we would be better off not making a blend, and just planting the more resistant single component. The assumption that we might know which component is most resistant, however, is difficult to justify. In our case, for example, even extensive preliminary resistance assays indicated that Kame was more resistant than Spurs. Blend Effect on Yield In the case of yield, the blend performed equally to the best pure component. The probability that the blend had a higher yield than the average of the pure components was 98%, again indicating strong support for the exitence of a mechanism increasing yield above what might have been predicted from observation of the components. Again, the blend showed greater stability to environmental variation than did the pure components: it’s variety by environment interaction component (25.5) had a 96% probability of being lower than that of the pure components (69.4). The mechanisms for the increased yield and stability might simply be a consequence of the greater rust resistance of the blend relative to the pure components. Other environmental factors, however, could also play a role: if one component responded well to a factor while others responded poorly, gains from the former could compensate for losses from the latter. [To view figures from this report, contact the NCR-SARE office at email@example.com] The impacts of this project related primarily to its mid- and long-term goals. At this point, project short term goals have mostly been met. The variety blend we studied reduced crown rust severity to levels to close to that of the most resistant variety in the blend while also providing yields equal to the highest yielding variety in the blend. The blend exhibited greater stability for both rust severity and yield than the pure lines. We have developed protocols to obtain disease resistance specificities needed for variety selection in composing blends. Four field days (three in Iowa and one in Minnesota) increased knowledge of more than 100 oat producers who participated in them. Three cooperator workshops were part of this project and the farmers who participated gained more detailed knowledge yet. Some of the research results have been disseminated in the “gray” literature such as the Practical Farmers of Iowa general research report. The project, however, has two major failings that reduce its intermediate and long term impact. First, we have thus far not published our findings in the peer-reviewed literature. Second, though this was far beyond the scope of our project, no ongoing mechanism has been developed to institutionalize the annual collection and dissemination of the information necessary for seed companies or farmers to blend oat varieties as a regular practice. No economic analysis was performed in this research. No information was collected on farmer adoption of the use of blending oat varieties. Further information would be necessary for farmers to do so. An extension bulletin should be published giving the rationale for blending and providing detailed procedures for choosing blend components. Regular information on the rust resistances of new oat varieties would need to be published, possibly through the Uniform Oat Performance Nurseries run by the USDA. Educational & Outreach Activities Four field days were held, reaching about 100 farmers. Three cooperator workshop meetings were held, reaching a further 20 farmers. Results as of 2007 were published in the Practical Farmers of Iowa general research report. Areas needing additional study In this study, we find blend effects that are quite impressive. Favorable blend effects for yield are not necessarily found for two- and three-way blends (Helland and Holland, 2001). Further research is therefore needed on the design of blends, and whether the particular design approach we propose allows consistent identification of blends with superior performance. More care needs to be given to consistent and sustainable means to extend the information on variety blends to farmers.

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At the heart of diplomacy lies communication. Even in this modern day and age where communication is near-instantaneous, the sheer task of communicating an entire nation’s needs and demands to another is no small undertaking. From the early 17th to the early 12th century BCE, “Great Kingdoms” ruled by “Great Kings” jockeyed for control of a region roughly encompassing modern day Turkey, Iran, the Levant, and Egypt.i These kingdoms’ ability to resolve issues through diplomacy along with their system of regular communication was the key to the success of these Kingdoms. Compared to later forms of diplomacy, Great Kings derived political obligation and action from friendship and kinship ties rather than from abstractions such as the national interest.ii These Kings communicated with each other via messengers to facilitate diplomacy. Kings addressed each other as “My Brother”, and much of the writing of the Amarna Letters included complaints about trifles such as the paltriness of a royal brother’s gifts, the lack of courtesy shown to a royal brother’s envoys, or the failure to send a message of sympathy to a royal brother who had fallen ill.iii The Great Kings of this time created the ‘Amarna Style’ of brotherly diplomacy through a unique balance of trade, power, and prestige tempered by shared cultural ideas of family. Setting the Scene Map of the Ancient Near Eastiv Understanding the political map of the Near East during the Late Bronze Age informs the context of contemporaneous diplomacy. Five major kingdoms emerged in this age: the Hittite kingdom in central Anatolia; the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni in Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria; the Mitanni kingdom, which would collapse in the 14th century; the Kingdom of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia; the Kassite kingdom of Babylon in southern Mesopotamia; and the Kingdom of Egypt. For much of the Late Bronze Age, all but the Mitanni controlled the Near Eastern, since Assyria replaced Mitanni in the second half of this period.v, vi, vii The Amarna Letters The Amarna Letters are a body of correspondence exchanged between the Pharaoh of Egypt, his client kingdoms, and the other Great Powers of the Near East. These letters are some of the earliest examples of diplomacy in human history.viii They were discovered in 1887 CE in El-Amarna, the former capital of the Pharaoh Akhenaten. The Letters span about 30 years of correspondence,ix though their system likely existed for much longer. They were written in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the time. Most of the Letters recovered detailed correspondence between Northern Kings and the Pharaoh of Egypt. The Amarna Letters provide critical insight into the diplomatic protocol of the Great Powers during this time. Almost invariably, the dominant diction in the Letters uses analogies rooted in brotherhood and family. References to familial matters—greetings, recollection of family history, inquiries after health and sickness, respect for the dead, marriage, invitations to visit, gift-giving—comprise much of the correspondence. Even the kings negotiated defensive alliances with the frame of fraternal piety rather than national interest.x The Letters outline the thought processes of the kings and provide insight into their lives unknown to the public during the kings’ respective reigns. Over many years, this system of communication developed its own rules and conventions, all of which relied upon the familial bonds the Great Kings claimed to share. The Amarna system developed out of the practical need for diplomacy and communication among the Great Powers and of the similarities that family dynamics shared with politics during this time. The System that Created the Amarna Letters The basis of the Amarna diplomatic system was in the geo-political makeup of the region. Supreme among the Great Powers was the Egypt of the 18th dynasty. Under Thutmosis III, Egypt fought a series of 17 campaigns in Canaan and southern Syria and controlled the ports and principalities in the area.xi Although this expansion of Egyptian power came at the expense of Mittani, by the time of Amenophis III, the two states enjoyed friendly relations. This likely responded to a shared fear of the Hittites encroaching from the north. Because of the military ictories of Suppilulumas, the Hittites enjoyed their status as a Great Power. By the time of Suppiluliumas’ death, the Hurrian kingdom of Mittani had disintegrated, and the Hittites occupied much of Syria. Assyria ascended, much to the detriment of a now-weakened Babylon under the ‘Great King’ Ashuruballit. Babylon remained on good terms with Egypt for the period of the Amarna letters, but was eventually annexed by Assyria.xii, xiii The key to the creation of this system was for the Great Kings to recognize that (1) no single power could acquire hegemony; (2) the region was big enough for a Great King to satisfy realistic territorial ambitions; and (3) peaceful interaction between peers offered many benefits in terms of international trade opportunities and access to sought-after materials from other lands. Additionally, all kings likely saw that their own dynasties had greater longevity thanks to the improved stability of the greater region.xivMy belief is that the “Brotherhood of Kings” arose from this ‘cooperation within conflict’ necessarily. The Great Kings realized the many advantages of extensive diplomatic ties, but at the same time, they could not stomach being treated as anything less than equal to the other Great Kings. The only suitable way to strike this balance between the kings would have been to characterize their relations within the context of brotherhood and family. ‘Family’ in this culture and context referred to the large extended family, which consisted of many brothers (and their wives and children) living together under one household around one all-powerful patriarch. The brothers may quarrel occasionally, but overall, there was an abundance of brotherly love and they presented a uniform front to any outsider.xv The context of maintaining equality between Kings, the patriarch figure was done away with for simplicity—as long as the Kings all maintained equal status. Being a part of the “Brotherhood of Kings” Being a part of this fraternal group was highly exclusive. Only Great Kings were permitted to send ambassadors to other Great Kings, receive the symbolic sulmanu greeting-gift, and conduct business in the fraternal group.xvi This act of conformity was called parsu, the code of international norms and customs between equal Great Kings.xviiNegotiation was an activity solely and exclusively reserved for the great power members of the diplomatic club; the very agreement to negotiate was synonymous with acknowledgment of one’s equal status. Vassal principalities, in contrast, were entirely excluded from diplomacy and were not entitled to send messengers to states other than their sovereign. They might beg him for a favor, but the give-andtake of a negotiation was closed to them. In accord with this principle of kinship, Great Kings thought of themselves as entering a fraternal relationship when they established diplomatic ties. As brothers, they were members of the same family and household, united by bonds of love and friendship.xviii They addressed each other quite naturally as ‘brother’, sent presents, asked after each other’s health, and participated in ‘life-cycle’ events such as mourning on the death of a foreign king. To further cement their relations, they sometimes entered dynastic marriages. An example of this familial bond is found in a letter written circa 1270 B.C.E. by the Hittite king Hattusili to “the great king...my brother” Kadashman-Enlil II of Babylonia. The message reflects a calculated attempt by Hattusili to conciliate Kadashman-Enlil after a period of weakened communication between the two countries. The Hittite king offers several political concessions to secure Babylonia as an ally against Assyria. Yet the document’s language and arguments used take a familial tone. Hattusili, in formulaic terms, describes the well-being of his family and possessions and inquires after the Babylonian king. Afterwards, Hattusili presents the moral basis for resuming close political cooperation: When your father and I established diplomatic relations and when we became like loving brothers, we did not become brothers for one day only; did we not establish permanent brotherly relations based on equal standing? We [then] made the following agreement: We are only human beings; the survivor shall protect the interests of the sons of the one of us who has gone to his fate. While the gods have kept me alive and preserved my rule, your father passed away and I mourned him as befits our brotherly relationshipxix In this letter, we see clear evidence of the brotherly bond that the Great Kings created with each other. We also see another development here: when one of the Great Kings passes away, the familial bond carries throughout generations. Hattusili evokes this when rekindling a political alliance with Babylonia. Though the language used is that of a family letter, there is obvious political significance to the actual content of the letter. The reverse of this depiction is presented in a letter from the same Hattusili to his rival Adad-nirari I, King of Assyria, who had just conquered Mittani and now claimed the title of Great King. The Hittite monarch angrily rejected this pretension: With respect to brotherhood ... about which you speak - what does brotherhood mean? ... With what justification do you write about brotherhood ...? Are not friends those who write to each other about brotherhood? Were perhaps you and I born of the same mother? As my [father] and my grandfather did not write to the king of Ashur [about brotherhood], even so must you not write [about brotherhood and] Great-kingship to mexx Hattusili did not intend to accept any of the obligations implicit in an acknowledgment of Adad-nirari’s status of Great King. He would not legitimize his conquest, treat him as an equal, underwrite his rule, or make common cause with him. This significant exchange confirms that the notion of brotherhood was not an empty formula, but a solemn bond entailing far-reaching political consequences. The terminology of brotherhood was not simply a form of polite address accompanying a pragmatic relationship of mutual benefit. Had the Hittite and Assyrian kings already been linked by fraternal ties from the time of their forefathers, Hattusili would have found it difficult to evade the moral and political implications of the relationship. Entering the Family Among one of the most interesting political mechanisms of the Amarna system was the acceptance and recognition as a Great King. In the Amarna Letters, an interesting example of this metamorphosis involves Ashur-uballit, King of Assyria and grandfather of Adad-nirari. In a major initiative, Ashuruballit asked that pharaoh receive his messenger to request to enter diplomatic relations. The term ‘brother’ is not used in the letter, for there is no bilateral relationship nor is pharaoh addressed by name. However, introduction of the term ‘King of the Land of Ashur’ in the same sentence with the title ‘King of the Land of Egypt’, and the presentation of a greeting gift are indications of a bid for status as an equal Great King. By the time of the next dispatch in the series, Ashur-uballit addressed Akhenaten as ‘Great King, King of Egypt, my brother’, received Egyptian envoys and Egyptian gold, and haggled for more gold and jockeying for prestige.xxi The international ramifications of Assyria’s admission to the family were far-reaching, as we learn from a bitter protest sent to pharaoh by the Babylonian king. In it, Bumaburiash II, son of Kadashman-Enlil, complains that the reception of Assyrian envoys at the Egyptian court was a breach of brotherly relations. Assyria, he insisted, was a Babylonian vassal, and had no right to send messengers: “Now, as for my Assyrian vassals, I was not the one who sent them to you. Why on their own authority have they come to your country? If you love me, they will conduct no business whatsoever. Send them off to me empty-handed”.xxii From this protest, we learn that Assyria’s reception into the monarchical brotherhood would give it legitimacy as an independent kingdom. Babylon, the former sovereign of Assyria and a declining power at this point, proved incapable of preventing Assyria’s menacing ascent to great power status. Once Assyria had acquired diplomatic recognition, it could proceed to consolidate its position diplomatically, militarily, and financially. Becoming “brothers” with Egypt insured not only an alliance with the premier power of the region, but also legitimacy as a Great Power. Establishing relations with Egypt was an aggressive move by Assyria—one that rightfully worried the Babylonians. When push came to shove, which brother would Pharaoh support? Truly Equal Brothers? Though, officially, all the Great Kings regarded themselves as equal, privately, it seemed that the pharaohs of Egypt were more powerful than the other kings. The Assyrian kingdom used ties to Amarna to legitimize itself, and the already weakened Babylon fell into a diplomatic death spiral as its former status as a Great Power waned. Egypt’s correspondents constantly asked for more gold or complained that they had received less gold than others. Implicitly—if brgrudgingly—recognizing Egypt’s supreme standing as the Greatest Power in the region, the other Great Kings saw themselves as rivals for the favor of their elder brother. Burnaburiash II of Babylon claims offense when pharaoh sends only 5 chariots to escort a betrothed princess back to Egypt. The Egyptian king should treat him munificently, in order “That neighboring kings might hear it said, ‘The gold is much. Among the kings there is brotherhood, amity, peace, and good relations,’ he was rich in stones, rich in silver, rich in gold”.xxiii A king’s standing in the eyes of his neighbors formed by equating brotherhood with friendship, peace, good relations, and material well-being. The Amarna system came into existence in the presence of several sovereign states that desired a balance of power, had mixed motives of cooperation and conflict, and held a range of interdependent interests. Members of the system possessed a deep sense of fraternal and familial society. In these circumstances, they considered it essential to maintain regular channels to communicate and conduct business. Amarna diplomacy was governed by a set of recognized conventions and established procedures. The Amarna kingdoms hardly constituted one republic; nevertheless, they comprised a single civilization and were ‘joined together by all kinds of necessary commerce’xxiv as well as shared cultural aspects, especially in the realm of family bonds. The correspondence of the Amarna letters indicates that the politics of the region were likened to bickering brothers trying to gain advantages over one another. Despite the personal vanities and lust for power among these individual Kings, they all recognized that there was no singular way for one power to control the entire region, and so, they created the Amarna system of diplomacy not only to mediate the incessant fighting in the region but also to soothe their own egos. War could provide slaves, territory, and wealth to any nation, but only upon membership into the club of Great Powers did these Kings receive the prestige they so desperately desired. Their status as Great Kings was a constant concern. They were obsessed by questions of prestige, which was key to both domestic control and external deterrence. From the Amarna letters, we can see that the Amarna system of diplomacy was involved in negotiating agreements, opening diplomacy with new powers, addressing grievances and protests with other Great Kings, and transporting gifts. Over hundreds of years, this system of incredibly complex diplomacy involved multiple Kingdoms across the Near East—all thousands of years before the invention of motorized communication. “Adad-nirari I.” Wikipedia. Accessed November 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Adad-nirari_I. “Amarna Letters.” Wikipedia. Last modified October 28, 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Amarna_letters. “Amarna Period.” Wikipedia. Last modified 1 November 1, 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Amarna_Period. “Ancient Near East Empires Map.” Digital image. The Bible Study Site. Accessed Nov. 2017. http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/ ancient-near-east-empires.html. “Ancient Near East.” Wikipedia. Accessed Nov. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Ancient_Near_East. Artzi, Pinhas, and A. Malamat. “The Great King: A Preeminent Royal Title in Cuneiform Sources and in the Bible.” In The Tablet and the Scroll: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo, 28-38. (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 1993). Artzi, Pinhas. “The Rise of the Middle-Assyrian Kingdom, According to El-Amarna Letters 15 & 16.” In Bar-Ilan Studies in History, edited by Pinhas Artzi, 25-42. (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1978). Aruz, Joan, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans. Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009). “Assyria.” Wikipedia. Accessed Nov. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Assyria. Berg, Chris. “What Diplomacy in the Ancient Near East Can Tell Us About Blockchain Technology.” Ledger 2 (2007): 55-64. doi:10.5195/LEDGER.2017.104. Boardman, John. The Cambridge Ancient History. Early History of the Middle East. Vol. 2, 3rd ed. (Penguin, 1993). Bowman, Alan K., John B. Bury, Averil Cameron, and Iorwerth E. S. Edwards. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 2, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Bryce, Trevor. Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East: The Royal Correspondence of the Late Bronze Age. (London: Routledge, 2002). “Club of Great Powers.” Wikipedia. Last modified June 12, 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Club_of_great_powers. Cohen, Raymond. “All in the Family: Ancient Near Eastern Diplomacy.” International Negotiation 1, no. 1 (1996): 11-28. Cohen, Raymond. Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. (Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). Cohen, Raymond, and Raymond Westbrook. Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.) Cohen, Raymond. “On Diplomacy in the Ancient near East: The Amarna Letters.” Diplomacy & Statecraft 7, no. 2 (1996): 245-270. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Amarna Letters.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Last updated Feb. 18, 2009. https:// www.britannica.com/topic/ Amarna-Letters. “Egyptian–Hittite Peace Treaty.” Wikipedia. Accessed Nov. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_ peace_treaty. Eickelman, Dale F. The Middle East: An Anthropological Approach. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989). Knott, Elizabeth. “The Amarna Letters.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000). https://www. metmuseum.org/toah/hd/amlet/ hd_amlet.htm. Lafont, Bertrand. “International Relations in the Ancient Near East: The Birth of a Complete Diplomatic System.” Diplomacy & Statecraft 12, no. 1 (2001): 39-60. Liverani, Mario. International Relations in the Ancient Near East, 1600- 1100 B.C. (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2001.) Mieroop, Marc Van De. A History of the Ancient Near East, C. 3000- 323 BC. (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2004). “Mitanni.” Wikipedia. Accessed Nov. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Mitanni. Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.) Podany, Amanda H. Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). Scoville, Priscila. “Amarna Letters.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last updated Nov. 6, 2015. https://www.ancient.eu/ Amarna_Letters/. Wight, Martin, and Hedley Bull. Systems of States. (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1990). iTrevor Bryce, introduction to Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East: The Royal Correspondence of the Late Bronze Age (London: Routledge, 2003), 1-6. ii Raymond Cohen, “All in the Family: Ancient Near Eastern Diplomacy,” International Negotiation 1, no. 1 (1996): 11-28. iii Bryce introduction to Letters of the Great Kings, 1-6. iv "Ancient Near East Empires Map", The Bible Study Site, acccessed Nov. 2017, http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/ancient-near-east-empires.html. v Bryce, introduction to Letters of the Great Kings, 1-6. vi Ibid., 8-35. vii Marc van de Mieroop, A History of the Ancient Near East, C. 3000-323 BC (Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2004). viiiWilliam L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 20-28. xCohen, “All in the Family”, 11-28. xiJohn Boardman, The Cambridge Ancient History. Early History of the Middle East, vol. 2, 3rd ed. 449-459. xiiAlan K. Bowman, John B. Bury, Averil Cameron, and Iorwerth E. S. Edwards, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 2, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2006), 449-459. xiiiCohen, “On Diplomacy in the Ancient near East: The Amarna Letters”, Diplomacy & Statecraft 7, no. 2 (1996): 245-70. xiv“Ancient Near East Empires Map,” The Bible Study Site. xvDale F. Eickelman, The Middle East: An Anthropological Approach, (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989), 105-34. xviPinhas Artzi, The Great King - A Royal Title in Cuneiform Sources and in the Bible, (Bethesda MD: CDL Press, 1993) 1-11. xviiBowman, The Cambridge Ancient History, 449-459. xviiiMoran, The Amarna Letters, 24. xixLetter from Ḫattušili III to Kadašman-Enlil II, Bo 1802, published as KBo 1:10 and KUB 3.72. xxLetter from Hattusili to Adad-nirari, Bo 1802, published as KUB 23:102, lines 1-19. xxi Pinhas Artzi, “The Rise of the MiddleAssyrian Kingdom, According to ElAmarna Letters 15 & 16,” in Bar-Ilan Studies in History, (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press 1978): 25-41 xxii Moran, The Amarna Letters, 18. xxiii Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans, Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. (New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2009), 202-04. xxiv Martin Wight and Hedley Bull, Systems of States (Leicester UK: Leicester University Press, 1990), 32-33.

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List of DNS record types |Type||Type id. (decimal)||Defining RFC||Description||Function| |A||1||RFC 1035||Address record||Returns a 32-bit IPv4 address, most commonly used to map hostnames to an IP address of the host, but it is also used for DNSBLs, storing subnet masks in RFC 1101, etc.| |AAAA||28||RFC 3596||IPv6 address record||Returns a 128-bit IPv6 address, most commonly used to map hostnames to an IP address of the host.| |AFSDB||18||RFC 1183||AFS database record||Location of database servers of an AFS cell. This record is commonly used by AFS clients to contact AFS cells outside their local domain. A subtype of this record is used by the obsolete DCE/DFS file system.| |APL||42||RFC 3123||Address Prefix List||Specify lists of address ranges, e.g. in CIDR format, for various address families. Experimental.| |CAA||257||RFC 6844||Certification Authority Authorization||DNS Certification Authority Authorization, constraining acceptable CAs for a host/domain| |CDNSKEY||60||RFC 7344||Child copy of DNSKEY record, for transfer to parent| |CDS||59||RFC 7344||Child DS||Child copy of DS record, for transfer to parent| |CERT||37||RFC 4398||Certificate record||Stores PKIX, SPKI, PGP, etc.| |CNAME||5||RFC 1035||Canonical name record||Alias of one name to another: the DNS lookup will continue by retrying the lookup with the new name.| |CSYNC||62||RFC 7477||Child-to-Parent Synchronization||Specify a synchronization mechanism between a child and a parent DNS zone. Typical example is declaring the same NS records in the parent and the child zone| |DHCID||49||RFC 4701||DHCP identifier||Used in conjunction with the FQDN option to DHCP| |DLV||32769||RFC 4431||DNSSEC Lookaside Validation record||For publishing DNSSEC trust anchors outside of the DNS delegation chain. Uses the same format as the DS record. RFC 5074 describes a way of using these records.| |DNAME||39||RFC 6672||Delegation name record||Alias for a name and all its subnames, unlike CNAME, which is an alias for only the exact name. Like a CNAME record, the DNS lookup will continue by retrying the lookup with the new name.| |DNSKEY||48||RFC 4034||DNS Key record||The key record used in DNSSEC. Uses the same format as the KEY record.| |DS||43||RFC 4034||Delegation signer||The record used to identify the DNSSEC signing key of a delegated zone| |EUI48||108||RFC 7043||MAC address (EUI-48)||A 48-bit IEEE Extended Unique Identifier.| |EUI64||109||RFC 7043||MAC address (EUI-64)||A 64-bit IEEE Extended Unique Identifier.| |HINFO||13||RFC 8482||Host Information||Providing Minimal-Sized Responses to DNS Queries That Have QTYPE=ANY| |HIP||55||RFC 8005||Host Identity Protocol||Method of separating the end-point identifier and locator roles of IP addresses.| |IPSECKEY||45||RFC 4025||IPsec Key||Key record that can be used with IPsec| |KEY||25||RFC 2535 and RFC 2930||Key record||Used only for SIG(0) (RFC 2931) and TKEY (RFC 2930). RFC 3445 eliminated their use for application keys and limited their use to DNSSEC. RFC 3755 designates DNSKEY as the replacement within DNSSEC. RFC 4025 designates IPSECKEY as the replacement for use with IPsec.| |KX||36||RFC 2230||Key Exchanger record||Used with some cryptographic systems (not including DNSSEC) to identify a key management agent for the associated domain-name. Note that this has nothing to do with DNS Security. It is Informational status, rather than being on the IETF standards-track. It has always had limited deployment, but is still in use.| |LOC||29||RFC 1876||Location record||Specifies a geographical location associated with a domain name| |MX||15||RFC 1035 and RFC 7505||Mail exchange record||Maps a domain name to a list of message transfer agents for that domain| |NAPTR||35||RFC 3403||Naming Authority Pointer||Allows regular-expression-based rewriting of domain names which can then be used as URIs, further domain names to lookups, etc.| |NS||2||RFC 1035||Name server record||Delegates a DNS zone to use the given authoritative name servers| |NSEC||47||RFC 4034||Next Secure record||Part of DNSSEC—used to prove a name does not exist. Uses the same format as the (obsolete) NXT record.| |NSEC3||50||RFC 5155||Next Secure record version 3||An extension to DNSSEC that allows proof of nonexistence for a name without permitting zonewalking| |NSEC3PARAM||51||RFC 5155||NSEC3 parameters||Parameter record for use with NSEC3| |OPENPGPKEY||61||RFC 7929||OpenPGP public key record||A DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities (DANE) method for publishing and locating OpenPGP public keys in DNS for a specific email address using an OPENPGPKEY DNS resource record.| |PTR||12||RFC 1035||PTR Resource Record||Pointer to a canonical name. Unlike a CNAME, DNS processing stops and just the name is returned. The most common use is for implementing reverse DNS lookups, but other uses include such things as DNS-SD.| |RRSIG||46||RFC 4034||DNSSEC signature||Signature for a DNSSEC-secured record set. Uses the same format as the SIG record.| |RP||17||RFC 1183||Responsible Person||Information about the responsible person(s) for the domain. Usually an email address with the @ replaced by a .| |SIG||24||RFC 2535||Signature||Signature record used in SIG(0) (RFC 2931) and TKEY (RFC 2930). RFC 3755 designated RRSIG as the replacement for SIG for use within DNSSEC.| |SMIMEA||53||RFC 8162||S/MIME cert association||Associates an S/MIME certificate with a domain name for sender authentication.| |SOA||6||RFC 1035 and RFC 2308||Start of [a zone of] authority record||Specifies authoritative information about a DNS zone, including the primary name server, the email of the domain administrator, the domain serial number, and several timers relating to refreshing the zone.| |SRV||33||RFC 2782||Service locator||Generalized service location record, used for newer protocols instead of creating protocol-specific records such as MX.| |SSHFP||44||RFC 4255||SSH Public Key Fingerprint||Resource record for publishing SSH public host key fingerprints in the DNS System, in order to aid in verifying the authenticity of the host. RFC 6594 defines ECC SSH keys and SHA-256 hashes. See the IANA SSHFP RR parameters registry for details.| |TA||32768||N/A||DNSSEC Trust Authorities||Part of a deployment proposal for DNSSEC without a signed DNS root. See the IANA database and Weiler Spec for details. Uses the same format as the DS record.| |TKEY||249||RFC 2930||Transaction Key record||A method of providing keying material to be used with TSIG that is encrypted under the public key in an accompanying KEY RR.| |TLSA||52||RFC 6698||TLSA certificate association||A record for DANE. RFC 6698 defines "The TLSA DNS resource record is used to associate a TLS server certificate or public key with the domain name where the record is found, thus forming a 'TLSA certificate association'".| |TSIG||250||RFC 2845||Transaction Signature||Can be used to authenticate dynamic updates as coming from an approved client, or to authenticate responses as coming from an approved recursive name server similar to DNSSEC.| |TXT||16||RFC 1035||Text record||Originally for arbitrary human-readable text in a DNS record. Since the early 1990s, however, this record more often carries machine-readable data, such as specified by RFC 1464, opportunistic encryption, Sender Policy Framework, DKIM, DMARC, DNS-SD, etc.| |URI||256||RFC 7553||Uniform Resource Identifier||Can be used for publishing mappings from hostnames to URIs.| |ZONEMD||63||RFC 8976||Message Digests for DNS Zones||Provides a cryptographic message digest over DNS zone data at rest.| |SVCB||64||IETF Draft||Service Binding||RR that improves performance for clients that need to resolve many resources to access a domain. More info in this IETF Draft by DNSOP Working group and Akamai technologies.| |HTTPS||65||IETF Draft||HTTPS Binding||RR that improves performance for clients that need to resolve many resources to access a domain. More info in this IETF Draft by DNSOP Working group and Akamai technologies.| Other types and pseudo-RRs Other types of records simply provide some types of information (for example, an HINFO record gives a description of the type of computer/OS a host uses), or others return data used in experimental features. The "type" field is also used in the protocol for various operations. |Type||Type id.||Defining RFC||Description||Function| |*||255||RFC 1035||All cached records||Returns all records of all types known to the name server. If the name server does not have any information on the name, the request will be forwarded on. The records returned may not be complete. For example, if there is both an A and an MX for a name, but the name server has only the A record cached, only the A record will be returned. Sometimes referred to as "ANY", for example in Windows nslookup and Wireshark.| |AXFR||252||RFC 1035||Authoritative Zone Transfer||Transfer entire zone file from the master name server to secondary name servers.| |IXFR||251||RFC 1996||Incremental Zone Transfer||Requests a zone transfer of the given zone but only differences from a previous serial number. This request may be ignored and a full (AXFR) sent in response if the authoritative server is unable to fulfill the request due to configuration or lack of required deltas.| |OPT||41||RFC 6891||Option||This is a pseudo-record type needed to support EDNS.| Obsolete record types Progress has rendered some of the originally defined record-types obsolete. Of the records listed at IANA, some have limited use, for various reasons. Some are marked obsolete in the list, some are for very obscure services, some are for older versions of services, and some have special notes saying they are "not right". |Defining RFC||Obsoleted by||Description| |MD||3||RFC 883||RFC 973||Mail destination (MD) and mail forwarder (MF) records; MAILA is not an actual record type, but a query type which returns MF and/or MD records. RFC 973 replaced these records with the MX record.| |MB||7||RFC 883||Not formally obsoleted. Unlikely to be ever adopted (RFC 2505).||MB, MG, MR, and MINFO are records to publish subscriber mailing lists. MAILB is a query code which returns one of those records. The intent was for MB and MG to replace the SMTP VRFY and EXPN commands. MR was to replace the "551 User Not Local" SMTP error. Later, RFC 2505 recommended that both VRFY and EXPN be disabled, making MB and MG unnecessary. They were classified as experimental by RFC 1035.| |WKS||11||RFC 883, RFC 1035||Declared as "not to be relied upon" by RFC 1123 (more in RFC 1127).||Record to describe well-known services supported by a host. Not used in practice. The current recommendation and practice is to determine whether a service is supported on an IP address by trying to connect to it. SMTP is even prohibited from using WKS records in MX processing.| |NB||32||RFC 1002||Mistakes (from RFC 1002); the numbers are now assigned to NIMLOC and SRV.| |NULL||10||RFC 883||RFC 1035||Obsoleted by RFC 1035. RFC 883 defined "completion queries" (opcode 2 and maybe 3) which used this record. RFC 1035 later reassigned opcode 2 to be "status" and reserved opcode 3.| |A6||38||RFC 2874||RFC 6563||Defined as part of early IPv6 but downgraded to experimental by RFC 3363; later downgraded to historic by RFC 6563.| |NXT||30||RFC 2065||RFC 3755||Part of the first version of DNSSEC (RFC 2065). NXT was obsoleted by DNSSEC updates (RFC 3755). At the same time, the domain of applicability for KEY and SIG was also limited to not include DNSSEC use.| |HINFO||13||RFC 883||Unobsoleted by RFC 8482. Currently used by Cloudflare in response to queries of the type ANY.||Record intended to provide information about host CPU type and operating system. It was intended to allow protocols to optimize processing when communicating with similar peers.| |RP||17||RFC 1183||RP may be used for certain human-readable information regarding a different contact point for a specific host, subnet, or other domain level label separate than that used in the SOA record.| |X25||19||Not in current use by any notable application| |ISDN||20||Not in current use by any notable application| |RT||21||Not in current use by any notable application| |NSAP||22||RFC 1706||Not in current use by any notable application| |NSAP-PTR||23||Not in current use by any notable application| |PX||26||RFC 2163||Not in current use by any notable application| |EID||31||N/A||Defined by the Nimrod DNS internet draft, but never made it to RFC status. Not in current use by any notable application| |ATMA||34||N/A||Defined by The ATM Forum Committee.| |APL||42||RFC 3123||Specify lists of address ranges, e.g. in CIDR format, for various address families. Experimental.| |SINK||40||N/A||Defined by the Kitchen Sink internet draft, but never made it to RFC status| |GPOS||27||RFC 1712||A more limited early version of the LOC record| |UINFO||100||N/A||IANA reserved, no RFC documented them and support was removed from BIND in the early 90s.| |SPF||99||RFC 4408||RFC 7208||Specified as part of the Sender Policy Framework protocol as an alternative to storing SPF data in TXT records, using the same format. Support for it was discontinued in RFC 7208 due to widespread lack of support.| |NINFO||56||N/A||Used to provide status information about a zone. Requested for the IETF draft "The Zone Status (ZS) DNS Resource Record" in 2008. Expired without adoption.| |RKEY||57||N/A||Used for encryption of NAPTR records. Requested for the IETF draft "The RKEY DNS Resource Record" in 2008. Expired without adoption.| |TALINK||58||N/A||Defined by the DNSSEC Trust Anchor History Service internet draft, but never made it to RFC status| |NID||104||RFC 6742||Not in use by any notable application and marked as "experimental"| |DOA||259||N/A||Defined by the DOA over DNS internet draft, but never made it to RFC status| - Paul Mockapetris (November 1987). "RFC 1035: Domain Names - Implementation and Specification". Network Working Group of the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force). p. 12. - "RFC 3596: DNS Extensions to Support IP Version 6". The Internet Society. October 2003. - RFC 2535, §3 - RFC 3445, §1. "The KEY RR was defined in RFC 2930..." - RFC 2931, §2.4. "SIG(0) on the other hand, uses public key authentication, where the public keys are stored in DNS as KEY RRs and a private key is stored at the signer." - RFC 3445, §1. "DNSSEC will be the only allowable sub-type for the KEY RR..." - RFC 3755, §3. "DNSKEY will be the replacement for KEY, with the mnemonic indicating that these keys are not for application use, per RFC3445. RRSIG (Resource Record SIGnature) will replace SIG, and NSEC (Next SECure) will replace NXT. These new types completely replace the old types, except that SIG(0) RFC2931 and TKEY RFC2930 will continue to use SIG and KEY." - RFC 4025, Abstract. "This record replaces the functionality of the sub-type #4 of the KEY Resource Record, which has been obsoleted by RFC 3445." - "RFC 8162 - Using Secure DNS to Associate Certificates with Domain Names for S/MIME". Internet Engineering Task Force. May 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2018. - "Domain Name System (DNS) Parameters". Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. September 2018. Retrieved 17 October 2018. - The minimum field of SOA record is redefined to be the TTL of NXDOMAIN reply in RFC 2308. - RFC 2930, §6. "... the keying material is sent within the key data field of a TKEY RR encrypted under the public key in an accompanying KEY RR RFC 2535." - RFC 2845, abstract - RFC 1123 sections 2.2, 5.2.12, 22.214.171.124 - "What happened next: the deprecation of ANY". Cloudflare. 13 April 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2019. - "ATM Name System, V2.0" (PDF). ATM Forum Technical Committee. July 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-14. Retrieved 14 March 2019. - Kucherawy, M. (July 2012). "Background on the RRTYPE Issue". Resolution of the Sender Policy Framework (SPF) and Sender ID Experiments. IETF. sec. A. doi:10.17487/RFC6686. RFC 6686. Retrieved August 31, 2013. - Kitterman, S. (April 2014). "The SPF DNS Record Type". Sender Policy Framework (SPF) for Authorizing Use of Domains in Email, Version 1. IETF. sec. 3.1. doi:10.17487/RFC7208. RFC 7208. Retrieved 26 April 2014. - Reid, Jim (4 July 2008). "draft-reid-dnsext-zs-01 - The Zone Status (ZS) DNS Resource Record". IETF. Retrieved 9 March 2019. - Reid, Jim; Schlyter, Jakob; Timms, Ben (4 July 2008). "draft-reid-dnsext-rkey-00 - The RKEY DNS Resource Record". IETF. Retrieved 9 March 2019.

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répondrons à vos messages BINDING, EFFECT OF DECISIONS OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS ON LOWER COURTS Daniel Arthur Laprès CANADIAN BAR REVIEW 1974, VOL LII, p. 128 "Some will say it is our duty to follow the House of Lords and not to question their decision. We are not to, reason why. Ours is but to do and die."1 With this fanfare, Lord Denning renewed his campaign to revolutionize the English constitutional custom that lower courts are inflexibly bound by prior decisions of the House of Lords.2 Salmon L.J. and Phillimore L.J. joined him in the effort.3 The response of the House of Lords was blunt and uncompromising. The Lord Chancellor, speaking with "a studied moderation"4, declared: The fact is, and I hope it will never be necessary to say so again, that in the hierarchical system of courts which exists in this country, it is necessary for each lower tier, including the Court of Appeal, to accept loyally the decision of the higher tiers.5 Lord Reid referred to the conduct of the Court of Appeal as an "aberration".' Lord Diplock declared that the Court of Appeal had no "right to disregard a decision of a higher appellate court".' The only decision which reflects the least sympathy for the position taken by the Court of Appeal is that of Viscount Dilhorne.' The question which continues to beg an answer is, why must the Court of Appeal follow the most recent decision of the House of Lords on any given subject. The case followed upon the publication by Cassell & Co. of a book authored by David Irving, entitled The Destruction of PQ17. The book purported to be a true account of one of the greatest naval disasters suffered during the Second World War. The book placed the blame for the disaster on a Captain Broome and made allegations that his conduct had been improper and cowardly. At trial, Captain Broome adduced evidence which vindicated him and which suggested that both the author and the publishers knew that their charges against him were false. The author and the publisher presented no evidence. The trial judge directed the jury that they could award punitive damages because the defendants had persisted in their wrongful acts believing the prospects of a best-seller outweighed the possibility of material loss as a result of libeling Captain Broome. The Court of Appeal held that according to the formulation of the law by the House of Lords, in Rookes v. Barnard,9 punitive damages were available in this case, and that the damage award of £ 40,000 was not excessive. This was sufficient to dispose of the appeal. The Court of Appeal went on to say that Rookes v. Barnard had been decided per in curiam by the House of Lords" and that judges should no longer follow it in instructing juries on punitive damages.11 But it is not the purpose of this comment to assess the merits of the Court of Appeal's comments on the circumstances in which juries should be permitted to assess punitive damages in civil cases.12 Here attention will be focused on the constitutional implications of the case. The doctrine of stare decisis is normally seen as having two branches. The first is that the highest court is bound by its previous decisions and the second is that lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts. Since the Practice Statement of 19,66," the House of Lords no longer considers itself bound by its own precedents. Therefore, the logical support for the second branch stare decisis has been swept aside. Admittedly, the Practice Statement expressly said that it was "not intended to affect the use of precedent elsewhere than in this House"." However, according to the terms of the Practice Statement itself, this restriction is not binding on the House of Lords. To hold the restriction binding on the Court of Appeal would require a virtuoso exercise in picking yourself up by If the argument in Glanville Williams' edition of Salmond on Jurisprudence" is correct that the Practice Statement could only bc valid if stare decisis is merely a "practice", then it may be that lower courts are only bound by higher courts' decisions as long as they accept to be bound. And regardless of whether the pronouncements of the House in this context are rules of "practice" or rules of "law"," the decisive question in positive terms is how will the Court of Appeal respond to the admonition given to it by the House of Lords. If the Court of Appeal is prepared to say that the rule respecting punitive damages in Rookes v. Barnard was given per incuriam, will it balk at saying that the rule respecting stare decisis in Cassell v. Broome was decided per incuriam? No solution to this "unedifying"18 divergence of opinion will be reached unless the argument is extracted from the emotional context in which it is presently lodged. Lord Diplock argued that "the judicial system only works if someone is allowed to have the last Word, and if that last word, once spoken, is loyally accepted"." But, with all due respect, this is far too sweeping a generalization. There are many judicial systems which apparently function to the general satisfaction of those subject to them without stare decisis. Stare decisis is not an element of the civil law. . . . [O]ne of the chief rules of our judiciary requires that a court shall never be bound by the decisions it has previously handed down; it may always change its mind. All the more is it not bound by the decisions of other courts, even of higher courts. . . 20 Indeed, in France, a lower court is not bound by the directives of the Cour de cassation which quashed its decision except if the Cour de cassation quashes its decision a second time for the same reasons.21 The situation in Quebec is complicated by the interplay of the common law with the civil law, but the principle that a Quebec court does not feel itself bound by a single decision of a higher court on Quebec law seems secure. Bissonette J., of the Québec Court of Queens Bench, Appeal Side, has summarized the situation in Quebec: . . . quand un point déjà jugé se présente de nouveau, la Cour d'appel peut donc considérer les décisions antérieures et en tenir compte mais moins pour tabler sur le fait même de ces précédents que pour en découvrir les motifs, les apprécier au regard de la loi, des principes et de la logique.22 Nor is stare decisis the rule in international law.23 Nor is it the rule before administrative tribunals even in common law jurisdictions.24 Admittedly, there are special considerations contributing to the exclusion of stare decisis in all of these legal systems.25 Nevertheless, it is also true that the last rigidity of stare decisis which the House of Lords was seeking to salvage in Cassell v. Broome is a comparatively recent addition to the common law. In the days of Coke, interpretations of the law were not perpetuated if they led to inconvenient and unjust results.26 Blackstone said that the laws and customs of the ]and should be enforced unless "the former determination is most evidently contrary to reason; much more if it be clearly contrary to the divine law'27 . Lord Mansfield's view was that:28 The law would be a strange science if it rested solely upon cases .... Precedent indeed may serve to fix principles, which for certainty's sake are not suffered to bc shaken, whatever might be the weight of the principle, independent of precedent. But precedence, though it be evidence of law, is not law in itself; much less the whole of the law. But the system of private property demanded more stability.29 Until the birth of the rationalized system of private property, judges theorized that their function was to declare what the law was, and if a prior case had inaccurately declared the law, then this inaccuracy was open to correction in subsequent cases. In response to Bentham's utilitarian attacks on the courts for "making" laws" judges backed themselves into the position of declaring what the law was, once and for all.31 Since by now the matter of whether courts make law is no longer debated but rather assumed," the doctrinal foundation of stare decisis has been exploded. But a custom, such as stare decisis, may have value in contemporary society even if the reasons for its adoption in the first place have long since disappeared.34 The value of stare decisis in today's society must be assessed in functional terms. The significance of adherence to precedent may more profitably be stated in terms of the prominence which consistent selection affords one of several otherwise undifferentiated solutions to a problem of coordination.34 In other words, . . . precedent is merely the source of one important kind of salience: conspicuous uniqueness of an equilibrium because we reached it last time.35 Jerome Frank has argued that the attachment of salience to things passed is primal and characteristic of the child's stage of psycho cal evolution.36 Others have noted that adherence to precedence safeguards vested social interests from re-adjustment in favour of disadvantaged classes.37 Nevertheless, the utility of precedent as a guide to decision-making in the judicial context has been universally recognized. Lobinger has observed a reliance on precedent, to some degree at least, in the societies of China, Babylon, Assyria, Arabia, Rome and Greece.38 Adherence to precedent and custom is also observable in African societies.39 And while, as noted above, civil law systems do not feel bound by prior decisions, respect and influence are accorded to well recognized trends, to the "jurisprudence".40 The ideal role for precedent has perhaps been described by Benjamin Cardozo: If we figure stability and progress as opposite poles, then at one pole we have the maxim of stare decisis and the method of decision by deductive logic at the other we have the method which subordinates origins to ends.' . . . Each method has its value, and for each in the changes of litigation there will come the hour for use. A Wise eclecticism uses them both.41 But the rule that a single decision of any one court or judge can, by virtue of a position in a hierarchy of courts, bind all lower courts in subsequent cases contributes little or nothing to the achievement of either progress or stability. By definition, the rule inhibits the process of change that is a prerequisite of progress. Moreover it yields, at best, a marginal benefit in stability and, more likely, the benefit is illusory. An examination of House of Lords decisions before and after the "historic" Practice Statement of 1966 led Julius Stone to the conclusion that the Statement may well be a false symbol. Without the Practice Statement, the House was able to confine cases to their facts and to their ratios, and so avoid following them. Since the "liberation" of 1966 the House has chosen to emphasize how exceptional is the case in which their power to overrule their prior decisions will be invoked.` The simple fact is that the assumption that a court will follow a particular previous decision of whatever level in the hierarchy does not increase the predictability of a decision in a different case. Not only is this true of predicting appeal court decisions which are, or at least should be, the "difficult", "arguable" cases. But, to the extent that one accepts Jerome Frank's theories that the actual reasons for judicial theories are often concealed, then "reliance on precedents is illusory because judges can seldom tell precisely what has been theretofore decided' . Recent experience in the common law jurisdictions demonstrates not only how little marginal certainty is provided by rigid stare decisis, but also demonstrates how insecure is the rule itself that lower courts are inflexibly bound by the decisions of higher courts. There was a time when there was apparently no doubt that the supreme courts of the "colonies" were bound on matters of "English" law by decisions of the House of Lords. The Privy Council, the Supreme Court of Canada45 and the High Court of Australia46 all expressed this view. These eminently authoritative statements have nevertheless not stopped the High Court of Australia from refusing to follow the decision of the House of Lords in Rookes v.Barnard,47 which refusal was approved by the Privy Council.48 This case was of course relied upon by the Court of Appeal in launching its assault on the binding effect of House of Lords decisions.49 There is also agitation among higher courts in the United States. The State Supreme Court of Arizona recently upheld an Arizona statute despite a United States Supreme Court decision that a comparable Florida statute was violative of due process.50 The United States Supreme Court had decided the case by a four to three majority and the Arizona court was of the opinion that a full court would have arrived at a different result. The Arizona court has been severely criticized on the basis that the authorities do not support their approach.51 Regardless of the merits of that criticism, the fact remains, as Cardozo has said, that, where courts are less than full:52 It happens again and again, where a question is a close one, that a case which one week is decided one way might be decided another way the next if it were then heard for the first time. While Cardozo's solution to the problem was to "stand by the errors of our brethren of the week before",53 one is left wondering whether it would not better serve the interests of justice to hold no single decision binding and await the formulation of a practice by a consensus of judicial opinion. There are those who will react negatively to such a proposal because it might accelerate the process of change in law and in society.54 But as Mr. Justice Douglas has observed:55 This search for a static security - in the law or elsewhere - is misguided. The fact is that security can only be achieved through constant change, through the wise discarding of old ideas that have outlived their usefulness, and through the adapting of others to current facts. The controversy continues to rage in the English courts whether courts should be responsive to social change. In Cassell v. Broome, Viscount Dilhorne observed that:56 As I understand the judicial functions of this House, although they involve applying well established principles to new situations, they do not involve adjusting the common law to what are thought to be the social norms of the time. They do not include bowing to the wind of change. We have to declare what the law is, not what it should be. On the other hand, as Lord Diplock has commented to his colleagues in Cassell v. Broonie:57 If the common law stood still while mankind moved on, your Lordships might still be awarding bot and were to litigants whose kinsmen thought the feud to be outmoded. But the true object of liberating courts from the rigid rules of stare decisis is not to promote social change and law reform as such. It is clear that relaxation of stare decisis is a double-edged sword that can be wielded as effectively in the direction of restoration as it can be in the direction of innovation. It was, after all, Robespierre who cursed the freedom of judges to make political decisions with no accountability to the people's revolutionary assemblies.58 It has been said that the issue of relaxation of the rigid enforcement of stare decisis on lower courts only arises in minds harboring a "complex of unreal assumptions concerning the day-to-day appellate judicial process".59 It is undoubtedly the case that judges of lower courts can avoid the effect of decisions of higher authorities through the manipulation of the rules of stare decisis." The point of all such proposals is that they tacitly concede the impossibility of obtaining legal conformity, but seek to cover up the more obvious manifestations of this lack. The healthier method would be not only to recognize the gross evidences of uncertainty but to make evident the actual but now concealed circumstances which make certainty an impossibility, to the end that by describing accurately the real nature of the judicial process we may learn to better it.61 Justice is the ideal which promises society's members a procedurally fair, substantively rational and account of why society regulates their behavior in particular ways. This ideal presupposes that decisions affecting behavior are made openly and honestly. To encourage courts to obscure their actual reasons in the interest of preserving the shibboleth of stare decisîs advances neither progress nor certainty nor justice. Daniel Laprès, of the Nova Scotia Bar, Halifax. The author thanks Innis Christie and Brian Flemming for their suggestions. 1 Broonie v. Cassell & Co. Lid. and Another, [197112 W.L.R. 853, at p. 871 (C.A.), affd in part, Cassell & Co. v. Brooinc and Another, A.C. 1027 (H.L.). 2 In his dissenting opinion in Conway v. Rimmer, (1967) 2 All E.R. 1260, Lord Denning M.R. would have refused to follow Duncan V. Campbell Laird & Co., Lid., [19421 1 All E.R. 507 (H.L.), on the basis of the criticism the case had suffered at the hands of the judiciary of the Coninionwealth. "When we find that the Suprerne Courts of those countries, after careful deliberation, decline to follow the House of Lords - because they are satisfied that it was wrong - that is excellent reason for the House to think again. It is not beneath its dignity, nor is it beyond its power, to confess itself to have been in error." at p. 1263. 3 Supra, footnote 1, at pp. 873-875 and 884-885. 4 Ibid,, at P. 1053. 5 Ibid., at p. 1054. 6 Ibid., at p. 1084. 7 Ibid., at p. 1131. 8 Ibid., at p. 1007. 9 (1964) A.C. 1129. 10 Supra, footnote 1, at pp. 869-871, 874-875, 878-880, 884-888. 11 Ibid., at p. 873, 879 and 887. 12 On the Liberation of Appellate Judges - How Not to Do It! (1972),35 Mod. L. Rev. 449, at p. 451. 13 [19661 1 W.I,.R. 1234. 15 Roy Stone, The Precedence of Precedents, C.L.J. 35, at p. 37. 16 (11th ed., 1957), pp. 187-188. 17 For a discussion of whether stare decisis is a rule of substantive law or a rule of practice, and the implications of this issue, see Julius Stone, Chains of Precedent (1969), 69 Col. L. Rev 1162, at p. 1165. 18 Supra, footnote 1, at p. 1154. 19 lbid., at P. 1131. 20 Planiol and Ripert, A General Survey of Events, Sources, Persons and Movements in Continental Legal History (1912), Vol. 1, Ch. III, p. 299. 21 John P. Dawson, The Oracles of the Law (l 968), ppª 378-379. 22 Bissonette J., in Bellefleur V. Lavallée, [19571 R - L. 193, at p. 205. But see also Anglin C.J., in Daoust, Lalonde and Cie Liée. V. Ferland, [19321 S.C.R. 342, at p. 345, and contra Anglin, Stare Decisis, quoted by Bissonette 1 ibid., at p. in Also, P. B. Mignault, The Authority of Decided Cases (1925), 3 Can. Bar Rev. 1; W. Friedann, Stare Décisis at COMMOn Law and under the Civil Code of Québec (1953), 31 Can. Bar Rev. 723; Mark R. MacGuigan, Precedent and Policy in the Supreme Court (1967), 45 Can. Bar Rev. 627- Jean-Gabriel Castel, The Civil Law System of the Province of Quebec (l962), Ch. 4. 23 Decisions of the international Court of Justice have no binding force except between the Parties and in respect of that particular case". Article 59 or the Statute of the International Court of Justice. 24 A tribunal which has to exercise discretion must therefore be carefui not to treat itself as bound by its own previous decisions.- H. W. R. Wade, Administrative Law (3rd ed, 1971), p. 66. 25 For instance, in the civil law systems, the rules of law are found in the Civil Code, not the cases. Hence, it is the Code that is decisive not the Interpretations given to it by courts, see authorities, supra, footnote 22.. 26 W. L. Holdsworth (J 934), 50 L.Q. Rev. 180, at p. 185. 27 Commentaries 1, p. 70. 28 Jones v. Randall (1774), Lofft. 384. 29 "I think authorities established are so many laws; and receding from them unsettles property; and uncertainty is the unavoidable consequence", per Lord Hardwicke, Ellis v. Smith (1754), 1 Ves. Jur. 9, at p. 17. 30 "It is the judges . . . that make the common law. Do you know how they make it? Just as a man makes laws for his dog. When your dog does anything you want to break him of, you wait till he docs it and then beat him. This is the way you make laws for your dog, and this is the way the judges make laws for you and me." Works, Vol. 5, p. 235. 31 See for a discussion of this point, D. N. MacCormick, Can Stare Decisis be Abolished, Jurid. Rev. 197, 32 Stone, op. cil., footnote 12, at p. 477. 33 "For though their reason bc not obvious at first view, yet we owe such a deference to fotmer times as not to suppose that they acted wholly without consideration." Blackstone, op. cil., footnote 27. Contrast: "It is revolting to have no better reason for a rule of law than that il was so laid down in the time of Henry IV. It is still more revolting if the grounds ipon which it was so laid down have long since vanished, and the rule simply persists from blind imitation of the past." 0. W. Hoinies, Collected Legal Papers (1920), p. 187. 34 Robert L. Birmingham, The Neutrality of Adherence to Precedent, Duke L.J. 541, at p. 552. 35 D. Lewis, Convention: A Philosophical Study (1969), p. 36, cited in Birmingham, op. cil., ibid., at p. 552. 36 Law and the Modern Mind (1930). pp. 158-159. 37 Op. cit. footnote 34, at p. 552. The reductio ad absurdum of this thought pattern was reached by Lord Ellenborough: "if this rule were to be changed, a lawyer who was well stored with these ideas would be no better than any other man without them." Quoted in Jeroine Frank, Courts oit Trial (1949), P. 271. 38 Precedent in Past and Present Legal Systeins (1946), 44 Mich. L Rev. 955, at pp. 956-957., 39 P. P. Howell, A Manual of Nuer Law (1954), p. 22. 40 Moreover, the importance of precedent in the broadest sense is growing with increased pressure on judges in civil law jurisdictions to elaborateon their reasons for decisions, op. cit., footnote 21, p. 430. Friedman has noted the relationlip between the relatively expansive decision of Quebec judges and the extent of their reliance on precedent. Op. cit. 22, at P, 741. 41 The Paradoxes of Legal Science (1928), P. 8- 42 op. cit., footnole 16, p. 1201. 43 Op. cit., footnote 36, p. 152. 44 Robins v. National Trust Co., Limited et al., [19271 1 W.W.R. 881, D 45 Bright and Co. v. Kerr, [19391 S.C.R. 63. 46 Piro V. Fosler and Co. Ltd. (1943), 68 C.L.R. 313 47 Australia Consolidated Press LUI. V. Urept (1966), 40 A.L.J.R. 142. Sce also the coniments of Dixon C.J. in Parker V. The Queen (1962-63), 111 C.L.R. 610, at p. 632. 48 (1967), 41 A.L.J.R. 66. 49 Supra, footnote 1, at pp. 869-871, 874-875, 878-880, 884-888. 50 Roofing Wholesale Co. v. Palmer (1972), 502 P.2d. 1327, at p. 1328, refusing to follow Fuentes v. Shevin (1972), 407 U.S. 67. 51 (1973), 86 Harv. L. Rev. 1307. 52 The Nature of the Judicial Process (1921), pp. 149-150. 54 "All drastic breaks with law that has long been considered estiblished must be regarded by many of the legal professional with misgivings." D. M. Gordon Hedley Byrne v. Heller in the House of Lords (1964-66), 2 U.B.C.L. Rev. 112. 55 (1949), 49 Col. L, Rev. 735. 56 Supra, footriote 1, at p. 1107. 57 Ibid., at p. 1127. 58 Mélanges Maury, 11, pp. 349, 352-353, cited by Dawson, op. cit., footnote 21, pp. 425-426, 59 Julius Stone, op. cit., footnote 12, p. 468. 60 In contrast to the Arizona Supreme Court's treatment of Fuentes, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has avoided the effect of the Suprerne Court's rule hy concluding that creditors' self-help repossession of secured property under the Uniform Commercial Code is not "state action" as that expression was understood in the Fuenles case, Adams v, Southern California First National Bank summarized in U.S. Law Week, Oct. 30th, 1973. 61 Frank, op. cil., footnote 36, pp. 156-157. répondrons à vos messages

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Chihuahuas are loving and loyal dogs. However, they get a bad rep for their temperament. While it’s true that chihuahuas can be unpredictable animals, it shouldn’t be a problem with proper training. Take a closer look and know how to care for this breed with these chihuahua facts. - The chihuahua is the smallest dog breed. - Archaeological evidence shows that they originated from Mexico. - A chihuahuas lifespan lasts around 12 to 20 years. - Chihuahuas have an average weight of 3 to 6 pounds. - The name of the breed came from the city of Chihuahua, Mexico. - There are several theories of Chihuahua’s origins. - One of the most common theories is that the Chihuahua’s ancestors are the Techichi breed. They are a small breed of dog from the Mayans and Toltecs in the 8 A.D. - Chihuahuas can run as fast 30 kilometers per hour. - Chihuahuas prefer the same breed as its companion over other breeds of animals. - Up to 90% of chihuahuas have molera – a tiny opening in a puppy’s head, similar to the fontanelle or soft spot in an infant’s skull. - Chihuahuas have big round eyes, erected ears, and rounded/apple-domed skull. - Chihuahuas are extremely loyal to one particular person. - Chihuahuas can be overprotective towards its master, to the point that it will bite anyone who will get close to them. - They are one of the lightest shedders in the canine kingdom. In other words, chihuahuas don’t lose a lot of hair. - Chihuahuas love to stay in the sunlight. - Chihuahuas can be quickly frightened, thus provoking them to attack. - Due to its nature, chihuahuas are not the perfect pet dogs for children. - Dental care is the most important routine for chihuahua’s grooming. - Hydrocephalus (water in the brain) is one of the most common health problems of a chihuahua puppy. - ‘Texas’ and ‘Arizona’ dogs are its previous other names. Chihuahua Facts Infographics The word chihuahua means 'between two waters.' The term “chihuahua” came from a Nahuatl word which means “between two waters.” Many historians assume that the name is older than the Spanish Conquest of Mexico, which began in 1519. Chihuahuas might actually have medicinal effects. Scientists have found that exposure to dogs during childhood may reduce asthma symptoms and may protect them against eczema. They observed that children whose mothers were not exposed to dogs in their pregnancy have a greater chance to develop eczema by the age of 2 years, compared to children whose mothers had exposure to dogs. Genes widely affect the chihuahua's temperament. The genetics of the grandparents and parents of the chihuahua widely affects its behavior, attitude, and temperament. Generally, chihuahuas are alert, courageous, lively, and devoted. The two largest kennel clubs officially recognize two kinds of chihuahuas. The American Kennel Club and the UK Kennel Club recognize two kinds of chihuahuas: the long coat chihuahua and the smooth coat chihuahua. The smooth coat chihuahua is the most common and familiar breed for most people. The smooth coat chihuahua is distinct for its apple-domed skull and short hair measuring around 1/2 to 3/4 inches long. The adult smooth-coat chihuahua grows from 15 to 23cm and weighs around 4 to 6 lbs. Short coat chihuahuas come in a variety of colors, ranging from tan to black. Smooth coat chihuahuas don't exactly have smooth hair. Contrary to popular belief, the word “smooth coat” doesn’t exactly mean that its hair is significantly smooth. Instead, its hair can vary from having a velvet touch to a whiskery feel. The long-haired chihuahua features a flat or little wavy coat. Arguably the cutest breed of chihuahuas, the toy-sized long-haired chihuahua features a flat or little wavy coat. It appears in a variety of colors from black to light tan. In terms of size and weight, they measure the same as the smooth coat chihuahua. The longhaired chihuahuas are easy to groom. Unlike the other longhaired dog breeds that are hard to maintain, longhaired chihuahuas don’t need trimming. With this in mind, it is relatively easy to maintain and groom the longhaired chihuahua. Longhaired chihuahuas are much smoother to the touch. In contrast to the smooth chihuahuas, the longhaired chihuahuas are much smoother to touch because it has soft and fine guard hairs and a downy undercoat. According to old folklore, chihuahuas could treat respiratory ailments. According to old folklore, chihuahuas can treat respiratory ailments, such as allergies and asthma by putting them beside the person. It is believed that chihuahuas will take away their asthma or even other sicknesses since pets protect their masters. Chihuahuas can't handle cold temperatures very well. When they get cold, chihuahuas tend to warm in themselves in different places such as hiding under pillows, clothing baskets, and blankets. Chihuahuas burying into these hiding spots view these dark areas as their den. Chihuahuas exhibit catlike behavior. They may be opposites, but chihuahuas share a few things in common with their feline friends. Chihuahuas tend to climb up to the highest point on a couch or even curl up into a ball. Despite their small size, chihuahuas never see themselves as underdogs. Chihuahuas may be easily frightened, but they are good at masking this emotion. They do not view their size as a disadvantage, even provoking bigger dogs if they’re intimidated by them. Teacup chihuahuas are one of the smallest kinds of chihuahuas. Teacup chihuahuas are a much smaller variety of the same breed. In general, the Teacup Chihuahua doesn’t weigh more than four pounds, making it one of the smallest kinds of chihuahuas. A teacup chihuahua can fit inside a teacup upon birth. As the name suggests, teacup chihuahuas are so tiny, they can literally fit in a cup. Much like the long coat chihuahua and the smooth coat chihuahua, it has the same lifespan of 12 to 20 years. Chihuahuas have saved lives before. Although chihuahuas are not the best guard dogs out there, their loyalty prevails for its master and protected many lives in the past. For instance, a female chihuahua once attacked a rattlesnake that threatened its owner’s 1-year-old grandson in Masonville, Colorado. As a result, the snake bit the chihuahua instead of the 1-year old kid. Fortunately, after the medical treatment, the female chihuahua survived. Chihuahuas have the biggest brain in the canine kingdom. Relative to their their body size, chihuahuas have the biggest brain among other dog breeds. Compared to an Alsatian or a Great Dane, which is much bigger, their brains measure the same size. Chihuahuas only became popular in the 60s. During the 1900s, people preferred dogs that could serve practical purposes, such as being guard dogs and hunting dogs. As such, people only recognized the chihuahua as a pet in the 1960s when companion dogs were finally appreciated. Chihuahua pups are born with their ears down. Despite the pointy-eared appearance they are known for, chihuahua pups are born with floppy ears. Their ears will only start to stand and erect once they are 6 months old. If a chihuahua’s ears are still floppy within these months, it’s very likely that they will stay that way. The chihuahua has the most extensive color combinations of any breed. There are over 30 different colors of chihuahuas. The most common variants of the chihuahua are black, fawn, cream, and gold. They can come in just about any random color combination, especially for crossbreeds. Chihuahuas have a much faster heartbeat than a human. For most healthy humans, the average resting heart rate for adults is around 60 to 100 beats per minute. On the other hand, the chihuahua’s resting heart rate ranges from 100-140 beats a minute. Chihuahuas undergo C-sections more than any other breed. Because of chihuahuas’ bigger heads and its females’ narrow hip width, chihuahuas usually undergo C-sections to avoid complications. Chihuahuas are defenseless when left alone outdoors. When chihuahuas are left alone outdoors, it is vulnerable to predators such as eagles, coyotes, wolves, as well as bigger dog breeds. As a responsible pet owner, it wise to secure your area and never allow the chihuahuas to go out alone. Chihuahuas are unpredictable. Due to different crossbreeds of chihuahuas and other factors like genes, it is not uncommon for a chihuahua to have an unpredictable attitude. Recessive genes can make chihuahuas develop undesirable traits such as over-aggressiveness, stubbornness, and even attacking its owners or co-owners. Chihuahuas are the second most euthanized dog in the world. As a result of their unpredictable temperament, chihuahuas are the second most euthanized dog in the world next to pit bulls. Usually, owners give their chihuahuas up out of frustration. Definitely one of the more unfortunate chihuahua facts. Proper training is the key to a smooth relationship with chihuahuas. Nevertheless, pet lovers who plan to own a chihuahua should not be discouraged by the chihuahua’s potential unpredictability. Chihuahuas are loyal pets by nature. Proper training, responsible ownership, and discipline is the key to a smooth relationship with chihuahuas. The AKC helped maintain the original size of chihuahuas. Aside from the fact that chihuahuas’ ancestors were really small, they were also originally bred to be smaller. The American Kennel Club supported selective breeding to produce smaller chihuahuas during its early years. The American Kennel Club set the official standard weight for a chihuahua at two to six pounds. They are one of the oldest breeds to be recognized by the American Kennel Club. This breed is one of American Kennel Club’s oldest official dog breeds since its induction in the year 1903. From there, the American Kennel Club has continued to add more breeds such as the German Shepherd, Doberman Pinscher, Belgian Sheepdog, Alaskan Malamute, Affenpinscher, Cavalier King, Bearded Collie, Brussels Griffon, Great Pyrenees, Lhasa Apso, and Charles Spaniel. Chihuahuas were given as a traditional Mexican wedding gift in the 1800s. Although it’s uncommon today it wass a normal practice in Mexico for a bride to receive bouquets with a chihuahua inside in from the 1800s to 1900s. The wild chihuahuas and its ancestors used to climb trees. Although modern chihuahuas today are generally homebodies, chihuahuas used to be skilled tree-climbers. Evidence suggests that early chihuahuas had to often scale trees to protect themselves from predators in the wild. Deer headed chihuahuas have narrower and longer heads. Furthermore, deer-headed chihuahuas have longer a snout and described as “a big dog in a small body.” Deer headed chihuahuas are typically lively and brave, but their tendency for aggression makes them unsuitable for kids. Dog breeders made the chihuahua-husky mix possible. The chihuahua-husky mix is one of the most unique breeds of dogs. The hybrid combination of chihuahua and the Siberian husky may seem impossible due to its difference in size, but breeders made it possible. The chihuahua-German shepherd mix is the "smaller version" of German shepherds. Although this mixed breed can vary in appearance, the general outcome is smaller than a German shepherd and bigger than a chihuahua. Furthermore, German Shepherd-Chihuahua hybrids are more likely to have a black and brown coat reminiscent of the German Shepherd. Chihuahua-bulldog hybrids are rising in popularity. The Chihuahua Bulldog mix combines two of the most popular Toy breeds. This breed is relatively new, but it is starting to become more and more common over the last twenty years. A chihuahua-terrier's temperament will depend on the nature of their parents. The chihuahua terrier hybrid combines a chihuahua and a terrier. The chihuahua terrier’s temperament will depend on the nature of their parents, but they can adjust if socially exposed at an early age. Chihuahuas are meat-eaters. Every pet owner can have different variations for their pet’s diet. Nonetheless, the chihuahua’s personal preference for food is mostly protein such as chicken, pork, beef, lamb, and fish. Chihuahuas need at least 40% of meat on their daily food. Blue chihuahuas exist. The blue chihuahua results from a recessive gene. If both the mother and the father possess this blue gene, they will rear this rare variation of chihuahua as offspring. Chihuahua breeders frequently use the term ‘blue’ to emphasize its rare color. However, its real color is grayish-blue. The pure white chihuahua is another rare type of chihuahua. Many argue that the pure white chihuahua is the rarest color of all. It has no black pigment on its skin, its eyes, nose, and nails have a light color while its inner ears are color pink. All the small dogs were thought to be chihuahuas in the late 1800s. During the late 1800s up to the early 1900s, the Southern United States and Northern Mexico classified all the small dogs as “chihuahuas.” However, the the American Kennel Club classified the actual chihuahua as its own breed in 1903. Two smooth coat chihuahuas can produce a long coat puppy. They may be completely different breeds, but two smooth coats can produce long coat offspring in the right circumstances. The long coat chihuahua’s gene is recessive, which makes for a possibility of rearing different offspring. Under the same principle, two long coat chihuahuas are very unlikely to produce a smooth coat puppy. Chihuahua's strong sense of hearing makes them good watchdogs. Although chihuahuas are not known as a guard dog, and more seen as a companion dog, chihuahuas can be very good watchdogs. Chihuahuas can work as an “alarm system” and barking out loud if they detect a stranger or animal lurking around. The earliest images of chihuahuas go as far as 300 BC. Some of the earliest images of chihuahua were seen on pots and sculptures dating back to 300 BC. These little dogs later emerged in paintings such as The Trials and Calling of Moses by Sandro Botticelli in 1482, and Two Venetian Ladies by Vittore Carpaccio in 1490. Chico means 'boy' in Spanish, making it one of the most used names for chihuahuas. According to records, more than 3 million dogs have been named “Chico,” making it the most used name for chihuahuas. Furthermore, other names such as Coco, Lilly, Bella, Daisy, Charlie, and Cookie are also popular for this breed. The Japanese Police Force has a chihuahua in their dog force. A chihuahua from Western Japan passed the Japanese training and exam and got in the polica force. Momo, the 6.6 lbs chihuahua, helps the police in search-and-rescue missions as part of the disaster response team. The word 'Chihuahua' is one of the most misspelled words in Google searches. To this end, the Google Trends map confirms that the word ‘chihuahua’ is one of the hardest words to spell. Other words such as pneumonia, maintenance, neighbor, February, Mississippi, and misspell are also a few words that are often misspelled. It is common for chihuahuas to shiver. Due to the chihuahua’s natural anxiety for being around strangers or too much excitement, it is common to see chihuahuas shaking and shivering. It almos makes them look like a vibrating stuffed toy in action. Chihuahuas often join the celebration of Cinco de Mayo. In Daytona Beach, Florida, USA, more than 200 chihuahuas wore costumes to celebrate Cinco de Mayo in 2015. The celebration of Cinco de Mayo commemorates the Mexican Army’s victory over the French Empire at the Battle of Puebla, under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza in 1862. Some of the world's most famous celebrities own a chihuahua. Some of the world’s famous celebrities are known to enjoy the company of chihuahuas. To enumerate a few, those are Britney Spears, Demi Moore, Madonna, Mickey Rourke, Reese Witherspoon, and Sharon Osborne. Chihuahuas are having a hard time to win a Westminster Kennel Club Show. Since 1907 to up the year 2020, chihuahuas have not won the Westminster Kennel Club Show. From 2015 to 2020, the last five winners were a Beagle, Pointer (German Shorthaired), German Shepherd, Bichon Frise, Fox Terrier, and Poodle. A chihuahua has never won Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show. The title of “Best in Show” is awarded to the winning dog of the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show. To be fair to chihuahuas, many popular breeds have not yet won Westminster Kennel Club Show as well. Instead, terriers have been dominating the show with the most wins since its opening in 1907. Some people hate chihuahuas. Some people may argue that the physical appearance of a chihuahua is “not very appealing,” probably due to its unusual facial aesthetics, personality issues, etc. Furthermore, the loud, weird attitudes towards other people, attachment to one person, and hyperactivity put them off. Like humans, the leading cause of death for chihuahuas is cardiovascular disease. According to a study, the leading cause of death for chihuahuas is cardiovascular disease. A proper diet, exercise, and frequent visits to the vet are optimal ways to assure long and healthy life of chihuahuas. Chihuahuas have a fast metabolism and a small stomach. Chihuahuas burns calories very fast, that is why their ideal food intake should be rationed in small, frequent portions. Food plays a vital role in the chihuahua’s life span. Proper feeding lets them digest protein more easily, improving its overall nutrition. Most people suggest dry kibble food for chihuahuas. Kibble consists of ground up ingredients shaped into pellets, usually made of meat, grains, and vegetables. Kibble is one of the most popular types of food for chihuahuas, since it is easy to prepare. However, it is recommended to consult the vet first, because a dog’s ideal food type depends on its current health condition and age. Never give chihuahuas garlic or onions. When feeding a chihuahua, owners should avoid foods such as garlic, chocolate, onion, and high amounts of salt. Garlic, onions, chives, and leeks all come from the Allium family which is generally poisonous to dogs and even cats. Chihuahuas get dehydrated fast. Aside from the fact that chihuahuas have a quick digestion, they also tend to dehydrate faster. Fresh and clean water must be available all the time in the most accessible area for chihuahuas. Over bathing can make chihuahuas' skin dry and irritated. Chihuahuas need to take a bath once in a while, but over bathing is not good for them. Once every two months is enough or whenever they are dirty. Moreover, lukewarm water and a high-quality dog shampoo with the right pH should be used to enhance the chihuahua’s coat. Vaccinations and immunizations are important to chihuahuas. Because chihuahuas can be aggressive, a rabies vaccination is essential when owning this breed. Immunizations against some diseases and parasites will do the trick for easier maintenance. Trained chihuahuas can help people with disabilities. Chihuahuas also do very well as a service or guide dogs. Also known as seeing-eye dogs, some chihuahuas are particularly trained to lead the blind and visually impaired people, assisting them to navigate obstacles that they normally would not be able to do alone. A chihuahua holds the title for the smallest dog in the world. According to the Guinness World Records, Milly, a female chihuahua, is the world’s smallest dog ever, only measuring 9.65cm. Vanesa Semler from Dorado, Puerto Rico owns Milly. The Guinness World Records confirmed it on February 21, 2013.

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These protozoans cover the intestinal wall and hinder the absorption of nutrients, causing diarrhea of varying degrees. Their nutrition may be holozoic, saprobic, or parasitic. How to improve your employability and find funding. Includes teaching in higher education resources offered by members, presentations from our Teaching microbiology in higher education symposia and information about our Microbiology Educators’ Network. Many protozoans move about by means of appendages known as cilia or flagella. This unrelated, or paraphyletic, nature of the protozoans has caused scientists to abandon the term protozoan in formal classification schemes. They are either free-living or parasites. Furthermore, the scientist has described more than 50 thousand species of Protozoa. The coordinated beating of cilia propels protozoans through water. In general, protozoa have different stages in their lifecycles. This article therefore concentrates on the biology of these comparatively well-characterized protozoans. Any of a large group of one-celled organisms (called protists) that live in water or as parasites. Representative protozoans. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Explore Microbiology Today, the Society's membership magazine. Registered in England 1039582. Protozoa are broken down into different classes: Sporozoa (intracellular parasites), flagellates (which possess tail-like structures that flap around for movement), amoeba (which move using temporary cell body projections called pseudopods), and ciliates (which move by beating multiple hair-like structures called cilia). Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible with the naked eye. They are single-celled animals yet live independently. isogametes look alike, anisogametes do not. Find out about the different career paths available after studying biology or microbiology. Our ‘A Sustainable Future’ project aims to demonstrate how microbiology can help to achieve the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. In fact, the word protozoa is … Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a single-celled parasitic organism, Plasmodium, which infects the blood and liver. Protozoans traditionally were thought to be the progenitors of modern animals, but contemporary evidence has revealed that this is not the case for most protozoans. There are a wide range of exhibition and sponsorship opportunities to suit all budgets, including multi-event packages. Endosymbioses – where one species lives inside another – are found throughout microbiology. In definition, parasites are the organisms that live in or on other organisms (called host), and are capable of damaging the host. Hence, many protozoans either perform photosynthesis themselves or benefit from the photosynthetic capabilities of other organisms. What they all have in common is the … Therefore, protozoa fit into the Domain Eukarya. Protozoan, organism, usually single-celled and heterotrophic (using organic carbon as a source of energy), belonging to any of the major lineages of protists and, like most protists, typically microscopic. • Protozoa are single-celled microscopic eukaryotic organisms noted for their motility, i.e., ability to move independently • They live in many different environments; they can drift in the ocean, creep across vegetation in fresh water rivers and ponds, crawl in deep soil, and even reproduce inside the bodies of other organisms • Most protozoa are heterotrophs, obtaining their nutrients by ingesting small molecules or cells. Explore our new collections of digital content which celebrate 'Why Microbiology Matters' and helps us demonstrate the impact of microbiologists past, present and future. These are divided into four major groups. Furthermore, this description is not as straightforward as it seems. The group of organisms known as 'protozoa' are defined by a few of their shared characteristics. Protozoans are multi-cellular organisms and have membrane-bound organelles that work independently from the whole cell. During the bioremediation of contaminated environments, they feed on oil-degrading bacteria, increasing bacterial growth in the same way that they enhance the rates of decomposition in soils, thereby speeding up the breakdown of oil spillages. Organisms that fit the contemporary definition of a protozoan are found in all major groups of protists that are recognized by protistologists, reflecting the paraphyletic nature of protozoans. Like animal cells, protozoa lack Protozoans probably play a similar role in contaminated natural ecosystems. Advice and information for those interested in a career in microbiology. (1) Amoeboid protozoans or sarcodines . They are motile and can move by: Toxoplasma gondii resides silently in the brains of billions of us worldwide. There are many c… Protozoans are microscopic unicellular eukaryotic organisms with heterotrophic mode of nutrition. Cryptosporidiosis, & more. Explore top 12 diseases caused by protozoa namely malaria, Amoebiasis, Trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, Lambliasis, Babesiosis. Thinking of organising outreach and engagement activities? The Microbiology Society has a podcast called Microbe Talk. Some protozoans, such as Paramecium bursaria, have developed symbiotic relationships with eukaryotic algae, while the amoeba Paulinella chromatophora remarkably appears to have acquired autotrophy via relatively recent endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium (a blue-green alga). Today the term protozoan is used informally in reference to nonfilamentous heterotrophic protists. Modern ultrastructural, biochemical, and genetic evidence has rendered the term protozoan highly problematic. Although the different phyla of the kingdom Protista are not closely related, they are nonetheless classified together because of their large differences from the other kingdoms of plants, animals and … Funds received though the Microbiology Society publication subscriptions, membership and other activities are used to support microbiology in the form of grants and prizes. But look inside a Plasmodium cell itself and you find something rather unexpected – a cellular structure that looks remarkably like a chloroplast. A Charity registered in Scotland SC039250. There is a great deal to know about their classification, characteristics and more. Therefore, protozoa fit into the Domain Eukarya. Historically, a protozoan was considered a "one-celled animal" because it had various animal-like behaviors including predation, a lack of cell wall, and motility. Protozoans are the microscopic microorganisms present on land and water. Start studying Protozoa. Protozoa Habitat & Diet. Discover more about the history of the Microbiology Society, including its inception in 1945. A diverse group of unicellular organisms that generally reproduce by binary fission; they are eukaryotic and therefore have metabolic systems much like humans (making them harder to treat than bacterial infections). For example, protozoan historically referred to a protist that has animal-like traits, such as the ability to move through water as though “swimming” like an animal. The Microbiology Society has a vision and mission around which we base our strategy. https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-fungi-and-vs-protozoa Test your skills on these questions and more in this quiz that’s all about biology. any of various types of very small animals with one cell: Amoebas are protozoans. The Microbiology Society holds and supports conferences and events to disseminate research knowledge and provide a forum for communication between microbiologists. Morphology (General) Ciliates:Ciliophora Structure in this group is fairly diverse, but almost all species retain a few basic characters that help to identify them as ciliates. Submit ideas for Microbiology Society Annual Conference sessions and Focused Meetings, or apply for a Society-Supported Conference Grant. Protozoa live in a lot of different places, but they usually like to stay in moist environments. Paramecia and other single-celled organisms in pond water. Free-living protozoans are common and often abundant in fresh, brackish and salt water, as well as in other moist environments, such as soils and mosses. Details on how to contact the Microbiology Society and where our office is located. There are around 65000 species of protozoans categorised in … Of mice and men: are billions victim to Toxoplasma mind control? Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. This biological relationship or the phenomenon is known as parasitism. Protozoa and helminths are two major groups of organisms acting as parasites and are able to cause various infections to humans. fission, budding, multiple fission, schizogeny (many nuclear divisions followed by division of the cytoplasm) What is the difference between isogametes and anisogametes? The parasitic protozoa are most often spread through contaminated or stagnant water, biting insects such as the … The Microbiology Society is committed to supporting and encouraging the understanding of microbiology. The Society’s role is to help unlock and harness the potential of that knowledge. Protozoans are simple organisms, or living things . The Microbiology Society promotes the public understanding of microbiology. Learn more about the prizes and competitions that the Microbiology Society offers. Plasmodium, for example, causes malaria. Home / Uncategorized / The Major Classification and Characteristics of Protozoa. At the Society, we provide a number of high quality events and meetings throughout the year, including the Focus Meeting series. Some algal species of protozoans, however, have lost the ability to photosynthesize (e.g., Polytomella species and many dinoflagellates), further complicating the concept of “protozoan.”. This includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and algae, collectively known as 'microbes'. Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes (organisms whose cells have nuclei) that commonly show characteristics usually associated with animals, most notably mobility and … Parasitic protozoa … The protozoan that causes malaria can … These resources could help with your outreach work. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. Plural protozoans protozoa. News and updates from the Microbiology Society. We work with other policy organisations to promote evidence-informed policy and support scientists to tackle global challenges. The Microbiology Society supports microbiology-related education and outreach activities and funds are available for members keen to run and participate in these events. For example, Zooxanthellae are protozoa that live inside corals, the marine invertebrates that build coral reefs. A series of educational microbiology resources that can be used to support education and outreach activities. The most important groups of free-living protozoans are found within several major evolutionary clusters of protists, including the ciliates (supergroup Chromalveolata), the lobose amoebae (supergroup Amoebozoa), the filose amoebae (supergroup Rhizaria), the cryptomonads (supergroup Chromalveolata), the excavates (supergroup Excavata), the opisthokonts (supergroup Opisthokonta), and the euglenids (Euglenozoa). Inspired by Professor Jo Verran's Bad Bugs Book Club the Society has launched a project to encourage the microbiology community to get together and discuss microbiology in literature. All protozoa require a moist habitat; however, some can survive for long periods of time in dry environments, by forming … Protozoans consist primarily of eukaryotic and single-celled organisms. Omissions? Protozoan definition is - any of a phylum or subkingdom (Protozoa) of chiefly motile and heterotrophic unicellular protists (such as amoebas, trypanosomes, sporozoans, and paramecia) that are represented in almost every kind of habitat and include some pathogenic parasites of humans and domestic animals. 'I got stretch marks': Bebe Rexha posts unfiltered pic. Protozoans are unicellular, single celled micro organisms. More examples. More than just pathogens - can be friend or foe. The Microbiology Society regularly produces videos which are hosted on our YouTube channel. Our Annual Conference takes place over four days and consists of symposia, workshops, forums, offered oral presentations, poster viewing sessions, Prize Lectures from eminent microbiologists and a trade exhibition. These particles are usually broken down in food vacuoles… Protozoa is a single cell animal that we can find in every possible habitat on earth. Protozoans reproduce by splitting into two. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Access our topical briefing papers, position statements and consultation responses. The groups are called phyla (singular, phylum) by some microbiologists, and classes by others. Most protozoans are so tiny that they can be seen only with a microscope. Explore a unique selection of archive items in our Fleming Exhibition, put together in collaboration with Public Health England’s National Collection of Type Cultures team. The Microbiology Society supports greater diversity within the field of microbiology. Microbial powerhouses essential for life. Some protozoa are oval or spherical, others elongated. Protozoa Definition. Usually by themselves, but they sometimes form colonies. Protozoans are motile; nearly all possess flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia that allow them to navigate their aqueous habitats. Protozoans encompass many forms, including cells covered with cilia, cells that propel themselves with one or two flagella, and cells that crawl. The Microbiology Society is a membership charity for scientists interested in microbes, their effects and their practical uses. Protozoa that live in the blood or tissue of humans are transmitted to other humans by an arthropod vector (for example, through the bite of a mosquito or sand fly). Professor of Zoology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia. Owing to the prevalence of these human pathogens, and to the ecological importance of the free-living protozoan groups mentioned above, much is known about these groups. Protozoa [pro″to-zo´ah] a subkingdom (formerly a phylum) comprising the unicellular eukaryotic organisms; most are free-living, but some lead commensalistic, mutualistic, or parasitic existences. Protozoa are a diverse group of organisms that are non-phototrophic, unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms with no cell walls. Some are parasitic, which means they live in other plants and animals including humans, where they cause disease. Still others have different shapes at different stages of the life cycle. These organism get their food … The protozoa are divided into four major groups: the ciliates, the flagellates, the heliozoans, and the amoebas. Contact the Membership Office by email, telephone or post. We support our members to champion microbiology and to access the best microbiological evidence and expertise. Find out about development opportunities that can help you to advance your career. Protozoa are single-celled organisms without cell walls. The Microbiology Society provides funds to support microbiologists and develop microbiology, teaching and research in countries defined as low-income or lower-middle-income economies by the World Bank. What to do after you graduate and how to get a job. Although there are nearly 20,000 species of protozoa, relatively few cause disease; most inhabit soil and water. Cells can be as small as 1 μm in diameter and as large as 2,000 μm, or 2 mm (visible without magnification). The Microbiology Society provides funding for microbiological research projects and travel to help members enhance their careers. Enhance your professional skills and your scientific knowledge with our resources designed to support you in your career development. Microbial Genomics is the open access journal of choice for pioneering research in genomics in microbial life. The name protozoa has a d… Find out how to get the most out of your membership. Have a question about Membership? Examples of protozoan mixotrophs include many chrysophytes. These FAQs may be of help. These groups of organisms are important ecologically for their role in microbial nutrient cycles and are found in a wide variety of environments, from terrestrial soils to freshwater and marine habitats to aquatic sediments and sea ice. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, Ecological and industrial importance of protozoans, Respiration and other energy-generating pathways, https://www.britannica.com/science/protozoan, National Center for Biotechnology Information - Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development, protozoan - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), protozoan - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). Infections caused by protozoa can be spread through ingestion of cysts (the dormant life stage), sexual transmission, or through insect vectors. Most of the time, protozoans are microscopic. Deion Sanders's team lands huge commitment: His son. The links provided on this page contain a list of institutions that may be useful and able to provide further information. The term "protozoa" was coined by German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss in 1818. What are their causal organisms? Malaria is caused by protozoan parasites of the Plasmodium genus. The science helping us understand our world. They perform all of their physiology, including reproduction, movement, food collection with that single cell. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. First found existing on the edge of life. Looking deeper, this group can be extremely complex and variable. What is another name for the so-called sea wasp? Organisms from these groups are the causative agents of human diseases such as malaria and African sleeping sickness. Unlike the relatively simple bacteria, protozoa can have many … A list of all grants and prizes available to members of the Microbiology Society. For instance, many protists are mixotrophs, capable of both heterotrophy (secondary energy derivation through the consumption of other organisms) and autotrophy (primary energy derivation, such as through the capture of sunlight or metabolism of chemicals in the environment). All protozoal species are assigned to the kingdom Protista in the Whittaker classification.The protozoa are then placed into various groups primarily on the basis of how they move. The Microbiology Society's Council's Statement on Brexit can also be found here. Press releases published by the Microbiology Society. Define the following: trophozoite; protozoan cyst. An ancient remnant inside the malaria parasite, International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. By remembering the Society in your Will you can help support the future of microbiology and the next generation of microbiologists. View the current job vacancies at the Microbiology Society. Protozoans are unicellular organisms and are often called the animal-like protists because they subsist entirely on other organisms for food. The Microbiology Society collaborates with several organisations to push the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) agenda forward. All protozoans are eukaryotes and therefore possess a “true,” or membrane-bound, nucleus. Amoebas, Paramecia, and Trypanosomes are all examples of animal-like Protists. The Society also has a number of committees, including Division Committees. Find out about what the Early Career Microbiologists' (ECM) Forum is and why it was established. Pennsylvania GOP leaders call for audit of the election Protozoa are single-celled organisms that act a lot like animals in that they move around and feed on prey. Some species thrive in extreme environments such as hot springs and hypersaline lakes and lagoons. However, this commonality does not represent a unique trait among protozoans; for example, organisms that are clearly not protozoans also produce flagella at various stages in their life cycles (e.g., most brown algae). Although the different phyla of the kingdom Protista are not closely related, they are nonetheless classified together because of their large differences from the other kingdoms of plants, animals and fungi. Hence, the subkingdom Protozoa is now considered obsolete. The protozoans are unified by their heterotrophic mode of nutrition, meaning that these organisms acquire carbon in reduced form from their surrounding environment. We welcome images of your science, of nature, of people, places and events that will inspire, inform and demonstrate how the study of microbes helps us to understand our world and our place within it. Updates? They come in many different shapes and sizes ranging from an Amoeba which can change its shape to Paramecium with its fixed shape and complex structure. Cells can be as small as 1 μm in diameter and as large as 2,000 μm, or 2 mm (visible without magnification). Protozoans engulf their prey and incorporate it into a food vacuole within the cell where it is subjected to harsh chemical treatment involving digestive enzymes and acidic conditions. Learn more about it. The protozoa that are infectious to humans can be classified into four groups based on their mode of movement: Sarcodina – … Toxoplasmosis Caused by protozoa of the genus toxoplasma , which are transmitted to humans through contact with cats and other types of infected felines, or with infected animal or human feces. Some protozoa are oval or spherical, others elongated. Protozoa reproduce asexually by the … This diverse group of over 65,000 species generally share these basic attributes. They live in a wide variety of moist habitats including fresh water, marine environments and the soil. Nevertheless, some colonial organisms (e.g., Dictyostelium discoideum, supergroup Amoebozoa) exhibit high levels of cell specialization that border on multicellularity. Amoebas and paramecia are types of protozoan. All protozoans are eukaryotes and therefore possess a “true,” or … They are believed to be a part of the microbial world as they are unicellular and microscopic. Protozoa are single celled organisms. Organisms known as protozoa include a wide range of organisms, most of which are free-living single-celled eukaryotes. Access all content published by the Microbiology Society relating to SARS-CoV-2, the cause of COVID-19 in our digital hub. Protozoans are solitary cells that nonetheless can be social and use chemical cues to congregate together in areas of food or mates or the focal point for differentiation cysts to weather hard times. Protozoa were established to be a class of simpler organism and initially included both multicellular animals like polychaete worms, jellyfish, and rotifers as well as single-celled organisms. The Microbiology Society will highlight details of any event held by other organisations in the areas of microbiology. If you would like to list an event here, you can submit your details in through our online form. Briefly describe 3 ways protozoans may reproduce asexually. Protozoan grazers: they may influence the biological availability of iron to phytoplankton Still others have different shapes at different stages of the life cycle. What continent is home to the world’s two venomous lizards? They belong to a group of organisms called protists , which are neither plants nor animals. They are unicellular, jelly-like protozoa found in fresh or sea water and in moist soil. Protozoa is a Greek term equivalent to the German word Urthiere, meaning "original animal or primitive." 75th Anniversary: showcasing why microbiology matters, 75th anniversary: Fleming Showcase Archive Exhibition. They are represented by four major groups namely Flagellates, Ciliates, Sarcodina, and Sporozoans. In fact, modern science has shown that the protozoans represent a very complicated grouping of organisms that do not necessarily share a common evolutionary history. They come in many different shapes and sizes ranging from an Amoeba which can change its shape to Paramecium with its fixed shape and complex structure. Organisms known as protozoa include a wide range of organisms, most of which are free-living single-celled eukaryotes. Protozoans are also strictly non-multicellular and exist as either solitary cells or cell colonies. Mosquitos become carriers through inhabiting contaminated water. Join the Microbiology Society and become part of the largest microbiology community in Europe. Moreover, they are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Microbiology - Microbiology - Protozoa: Protozoa, or protozoans, are single-celled, eukaryotic microorganisms. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Protozoan, organism, usually single-celled and heterotrophic (using organic carbon as a source of energy), belonging to any of the major lineages of protists and, like most protists, typically microscopic. Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms. They also are nonfilamentous (in contrast to organisms such as molds, a group of fungi, which have filaments called hyphae) and are confined to moist or aquatic habitats, being ubiquitous in such environments worldwide, from the South Pole to the North Pole. Many are symbionts of other organisms, and some species are parasites. The Microbiology Society is working with the scientific community to engage with policy-makers on the issue of Brexit. Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms lacking a cell wall and belonging to the Kingdom Protista. What are protozoa? They live in a wide variety of moist habitats including fresh water, marine environments and the soil. View the categories available to find the one most suitable for you. Protozoans include the amoebas, flagellates, foraminiferans, and ciliates. The phytoflagellate. The Microbiology Society has supported and helped develop a variety of resources produced by external organisations. It offers ample opportunities for formal and informal networking for both early career and established microbiologists. 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CANADIAN ROCKY MOUNTAIN PARKS The contiguous National Parks of Jasper, Banff, Yoho and Kootenay, with the adjoining Mount Robson, Hamber and Mount Assiniboine Provincial Parks, straddle the superbly beautiful continental divide of the central Rocky Mountains at their highest point. They protect 400 kilometres of forested mountain landscape studded with dramatic snow-capped peaks, glaciers, lakes, cascades, canyons and caves. The Burgess Shale fossil site, a World Heritage site since 1980 and famous for its fossil remains of soft-bodied marine animals, is in Yoho National Park. Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks NATURAL WORLD HERITAGE SERIAL SITE 1981: The Burgess Shale fossil sites in Yoho National Park designated a World Heritage site under criterion viii. 1984: The National Parks inscribed on the World Heritage List under criteria vii and viii. 1990: The British Columbian Provincial Parks added to the inscribed sites. 2006: Designation under criterion ix withdrawn. STATEMENT OF OUTSTANDING UNIVERSAL VALUE [pending] The UNESCO World Heritage Committee issued the following statement at the time of inscription: Statement of Significance Renowned for their scenic splendor, the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks are comprised of Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho national parks and Mount Robson, Mount Assiniboine and Hamber provincial parks. Together, they exemplify the outstanding physical features of the Rocky Mountain Biogeographical Province. Classic illustrations of glacial geological processes — including icefields, remnant valley glaciers, canyons and exceptional examples of erosion and deposition — are found throughout the area. The Burgess Shale Cambrian and nearby Precambrian sites contain important information about the earth’s evolution. Criterion (vii): The seven parks of the Canadian Rockies form a striking mountain landscape. With rugged mountain peaks, icefields and glaciers, alpine meadows, lakes, waterfalls, extensive karst cave systems and deeply incised canyons, the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks possess exceptional natural beauty, attracting millions of visitors annually. Criterion (viii): The Burgess Shale is one of the most significant fossil areas in the world. Exquisitely preserved fossils record a diverse, abundant marine community dominated by soft-bodied organisms. Originating soon after the rapid unfolding of animal life about 540 million years ago, the Burgess Shale fossils provide key evidence of the history and early evolution of most animal groups known today, and yield a more complete view of life in the sea than any other site for that time period. The seven parks of the Canadian Rockies are a classic representation of significant and on-going glacial processes along the continental divide on highly faulted, folded and uplifted sedimentary rocks. IUCN MANAGEMENT CATEGORY |Jasper National Park||II National Park| |Banff National Park||II National Park| |Kootenay National Park||II National Park| |Yoho National Park||II National Park| |Mount Robson Provincial Park||II National Park| |Hamber Provincial Park||II National Park| |Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park||II National Park| Rocky Mountains (1.19.12) This 400 km-long belt of Parks lies along the British Columbia-Alberta border from 100 km west of Calgary to 400 km west of Edmonton, Alberta, straddling the central Rocky Mountains at their highest. From north to south they are: Jasper and Banff National Parks in Alberta, and Yoho and Kootenay National Parks in British Columbia. These adjoin the Provincial Parks, all in British Columbia: Mount Robson Park and Hamber Park south of it, both lying west of Jasper National Park, and Mount Assiniboine Park between Banff and Kootenay Parks. The group is located between 50° 34' to 53° 28'N and 115°10' to 119° 32'W. DATES AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT 1885: 2,600 ha around the Cave and Basin mineral hot springs in Banff declared a Park Reserve; 1886: 2,600 ha beside Mt Stephen were set aside as Yoho Dominion Park; the area fluctuated till 1930; 1887: The Banff area was formally gazetted as Rocky Mountains Park (67,300 ha) under the Rocky Mountains Park Act; it was renamed and extended in 1930; 1907: Jasper Forest Park created (1,295,000 ha); its area fluctuated until 1930; 1913: Mount Robson Provincial Park gazetted: (218,795 ha, extended in 1967 by 739 ha); 1920: Kootenay Park gazetted on land relinquished by the state in exchange for Federal Government grant to complete Highway 93, the Parks’ main road) (152,000 ha in 1930, since reduced); 1922: Mount Assiniboine protected (5,200 ha); 1930: The Rocky Mountains Park renamed Banff National Park and extended to 669,500ha (5,400 ha were excised in 1949); Jasper and Yoho Park areas finally determined; 1941: Hamber declared a Provincial Park (1,009,112 ha) but reduced to present size in 1961/62; 1973: Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park extended to protect the watershed, alpine areas, and to link the park to Banff and Kootenay National Parks; 1981: The Burgess shale fossil sites in Yoho National Park made a World Heritage site. The National Parks occupy federal land and are administered by Parks Canada. The Provincial Parks are British Columbian provincial crown land, administered by BC Parks. The total area of the seven Parks of the World Heritage site is 2,306,884 ha: |Jasper National Park||1,087,800 ha| |Banff National Park||664,100 ha| |Kootenay National Park||140,640 ha| |Yoho National Park||131,310 ha| |Mount Robson Provincial Park||219,535 ha| |Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park||39,050 ha| |Hamber Provincial Park||24,520 ha| Contiguous local and provincial parks in Alberta, from north to south are: |Willmore Wilderness Park||459,671.| |Siffleur Wilderness Area||41,215 ha| |Whitehorse Wildland Park||17,500 ha| |Ghost River Wilderness Area||15,317 ha| |White Goat Wilderness Area||44,457 ha| |Kananaskis Provincial Park||50,308 ha| 1,036m - 3,954m (Mount Robson); 3,783m (Mt Columbia, Jasper NP); 3,662m (Mt Forbes, Banff NP). The central Canadian Rocky Mountains are a high massif of sedimentary rock dating from the Precambrian to Cretaceous periods, oriented northwest-southeast along the Continental Divide. They consist of the Western Ranges, the Main Ranges, the Front Ranges and the eastern Foothills. The Western Ranges in the Provincial Parks, the southern part of Kootenay and western part of Yoho include formations of folded thick shales. The Main Ranges form the Continental Divide and are present in all the Parks. They are formed of limestone, dolomite, sandstone and shale and include nearly all the highest mountains, including Mounts Robson, Columbia, Forbes, Alberta and Assiniboine which all exceed 3600m. In the Main Ranges of Yoho Park, fossil beds occur in the Burgess Shale layer of the Stephen Formation. They are of global significance as they show well preserved evidence of evolution in a large number of species, ancestral and extinct, during the mid-Cambrian period 535 million years ago. The preservation in mudstone of soft-bodied animals is exceptional. There are also preCambrian fossil sites in Mt. Robson Park. The Front Ranges in Banff and Jasper Parks are composed of thick layers of limestone and shale. These ranges often have a tilted, tooth-like appearance: Mt. Rundle in Banff and Roche Miette in Jasper Parks are characteristic. The Foothills make up the easternmost extensions of the Rockies and only occur in a small southeastern part of Jasper Park. Active glaciers and icefields still exist throughout the region, particularly in the Main Ranges. The Columbia Icefield is the largest in North America's sub-arctic interior. Covering 325 sq. km, it spans both the Continental Divide and the boundary between Jasper and Banff Parks and is considered the hydrographic apex of North America. The Parks contain the headwaters of four major river systems: the North Saskatchewan and Athabasca Rivers which flow northeast, and the Columbia and Fraser Rivers which flow southwest. The Park waters of Yoho and Kootenay flow to the Pacific Ocean through the Columbia drainage, and those of Mount Robson, via the headwaters of the Fraser River. Hamber Park contains Fortress Lake watershed. There are numerous lakes in Mount Assiniboine Park, most of which are located in broad alpine valleys and plateaus in glacially scoured depressions in the limestone bedrock. The landscape of dramatic mountain peaks, glacial lakes and alpine meadows is of exceptional ecological integrity and natural beauty. The soils are generally shallow and immature, but marked variations do occur. In Jasper, chernozems are found on steep subalpine grassland slopes, whilst podzols are found in upland areas and gleys in poorly drained areas. At Lake Louise in Banff, the soils consist of moraine material. The Parks experience continental cool summer to sub-arctic conditions, where temperatures can range from 30°C in the summer to -30°C in the winter. In the valleys, mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 8.6°C and -3.3°C respectively, while at higher altitudes temperatures are generally five to seven degrees cooler. Annual rainfall is 250mm. Annual snowfall at lower elevations is 160mm; at higher elevations and along the continental divide, it is 650mm (Parks Canada, 2002a). The Rockies in this area can be divided into four major ecosystems: alpine meadow, sub-alpine grassland with non-vegetated ground, montane wetlands and montane boreal forest. Floral species counts in Banff and Jasper Parks indicate about 996 vascular plants, 243 mosses, 407 lichens and 53 liverworts. Montane vegetation extends over some 18,432 ha and occurs in major valley bottoms, on the foothills and sun-exposed slopes of lower mountainsides, especially in the front ranges. Forest cover, generally found between 1200m and 1800m, ranges from 50.09% in Banff Park and 58.21% in Yoho to 77.07% in Kootenay. The first two have less cover because they are located on the drier Front range (Parks Canada, 2002). Typical species include Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii, white spruce, Picea glauca, aspen Populus tremuloides and poplar Populus balsamifera. Montane wetlands and meadows occupy areas next to major rivers such as the Bow and Red Deer valleys in Banff and Athabasca and Brazeau River valleys in Jasper. Typical species include lodgepole pine Pinus contorta, which rapidly colonises after fire, and aspen; black spruce Picea mariana is occasionally found along these river valleys. The sub-alpine ecosystem occurs on mountainsides between 1800m and 2100m, and in valley bottoms at higher elevations. This is the most extensive ecoregion in the Rockies and can be subdivided into lower and upper sub-alpine occupying 69,120 ha and 46,080 ha, respectively. The principal forest community of the lower sub-alpine zone comprises Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii, limber pine Pinus flexilis and lodgepole pine. Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa dominates the upper sub-alpine zone, although it thins towards the treeline. South of Bow Pass, pure stands of Lyall's larch Larix lyalli dominate the upper limit of this ecoregion. The alpine ecosystem occurs above the treeline and covers an area of about 13,824 ha. It is characterised by diminutive hardy vegetation such as low-growing willow Salix arctica and dwarf birch Betula glandulosa, heath Cassiope tetragona, mountain avens Dryas integrifolia, D. hookeriania, sedge Carex nigricans, Kobresia bellardii, Phyllodoce glandulifolia and Antennaria lanata. Around Emerald Lake in Yoho, pockets of wetbelt forest typical of the Pacific Coast region can be found. Species include western red cedar Thule plicata, western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla and western yew Taxus brevifolia, all at the extreme easternmost extent of their range. Vascular plants found in Mt. Assiniboine Park include American alpine smelowskia Smelowskia calycina, Raynold's sedge Carex raynoldsii, Cusick's Indian paintbrush Castilleja cusickii, stalked-pod locoweed Oxytropis podocarpa, sub-alpine grassland Saussurea nuda and apetalous campion Silene uralensis attenuata. Those found within Mt. Robson Park include low sandwort Atenaria longipedinculata, slender Indian paintbrush Castilleja gracillima, western Indian paintbrush C. occidentalis, sulphur indian paintbrush C. sulphurea and arctic cinquefoil Potentilla hyparctica. 56 mammalian species are recorded. Characteristic species found in alpine meadows include Rocky mountain goat Oreamos americanus, bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis, northern pika Ochotona princeps and hoary marmot Marmota caligata. Forest mammals include moose Alces alces, mule deer Odocoileus hemionus, white-tailed deer O. viriginianus, caribou Rangifer tarandus, red deer Cervus canadensis and red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus. Carnivores include grey wolf Canis lupus, grizzly bear Ursos arctos horribilis, black bear U. americanus, wolverine Gulo gulo luscus, lynx Felis lynx canadensis and puma F. concolor. Some 280 species of birds have been seen, including northern three-toed woodpecker Picoides tridactylus, white-tailed ptarmigan Lagopus leucurus, grey jay Perisoreus canadensis, mountain bluebird Sialia currucoides, Clark's nutcraker Nucifraga columbiana, golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, mountain chickadee Parus gambeli and rock pipit Anthus spinoletta. Other fauna recorded includes one species of toad, three species of frog, one species of salamander and two species of snake. The tiny Banff Springs snail Physella johnsoni, discovered in 1926, is listed as endangered by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. It only inhabits five warm mineral springs on Sulphur Mountain in Banff National Park (Parks Canada, 2002a). The area has majestic natural beauty, floral and faunal diversity, and is a prime example of ongoing geological processes such as glaciation and canyon formation. The Rocky Mountains are also regionally important to ensure the protection of heritage resources and large tracts of wilderness. Since prehistoric times, the Kootenay valley has served as a major north-south travel route. The Kootenai Indians settled in the region about 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. Pictographs found near the hot springs indicate this was a meeting place for plain and mountain bands. Banff's Vermillion Lakes is one of Canada's oldest known archeological sites, dating from 10,500 B.P, and some pre-historic artifacts in Jasper have been dated to 9,000 B.P. European fur traders and explorers first reached the area in the 1800's seeking transportation routes through the high mountain passes. They were followed by homesteaders and entrepeneurs who realised the commercial potential of developing areas such as Radium Hot Springs LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION The latest figures for the main population centre give: Banff, 7,600, Jasper, 4,700, Lake Louise, 1,900 and Field approximately 300, largely dependent on and varying with tourism, logging and maintenance of the parks. Development limited to park-related workers has led to the expansion of gateway communities (Parks Canada, 2004). VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES Visitation which has been fairly constant, in 2002 totalled 10,218,000: 9,667,000 in national parks and 551,000 in provincial parks. The parks are easily accessible by main highways and railroads and between eight and ten million people visit the World Heritage site each year. Facilities include 4 ski areas, 3 hot pools, 2 golf courses, a snow coach tour and 3,600 km of trails including guided interpretive trails. There is a wide range of accommodations including 20 campgrounds with 5,200 sites, 12 hostels and 25 outlying commercial accommodation areas along with souvenir shops, restaurants and service stations. Four year-round visitor centres and hotels are located in Banff, Lake Louise, Jasper, Field and elsewhere. Four seasonal visitor centres are located at the Columbia Icefield, in Radium Hot Springs near the west entrance to Kootenay National Park, and Mount Robson Provincial Park visitor centre at the west entrance to the park. Recently management plans have incorporated heritage tourism measures to reduce visitor impacts on the parks’ ecology by removing some facilities from sensitive sites (Parks Canada, 2004). SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES Research has been carried out into: fire management and ecology, grizzly bear survival, wolf access to wintering elk herds, aquatic ecosystems and the restoration of lake stocks, the state of exotic fish species, and the movements and distribution patterns of wildlife; also into the biology and ecology of ungulates, woodland caribou, lynx, cougars, wolverines, small mammals, birds, amphibians, forest fragmentation, ecological land classification, tourism and recreation. Scientific studies contribute to park management plans, decisions and operations, environmental assessments, visitor education, business plans and management of neighbouring land. Research into the world-famous fossils of the mid-Cambrian 565-year old Burgess shale has been ongoing intermittently since their discovery by C. Walcott in 1907. 120 species of ancestral and extinct marine animals have been unearthed. Banff has its International Research Station and there is a Learning Centre at Field. Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho National Parks are administered by the Canadian government under the National Parks Act which was amended in 2000 to make ecological integrity its first priority, and the Parks Canada Agency Act of 1998 through the Agency’s Guiding Principles and Operational Policies. 95% of the national parks are legally protected as wilderness. Boundaries for communities in National Parks were set and development was capped (Government of Canada, 2000). Community plans for Banff, Jasper, Lake Louise and Field were completed. The Parks Canada Agency participates in cooperative programs with other federal and provincial agencies including wildlife monitoring especially of grizzly bears and wolves, fire management, pine beetle control, and search and rescue. In 1996 the minister responsible for Parks Canada commissioned a study of the Banff-Bow valley to ascertain the state of the environment in the core of Banff National Park and in 1999 commissioned a second study, on the ecological integrity of Canada’s national parks. Reports produced as a result of these studies have provided direction for management plans and strategies, emphasising the restoration of ecological integrity and restraints on development (Parks Canada, 2004) Management plans for Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho National Parks were completed between 1997 and 2002 with some involvement of the public. For management purposes these National Parks are divided into five zones: Zone I, Special Preservation Areas where access and use are strictly controlled, cover 3% of the land; Zone II, Wilderness, where only activities requiring primitive facilities are permitted, covers 94% of the land; Zone III, Natural Environment, where low-density outdoor recreation is permitted, occupies 3%; Zone IV, Outdoor Recreation, provides for higher intensity recreation with supporting infrastructure such as downhill ski-areas; Zone V, covers Park Services: the service centres, towns and major infrastructure such as highways and railroads (Parks Canada, 2002a). Monitoring, with 5-yearly reports, is extensive. Topics include water and snow conditions, atmospheric conditions, vegetation, wildlife habitat and populations and visitor numbers. Mount Robson, Hamber and Mount Assiniboine Provincial Parks are administered by the British Columbia Parks Agency within the provincial Ministry of Water, Lands and Air Protection, under the Parks Act and Protected Areas of British Columbia Act. BC Parks prepares management plans, sets out objectives and actions for the conservation, development, interpretation and operation of provincial protected areas for ten to twenty year periods. Management plans completed between 1989 and 1992 based on current information about natural and cultural values, recreation opportunities and resource activities in surrounding lands divided the provincial parks into four zones: wilderness conservation, natural environment, wilderness recreation and intensive recreation. For Mount Robson Provincial Park these zones are: wilderness conservation 58%, wilderness recreation 22%, natural environment 16% and intensive recreation 3%. A variety of interagency committees exists for coordination and collaboration between park managers. Much of the land bordering the Parks in British Columbia and Alberta is designated for multiple resource use. This includes logging, coal, oil and gas extraction and recreation. In 2005 development of an open-pit coal mine within 2 km of Jasper National Park was legally permitted (Sierra Club, 2005). The roads serving such activities are increasing public access to formerly remote areas. This is clearly evident at Ensign Creek, Yoho where logging has brought access roads very close to Amiskwi Wilderness Area, adjacent to the Park boundary (Canadian Parks Service, 1988d). Within Jasper National Park, the construction of Highway 16, the Canadian National Railway and the Trans-Mountain Pipeline had a profound effect on the hydrology of the lower Athabasca and Miette River valleys. Past fire suppression measures reduced biodiversity and left forests more vulnerable to intense fires and insect invasions as by the mountain pine beetle. The aesthetic impact of the Yellowhead River corridor and wildlife mortality were also problematic: about 1,000 animals were killed between1970 and 1980 (Parks Canada, 2000c). One of the biggest threats facing the Parks is that of the development encouraged by increased tourism. Two national highways and railways and many secondary roads cross the park. Nearby Calgary and Edmonton are growing rapidly and development along park borders is increasing. The townsite region of Jasper is an ecologically important area located at the junction of three watersheds. During the winter, wildlife concentrates in the area but development has led to a disturbance in ungulate migration routes around the town, the destruction of key habitats and conflicts between bears and humans (Parks Canada, 2000c). Regular proposals for expansion of the four downhill ski resorts in the Parks are made and continue to cause controversy. Among the effects of these developments are a reduction of the populations of mountain goats, caribou and wolves. The total staff for the four National Parks is 490 full-time employees: Banff, 171, Jasper, 158, Lake Louise, Yoho & Kootenay combined Field Unit 153. This is 78% of the total of 625 cited in 2002. The staff for the provincial parks totalled 7 in 2004: Mount Robson & Hamber, 4 fulltime, Mount Assiniboine, 3 seasonal (Parks Canada, 2004). The budget for the four National Parks in 2004 was C\$34,723,000. In 2002 a similar sum was divided between Banff, C\$9,12,000,000, Jasper, C\$11,000,000, Kootenay, Yoho & Lake Louise, C\$10,500,000. The three provincial parks are budgeted regionally, not as separate parks (Parks Canada, 2002; 2004). Chief Executive Officer, Parks Canada, Mountain Parks, Box 900 Banff, Alberta T1L 1K2, Canada. The Superintendent, Banff Field Unit, Box 900, Banff, Alberta T1L 1K2, Canada. The Superintendent, Jasper Field Unit, P.O. Box 10, Jasper, Alberta T0E 1E0, Canada. The Superintendent, Yoho & Kootenay Field Unit, Box 213, Lake Louise, Alberta T0L IEU, Canada. BC Parks Assistant Deputy Minister, 5/F, 2975 Jutland Road, Victoria, B.C.V8T 5J9, Canada. Omineca Regional Manager, Mount Robson & Hamber Provincial Parks, 4051, 18th Ave, Prince George, B.C., V2N 1B3, Canada. Kootenay Regional Manager, Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park, 205 Industrial Road, Cranborne, B.C. V1C 7G5, Canada. Parks Canada: www.parkscanada.gc.ca. BC Parks: www.gov.bc.ca/bcparks. The principal source for the above information was the original nomination for World Heritage status. Banff-Bow Valley Task Force (1996). Banff-Bow Valley: At the Crossroads. Summary report of the Banff-Bow Valley Study. Prepared for the Minister of Canadian Heritage, Ottawa, Ontario. 76 pp. BC Parks Division (1987). Hamber Provincial Park Master Plan. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Land and Parks. --------- (1989). Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park Master Plan. --------- (1992) Mount Robson Provincial Park Master Plan. Collins, D. & Stewart, W. (n.d.). The Burgess Shale and Its Environmental Setting Fossil Ridge, Yoho National Park. Gadd, B. (1986). Handbook of the Canadian Rockies. Corax Press, Jasper, Alberta. Government of Canada (2000). The Canada National Parks Act, Ottawa, Queen’s Printer. Parks Canada Agency (1997). Banff National Park Management Plan. Canadian Heritage ---------- (2000a). Response to July 22, 2002 Request for Information Update on Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks World Heritage Site. Banff, Alberta. ---------- (2000b). Unimpaired for Future Generations? Protecting Ecological Integrity with Canada’s National Parks Vol.1 Call to Action. Vol.2 Setting a New Direction for Canada’s National Parks. Report on the Ecological Integrity of Canada’s National Parks. Ottawa, Ontario. ---------- (2000c). Jasper National Park Management Plan. Ministry of Supply & Services Ottawa. ---------- (2000d). Kootenay National Park Management Plan. Ministry of Supply & Services ---------- (2000e). Yoho National Park Management Plan. Ministry of Supply & Services. ---------- (2004). Report on the State of Conservation of Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks. Periodic Report on the Application of the World Heritage Convention.Section II. Parks Canada, Gatineau, Quebec. Sierra Club of Canada (2005). Court allows massive mine on doorstep of Jasper National Park despite objections from feds and conservationists. Sierra Club of Canada News, August. Statistics Canada (2002). www.statcan.ca. All National Parks: a) National Topographical Data Base – digital copy of 1:50,000 hardcopy maps. b) Ecological Land Classification (vector format): Ecoregion–Vegetation communites–Slope–Moisture–Dominant Vegetation- Landform. Forest Stand Origin (raster format) – Year of forest origin c) Lakes–Rivers–Trails–Roads–Railroad–Burned areas (natural & prescribed)–Wetlands. Digital elevation model with slope & aspect. Facilities, backcountry & frontcountry. Banff, Kootenay & Yoho National Parks: a) Greenness models (NDVI & Tasselled Cap). b) Insolation model by month (heating values watts/sq.meters). c) Fire severity maps (from landsat TM). d) Vegetation model (from landsat TM). e) Hydrology model (with watershed basins). a) Indian Resource Satellite Images Aug.1988: - 5 meter resolution, panchromatic error <10meters. b) Landsat 5 &7 TM All bands: Landsat 5 43/24 Sept.25 1987 Landsat 5 44/24 Sept.2 1988 Landsat 5 43/25 Sept.11 1988 Landsat 5 43/24 Sept.20 1987 Landsat 5 43/24 Sept.7 1988 Landsat 5 43/24 Oct. 6 2000 Landsat 5 43/24 June 22 2002 1983. Updated 11-1994.10-1995, 7-1997, 12-1998, 12-2002, 8-2005, 9-2009, 10-2010, 5-2011, January 2012.

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An aesthetic view of symmetry is expressed by Murray in his manuscript on The Knight's Problem (1942): |The graphical diagram of a tour takes the form of a geometrical pattern, and the pattern becomes of special interest when the figure also satisfies the principles of artistic design, that is to say, when the diagram exhibits an orderly or symmetrical repetition of detail. The more evident are these artistic features, the greater is the pleasure afforded by the tour.| It can however also be argued to the contrary, as has been done in other fields of art such as chess problem composition and in music, that repetition and formal structure are indicative of shortage of original content, or of a mechanistic rather than a naturalistic approach, and conducive to boredom. My own experience is that the pleasure given by a tour comes from appreciation of the uniqueness of the properties fulfilled by the tour, and symmetric properties are but one type of property, but nevertheless an important type. Knight's tours are usually constructed within a circumscribed area. However, knight-move patterns can also be constructed that can be repeated at regular intervals so as to cover an area of any size. This type of design is said to exhibit translational symmetry of the type seen in wallpaper patterns. The simplest such patterns are those consisting solely of straight lines of knight moves, and according to a study I made in 1985, reported in a Christmas and New Year card I sent that year, there are eight possible patterns of this type, as shown below. Pattern 1 is the basic pattern formed of one set of close-packed parallels all in the same direction. Patterns 2, 3, 4 and 5 are formed from pattern 1 by rotating every second, third, fourth or fifth line through a suitable angle. Patterns 34, 35 and 45 are similarly formed from pattern 1 by rotating every third and fourth, third and fifth or fourth and fifth pairs of lines. These, and more complex patterns involving non-straight arrangements of knight moves, can often be used for filling the central area in large tours. In counting patterns a clear distinction must be made between the pattern considered as a geometrical object, and a diagram of the pattern. Assuming that a rectangular diagram is printed with its sides in a given orientation, one pattern may nevertheless have eight different appearances: From diagram (a), (b) is formed by a half-turn, or 180° rotation, (c) and (d) by reflection in the horizontal and vertical medians, (e) and (f) by a quarter turn, or 90° rotation, clockwise and anticlockwise respectively, (g) and (h) by reflection in the principal and secondary diagonals. In the case of a symmetric pattern some of the diagrams will look the same. If all eight diagrams are the same we call the symmetry octonary since lines through the centre will divide such a pattern into eight congruent components. If the diagrams occur in two sets of four alike the symmetry is quaternary and lines can be drawn through the centre to divide the pattern into four congruent components. If the diagrams occur in pairs alike the symmetry is binary and the pattern can be divided into two congruent components. If all eight diagrams are different, as in the example above, the pattern can be called unary, since it is formed of one component, but the more usual term is asymmetric. Instead of measuring the amount of symmetry in a pattern by counting the number n of congruent components we could use d = log2 n (i.e. n = 2^d) which is the degree of symmetry. Patterns with degrees of symmetry 0, 1, 2 and 3 may then be referred to as nully, singly (or simply), doubly and triply symmetric, corresponding to unary, binary, quaternary and octonary. (Terminology like this was used by Archibald Sharp Linaludo 1925.) In cases where n is not a power of 2, d becomes fractional. For example when n = 3, as in an equilateral triangle, then d = 1.585 A line in which a pattern may be reflected without alteration is called an axis of symmetry (plural axes). Axes on rectangular boards must either be lateral, through cell centres (odd side) or along the sides of cells (even side), or when the rectangle is a square the axis can be diagonal. A point about which a pattern may be rotated (other than a multiple of 360°) without alteration is called a centre of symmetry; if one exists it is unique. Centres of symmetry of rectangular boards are either at the centre of a cell (odd×odd boards), at the corner of a cell (even×even boards) or at the mid-point of a side of a cell (odd×even boards). A pattern can have both an axis and a centre of symmetry; in fact any pattern that has two axes is necessarily symmetric by rotation about the point of intersection of the axes, the minimum angle of rotation being twice that between the two axes. Following Bergholt (1917) we call a pattern direct if it has at least one axis of symmetry and oblique if it has a centre of symmetry but no axis of symmetry. These two classes of symmetry are thus mutually exclusive. In the case of patterns of knight moves on square boards eight types of symmetry can be distinguished as illustrated here. On rectangular boards we call lines parallel to the edges lateral (in preference to orthogonal used by Murray and others), lines at 45 degrees to the edges diagonal, and other lines skew. In direct symmetries the axes can be lateral or diagonal. The octonary symmetry is necessarily direct, since oblique octonary symmetry requires a 45° rotation and the lattice of squares is not invariant to 45° rotation. Patterns of knight moves, considered apart from the board on which they are drawn, can have skew axes. This can be termed intrinsic symmetry. For example a single knight move has direct quaternary symmetry, but the cells it links form a pattern that does not reflect in the skew axes (the line of the move itself, and its perpendicular bisector), so the knight move and board together do not have this symmetry. The terms used to describe symmetry vary widely, even among mathematicians. Some common alternative terms are listed here. Bergholt's terms direct and oblique, adopted by Murray, and which I find useful, are not universally approved. For example, direct is used by H. S. M. Coxeter, Introduction to Geometry (1969), to describe any transformation that does not alter the direction of description of curves (i.e. rotations and translations, as opposed to reflections) which is the opposite of Bergholt's sense, and oblique has a long-established dictionary sense of non-lateral (i.e. diagonal or skew). On the other hand, the alternative axial or axi- symmetry is sometimes taken to imply exactly one axis rather than at least one axis, and central or centro- symmetry strictly means having a centre, which does not exclude also having an axis, while rotary or rotational symmetry means unchanged by rotation which does not exclude also being unchanged by reflection. Binary direct symmetry is sometimes called bilateral symmetry, though this may exclude the case with a diagonal axis. Another term for this type is monaxial (Sharp 1925) since it has only one axis. Binary oblique symmetry, is often called diametral (Jaenisch 1862) referring to the fact that corresponding cells are diametrically opposite, i.e. on the same line through the centre of symmetry. This type can also be described as 180° rotational or monorotary or perhaps spiral symmetry. There is (or has been) a tendency for direct symmetry to be regarded as true symmetry and oblique symmetry as pseudosymmetry (a term used by T. R. Dawson in the 1940s, though in crystallography it has a different meaning). For example, when Ernest Bergholt published some knight's tours with binary oblique symmetry in Queen in 1915 (confusingly calling it bilateral) he wrote in the following issue (1 January 1916): |Mr Henry E. Dudeney, who is a great authority on puzzles, but by no means an authority on the meaning and use of words ... writes: I cannot agree with you that your bilateral symmetry is symmetrical at all. Symmetry is a matter for the eye; this is a sort of intellectual symmetry. It would appear that Mr Dudeney's eye is differently constituted from the eye of the ordinary person. To me, indeed, these tours convey a most pleasingly symmetrical effect, and I have little doubt that the vast majority of my readers will take equal delight in contemplating them. To Mr Dudeney, Hogarth's well-known line of beauty would be quite devoid of symmetry; he would admit that a capital X might be drawn symmetrically, but not a capital S. Such are the eccentricities of genius.| The reference is to the painter William Hogarth's book The Analysis of Beauty (1753) in which he argued that the eye should be led along a serpentine line of beauty, though how serpentine it could be was not clear. Quaternary direct symmetry is described more briefly as biaxial symmetry since it has two axes crossing at right angles. Quaternary oblique symmetry can be described as 90° rotational or birotary symmetry, and might also be called, more graphically, swastika or windmill symmetry. Octonary symmetry, although a systematic term along with binary and quaternary, is more often called square or perfect square symmetry, since a square has this type of symmetry, though patterns with this symmetry often bear very little resemblance to a square. A pattern formed by an open knight path on a rectangular board can exhibit the first four of the above types of symmetry: asymmetric, binary oblique, binary lateral or binary diagonal. For oblique symmetry the mid-point of the path must be at the centre point of the board. Two cases can be distinguished: (a) The centre of the board is the mid-point of the edge of a cell, and the mid-point of the middle move of the path. The path therefore has an odd number of moves (even number of cells) and uses a board of odd×even dimensions. (b) The centre of the board is the centre of a cell, and the two middle moves of the path meet there, making a two-move straight line. The path therefore has an even number of moves (odd number of cells) and uses a board odd×odd. For direct symmetry the mid-point of the path must lie on the axis, i.e. on a lateral or diagonal line through the board centre. Since a knight move is always skew it cannot cross a lateral or diagonal axis at right angles, so a knight path in direct symmetry must have an even number of moves (odd number of cells), the mid-point of the path being the centre of a cell on the axis. There are two cases: (c) lateral axis, board odd×any, (d) diagonal axis, board square. Only case (d) can occur on a board even×even. Numbering of symmetric open paths: If the cells in an open path are numbered 1 to E then the numbers in the end cells add to E + 1, and in the case of a symmetric open path the numbers in any pair of cells related by the rotation or reflection (i.e. cells x moves from one end, numbered x + 1, and x moves from the other end, numbered E x) also add to the constant value E + 1. When the number of cells E is odd (or the number of moves E 1 is even) there is a middle cell in the path, and the number on it is (E + 1)/2, which is the average of all the numbers 1 to E. All eight of the types of symmetry (1 8) listed above can occur in patterns formed by closed knight paths on rectangular boards. If A and A' are a pair of corresponding cells in a closed path with binary symmetry then the closed path consists of two joined open paths AA'. For binary symmetry these two paths must either be congruent, one being the rotation or reflection of the other (we call this positive symmetry), or each must itself be symmetric, with the same type of symmetry (we call this negative symmetry). If B and B' are another pair of corresponding cells then in the positive case the points occur in the cyclic sequence ABAB... along the path, but in the negative case in the sequence ABBA... (or AABB... which is the same). We thus have four types of binary symmetry in closed paths. Namely: positive oblique = Eulerian, negative oblique = Bergholtian, positive direct = Sulian and negative direct = Murraian, so-called since examples were shown by Euler, Bergholt, Suli and Murray. These can be further subclassified according to whether the number of moves in the connecting paths AA' are even or odd, or equivalently, whether the centre is on a cell corner, centre or edge or whether the axis is through cell centres or edges. Eulerian and Sulian paths can be even or odd, but Bergholtian must be odd and Murraian must be even. Numbering of symmetric closed paths: If we number the cells of a closed path 1, 2, ..., E (beginning at any cell and proceeding in either of the two directions) and the cell corresponding to cell a under binary symmetry is the cell numbered a' then the cell corresponding to a + 1 will be either a' + 1 or a' 1. These correspond to the cases of positive and negative symmetry defined geometrically above. In the positive case numbers in corresponding cells have constant difference a' a, while in the negative case they have constant sum a' + a. In the positive case we always have |a' a| = E/2 throughout. In the negative case, when the move 1 to E passes through the centre we have a' + a = E + 1 throughout, but if the origin of numbering is differently placed there will be two different values for the constant a' + a along different sections of the tour. In cases of quaternary and octonary symmetry the paths AA' (where A' is the cell related to A by 180° rotation) will be congruent and formed of two congruent parts. Quaternary paths with lateral axes can be either Eulerian or Bergholtian, but all those with diagonal axes or oblique can only be Eulerian and square. The simplest examples are shown: The arguments in the following theorems were sketched in my article in Chessics 22 (1985) but are given here in more detail. Theorem 1. An open knight's tour of a rectangular board can only have oblique binary symmetry, and at least one side of the board must be odd. Proof: (a) For reflective symmetry of an open path with an odd number of moves the middle move would have to cross the lateral or diagonal axis at right angles, which is impossible for a knight's move, which is skew. (b) For reflective symmetry of an open path with an even number of moves the mid-point of the path must be the centre of a cell on the axis. The path cannot enter any other cell on the axis since the other half of the path would by symmetry also enter the same cell, thus making a closed path. For the path to be a tour all cells on the axis must be entered; thus there can only be one cell on the axis, so the board must be 1×n, but no knight moves are possible on such a board. (c) For rotative symmetry of an open path the mid-point of the tour must be either the end-point or the mid-point of a knight's move, i.e. a cell centre (even number of moves) or the mid-point of the side of a cell (odd number of moves). Thus the board cannot be even×even, since at the centre of such a board the corners of four cells meet, so the board must have at least one side odd. (d) The rotative symmetry cannot be quaternary since that would require four end-points. Theorem 2. A rectangular closed knight's tour requires a board with at least one side even. Proof: On a chequered board each move is to a different colour, so an even number of moves is needed to bring the knight back to the cell on which it started; and this number of moves is also the number of cells, one as the destination of each move. So at least one side of the board must be even, since on an odd×odd board the number of cells is odd. Theorem 3. A rectangular closed knight's tour with direct symmetry requires a board with one side odd and the other singly-even, and cannot show quaternary symmetry. Proof: (a) If A and A' are corresponding cells, not on an axis of symmetry, in a tour with reflective symmetry, then it consists of two paths A-A'. (b) The two paths cannot be themselves symmetric, with their mid-points on the axis, since there would then only be two cells on the axis and the board would be 2×n on which no knight's tours are possible. In other words the symmetry must be Sulian and not Murraian. (c) The two paths A-A' must be reflections of each other in the axis and there must be no cells on the axis. The axes are therefore lateral, not diagonal, and the cells A and A', being equidistant from the axis and on opposite sides of it, must be of opposite colour when chequered. (d) The paths A-A', connecting cells of opposite colour, are therefore of an odd number of moves. The tour therefore occupies twice an odd number of cells. The board must therefore be odd×singly even, i.e. (2m+1)×2(2n+1), that is (2m+1)×(4n+2). The axis is the bisector of the even side. (e) It follows that direct quaternary symmetry is impossible in a rectangular knight's tour since the side parallel to an axis must be odd and the side perpendicular to it even, and if this is true for one axis it cannot be true for the perpendicular axis. Theorem 4. A symmetric rectangular closed tour on a board even×even can only be Eulerian, while on a board with one side a multiple of four and the other odd it can only be Bergholtian. On a board singly-even×odd all three types, Sulian, Eulerian and Bergholtian may be possible. Proof: (a) As proved above direct symmetry requires singly-even×odd and so is impossible on both types of board mentioned. (b) Bergholtian symmetry requires a board odd×even since the centre point must be the mid-point of a knight's move and therefore the mid-point of the side of a cell, so on the even×even board only Eulerian symmetry remains (it can be binary or quaternary). In Eulerian symmetry on an odd×even board the corresponding cells A and A' (on a line bisected by the centre point of the board) are of opposite colour, so the number of moves in A-A' is odd and the number of moves in the tour is twice this, i.e. singly even. Therefore if the even side is not singly-even, i.e. if it is a multiple of 4, only Bergholtian symmetry remains feasible. Theorem 5. A rectangular closed knight's tour with oblique quaternary symmetry requires a square board with singly-even side. Proof: Such a tour consists of four equal paths, the board must be square, for the 90° rotations to leave it invariant, and even-sided, for closure. On an even-sided square the 90° rotation of a cell is of opposite colour to the original cell, and so the path joining them is of an odd number of moves. The whole tour is thus 4 times an odd number of moves, i.e. it contains 2 as a factor only twice. The square boards on which quaternary tours are possible therefore have side: 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30, 34, 38, 42, 46, 50 and so on. For purposes of studying symmetry various authors, in particular de Hijo (1882) and Bergholt (1918) proposed the adoption of methods of numbering the cells of the particular board being considered in a manner related to the symmetry under consideration. The numbering employed by de Hijo for his listings of circuits in oblique quaternary symmetry is shown. For direct quaternary symmetry his numbering in the second and fourth quarters reflects that in the first instead of being a rotation of it. Bergholt used a similar scheme but using only the odd numbers, so arranged that successive odd numbers are connected by knight moves. For binary symmetry he replaced the numbers in the second and fourth quadrants by the corresponding even numbers. On a square board of side 2k or 2k + 1 there are k(k + 1)/2 differently placed squares. This is the kth triangular number, 1 + 2 + ... + k, and is the number of cells within or on the edges of the 8 triangles formed by the diagonal and lateral axes of symmetry of the square. By rotation or reflection of the board any cell in one triangle can be brought to coincide with a similarly placed cell in any of the other triangles. In the case of the 8×8 board there are ten differently placed cells, and for purposes of studying symmetry it is convenient to label them with the ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Murray (1942) used the arrangement shown in the third diagram above in which the diagonal cells are numbered inwards 0, 1, 2, 3 and the other cells are numbered 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 row by row. This method of numbering has the disadvantage that sequences of cells that indicate moves on smaller boards do not also indicate similar moves on larger boards. To apply his method to quaternary symmetries Murray marked the numbers below the diagonal in the first quarter with primes, and also the numbers in the corresponding cells, related by rotation or reflection as appropriate. In the alternative scheme proposed here, which I call centrifugal, and which is applicable to odd and even boards of any sizes, the numbering is row by row from the centre cell or cells outwards, beginning with 0. The numbers in the cells laterally outwards from the centre are the succcessive triangular numbers (n1)n/2, i.e. the sequence 0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 ... and the numbers in the cells diagonally out from the centre are one less than the triangular numbers, i.e. the sequence 0, 2, 5, 9, 14, .... This scheme has the advantage that any sequence of numbers that represents a path of knight moves on a small square board also represents a path of knight moves on any larger square board of the same parity. For example on any odd square board the eight moves 12 form a circuit round the centre cell, while on an even square board the eight moves 11 and the eight moves 20 form the two squares and two diamonds in the central 4×4 area. I find that it is not really necessary to mark the numbers with primes to distinguish the two cases; it is sufficient to note that the diagonal cell numbers are used once and the others twice, and that the two occurrences of each off-diagonal number must have a diagonal number somewhere between them. Table of possible moves: Using the centre-outwards coding the possible knight moves on the 8×8 0 ® 1², 2², 3², 4² 1 ® 0, 1², 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2 ® 0², 3², 6², 8² 3 ® 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8 4 ® 0, 1, 3, 6, 7, 9 5 ® 1², 6² 6 ® 1, 2, 4, 5 7 ® 1, 3, 4, 8 8 ® 2, 3, 7 9 ® 4² where ² indicates a choice of two moves to cells with the same number. A pair of numbers in most cases indicates a single unambiguous move from any of the cells with the first number. Ambiguity occurs only in the case of the diagonal cells 0, 2, 5, 9 and the special moves 1-1 which form four-move circuits round the centre. In paths and tours sequences of the form xyx are possible only when y is a diagonal cell (e.g. 494 through the corner cell of the 8×8 board): if y is not a diagonal cell xyx (e.g. 949) represents a switchback, using the same cell x twice, which by definition is not allowed in a tour. On the 7×7 and larger odd boards the cells numbered 4 and 7 have the peculiarity of defining 16 knight's moves instead of 8. To distinguish the two cases we write 4;7 for the move across a diagonal and 4:7 for the move across a median. Thus where 4.7 occurs there are two cases, 4;7 and 4:7 which, though represented by the same formula, are often strikingly different. The formation of a pattern in the central area of an even-sided board, to present the effect of a picture within a frame is a common scheme for tours. The coding scheme described above can be employed to name the 16 different ways in which a pair of moves may pass through a central cell on an even-sided square board. Moves of type a0a are symmetric about a diagonal through the centre cell used. On the 8×8 board angle 404 cannot occur in a closed tour since it forms a circuit with the pair of moves through the nearest corner. On the 6×6 board the angle 101 cannot occur for the same reason. On larger boards either can be used. The four angles 101, 202, 303, 404, correspond to four octonary patterns that can be made with four equal angles. A pair of the angles 202 cannot occur in a centrosymmetric tour since diametral pairs of them form a diamond circuit. Moves of type a0b can be taken from one given 'a' to two different 'b's. We take a0b (underlined) and a0b (plain), to represent the moves which keep to one side of or cross the diagonal respectively. For example 102 is an acute angle with lateral bisector, while 102 is a right angle. The following are charts of all the central patterns that can occur with four equal angles. In each case quaternary oblique, quaternary direct, binary direct and asymmetric formations are possible. Diagrams of the quaternary cases were given by Paul de Hijo (1882). Most of the above notes first appeared in The Games and Puzzles Journal, issue 16 (1999).

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Göbekli Tepe, one of the most important places of our trip to Şanlıurfa, has become the most important center of the Neolithic Period culture that was discovered in recent years. Göbekli Tepe is located at the top of a limestone plateau, 13 km from Şanlıurfa city center, and has been named because it looks like a hub. In order to understand Göbekli Tepe, it is necessary to refer to some archaeological and historical knowledge. Göbekli Tepe information is entirely for the enthusiasts. We have benefited from the book of Klaus Schmidt, which we should thank with gratitude. In addition, I would also like to thank to Assoc. Dr. Nezih Aytaç for his lecture and Meki Bel, whom I came across on an Istanbul tour later, for the notes of Göbekli Tepe. Our world is approximately 4.6 billion years old. In order to understand our world and our past, historians needed to divide historical periods into ages. The ages before the discovery of the writing are Prehistoric Ages. These ages are classified in two sections, which are also divided within themselves. A. Stone Age: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, B. Mine Age: Copper, Bronze, Iron None of these ages can be separated by precise dates, though. For example, there is the use of copper during the Chalcolithic era. Let us give an example to the Neolithic Age as we will be referring to this on this article. This period is classified as follows. Neolithic A – Without pottery Neolithic B – Without pottery Neolithic A – With pottery Neolithic B – With pottery Göbekli Tepe belongs to the Neolithic Period. The world is thought to have had five Ice Ages. The humanity emerges in the last ice age called Pleistocene, 2.6 million years ago, which ends around 11700. At the end of the last ice age, there is a region that is more productive than the other parts of the earth and where climate conditions are more suitable. For ecological reasons, the inhabitants began to experience the settled life at which they produced food instead of hunting and gathering earlier than the other parts of the earth. This place is Asia Minor, namely Anatolia. There is a region in Anatolia, which is much more remarkable; nave of the Fertile Crescent. This is the Mediterranean coast, the southern skirts of the South East Taurus Mountains and Mesopotamia, which lies between the Euphrates and the Tigris to the west of the Zagros Mountains. North of the region called Fertile Crescent is Northern Mesopotamia. This region is within the borders of our country; the Southeastern Anatolia. In the Fertile Crescent, there are domestic animals and all the wild species of the cultural plants. Grain cultivation, domestication of sheep, goat, bull and pig, which underlines the essence of neolithic period, is seen here for the first time. To better understand Göbekli Tepe, let’s briefly talk about other Neolithic settlements. Neolithic settlement, which was found in the excavations made in Eriha in the northern end of Ölüdeniz between 1952-1958, shocked the archaeologists in the 20th century, which would later to be called as “Eriha Shock”. Neolithic age without pottery was not known and not a category of the archaeological researches until then. It was thought that life started from here (Eriha is also part of the Fertile Crescent). Çatalhöyük, which was excavated between 1961-1965, introduced a new Neolithic settlement to the world. Çatalhöyük is 2000 years younger than Eriha. Çatalhöyük excavations were published by Mellaart in 1967. In the Çatalhöyük project in 1993, the English archaeologist Hodder followed the footsteps of Mellaart. The special place of Çatalhöyük in the Anatolian Stone Age (Neolithic Period) was once again confirmed. (Obsidian stones and salt in the surrounding area played a big role in this). Çatalhöyük dates back to the beginning of Neolithic with pottery. It starts in the second half of 8000 BC and reaches its peak between 7000-6000. In 1963, Halet Çambel excavated on the western wing of the Fertile Crescent. In 1964, Çayönü Neolithic settlement was found. Neolithic A and B without potteries bearing grid planned structures were found in Çayönü. Now Turkey is one of the stakeholders of the colorful world of archaeological scientific publications due to its Neolithic past. No Neolithic research is held in Turkey until the planning stage of the Karakaya and Atatürk Dams on the Euphrates River. As a part of the Dams Project international archaeological rescue works then are initiated. Cafer Höyük (Malatya), Hayaz Höyük, Nevali Çori and Samosata are among the important findings. Nevali Çori, found in 1979 and remained under the waters of Atatürk Dam in 1992, created a revolution for the Pre-Asian Neolithic with its large sculptures and depicted obelisks. After the findings in Nevali Çori, more large statues and depicted obelisks were considered to be present in a vast area between the Euphrates and the Tigris. Then Gürcü Tepe is discovered with its Neolithic without pottery. The excavations therein were carried out between 1995-2000. Gürcü Tepe covers an area of 1.2 square kilometers in Harran Plain. It is believed that there are at least 4 Neolithic settlements here. Neolithic Age findings with pottery were also found above the level of the Neolithic Age without pottery in Gürcü Tepe. Şanlıurfa Neolithic Project comprises of Nevali Çori, Gürcü Tepe and Göbekli Tepe. Gürcü Tepe and Göbekli Tepe are two opposing examples of the first Neolithic. The buildings in Göbekli Tepe are not older than those in Gürcü Tepe. Gürcü Tepe is situated in the valley, while Göbekli Tepe is in the mountain. It is now believed that the earliest Neolithic settlement, which is the earliest inhabited place, is not in Levant (Eastern Mediterranean Coast Region) but in the Upper Mesopotamia. It is emphasized that the Neolithic region, called the Golden Triangle, has properties exceeding the Levant Neolithic. German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt was interested in the Neolithic Period during the archaeological activities as being the part of GAP Project (The Southeastern Development Project). He went to the neighboring villages in the environs of Şanlıurfa to research the hills that might bear flint hills. He looked for caves that could show the traces of the transition from the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age. He visited Çayönü excavations and stayed in Nevali Çori. In fact, although another archaeologist, Benedict, said in the 1960s that he had seen a tomb in Göbekli Tepe, the spot was not excavated because it was thought to be a Muslim cemetery, which did not draw attention until 1994. When one of the villagers showed Göbekli Tepe to Schmidt, he decided to make an investigation there – especially after having seen the Wishing Tree in the south. Excavations began in 1995. Even though Göbekli Tepe excavations are not currently active and Schmidt is no more alive, it will probably continue for many years. Schmidt has gained experience in Neolithic settlement in Nevali Çori and then developed it in Gürcü Tepe. He started to work very carefully in Göbekli Tepe. Structures that were examined systematically were archived according to their types. During the early days of the 1995 excavations, large sculptures that he was familiar in Nevali Çori were found. Due to the weather conditions, the structures on the surface could not be well preserved in Göbekli Tepe. As the work progressed, it was understood that Göbekli Tepe was not one of the known Stone Age settlements with several private buildings due to the geographical location, wild dangerous animal depictions, erectile penis figure, compound animal and human head sculptures, and obelisk fragments spread all over the hill. When compared to the Neolithic places known in Upper Mesopotamia, ritual findings were encountered, which are not known anywhere, even more than those in Nevali Çori. Schmidt and his team concluded that Göbekli Tepe was not a village settlement. This was a majestic sanctuary from the Neolithic Age, located on the mountain. At the bottom of the mound are terraces as in Çayönü and Nevali Çori. Architectural remains date back to Pottery-free Neolithic A; there are also remnants pointing to Neolithic B with pottery. Leaving aside the tents and huts made of mammoth bones in Siberia in the Upper Paleolithic Age, Göbekli Tepe belonged to the era of the oldest architectural monuments of humanity. I.e., between 10000-9000. Human traces were found everywhere in Göbekli Tepe. Along with the ancient period, there are also quarries belonging to the Neolithic period. The obelisks in Göbekli Tepe are considered to be human forms made of stone (Except for two-faced stone objects). Who were these stone objects portraying? Gods? Bad spirits? Ancestors? For now, there is no answer. The obelisks alone are the most important elements of the buildings, like the core of them. Everything built creates a framework for this center. Geomagnetic surveys show there are around 200 megalithic obelisks in Göbekli Tepe. 43 of them have been revealed yet. Schmidt acted hesitant when it came to interpret animal figure reliefs and rock paintings. Were they bulls, foxes, snakes or animal tales? Perhaps an emblem… Are the snakes guards against to dangers? The knees of the cranes are different from the natural cranes we know. There is even a crane with human knees in one corner. Maybe it’s a disguised person. Some reliefs were scraped and replaced with others. Perhaps the tradition of erasing the names from the top of the structures in order to curse memories of a person was also present in that age. In 1995 it was thought that this place marked the beginning period of Neolithic A and Neolithic B without potteries. There are many Stone Age findings such as tools made of flint, stone axes, pestle and mortar stones used for pressing the food as well as stone vessels. However, here there are also door hole stones, large stone rings, small button-like objects, different beads and jewelry forms that are not yet seen in other Stone Age settlements. There are no pictures depicting women and figures made of clay, which are common in Neolithic settlements. Clay figures and female objects are the symbol of fertility in a broad sense. If we combine blessing with life, the absence of these in Göbekli Tepe evokes death. It presents data that this is an area of dead cult monuments. The relationship between Göbekli Tepe and other interesting spatial structures in the world was tried to be established. There are similarities and differences with other structures. Göbekli Tepe does not look exactly like any of them. Compared to Eriha, they were both covered with rubble and soil after having been used for a while. There are no obelisks in Eriha while there are no stair-like structures in Göbekli Tepe. When compared with the Dakhmahs we see in Iran (Dakhmah: In Zoroastrian religion, soil, water, air and fire are deemed to be sacred. Zoroastrians leave their dead in high places under the sky where there is no water and plants so that their sacred things are kept pure. The wild animals, wind and sun removes the rotting parts of the dead and the remaining bones are put into pits or stone chests carved into the rock). The necessary conditions needed to build a Dakhmah are also present in Göbekli Tepe. It is a place where birds can see right away and where there is no water. Among the bone findings in Göbekli Tepe, the rate of the crow-like birds eating carrion is 50%. However, these datum are not sufficient to verify the similarity. Stonehenge could not be proven to be a structure with a special astronomical meaning; just like the Egyptian Pyramids. Stonehenge is completely different from many other prehistoric stone structures in the British Isles. It is believed that the builders came from the Alps, perhaps from Bavaria. That some of the structures in Göbekli Tepe belong to the architectural category of circular structures might be stemming from other factors. Since Göbekli Tepe was underground, it was better protected than Stonehenge that is a few thousand years younger than it. It looks like it will continue to be compared with Stonehenge in the coming years. The “Urfa Statue”, the oldest statue ever found intact, was found around Balıklı Lake. Since this place is a sacred area (related to the story of the Prophet Abraham) with its dense construction, it is not possible to dig. But there are many sacred places in the environs belonging to the Stone Age like Sefer Tepe, Keçili Tepe and Karahan in Viransehir… Stone Age people have chosen suitable natural places to survive. Nevali Çori is suitable for this topographically. It is hidden in a small side valley, 2-3 km away from the Euphrates River. As I mentioned before, it is now irreversibly flooded. Approximately 10 km away, there is a large passage that crosses the Euphrates River (Wherever there is a large river, there must be large natural passages that serve as a kind of hunting area. The hunt is not a single event, it is an organized event of a group). Nevali Çori people set up their settlements away from the passage so that the animals could pass without being scared. In 10000 BC hunters knew very well that they had to take nature into account. In addition, Karacadağ was the first possible homeland of the cultured grain. Hunters knew ways to keep animals away from grain to ensure harvest. This could only be achieved by different groups acting jointly. As in the hunt, the construction of the structures and obelisks required the joint action of the large groups. There should have been a joint network of relationships in the region. Although we cannot deduce what we see at Göbekli Tepe today, these pictures and signs point to the social and spiritual relationship network of those who make and visit them. With regards to the late upper Paleolithic era, between 35000-12000, nothing was obtained from the comparison of the wall painting messages in the caves of the ice age hunters with the symbols in Göbekli Tepe. Animal patterns gradually increase as the Göbekli Tepe excavations progress. Maybe in the future, our knowledge on the signs and symbols of the early Neolithic period will increase. What is certain is that the people of Neolithic Göbekli Tepe did not only have a magnificent architecture, but also a very rich sign language in which they could convey their messages explicitly to their contemporaries and next generations. This was possible only with an advanced social organization. The reliefs at Obelisk 33 in Göbekli Tepe look like ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. Egyptian hieroglyphic paintings are used as a means of transferring phonetic patterns of sounds, that is, language. It created a language rather than a pictography. Additionally, the concept of hieroglyphics was used in Hittite and Mayan writing systems in Central America. The Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, which reached its peak in 4000-3000 BC, was not for communication purposes, but for storage purposes. It served as an accounting system in palaces and temples for management purposes that could not be overcome with only memory. This enables communication that exceeds time and space. Without writing, communication cannot spread over time and space. The text has a feature that allows the information that transcends the power of the picture to be transmitted. Although we do not expect from the Neolithic Age in Göbekli Tepe, there is a draft hieroglyphic writing. At that time, we cannot expect an article that turned into an alphabet. For example, although the reading and spelling of each language is different today, a pictogram with a walking little green man graphic is internationally understandable. It means “You can cross the street now”. Perhaps the symbols in Göbekli Tepe are the pictograms of the Neolithic Age. However, this idea is avoided when La Pasiega Cave (Late Paleolithic Period) in Northern Spain and Mas d’Azil Cave in Pyrenees are compared with Göbekli Tepe signs. The signs on Göbekli Tepe are not the ones drawn on the rock walls by haste. They consist of concrete and abstract paintings. Their arrangement most likely points to a logical relationship. Phonotization is absent and unexpected. (Göbekli Tepe separates the signs from the hieroglyphic language writing system). But there is a readable message pertaining to the Neolithic Age. It is thought that it would be correct to deem these paintings and reliefs in Göbekli Tepe as a kind of hieroglyph. These are quite different than the signs and pictures in other Neolithic settlements. This is what makes Göbekli Tepe unique. In the Neolithic Period, there is a high culture, the main character of which was hunter in Upper Mesopotamia. This is not surprising. What is surprising is that there is nothing left from this magnificent Late Neolithic Period with Pottery. The structures unearthed during excavations at Göbekli Tepe are named A, B, C, D,…. The temporal relationship between these structures remains unanswered. These structures may have been built simultaneously or in stages over different time frames. The layers handled in the excavations are classified as I, II, III. (I and II late levels are out of evaluation for the time being; III, the oldest layer, is still being evaluated). During the excavations, 43 T-head obelisks belonging to Level III were found in their original places in a well preserved way. Layer III seems to be filled later. How long could this layer have been visited before being filled? Was the filling process a final? Did this holy sanctuary bid farewell by regular burials? (This last option seems to be more logical) All this is unknown. No sign with a residential function was found in the layer III. Everything here is connected with cultural and religious architecture. The pests in Göbekli Tepe may have been used in the preparation of food, medicine and enjoyable substances. Do the findings in Göbekli Tepe point to the subject of religion in the prehistoric period? Human communities can have a religious organization since the Upper Paleolithic. The burial of the dead with gifts cannot be evaluated without a spiritual plan towards other world; the existence of the other world should be considered as the part of a religion here. So far, no tomb or skull have been found in Göbekli Tepe. However, there are monumental megalithic structures. The leading role is played by the magnificent obelisks. We do not know which rituals were performed here. But these structures were not mute monuments during the stone age either. The events carried out here are left to the imagination for now. The ceremonies here are thought to have been impossible without choreography and music. At the same time, what was done here must be a show of strength. But whether this is the show of a single person or a community is not clear. Such a structure cannot be achieved without intense collective work, though. What motivated individuals to make this monumental building? Chieftain? Shamans? A delegation? Is it a social force? The biggest possibility here is that workers took this power from a religious motivation they believed in. At that time, there was no animal taming from which they could take advantage of their power. The construction of this place might have taken long years. Still, it is difficult to explain mathematically the transportation of these stones here, and the construction of this place. This work of the many hunters during an era where hunting was the main occupation of the society may bring up the question to replace the hypotheses believed so far. I am wondering whether Göbekli Tepe was the place where the first society members like masons, builders, workers, collectors and hunters were observed. Göbekli Tepe should definitely be interpreted as a cult building belonging to the Neolithic Age. Göbekli Tepe showed us that the groups acting independently came together in 10000-9000 BC to provide the necessary manpower for the construction of the structures. In many settlements around this ritual center (such as Nevali Çori, Tell Abr, Müreybet, Tell Qaramel, Jerf el-Ahmar), people may have started the process of settling in. These places are within an area of 200 sq kilometers (77 sq miles). In this region, findings including T-shaped obelisks belonging to the Non-Pottery Neolithic Age continue to emerge. Construction work and use of structures in Göbekli Tepe has ended in 8000 BC. There has been a transition from the hunter society to the agricultural community, i.e. the settled life. Göbekli Tepe is a land without water and soil, not suitable for cultivation. Gürcü Tepe is a very convenient place, though. People of that period buried the monuments with stone and rubble before leaving this cult place. Hunters have left their sanctuary. Economic activities have changed, hunting has lost its importance, and, with its decreasing importance, religious rituals have lost their meaning, and old cult structures have also disappeared. We arrived at Göbekli Tepe within 30 minutes after having departed from Şanlıurfa. At the slope are the tea-coffee-souvenir sales facilities of the Ministry of Tourism. There is a minibus continuously running from here to Göbekli Tepe, which is located on the hill; our group preferred to walk, though. We are at the top of a 770-meter-high limestone plateau in the north of Harran Plain, connected to the Germuş Mountains. The obelisks are covered to be protected against the weather conditions. The sewn stones in Göbekli Tepe are at a height of 1.5-5.5 meters, weighing 30-40 tons. So far, 6 circular or elliptical structures have been unearthed. It is thought that there are at least 20 more of these structures. The structures are named as A, B, C, D, E, F. In the middle of these structures is a double T-shaped monolithic obelisk. There are smaller T or I-shaped obelisks embedded in stone walls that form the outer walls of the building. A large number of symbols and figures are embossed on the obelisks. Let’s briefly talk about the remarkable ones. The C structure, which has at least 3 peripheral walls, is the largest structure with a diameter of 25 meters. The outermost wall is the oldest while the innermost one is the last constructed. There are quite a few male wild boar reliefs. Here again, five duck-like birds with a net in front of them, a lion or a leopard relief, fox head relief, and a dog-like unidentified animal whose teeth are outside can be seen. After all, we can define Structure C as an open sanctuary decorated with protective and scary predators on the walls. Structure D evokes the feeling of walking in the zoo. This is the best preserved building. Snakes, cranes, other birds, circles, half-moon signs (Could it represent the moon and the sun or the woman?), bull, gazelle, asiatic wild ass (onager) and spider are among eye-catching reliefs. Structure B is referred to as Mesopotamia Stonehenge. It is similar to Stonehenge in England, but there is no apparent connection between them. The two obelisks in the center of the building are larger than the others. It is thought that the 9 obelisks in the walls surrounding the building will increase with the future excavations. There are fox, wild boar and dog reliefs here. The difference of C from D is that its base is covered with mortar called terazzo. A stone field was made to use the excavated stones in the future restorations. In the Wishing Tree, which has been the space for those who made wishes over the centuries, we also relay our wishes and leave this Ritual Field of the Neolithic Age. “The most appealing and enigmatic aspect of history is that everything changes completely with changing ages, but nothing changes.”

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« PreviousContinue » A chronological sketch of the gradual develupment of the spire in Germany, has lately been attempted by W. H. Brewer, in In England, dur- cruss (the smaller ca churches had but of the towers were CON of but little higher pitch than the rest. The WW2 nearest approach to spires, in form if not in height, were found in the pinnacles surmounting the angle buttresses in the larger churches. During the early English period, towers rise to a greater elevation, and are very generally finished with a spire, some. 90ft. times of great height. The most frequent Fig. 1213. spire is that called a brooch when it does not rise from within parapets, but is carried up on four of its sides from the top of the square tower, the diagonal faces resting on squinches, or arches thrown across the corners within, and finished on the outside in a slope, as shown in fig. 1214. of Warmington Church, Northamptonshire, which has been published in detail by W. Caveler. A great many spires consisted of wooden frames, covered with lead or with shingles; and these in general, as well as stone spires in a few instances, were connected with the tower in a different way; the spire itself being at first only four-sided, and the angles being canted off a little above the base, to form the octagon. The early English spire, completed in 1222, to Old St. Paul's Cathedral was the highest in Europe, being 500 feet high, according to Slow, or 489 feet as calculated by Mr. E. B. Ferrey. In the decorated period, Heckington Church, Lincolnshire, one of the most beautiful and perfect models in the kingdom shows, says Rickman, “ a very lofty tower and spire situated at the west end (fig. 1215.), the four pinnacles which crown the tower are large and pentagonal. This unusual shape has, at less cost, an effect fully equal to an octagon, and the pinnacles are without crockets, but have rich finials; the spire is plain, with three tiers of windows on the alternate sides. The whole arrangement of this steeple is peculiarly calculated for effect át a distance." The details of this work are given in Bowman and Crowther's useful publication. The elaborately arranged octagon at Ely Cathe. dral, the design of Alan de Walsingham, is of this period. The work entitled Churches of the Archdeaconry of Northamptonshire, 1849, illustrates in small pictorial views several of the fine lofty west towers and spires of this and the succeeding period, erected in that locality. The perpendicular period is distinguished by the splendour and loftiness of its towers and spires. That at Salisbury, for example, rises to the height of about 387 feet. That at Norwich, rebuilt soon after 1361, is 318 feet high. St. Michael's spire, at Coventry, built 1373-95, is the most beautiful one in the kingdom ; it does not rise, like those at Salisbury and Norwich, from the centre of a transeptal church, but from the ground; and its fiying buttresses and extremely taper form, give it great advantage over every spire which rises from within battlements. The broach is not unfrequent in this style, and examples are chiefly to be found in Northamptonshire. Of other remarkable spires of ST. PETER'S AT CAEX. liis style we should name Whittlesea, in Cambridgeshire (fig. 1216 ): Rushdon, in Northamptonshire ; the two spires of St. Mary and St. Alkmund, at Shrewsbury; ! aughton-en-le-Morthen, in Yorkshire; Chester-le-Street, in Durham ; and finally, Louth, in Lincolnshire, of which latter structure the building accounts are given in the Archeologie, vol. x., showing its completion between 1501 and 1518. The spire of the tower of St. Nicholas Church, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, from its pece. liarity of standing on arched ribs, holds a high place in the series; it is the type of which there are various imitations. The best known are St. Giles's, at Edinburgh ; the charet at Linlithgow; the college tower at Aberdeen, and its modern imitation by Sir C. Wren at St. Dunstan's-in-the-East Church, in London. Of another class of towers of this period, that of Fotheringay Church is the type. The ordinary square tower is surmounted by as os tagonal lantern of much smaller dimensions, connected with the tower, in composition, by flying buttresses from the bases of the angle pinnacles. The tower of All Saints' Church, at Derby, bas deservedly a very high reputation (fig. 1217.). It is late in the style; as is also the fine detached campanile at Evesham. The tower of St. Peter Mancroft, at Norwich, is a good specimen of flint building with stone panels. The most remarkable of the perpendicular towers, both in itself and for its influence in the ecclesiastii al architecture of a large district, is that of Gloucester, erected about 1455. This noble tower rises above 200 feet from the ground and about 100 feet above the roof of the choir. It is surmounted by a crenellated parapet flanked by four turret-like pinnacles, all of delicate open work, to the very finials, of a light and graceful character almost beyond the natural capacity of stonework. Among the more important imitations of it are Si. John's, at Glastonbury; St. Stephen's, at Bristol ; St. Mary, at Taunton; and that at North Petherton; the two last are said to have been designed by the same architect. Beacons were sometimes added to towers; such is the lantern of All Saints' Pavement, at York, which is an octagon erected upon the tower. Hadleigh Church, in Essex, bas a beacon in an iron framework placed on the top of an angle turret. By far the finest west front, comprising two towers of the perpendicular period, is that of Beverley Minster. What the west front of York is to the decorated style, this is to the perpendicular, with the addition, that in this fiont nothing but one style is seen—all is harmonious. (See frontispiece, fig. 1218.) Each of the towers has four large and eight small pinnacles, and a very beautiful battlement. The whole front is panelled, and the buttresses, which have a very bold projection, are ornamented with various tiers of nichework of excellent composition and most delicate execution. We may here incidentally notice that the east front is fine, but mixed with early English, which style extends to the transepts, while the nave and aisles are decorated, terminating with perpendicular, and finished with the west façade above noticed. In concluding this portion, we cannot withhold naming the most elaborate work on the subject of this section, published from drawings made by C. Wickes, in S vols. fol. 1853– 59. Its chief drawback is that the illustrations are pictorial and not geometric, which might have been obviated by a plan and section to each. Our sketch of the varieties of towers and spires will be found filled up, in Rev. G. A. Poole's History of Ecclesiastical Architecture. In Ireland, the Dominican Abbey, commonly called the Black Abbey, at Kilkenny, had a tower placed on the south of the altar in a most singular way. At the Franciscan Church, the tower was placed at the east end of the nave, with a chancel at the end; the tower was much narrower than the nave, but exactly the width of the lofty arch support. ing it, so that now the roof has gone, the construction appears extremely bold and hazardous. This building was one of a numerous class. Except the round towers, which ceased to be built when the English went to Ireland, and the low Cistercian towers, the Irish churches up to that period were almost towerless. In a few instances other towers could be named, as the fine massive one of the Trinitarian Friary, at Adare ; but suddenly, in the 15th century, it became the practice to build to the Franciscan and Dominican structures these lofty and slender additions. The nave was shut out from the choir by two transverse walls placed close together and pierced each with a narrow arch ; above them rose the slender tower, standing as it were on the apex of the gables, instead of spreading over the width of the nave. They were finished with a peculiar battlemented parapet. There is no instance of two western towers to the mediæval churches in Ireland ; and a mediæval spire is not known to exist in that country. In Scotland, the spires are chiefly of the middle pointed period, but not erected until about the middle of the 15th century. Short octagonal stone spires forin a very common termination to towers of late date; they generally carry small pedimental headed 1 ghts ei'her on all or on the cardinal faces, and are for the most part plain, though, as at Corstorphine, at Aberdeen, and at Crail, in Fifesbire, they are banded by two or three embattled strings or coronæ into stages. Sometimes, as at the two former places, there are small pinnacles at the angles; while at Corstorphine, and St. Andrew's at Aberdeen, a lumpish semi-pyramidal abutment on the angles is extremely suggestive of the brouch. The construction of the tower and spire is of such importance as to require much attention. A tower built for the reception of bells intended to be rung, should have a solid foundation, not merely four arches nearly as wide as the tower itself, leaving four piers not much bigger than the thickness of the wall which they support. Bells require a tower to themselves, for it is known that they will spoil the best clock ever fixed. In Sir C. Wren's towers, and others built by bis imitators, the substance of the walls was concentrated at the angles, leaving a moderate sized arch on each side, and only the same internal area as would exist in the case of four straight walls. This is sound construction, and is well displayed in the tower of Antwerp Cathedral. Such an arrangement also admits of a staircase being carried up in the substance of the wall, without diminishing strength, besides, a desirable object in some large towers, doing away with the necessity for but. tresses. The tower, if thus carried up its whole height, will be more fit to support an octangular or circular spire or lantern. The mean internal area should be half the external area, and then, if well built and of good materials, the tower will safely bear as many bells as can be hung on one level. There should be an offset to support the ringing floor and the bell floor, so that no timber be run into the wall to act as battering rams. Neither should a bell be hung on cross beams resting on the walls, but always in a trussed cage. As regards sound, one level of bells is considered better than two tiers. It is wonderful that sume of the early brick or stone cones or pyramids (shown in fig. 1211.) have stood, for they were evidently built in level but gathering courses, evev in the 17th century, around a light frame of timber, which was either removed or left to decay. As soon as the principle of diminution upward was acknowledged, two systı ms of construction presented themselves; the first is direct carriage of the upper storey from the basement floor; the other is a false-bearing ; the weight being, in either case, thrown as much as possible upon the angles, even to the extent upon each floor of an opening in the centre of each side, which is the weakest part of a blank tower. In the first case there are two varieties, one being the pyramidal roof square on plan ; the other being the pyramidal roof octagonal on plan. The latter, whether completed externally as a broach or otherwise, requires to be carried as low down the tower for support as possible ; and in some cases, as at St. Léonard, in France, the octagon is more judiciously placed with four angles over the centres of the sides of the tower, than with four faces over the corners of the tower, which then require to be loaded by pinnacles. These are set diagonally more advantageously than when square with the tower, because they thus have a larger base. The greater height given in the middle of the 12th century to the spire rendered such precaution inevitable; and at the same time it became evident that if the spire were to be no longer square on plan, it must not seem to rise abruptly out of a square. Octagonal steeples, with octagonal spires not built through, but resting upon them, seene to be considered now as dangerous experiments in construction. Yet one at Guebwiller, in France, is a central steeple of four stages, including the pendentives. At Schelestadt is another of the same kind. This plan does not seem to have been in favour after the commencement of the 13th century. When the French architects determined to trust their octagonal spires to the upper storeys of their steeples, they seem to have been careless about allowing the pendentives to approach points of weakness. The student will gather a good lesson on this point from the section of the steeple at the Abbaye de la Trinité, at Vendôme, given in Viollet le Duc's Dictionnaire. In the steeple of the cathedral at Chartres, the pendentives of the octagon sit upon the four pinnacles, which are thus each obliged to take a part of the weight of the spire; the other part being thrown upon the four faces of the octagonal drum, which are weighted by heavy gables. At the bottom the spire is 31.inthick, and at top 11f in, in a length of 156 ft. 8 in., built of hard Berchère stone. The roofs of the pinnacles are 19 in. thick. It is to be noticed that the danger of a fall, which was so imminent as to cause the destruction of the steeple at St. Denis, is attributed in great part to the increase of weight given to it during a course of restoration, by using the stone of St. Pierre instead of that of Vergelé. Some French spires have a very curious effect, due to the presence of a simulated hip in the centre of their sides for the whole or part of the height: but still more extraordinary were the slits in that of St. Denis, and the slit with two transoms in that of St. Nicaise, at Reims. The spire of the church at Langrune, near the sea-coast, north of Caen, in Normandy, has at its base in the interior, a sort of buttress of thin stone resting on the thicker walls of the tower, which runs up for a great height to each of the angles and sides of the spire. They are pierced so as to afford a free passage all round at the base of the spire; and may have been provided to assist in strengthening it on account of its exposed position. It has been drawn by Rev. J. L. Petit in his Architectural Studies. It will be found that the stone spires of the 12th century were high in regard to the rest of the steeple. The proportions at St. Denis were 384 to 35; those at Chartres are 60 to 42 ; but in time these proportions were altered so much that the spires of St. Nicaise at Reims (end of 13th century), and those of the front of the cathedral in that city, are scarcely half the height of the tower instead of equal or superior to it. Murphy, in his account of the Batalha, remarks that no settled proportion seems to have been observed in the dimensions in general; they varied from four times the width of the base to eight times. As regards the jointing up the stones of which spires are composed, their security seems to be wholly the result of an accurate working of the beds and vertical joints, and the adhesion of naturally good and properly applied mortar. In modern work it is questionable whether such aids as dowelling and crainping should be altogether dispensed with. Iron must not be used, for reasons given in an earlier portion of this work. One method used at present to steady and tie in the spire, is that of the insertion of an intermediate stage or floor of timber framing. Sir C. Wren, when rebuilding the upper portion of the (former) spire of Chichester Cathedral which had been forced out of the upright, placed two intermediate stages connected with a pendent beam of timber about 80 feet in length attached to the finial stone; each stage was about 3 inches less in diameter than the spire at their levels; these restored the spire if it departed from the upright. A similar pendulum, with two stages, to act in like manner, has been introduced by Gibbs in his spire of St. Martir's in the Fields, London. Iron rods have of later years been used to effect this purpose. When the beds of the stones are horizontal, one course of binders secured with dovetailed dowels will perhaps be enough in the height; but when the beds are inclined, two or three of these courses in its height would be an effectual means of preventing its spread. It has been considered that a spire is stronger when the beds are set at right angles to the face, but if not well set, water gets in, and sudden frosts do much injury. It is probable, however, that a large number of steeples would, were examination possible, be found to have been well chained with timber or with metal The former material appears to have been employed in the church at Châteauneuf (Sâone et Loire). The spire, built cir. 1315, of St. Aldate's Church, Oxford, had to be taken down in 1865. The tower is about 56 feet high ; the spire, about the same height to the weathercock, was for 10 feet down from it of solid stone, similarly to that shown in fig. 1213. The cause of its failure was that a 4-inch iron bar coupled at the angles and inserted in the first course of stone 7 inches thick at the base of the spire, had rusted, in some place, entirely through, bursting the stone inside and out. The angle pinnacles alone sustained the spire for many years. Nearly all the spires of Normandy are said to have been executed in thin slabs of stone ; they are all about 7 inches thick at the bottom, and about 4 inches thick at the top, and are almost all executed in the Creuilly stone. In Caen, especially, that stone was employed in the steeples, though it had to be brought about 12 or 14 miles. The joints are (probably) set at right angles to the face of the stone. The spire at Batalha is about 7 inches thick, independent of the carved work, though almost a fourth part of its superficies is perforated : its stones are said to be keyed together by means of dovetailed pieces of pine wood (Murphy). The slender stone ribs of the octagonal spire of Freiburg Cathedral are girded together at intervals of about 15 feet by means of double horizontal ribs or bands of limestone ; in the middle of each of these bands an iron cramp is inserted, so that one half of the thickness of the metal is fixed in the under course of the stone-work, and the other half in the upper course, in order to prevent all thrust. The space between the rib and the horizontal bands is filled up with perforated tracery, so that the appearance of great lightness, united with great boldness, is imparted to the whole. Plate XI. of Moller's work shows a careful representation of the joints, explaining in what manner the stones are connected together, both in the principal members and the ornamental parts. The spires of Strasburg and Constance Cathedrals, and that of St. Stephen's Church at Vienna, present other examples of open work spires. The thickness of the decorated spire to the staircase in the north tower of the west front of Peterborough Cathedral, is about 11 inches at 2 feet above the wall of the tower, where the octagon commences, and is about 10 feet diameter (shown in Robson, Masons' Guide). The methods adopted of strengthening Salisbury spire and tower, are related by Price in his work published in 1750, who states that it is 400 feet high from the pavement to the extri-me top, but to the top of the capstone or ball only 387 feet as previously noticed. It is only 9 inches thick at the bottom, diminishing to 7 inches. The outline of a tower in elevation should be a parabolic curve, for strength as well as appearance, as it will not then present a top-heavy appearance. The difficulty in designing a tower and spire in the Roman or Italian style is to prevent a telescopic effect; and in the mediæval style the appearance of an extinguisher is too often obtained. The entasis to the spire, and due diminution of the tower (though the former is usually held not to have existed, some spires being formed of two and even three lines at different angles), are desirable both for appearance and strength. They are common features in Essex and Middlesex, and the absence of them may be noticed by any one going from Essex into Suffolk, the round towers in which county have the entasis, but not those of later date. The tower of All Saints' Church, Colchester, possesses it, and diminishes from 21 feet to 19 feet, having internally an offset at each floor and at the roof, so that no timbers run into the walls. A mathematical method of setting out the entasis for a spire was furnished by Mr. Thomas Turner, of Hampstead, to the Builder for 1848, through the late Professor Cockerell, R.A. But as he states that the ordinates may be obtained very nearly true by taking a thin lath and bending it to the extent required, we do not consider it necessary here to do more than to reter to the paper. In the reconstruction of the spire to St. Stephen's Church, at l'ienna, an iron framework was introduced to support the light stone ribs, until near to the summit, which was made wholly of iron. The iron spires at Rouen, Bruxelles, and Auxerre, are the only three we have noted. EFFECT OR USE OF NUMBERS. The introduction into this work of the investigation of the principles of proportion, as propounded by the late E. Cresy, renders it necessary that some preliminary details should be considered, before the student passes on to those pages. These details will consist of the result of the use of numbers, as given by the late Mr. Gwilt and appended to the previous editions, and of the enquiry by modern investigators into the use of the triangle and of the square during the mediæ val period. The subject is interesting, and a verv enticing

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Back to 2.2.5 We shall now focus on Jesus’ famous statement, “Repay to Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God” (Mark 12:17, NAB). The exchange that led to this appears in all three of the Synoptic Gospels (this term was introduced in 2.2.1); see Matt. 22:15-22, Mark 12:13-17, Luke 20: 20-26.. In a moment you’ll be asked to (re-)read the version in Mark, together with what comes immediately before it.1 This will be the most detailed study of a biblical text that we do in this unit – indeed in the whole module. Given this, I have included fairly extensive footnotes giving support for what is said on screen. Do not be distracted by these. For the purpose of this study, and the exercise you’ll be asked to do, you do not need to spend time on them. However, they would enable you to investigate the topic further if you find the study provokes you to do so. To start, here are some background points that can help us to understand the tension and drama in the context in which Jesus’ made that statement. - According to all the Synoptic Gospels, this exchange about tax took place during the last week of Jesus’ life – which had begun with his high-profile and provocative protest in the Jewish Temple when he drove out people buying and selling there (Mark 11: 15-19). - In the days after that, Jesus was involved in sharp, tension-filled debates with various religious groups within Judaism, and especially with the senior religious leaders – “the chief priests, the scribes, and the elders”, as Mark describes them (11.27).2 - What was at stake above all in these exchanges was who Jesus was, his identity, and the basis on which he acted and spoke as he did, the source of his authority. Was he really sent by God – a prophet, or even the Messiah, the promised king? - Given this, it makes sense to read the exchange about payment of tax in the context of the immediately previous two passages. These are: – a short exchange in which those religious leaders directly ask Jesus about his authority (11:27-33) – a parable which, Mark says, Jesus told “against” them, the Parable of the Tenants (12:1-12, quoting v.12, NRSV). It was these same leaders who then sent people to ask Jesus about tax, in order to “ensnare” him (12:13).3 - Indeed some scholars point out that these three passages fit together in a way that occurs several times in the Gospel of Mark: they form a so-called ‘sandwich’. What this means is that two similar passages come on either side of a third that is of a different kind (in this case a parable), but all three are related. One writer explains: “Here we have another example of Mark’s sandwich technique with the parable being meant to help us read each of the controversy dialogues that surround it, and vice versa”.4 The link takes you to the NAB translation. It will open a new window (within VPlater).5. Keep this open after you have read the passage – there is an exercise on this text a moment. In light of reading the three passages that make up this ‘sandwich’, here are a few more points to notice – before we try to understand what Jesus really meant in his answer, “Repay to Caesar…” (v. 17). - In line with Mark’s statement that Jesus tells the Parable of the Tenants against the religious leaders, the notes to the passage in the NAB online give a basic explanation of the parable: The vineyard denotes Israel [as in Isaiah 5:1–7]. The tenant farmers are the religious leaders of Israel. God is the owner of the vineyard. His servants are his messengers, the prophets. The beloved son is Jesus (Mk 1:11; 9:7; Mt 3:17; 17:5; Lk 3:22; 9:35). Do you find this makes good sense of the parable? One commentator sums up by saying that it suggests “that Jesus saw himself as the final emissary sent by God to rescue Israel”.6 - The Roman tax that Jesus was asked about, which was the same amount for everyone (a ‘poll tax’), was paid using a Roman coin called a denarius. Rather than immediately answering their question, Jesus dramatically asked his questioners about this coin. Show me one.7. Whose head is on it, and what is the inscription? No doubt all knew whose head it was, and they answered: “Caesar’s” (v.16). At that time, the Roman Emperor was Tiberius, the son of the previous Emperor, Augustus. The inscription on one side of the coin was: “Tiberius Caesar, son of the deified Augustus, [himself] Augustus”.8. The coin claimed, then, that the Emperor was the son of a divine figure. The monotheistic Jews no doubt saw this statement, and therefore the image on the coin, as idolatrous. - In Jesus’ answer, the NAB has the verb ‘repay’, which is a contemporary alternative to the traditional ‘render’. The literal meaning of the Greek word used in Mark is ‘give back’. One commentator says that it means “to give back or pay back something which one owes as a debt”.9. Like ‘give back’ in English, then, the word Jesus used communicates a sense of what is owed or of obligation – both to Caesar and to God. The NAB’s ‘repay’ puts this across. Indeed it appears that Jesus deliberately chose this word for his answer, as, according to Mark, the questioners had used a different Greek word that means simply ‘give’ (in v.14).10 Before we come to the exercise, I’ll give one more background point. First, consider this briefly: Why did the religious leaders think that that the question about paying Roman tax would be a trap for Jesus? In thinking about this, be aware that, immediately after the Parable of the Tenants, the text says: “They were seeking to arrest him… for they realized that he had addressed the parable to them” (v. 12). Some Jews in Jesus’ day favoured active rebellion against Roman rule: refusal of Roman demands (such as for tax) and use of military force to try to throw the Romans out. The label ‘zealots’ came to be used for such rebels, and we can use this here.11. To understand what is going on in this exchange about tax, we have to be aware of the zealots. This is the last background point. Zealots spoke the language of the coming of God’s kingship. They understood this in terms of using military power to restore David’s throne. For them especially, Roman tax was a hated symbol of oppressive rule and they opposed paying it. As we know, Jesus used the same language: his main message was that God’s reign was coming. So he sounded like an anti-Roman rebel. In the drama of that week in Jerusalem, the religious leaders were out to get Jesus. They wanted a reason to arrest him. If they could flush him out him out as siding with the zealots and refusing Roman authority, they would have a powerful reason to arrest him and hand him over to the Roman Governor, Pontius Pilate. It seems very likely that, for this reason, they wanted him to answer, “No, we Jews should not pay the tax”. But they thought too that if he said, “Yes, we Jews should pay the tax”, he would be in trouble. Jesus represented great hope for many ordinary, poor people. His message was ‘good news’, precisely because he announced that God’s reign was coming. If he simply said, ‘Yes, obey Rome’, he message of hope would be nullified. He would look like a compromiser, and he would no longer be a threat to the Jewish leaders or to Rome. So the religious leaders thought their question would trap him. One commentary on Mark sums up the position succinctly: “If he says yes he loses favour with the many Jews who resent Roman occupation. If he says no he is exposed as a rebel against Rome”.12 But the last verse in the passage says that, after Jesus’ reply, his hearers “were utterly amazed at him”. This suggests that they had failed to ensnare him. If he had fallen into the trap, they wouldn’t have been so amazed. This is hugely important for how we should understand Jesus’ statement. Any interpretation cannot be adequate that claims that his answer was simply, “Yes, we should pay the tax”, or “No, we must not pay” – because neither of these replies would have been ‘amazing’ enough. In light of all this, what did Jesus mean? Trying to keep that background information in mind, see if you can answer the following three questions. To do this, you’ll need to study the text of Mark 12:1-17 quite closely, focusing especially on the controversy about tax in vv. 13-17. Try to set aside an hour for this exercise, or even more, in order to get the most out of it. 1. The Parable of the Tenants raised in a very pointed way the question of Jesus’ own identity. It asked: should he be seen as the vineyard-owner’s son? But ask this: in what ways did questions about identity also come up in the exchange about tax? Why did Jesus ask about the Roman coin? What do you think he was getting at? 2. See if you can come up with three possible interpretations of Jesus’ statement, “Repay to Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God”. (Maybe you’ll be able to suggest more than three.) 3. Of the possible interpretations you have thought of, which is the most convincing? For this third question, you might find it helpful to look at one other short passage in the Gospels. Within a few days of the incident we’re focusing on, Jesus had been arrested and the religious leaders brought him before the Roman Governor, Pilate. All four gospels refer to this, but read the short account in Luke: Luke 23:1-5. According to this, the religious leaders accused Jesus of advocating non-payment of Roman taxes – but Pilate evidently didn’t believe them, even though this was just the kind of thing it was Pilate’s job to stamp on. Pilate found him not guilty of this. If you are reading this without having done the Exercise, I encourage you to do it – or at least to read the Response. Study of this passage, which includes what is probably the most famous statement in the New Testament about government, is well worthwhile. Here is how the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church briefly outlines what Jesus’ statement meant: In his pronouncement on the paying of taxes to Caesar…, he affirms that we must give to God what is God’s, implicitly condemning every attempt at making temporal power divine or absolute… At the same time, temporal power has the right to its due: Jesus does not consider it unjust to pay taxes to Caesar. (Compendium, #379) In the light of your study, do you think this gives an accurate and fair summary? You’ll be asked to do a reading from the Compendium that includes that quotation later in this unit. On the last screen, before we turned to detailed study of this passage, we had noticed that Jesus’ ministry was driven by concern for a deeper, more far-reaching renewal of Israel’s common life than could ever be achieved by earthly government. He called all sorts of people into a community of love of God and neighbour, of unlimited mutual forgiveness, of obedience of the heart. Do you think that Jesus’ overall message and approach, as outlined in the last screen and summarized here, corresponds with what we have found in studying “Render to Caesar…”? We have seen that Jesus turned the question about paying Roman tax back on to the questioners, making it about what was owed to God. Compared with this, issues about Roman tax were of secondary importance – as were questions about human government in general, including restoring David’s physical kingdom. This really does fit closely, it seems to me, with his message overall. But, one part of what made Jesus’ answer ‘amazing’ was that, as a preacher of the coming of God’s reign, he put across that, under God, Caesar has a place. What this does is recast the question we are addressing in this unit. To recall, this is: according to the Scriptures, what is the role of human government? While, relative to what is owed to God, this hardly matters, if Caesar has a place, it is a real question. Indeed this reaffirms that the question has to be asked. In summary, Jesus does not answer the question about the role of human government – but his answer on tax sets it up in a new way. Under the God whose reign is coming through Jesus the Messiah, how does human government fit in – even Roman imperial government? When, a few decades later, St Paul was writing to the new church in Rome, the capital of the Empire, he found himself addressing exactly this question. We shall look at this on the next screen. But here is what he wrote, very briefly, about the role of human government. For rulers are not a cause of fear to good conduct, but to evil. Do you wish to have no fear of authority? Then do what is good and you will receive approval from it, for it is a servant of God for your good. But if you do evil, be afraid, for it does not bear the sword without purpose; it is the servant of God to inflict wrath on the evildoer [or ‘to bring retribution to wrongdoers’.]13. Therefore, it is necessary to be subject not only because of the wrath but also because of conscience. This is why you also pay taxes, for the authorities are ministers of God, devoting themselves to this very thing. (Romans 13: 3-6, NAB) This is in fact the fullest statement in the New Testament about the role of human government. It basically sees this as judicial, and in this way it fits with the Hebrew Scriptures’ emphasis that judgment in court is what rulers should do. However the most amazing thing about this passage is that St Paul calls the Roman authorities “ministers of God”. He sees the imperial rulers as servants of Israel’s God, the God of Jesus Christ! This takes forward the logic of Jesus’ statement, “Render to Caesar…”, in a way that Jesus’ own hearers would have found even more astonishing. Our study of Jesus, on this and the previous screen, has been more demanding, requiring harder thinking, than anything else in the module so far. To conclude, we can say: from what we’ve looked at, the New Testament presents the issue of the role of government as of secondary importance, relative to what God was doing in the mission of Jesus. But Jesus himself and then St Paul put across that, under God, earthly government has a place, and therefore a proper role. The last four screens have all been about what we find in the Scriptures about the role of government. As you can see, there is far more that’s directly about this in the Old Testament than in the New. What we find in the New Testament is that the question is cast in a new light, given by the gospel of the coming of God’s reign. But there is not actually a different answer to it from that in the Hebrew Bible. End of 2.2.6 Copyright © Newman University. If you wish to quote from this page, see Citation Information. N.B. If you are a student and make use of material on this page in an assignment, you are obliged to reference the source in line with the citation information. In Mark and Luke, the exchange about tax immediately follows the Parable of the Tenants, which in turn immediately follows the religious leaders’ question about Jesus’ authority. In Matthew, there are three parables between the two exchanges, of which the Parable of the Tenants is in the middle. If, as most scholars hold, Mark was the first of these three gospels to be written and was known to Matthew, it seems likely that Matthew’s editing led to the location of the additional parables there. ↩ In large part, the “chief priests, the scribes, and the elders” made up the Sanhedrin, the Jewish Council, before which Jesus appeared a few days later; see Mark 14:53. Moloney emphasizes that, as a whole, Mark 11.27-12.44 portrays Jesus in conflict with “the religious leaders of Israel” (F. Moloney, The Gospel of Mark: A Commentary, Hendrickson, 2002, 229-30). Witherington says: “What examining the material in 11:27-12:17 together makes most evident is that Jesus’ primary clash is with the religious leaders of early Judaism, not with ordinary Jews per se,” B. Witherington III, The Gospel of Mark: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Eerdmans, 2001), 318. ↩ According to this verse, the religious leaders, sent “some Pharisees and Herodians” to ensnare him. Who were these groups? We don’t really need to know this for the purpose of the exercise to follow, but here is an outline: – The Pharisees were Jewish teachers (not priests) who argued that the people needed to intensify their obedience to the Torah, in order to be faithful to God. In some ways Jesus was like the Pharisees, but he also criticised them for focusing on outward performance of the Torah’s requirements. The Pharisees would have found the blasphemous inscription on the Roman coin (as described later) extremely offensive. Yet historical evidence suggests they were probably divided on whether the Roman tax should be paid. Some favoured it, probably because the Scriptures nowhere opposed paying taxes imposed by Babylonian and Persian rulers earlier in Israel’s history (see R. Bauckham, The Bible in Politics: How to Read the Bible Politically, SPCK, 1989, 81). Others, probably a minority in Jesus’ time, opposed it. “The majority of Pharisees in Jesus’ time… probably treated the pagan government as a necessary evil, with which one should co-operate but not fraternize”, Joel Marcus, Mark 8-16: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Anchor Yale Bible 27; Yale, 2009), 822. It seems unlikely that the Pharisees sent by the religious leaders (some of whom were themselves Pharisees) to ask about paying tax were the sort who would oppose paying it. This outline of the Pharisees draws on Baukham and Marcus, as cited, and on N.T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God (SPCK, 1992), pp. 181-203. – The Herodians were quite different. King Herod the Great and his sons, one of whom ruled Galilee at the time of Jesus’ ministry, were nominally Jewish and were backed by the Romans. They favoured a strategy of compromise with Rome in order to gain benefits for the Jews. ‘Herodians’ basically means supporters of the Herodian regime. They would have strongly supported paying the Roman tax. See Marcus, Mark 8-16, 816. ↩ Witherington, Gospel of Mark, 318. Here he is following Ched Myers, Binding the Strong Man: A Political Reading of Mark’s Story of Jesus (Orbis, 1988), 306: “Myers has noted a near identical five-step pattern to the two narratives which surround the parable of the vineyard in Mark 12:1-12. The pattern shared by the controversy narratives in 11:27-33 and 12:13-17 involves: (1) Jesus being approached by religious/political opponents; (2) they challenge him with a question concerning his authority; (3) Jesus poses a counterquestion, challenging the opponents to reveal their own views and loyalties; (4) the opponents respond; (5) Jesus answers the original question accordingly.” Other apparent examples of such ‘sandwich’ passages in Mark include 6:7-32, 11:12-25, 14:1-11 and 14:53-72. ↩ For ease of access, this reading has been put into a page on VPlater (simply because it starts near the end of one chapter and goes on to the next, so that it has to be read on two different pages in the NAB online). ↩ Witherington, Gospel of Mark, 320. He points out too that its subject matter, absentee landowners, would have been familiar in the context: “One of the most volatile of all social situations in Israel was the phenomenon of absentee landlords holding property…, something which had been going on to some degree for nearly three hundred years before the time of Jesus” (ibid.). ↩ Several commentators suggest that Jesus has put his questioners on the spot simply by asking them to produce one of these controversial coins bearing Caesar’s image. Even though they were in the Temple precincts, it appears they could do so easily. ↩ Marcus, Mark 8-16, 824. Marcus says that, as well as the coin’s attribution of the status ‘son of a god’ to Caesar, the name Augustus meant, ‘The one to be served with religious awe’. ↩ C.E.B. Cranfield, St Mark (CUP, 1959), 372. The Greek word is apodote, plural imperative of the verb apodidomi. ↩ This was dounai. Surprisingly, both the NAB and the NRSV translate this as ‘pay’. ↩ Some scholars argue that this label may not have been in use until after Jesus’ time, but we may use it for those Jews who favoured rebellion against Rome in a longer period, as long as we acknowledge that the label itself may be anachronistic. ↩ J. Donahue SJ and D. Harrington SJ, The Gospel of Mark (Sacra Pagina Series, Liturgical Press, 2002), 345. ↩ The translation in square brackets is from the New Jerusalem Bible translation. It reflects the judicial context in which what Paul expressed in this verse makes sense. ↩

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We dance round in a ring and suppose, But the Secret sits in the middle and knows. Kosta V. Kostov* INSPIRO Medical Center and INSPIRO Respiratory Medicine Foundation, Sofia, Bulgaria Recently, in the time SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, there is increasing interest among the medical community in post-COVID-19 residual symptoms including structural and functional changes in different organs and systems. The symptom characteristic and parameters of these changes in the period after illness are in the process of registration and complete clarification, and the first results were published. It becomes clear that symptoms of COVID-19 (over 30 in number) even among those with a “mild form” of the disease remain for a long time after the acute phase in a large number of patients. More data are needed on the somatic, mental and emotional characteristics of patients who have undergone COVID-19, the so-called „prolonged COVID-19 syndrome“, despite the lack of a generally accepted definition.. Knowledge of its clinical characteristic will help physicians to recognize its manifestations, and the healthcare system to prepare for its prevention and treatment. Biomed Rev 2020;31:xx-xx Keywords: CoV-2, ongoing COVID-19 syndrome, post-COVID-19 syndrome Clarifying the characteristics of prolonged COVID-19 syndrome becomes even more necessary given the assumptions that those who have undergone SARS-CoV-2 (hereafter, CoV- 2) infection are at least 10 times more than those diagnosed and known to the medical community. The majority of the infected have gone through a mild form and stayed at home, but all, regardless of the severity of disease, may have symptoms that persist for weeks and months after and require medical care. ACUTE INFECTION WITH COV-2 Symptoms during the active course of COVID-19 Listed in a group without claims of absolute completeness, symptoms that were recorded during COVID-19 and reported in the scientific literature are: shortness of breath, fatigue, increased body temperature (up to 37.9°С), chills (≥ 38°С), cough, cold nose, sneezing, sore throat, muscle aches, joint pains, loss of sense of smell, loss of taste, headache, dizziness, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, red spots on the toes or other anatomical areas of the legs , feeling of pain or heat in the lung, ear pain, tightness of the chest, back pain between the blades, palpitations, rapid cardiac activity at rest, eye problem, rapid weight loss, sensation of burning in the trachea, tides of heat on the body, rashes, chills, loss of concentration, cognitive problems (memory, information processing, processes of cognition, decision-making, language capabilities, etc), sleep disorders (1-5). One of the essential characteristics of symptoms in the acute phase is the wavy course in some of the sick, at tides, alternating some symptoms with other symptoms, through phases of slight improvement and subsequent deterioration. Not all patients register classic starter symptoms such as fever, shortness of breath and cough. In the majority of patients, cough comes a little later, in others there is no fever, and physical weakness more often precedes and is more palpable than the breath, which also comes later. In one part of the patients at first there are atypical symptoms such as instability of blood pressure or pain in the heart area. In my decadeslong practice as a pulmonologist, I have never encountered such a disease, with such “artistic” behavior, more talented even than tuberculosis, which we call “the great actress”. The good news is that most of my patients, whom I controlled in home treatment mode, recovered almost completely, with little residual damages and symptoms. This cannot be said conclusively for those patients who have had a severe illness, went through the intensive care units that will need longerterm monitoring, treatment and rehabilitation. In the process of active infection, in one of the studies, 97% of patients had more than five of the listed symptoms, with an average number of 14 symptoms (11-17), with feeling tired and shortness of blown out being the most commonly reported symptoms, resp. 94.9% (fatigue) and 89.5% (shortness of breath) (1). PROLONGED (POST-) COVID-19 SYNDROME Symptoms after acute illness of COVID-19. Late inflammatory and virological consequences. Monitoring of symptoms from the acute period of the disease shows that they decrease significantly in number, with 2-3 months after illness still the most common residual symptoms are fatigue and shortness of breath (1, 6). In one study, only 0.7% of patients were completely asymptomless after illness, and there were individual patients (2%) who reported more symptoms from the period of illness (1). The summarized published data from patient follow-up show that two months after hospital treatment, no more than 13% of discharges are completely asymptom, about 30% of patients have 1 or 2 residual symptoms, over 50% have 3 or more symptoms, in total about 2/3 of patients have residual symptoms after the symptom period. The most commonly recorded symptoms during and after COVID-19 were shortness of breath and fatigue (1, 7, 8). Commonly reported symptoms are also muscle and joint pain, loss of taste and sense of smell (6, 8). This shows that in the period after illness there is only a partial recovery of symptoms and the health status of the sick, and very few patients have a full recovery even months after the acute phase of the disease. Residual symptomatology has a significant dependence on age, hospital stay, severe course and presence of shortness of breath at the beginning of the disease (8). So far, there is no well-established and generally accepted definition, as well as biomarkers to prove prolonged COVID-19 syndrome, called by some colleagues „Long Covid“; so it is determined by the symptoms and the time frame. There are reasons to define three concepts, which are stages in the course of COVID-19: (i) acute COVID-19: duration of symptoms up to 4 weeks (ii) post-acute (ongoing) symptomatic COVID-19: duration of symptoms from 4 to 12 weeks after the onset of the disease, and (iii) prolonged (post-) COVID-19: duration of symptoms >12 weeks after the onset of the disease, which cannot be explained by another disease and the duration of which is not yet definitively known (9). It should be noted that the development of symptoms within the post-acute and prolonged Covid-19 is not directly dependent on the severity of the course of acute Covid-19 or the place of treatment – in or out of hospital. Symptoms can vary over time, disappear and reappear, as well as change in intensity. In telephone follow-up of patients with outpatiently proven CoV-2 infection, 35% of those who had symptoms during infection still had such two weeks or more after the positive test, with symptoms showing a proportional relationship with the age of patients and the most pronounced were in those >50 years and less prominent in those <35 years (10). Similarly, data from British authors, who tracked 100 hospitalized patients who went through a general and intensive care unit and found that 4-8 weeks after discharge from the hospital, 72% of patients who underwent intensive care units and 60% went through general wards had increasingly complained of shortness of breath and fatigue (11). Organ symptomatology after COVID-19 is primarily controlled by the respiratory system, heart and nervous system, but although less often the kidneys, liver, pancreas, spleen, even skin and mucous membranes are also affected, possibly a consequence of the direct invasion of the virus into tissues, pronounced inflammation, immunological imbalance, cytokine storm and blood clotting disorders with subsequent thromboembolisms in the most severe cases of the disease. Despite the small number of patients with residual health problems against the background of all infected and tenfold more undetected due to asymptomatic flow, health systems around the world will face the challenge of dealing with this problem in hundreds of thousands of patients worldwide. In Bulgaria, this share for now is several hundred, but with a longer and more aggressive course of the epidemic, it is possible to become several thousand. It should be considered that residual somatic and functional problems are also detected in mild forms of COVID-19 and can last for an extended period of time, disrupting the quality of life of the sick. Although the lung is first affected by the disease, in many patients it is not the most affected organ, and this gives us the right to define the disease not just as a respiratory disease, but as a systemic disease. Let’s not forget also that patients with a more severe course will remain for a different period of time with a different pronounced imbalance of the immune system and an increased risk of infection with other pathogens. Myocardial impairment (cardiomyopathy) is clinically objectified with an increased level of troponin in serum in more severe cases of COVID-19. In infected with CoV-2, inflammatory changes in the myocardium (myocarditis) often occur with arrhythmia. Data from magnetic resonance imaging of the heart in 100 patients, carried out on the 71 day after disease from COVID-19 show that in 78% there is a heart effect, and in 60% the process of myocardial involvement is still active. Myocarditis and myocardial inflammatory changes were recorded by magnetic resonance imaging and in 12 (46%) of 26 elite American athletes, within 12-53 days after infection with CoV-2, but went through the infection without symptoms (12). These data raise concerns about a future increase in heart failure cases, especially in older and patients with accompanying diseases. Damage to the nervous system occurs after viral pennetration in the nervous tissue, as well as from the direct invasion by the virus of neurons. The most common neurological residual changes that are recorded in patients with COVID-19 are headache, dizziness, hemosensory dysfunction (anosmia and agenesis), peripheral neuropathies, sleep disorders, deliriums (in older patients). Stroke is a rare manifestation in the acute phase of infection, but in the post-acute period, up to 2-3 months after illness, cases of encephalitis, seizures, significant mood swings, confusion, memory and cognitive disorders, physical discomfort, also observed in previous coronavirus pandemics (13). In a study of British colleagues who used a cognitive questionnaire in about 84,000 participants, they found a significant volume of cognitive impairment even in patients who went through the infection slightly, without shortness of breath and without any other residual symptomatology. This builds the hypothesis that COVID-19 has a systemic effect on cognitive functions (14). There are concerns that COVID-19 increases the risk of developing Parkinson‘s disease and Alzheimer‘s disease. Months of isolation led to lasting changes in the emotional state of patients. Cases of feelings of loneliness and isolation, hopelessness, physical discomfort, anxiety, exhaustion, physical exhaustion, which can be summarized by the term “chronic fatigue syndrome” which proceeds with chronic emotional instability and physical deficiency, and does not allow for full-fledged work, have increased. Those suffering from COVID-19 have an increased risk of developing residual depression, fearful experiences, insecurity, post-traumatic stress and misuse of toxic substances (15). Young patients are more prone to emotional consequences than patients >60 years (11, 16). The lung is the closest target organ in the path of the virus, and all pathogenic processes induced by CoV-2 are played out most severely in the pulmonary parenchyma, including alveolitis, caused by immunological imbalance and cytokine storm, blood vessel endothelial damage, thrombosis and thromboembolism, destruction of alveolo-capillary membrane, secondary bacterial infections, etc. In a study, tracking 55 patients with COVID-19 at the third month after discharge from hospital, 64% (35) still have symptoms, and 71% (39) still have radiological changes with a characteristic of outbreak fibrosis and interstitial seals that can be associated with persistent symptomatology and functional changes persisting in 25% of patients with reduced diffusion capacity (17). In another study with 57 patients, 30 (53%) diffusion capacity changes are recorded 30 days after discharge from hospital. Functional changes in the lung go to a proportion of patients with cardiac residual changes, and this further complicates their functional status (18). Of course, the data show that over time, some of the residual changes are absorbed and the percentage of patients affected declines (Fig. 1). Some of the residual damages are due to therapeutic interventions, e.g. intubation, but the majority are a direct consequence of viral aggression. Figure 1. Pulmonary scan demonstrating changes in the lung in Prolonged COVID-19 syndrome observed in a 50-year-old patient. Lung damage (red color) decreases over time, but does not disappear completely. In a large prospective cohort study of 101 patients after hospitalization for COVID-19, 76% of them reported residual complaints and impaired quality of life 3 months after the onset of symptoms. The most common residual changes are in quality of life, the presence of dyspnea and cough, and these changes are not affected by the presence or absence of accompanying diseases, which speaks of a direct pathogenic effect of the virus and the damages that occurred (19). Symptoms after suffering from a critical form of COVID-19 pneumonia COVID-19 syndrome after treatment in an intensive care unit (ICU) A particular form of the syndrome after getting sick from COVID-19 is the symptom complex, which develops after a critical form of illness and carried out treatment in an ICU and can lead to a significant violation of the quality of life of patients after the acute phase of the disease. In the scientific literature it is defined by the term “Post Intensive Care Syndrome”, which we can call “COVID-19 syndrome after treatment in an intensive care unit” – a spectrum of somatic (physical deficiency), emotional and mental residual changes that characterize the condition of patients who survived the disease after treatment in an ICU (20). Among the residual complaints are muscle weakness, problems in cognitive functions (memory, learning, reasoning alike), disturbed sleep, depression, fear, and post-traumatic stress. All these residual changes affect not less than 30%-50% of patients who have gone through intensive care units, and cognitive disorders even up to 80% of this group of patients. Paralytic manifestations may also be registered. All described disorders of “COVID-19 syndrome after treatment in an intensive dacre unit” can proceed individually or in different combinations. Peripheral paralysis within this syndrome most often occurs as a result of mixed motor and axonal polyneuropathy (critical illness polyneuropathy) and myopathy (critical illness myopathy), conditioned by a critical course of the disease. Guillain-Barre syndrome is a rare complication of COVID-19, and may occur a few days after the first respiratory complaints (21). Often neurological manifestations can go unrecognized within severe respiratory insufficiency. Diagnosis of residual structural and functional disorders of the respiratory system after COVID-19 is carried out with computed tomography of the lung, precise functional examination of breathing (spirometry and plethysmography), combined with a study of diffusion capacity. A precise assessment of the condition of patients with residual symptoms after acute COVID-19 is desirable, to be carried out on the third month after the onset of symptoms. The involvement of other organs and systems requires the assessment of a specialist and the conduct of additional imaging and functional studies such as echocardiography, imaging of the brain and laboratory studies of the cerebrospinal fluid, electroencephalography, ultrasound of the kidneys, etc. Therapy of prolonged COVID-19 syndrome requires an experienced multidisciplinary team, individualized approach and prolonged respiratory rehabilitation. The follow-up of the sick should mainly involve general practitioners, and although pulmonologists are most involved in this process, due to the most serious affect of the respiratory system, expert advice from neurologists, psychiatrists and psychologists, cardiologists, gastroenterologists and nephrologists will also be required, which will face the most common consequences of COVID-19. POST-ACUTE HYPERINFLAMMATORY DISEASE Within the course of post-acute or prolonged COVID-19, on average about 2-5 weeks after the acute phase of the disease, after cleansing the body from the virus, in children (more often) and adults (less often) develops the rare multisystem hyperinflammatory syndrome affecting organs and systems left unaffected during the acute phase. It is believed that at the base of the syndrome lies dysregulation of the immune response. In patients, symptoms develop from the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, skin and mucous membranes, manifestations that are close to Kawazaki’s disease. Elevated inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein, ferritin), coagulopathy (D-dimmer), increased levels of cardiac markers (troponin) are recorded. These patients were almost without exception positive for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and most with a negative RT-PCR test. Manifestations in adults are more colorful than in children due to the many accompanying diseases that contribute to clinical manifestations (22, 23). OTHER MANIFESTATIONS OF POST-ACUTE AND PROLONGED COVID-19 In the period after acute COVID-19, symptoms from other organs and systems are also observed (9): (i) gastrointestinal – abdominal pain, appetite and disgust with food, nausea, and diarrhea, (ii) musculoskeletal – muscle and joint pain, (iii) ears, nose and throat – tinnitus and pain, throat irritation, dizziness, loss of taste and sense of smell, and (iv) skin rashes. REHABILITATION OF PATIENTS WITH PROLONGED COVID-19 In patients after severely leaked COVID-19, after treatment in an intensive care unit and those with pronounced symptoms after the acute phase of the disease, hospital and post-hospital rehabilitation is necessary. It should start early while patients are still in the hospital (early rehabilitation), continuing in the form of outpatient rehabilitation in pulmonary rehabilitation units. After a spent coronavirus infection, the suitability of patients to conduct rehabilitation events requires that the state of the respiratory system and the patient’s blood circulation is stable without the danger of aggravation of the available complaints. In patients with COVID-19 and significant residual symptomatology with a characteristic of prolonged COVID-19, who have had a complicated course with pronounced respiratory failure, complicated breathing, a longer period of respiratory recusal, chronic lung diseases or affecting the respiratory musculature, early respiratory rehabilitation and evaluation of each patient for his oxygen needs at rest and after loading is necessary. In patients with COVID-19 and with prolonged COVID-19 with severe damage to the central and/or peripheral nervous system, early neurological and neurosurgical rehabilitation should be carried out. In the presence of secondary emotional disturbances, psychiatric/psychotherapeutic treatment should be initiated (24). The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest concerning the present Dance Round article. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author appreciates the work of all colleagues at his clinic involved in the ongoing study on prolonged and post- COVID-19 syndrome. 1. Goërtz YMJ, Van Herck M, Delbressine JM, Vaes AW, Meys R, Machado FVC, et al. Persistent symptoms 3 months after a SARS-CoV-2 infection: the post- COVID-19 syndrome? ERJ Open Res 2020; 00542-02020. [DOI: 10.1183/23120541.00542-2020] 2. Li L-Q, Huang T, Wang Y-q, Wang Z-p, Liang Y, Huang T-b, et al. COVID-19 patients’ clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis. J Med Virol 2020; 92(6): 577-583. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25757] 3. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(18): 1708-1720. [DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2002032] 4. Docherty AB, Harrison EM, Green CA, Hardwick HE, Pius R, Norman L, et al. Features of 20 133 UK patients in hospital with covid-19 using the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterisation Protocol: prospective observational cohort study. Br Med J 2020; 369: m1985. [DOI: 10.1136/ bmj.m1985] 5. Lechien JR, Chiesa-Estomba CM, Place S, Van Laethem Y, Cabaraux P, Mat Q, et al. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of 1420 European patients with mild-to-moderate coronavirus disease 2019. J Intern Med 2020; 288(3): 335-344. [DOI: 10.1111/joim.13089] 6. Carfì A, Bernabei R, Landi F, Group ftGAC-P-ACS. Persistent Symptoms in Patients After Acute COVID-19. J Am Med Assoc 2020; 324(6): 603-605. [DOI: 10.1001/ jama.2020.12603] 7. Greenhalgh T, Knight M, A’Court C, Buxton M, Husain L. Management of post-acute covid-19 in primary care. Br Med J 2020; 370: m3026. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj. m3026] 8. Carvalho-Schneider C, Laurent E, Lemaignen A, Beaufils E, Bourbao-Tournois C, Laribi S, et al. Follow-up of adults with noncritical COVID-19 two months after symptom onset. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j. cmi.2020.09.052] 9. NICE. COVID-19 rapid guideline: managing the longterm effects of COVID-19. In: NICE guideline. London, UK; 2020. p. 1-35. 10. Tenforde MW, Kim SS, Lindsell CJ, Billig Rose E, Shapiro NI, Files DC, et al. Symptom Duration and Risk Factors for Delayed Return to Usual Health Among Outpatients with COVID-19 in a Multistate Health Care Systems Network – United States, March-June 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020; 69(30): 993-998. [DOI: 10.15585/ mmwr.mm6930e1] 11. Halpin SJ, McIvor C, Whyatt G, Adams A, Harvey O, McLean L, et al. Postdischarge symptoms and rehabilitation needs in survivors of COVID-19 infection: A cross-sectional evaluation. J Med Virol 2020: 1-10. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26368] 12. Rajpal S, Tong MS, Borchers J, Zareba KM, Obarski TP, Simonetti OP, et al. Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Findings in Competitive Athletes Recovering From COVID-19 Infection. J Am Med Assoc Cardiology 2020: 1-3. [DOI: 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.4916] 13. Zubair AS, McAlpine LS, Gardin T, Farhadian S, Kuruvilla DE, Spudich S. Neuropathogenesis and Neurologic Manifestations of the Coronaviruses in the Age of Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Review. J Am Med Assoc Neurology 2020; 77(8): 1018-1027. [DOI: 10.1001/ jamaneurol.2020.2065] 14. Galea S, Merchant RM, Lurie N. The Mental Health Consequences of COVID-19 and Physical Distancing: The Need for Prevention and Early Intervention. JAMA Intern Med 2020; 180(6): 817-818. [DOI: 10.1001/ jamainternmed.2020.1562] 15. Hampshire A, Trender W, Chamberlain SR, Jolly A, Grant JE, Patrick F, et al. Cognitive deficits in people who have recovered from COVID-19 relative to controls: An N=84,285 online study. medRxiv 2020. [DOI: 10.1101/2020.10.20.20215863] 16. Cai X, Hu X, Ekumi IO, Wang J, An Y, Li Z, et al. Psychological Distress and Its Correlates Among COVID-19 Survivors During Early Convalescence Across Age Groups. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr 2020; 28(10): 1030- 1039. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jagp.2020.07.003] 17. Zhao YM, Shang YM, Song WB, Li QQ, Xie H, Xu QF, et al. Follow-up study of the pulmonary function and related physiological characteristics of COVID-19 survivors three months after recovery. Clin Med 2020; 25: 100463. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100463] 18. Huang Y, Tan C, Wu J, Chen M, Wang Z, Luo L, et al. Impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on pulmonary function in early convalescence phase. Respir Res 2020; 21(1): 163. [DOI: 10.1186/s12931-020-01429-6] 19. Wong AW, Shah AS, Johnston JC, Carlsten C, Ryerson CJ. Patient-reported outcome measures after COVID-19: a prospective cohort study. Eur Respir J 2020: 2003276. [DOI: 10.1183/13993003.03276-2020] 20. NIH. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines. In: NIH Guidelines, 2020. p. 1-251. 21. Berlit P. S1-Leitlinie: Neurologische Manifestationen bei COVID-19. DGNeurologie 2020; 3(6): 495-519. [DOI: 10.1007/s42451-020-00254-x] 22. Abrams JY, Godfred-Cato SE, Oster ME, Chow EJ, Koumans EH, Bryant B, et al. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children Associated with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2: A Systematic Review. J Pediatr 2020; 226: 45-54 [DOI: 10.1016/j. jpeds.2020.08.003] 23. Morris SB, Schwartz NG, Patel P, Abbo L, Beauchamps L, Balan S, et al. Case Series of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Adults Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Infection – United Kingdom and United States, March-August 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020; 69(40): 1450-1456. [DOI: 10.15585/mmwr. mm6940e1] 24. Kluge S. et al.S2k-Leitlinie – Empfehlungen zur stationären Therapie von Patienten mit COVID-19. AWMF 2020; Register-Nr. 113/001: 1-52. * Correspondence to: Dr Kosta V. Kostov, INSPIRO Medical Center, 4 Petar Protich Street, BG-1000 Sofia, Bulgaria

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The Economic Crisis: A Dog's Perspective About Those Hounds... Adopting a Friend Rescue of the Month The Bagel Shoppe The Old Age Page Black Listed Beauties Katrina's Other Victims Getting Involved - Volunteering The Ugly Truth The Homewoods Herald Dorchester Co. Humane Society Ritchie Co. Humane Society Humane Society of North Central West Virginia Whimsical Animal Rescue Everyone knows that the “dog days of summer” occur during the hottest and muggiest part of the season. Webster defines “dog days” as... 1 : the period between early July and early September when the hot sultry weather of summer usually occurs in the northern hemisphere 2 : a period of stagnation or inactivity But where does the term come from? Why do we call the hot, sultry days of summer “dog days?” In ancient times, when the night sky was unobscured by artificial lights and smog, different groups of peoples in different parts of the world drew images in the sky by “connecting the dots” of stars. The images drawn were dependent upon the culture: The Chinese saw different images than the Native Americans, who saw different pictures than the Europeans. These star pictures are now called constellations, and the constellations that are now mapped out in the sky come from our European ancestors. They saw images of bears, (Ursa Major and Ursa Minor), twins, (Gemini), a bull, (Taurus), and others, including dogs, (Canis Major and Canis Minor). The brightest of the stars in Canis Major (the big dog) is Sirius, which also happens to be the brightest star in the night sky. In fact, it is so bright that the ancient Romans thought that the earth received heat from it. Look for it in the southern sky (viewed from northern latitudes) during January. In the summer, however, Sirius, the “dog star,” rises and sets with the sun. During late July Sirius is in conjunction with the sun, and the ancients believed that its heat added to the heat of the sun, creating a stretch of hot and sultry weather. They named this period of time, from 20 days before the conjunction to 20 days after, “dog days” after the dog star. The conjunction of Sirius with the sun varies somewhat with latitude. And the “precession of the equinoxes” (a gradual drifting of the constellations over time) means that the constellations today are not in exactly the same place in the sky as they were in ancient Rome. Today, dog days occur during the period between July 3 and August 11. Although it is certainly the warmest period of the summer, the heat is not due to the added radiation from a far-away star, regardless of its brightness. No, the heat of summer is a direct result of the earth's tilt. What You Should Know about Flea and Tick Products Protecting your pet from fleas and ticks is an important part of caring for your pet responsibly. Although there are many brands of over-the-counter flea and tick products available at supermarkets and pet supply stores, it is critical to read their labels, and consult with your veterinarian, before using them on your companion. These products may contain ingredients that could harm pets and children. In November 2000, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) released a report called Poisons on Pets: Health Hazards from Flea and Tick Products. The report demonstrated a link between chemicals commonly used in flea and tick products and serious health problems. The ingredients to be wary of are organophosphate insecticides (OPs) and carbamates, both of which are found in various flea and tick products. A product contains an OP if the ingredient list contains chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos, phosmet, naled, tetrachlorvinphos, diazinon, or malathion. If the ingredient list includes carbaryl or propoxur, the product contains a carbamate. According to the NRDC, the potential dangers posed by these products are greatest for children and pets. There is reason to be concerned about long-term, cumulative exposures as well as combined exposures from the use of other products containing OPs and carbamates. The NRDC's report lists flea- and tick-control products marketed under the following major brand names that have been found to contain OPs: Alco, Americare, Beaphar, Double Duty, Ford's Freedom Five, Happy Jack, Hartz, Hopkins, Kill-Ko, Protection, Rabon, Riverdale, Sergeant's, Unicorn, Vet-Kem, Victory, and Zema. To protect their pets and children, consumers should consult with a veterinarian before purchasing over-the-counter (OTC) products. According to the NRDC, there are studies that show OPs and carbamates can harm the nervous system. Children can be especially vulnerable because their nervous systems are still developing. For pets, the data is limited, but according to NRDC, many companion animals appear to have been injured or killed through exposure to pet products containing OPs. Cats are particularly vulnerable, since they often lack enzymes for metabolizing or detoxifying OPs and can ingest OPs by licking their fur. What about the EPA? Each year, millions of Americans purchase over-the-counter flea and tick products believing that they couldn't be sold unless they were proven safe. But the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) did not begin to review pet products for safety until 1996. There is a substantial backlog of products waiting to be tested, so many pet products containing potentially harmful pesticides still make their way onto store shelves. Last year, after reaching an agreement with manufacturers, the EPA announced that the OP chlorpyrifos—also known as Dursban—would be on a fast track for a phase-out. A second OP, diazinon, is also on the way out. An agreement between the EPA and manufacturers set the phase out at December 2002 for indoor-use products (including flea and tick products) and December 2003 for all lawn, garden, and turf products. Reducing the Risks It is recommended that the following precautions be taken to reduce the risks to pets and humans during the flea season: - Use alternatives to pesticides to control fleas and ticks: Comb your pet regularly with a flea comb, vacuum frequently and dispose of the bags immediately after use, mow areas of the lawn where your dog spends time, wash pet bedding weekly, and wash your pet with a pesticide-free pet shampoo. In addition, to protect cats from fleas and ticks, as well as a host of other outdoor hazards, cats should be kept indoors at all times. - Always consult a veterinarian before buying or using any flea or tick control product on your pet. - Never use flea and tick products designed for dogs on your cat, or vice versa. - Remember never to apply pesticides to very young, elderly, pregnant, or sick animals unless directed to do so by a veterinarian. - Always read the ingredients, instructions, and warnings on the package thoroughly. - Avoid OP-based products by looking for any of these active ingredients: chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos, phosmet, naled, tetrachlorvinphos, diazinon and malathion. Avoid products with carbamates by looking for the chemical names carbaryl and propoxur on the label. - Consider using a product with insect-growth regulators (IGRs), which are not pesticides. These will prevent the next generation of fleas but will not kill insects already on your pet. Common and effective IGR products include those made with lufenuron (found in Program® and Sentinel® and available by prescription), methoprene (in Precor®), and pyriproxyfen (in Nylar® and EcoKyl®). - You might want to consider several relatively new topical products, available through veterinarians, that are insecticides designed to have fewer toxic effects on the nervous systems of mammals: imidacloprid (found in Advantage®), fipronil (in Frontline® or Top Spot®), and selamectin (in Revolution™). If you suspect your pet may have suffered negative health effects as a result of a flea product containing OPs or carbamates, consult with your veterinarian immediately. If you think a child has ingested a pesticide, call your local poison control center. Be sure to report all such incidents to the EPA's National Pesticide Telecommunications Network at 800-858-7378. The HSUS would also like to keep track of these cases.* Please send your contact information, the product name, a brief description of the health problem, and a brief summary of your veterinarian's findings to The HSUS. Summer Care Tips for You and Your Pets Summer is a time for both you and your pet to enjoy the sunshine and outdoors, but along with the fun, the season also offers up situations that can endanger your pet. By taking precautions, you can decrease the chance that disaster will happen. HR offers these tips for pet owners to keep their furry friends safe this summer: On July 4, 1776, we claimed our independence from Britain and Democracy was born. Every day thousands leave their homeland to come to the "land of the free and the home of the brave" so they can begin their American Dream. - In nice weather you may be tempted to take your pet with you in the car while you travel or do errands. But during warm weather, the inside of your car can reach 120° in a matter of minutes, even if you're parked in the shade. This can mean real trouble for your companion animals left in the car. Dogs and cats can't perspire and can only dispel heat by panting and through the pads of their feet. Pets who are left in hot cars even briefly can suffer from heat exhaustion, heat stroke, brain damage, and can even die. Don't think that just because you'll be gone "just a minute" that your pet will be safe while you're gone; even an air conditioned car with the motor off isn't healthy for your pet. To avoid any chance that your pet will succumb to the heat of a car this summer, be sure to play it safe by leaving your pet cool and refreshed at home while you're on the road. And if you do happen to see a pet in a car alone during the hot summer months, alert the management of the store where the car is parked. If the owner does not return promptly, call local animal control or the police department immediately. - Want to help educate others about the dangers of leaving pets in hot cars? During the summer months (May through September) The HSUS has educational posters available for purchase ($3 for 10, $5 for 25) that store managers can post inside their windows to remind shoppers that "Leaving Your Pet in a Parked Car Can be a Deadly Mistake". In addition, 4" x 9" two-sided flyers are also available (50 for $3.00). To order please send a check, your mailing address and the number of posters or flyers that you would like to receive to the following address: HSUS/Hot Cars, 2100 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037. You can also receive a free sample flyer by sending a self-addressed, stamped envelope to the above address. - It is very dangerous, and in some states illegal, to drive with a dog in the back of a pick-up truck. Not only can flying debris cause serious injury, but a dog may be unintentionally thrown into traffic if the driver suddenly hits the brakes, swerves, or is hit by another car. Dogs should ride either in the cab (in a crate or wearing a seat belt harness designed for dogs) or in a secured crate in the bed of the truck. - Summer is often a time when people fertilize their lawns and work in their gardens. But beware: Plant food, fertilizer, and insecticides can be fatal if your pet ingests them. In addition, more than 700 plants can produce physiologically active or toxic substances in sufficient amounts to cause harmful effects in animals. - With people and dogs spending more time outside, dog bites are likely to increase in the summer months. Spaying or neutering your dog reduces the likelihood that he will bite and provides many other health benefits. - Make sure your pet is always wearing a collar and identification tag. If you are separated from your pet, an ID tag may very well be his or her ticket home. - Check with your veterinarian to see if your pets should be taking heartworm prevention medication. Heartworm disease, which is transmitted by mosquitoes, can be fatal in both dogs and cats. - Pets and pools can equal disaster. Prevent free access to pools and always supervise a pet in a pool. - Provide plenty of water and shade for your pets while they're enjoying the great outdoors so they can stay cool. - If you plan on traveling with your pet during the summer, take the time to prepare for your furry friends in advance. Many airlines have summer pet embargoes, and most trains and ships do not allow pets other than service animals. - Pets need exercise even when it is hot, but extra care needs to be taken with older dogs, short-nosed dogs, and those with thick coats. On very hot days, limit exercise to early morning or evening hours. Keep in mind that asphalt gets very hot and can burn your pet's paws. - Another summertime threat is fleas and ticks. Use only flea and tick treatments recommended by your veterinarian. Some over-the-counter flea and tick products can be toxic, even when used according to instructions. - Pets can get sunburned too, and your pet may require sunscreen on his or her nose and ear tips. Pets with light-colored noses or light-colored fur on their ears are particularly vulnerable to sunburn and skin cancer. - Don't take your pets to crowded summer events such as concerts or fairs. The loud noises and crowds, combined with the heat, can be stressful and dangerous for pets. For your pet's well being, leave her at home. Be especially aware of these threats during holidays, such as the Fourth of July. - In summer heat your pet can suffer from heat exhaustion and heat stroke. These conditions are very serious and could cause your pet to die. You should be aware of the signs of heat stress, which could include heavy panting, glazed eyes, a rapid pulse, unsteadiness, a staggering gait, vomiting, or a deep red or purple tongue. If your pet does become overheated, you need to immediately lower his body temperature. Move your pet into the shade and apply cool (not cold) water over his body to gradually lower his core body temperature. Apply cold towels or ice packs to your pet's head, neck, and chest only. Let your pet drink small amounts of water or lick ice cubes. Most importantly, get him to a veterinarian immediately. Won't you liberate a rescue dog on America's birthday and give it a loving, forever home? KEEPING YOUR PET SAFE ON JULY 4TH Returning home from a holiday celebration, Sharon Moore and her family discovered feces on their living room floor. The sliding glass door to their backyard was open, and a hole had been dug under their fence. The Moores were gone for only four hours, but D.O.G., their two-year-old, aptly-named white German Shepherd, was gone. Left on her own to face the tumult of fireworks and loud celebrations, she escaped, apparently to seek the familiar—her family, even if she had no idea where to look. "From what we can tell, when D.O.G. heard the fireworks she freaked out and pooped on the floor inside—for the first time ever—then she opened the sliding glass door with her paw, and dug a hole outside our fence.... She went searching for us," says Sharon Moore of Maitland, Florida. The Moores' search for D.O.G. ended when she was found dead alongside a road where she was often walked. Moore believes that D.O.G., who wasn't normally scared of thunder or other loud noises, panicked from the cumulative effects of the fireworks, the excited voices outside, and being left alone inside the house. The Moores' tragic loss isn't unique. Pets across the nation often become frightened and frantic by the noise and commotion of Independence Day. In fact, animal shelters across the country are accustomed to receiving "July 4th" dogs—dogs who run off during fireworks celebrations and are rescued by animal control officers or Good Samaritans who take them to the safety of the local shelter. Fortunately, preventing pet problems on Independence Day is possible by simply planning ahead and taking some basic precautions. "With a little bit of planning and forethought, you can enjoy the excitement of the Fourth of July and know that your animal companion is safe, sound, and enjoying a little peace and quiet," says Nancy Peterson, an issues specialist with The HSUS. To protect your pet on the Fourth of July, take these precautions: If you follow these simple precautions, you and your pet can have a safe and happy Fourth of July. - Resist the urge to take your pet to fireworks displays. - Do not leave your pet in the car. With only hot air to breathe inside a car, your pet can suffer serious health effects, even death, in a few short minutes. Partially opened windows do not provide sufficient air, but do provide an opportunity for your pet to be stolen. - Keep your pets indoors at home in a sheltered, quiet area. Some animals can become destructive when frightened, so be sure that you've removed any items that your pet could destroy or that would be harmful to your pet if chewed. Leave a television or radio playing at normal volume to keep him company while you're attending Fourth of July picnics, parades, and other celebrations. - If you know that your pet is seriously distressed by loud noises like thunder, consult with your veterinarian before July 4th for ways to help alleviate the fear and anxiety he or she will experience during fireworks displays. - Never leave pets outside unattended, even in a fenced yard or on a chain. In their fear, pets who normally wouldn't leave the yard may escape and become lost, or become entangled in their chain, risking injury or death. - Make sure your pets are wearing identification tags so that if they do become lost, they can be returned promptly. Animals found running at-large should be taken to the local animal shelter, where they will have the best chance of being reunited with their owners. I was at a deck party awhile back, and the bugs were having a ball biting everyone. A man at the party sprayed the lawn and deck floor with Listerine, and the little demons disappeared. The next year I filled a 4-ounce spray bottle and used it around my seat whenever I saw mosquitoes. And voila! That worked as well.. It worked at a picnic where we sprayed the area around the food table, the children's swing area, and the standing water nearby. During the summer, I don't leave home without it. Pass it on. OUR FRIENDS' COMMENTS: I tried this on my deck and around all of my doors. It works - in fact, it killed them instantly. I bought my bottle from Target and it cost me $1.89. It really doesn't take much, and it is a big bottle, too, so it is not as expensive to use as the can of Bug-spray you buy that doesn't last 30 minutes. So, try this, please. It will last a couple of days. Don't spray directly on a wood door (like your front door), but spray around the frame. Spray around the window frames, and even inside the dog house.

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Since fur-trade times, Wyoming has straddled the main travel route across North America. The Oregon and Overland trails were followed by the Union Pacific Railroad, which was followed by the Lincoln Highway and today’s Interstate 80. The routes are full of stories. Industry, Politics and Power: the Union Pacific in Wyoming One of the most significant moments in Wyoming history didn’t occur within its borders. On May 10, 1869, a large crowd gathered at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory, to celebrate the completion of the world’s first transcontinental railroad. At the given signal, a hammer slammed down on a golden spike, sending an electric pulse out over telegraph lines stretching west to San Francisco, and east across Wyoming Territory to Omaha. The crowd cheered. They listened to speeches. They waved flags, toasted with champagne, and posed for photographs. In New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago thousands took to the streets to celebrate the joining of the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific Railroads. For the sparsely populated Wyoming Territory, the golden spike meant the end of a prosperous two-year construction period brought by the Union Pacific. Yet in the wake of the boom, the railroad offered economic opportunities that simply didn’t exist during the emigrant trails era. While hundreds of thousands crossed Wyoming by wagon train in the 1850s, most recognized that it was too high, too cold and too dry for rainfall-dependent farming. It also lacked profitable mines. Those factors meant that almost no travelers who crossed Wyoming by wagon train decided to stay. The transcontinental railroad changed all of that by giving many more emigrants a means to live in Wyoming. Specifically, the rails provided a model of industrial development based on transportation of agricultural and mineral products. The railroad opened up trade to distant markets, spreading the costs of operating the line outside of the territory. That recipe worked well for the small population of the territory, and gave the Union Pacific tremendous influence on Wyoming’s politics and culture. In some ways, the combination of transportation and resource extraction created by the Union Pacific continues to drive the Wyoming economy. The railroad also set up dynamics of political and economic power that persist even now. More than any other economic force, the Union Pacific Railroad shaped the Wyoming we know today. The railroad creates the need for a territory The building of the Union Pacific across Wyoming forever changed the political and physical landscape, not least by bringing about the organization of Wyoming Territory out of a huge piece of land lopped off the southwestern part of Dakota Territory. The region needed its own government because of its remoteness from the capital of Dakota Territory at Yankton on the Missouri River. Wyoming Territory also took a small part of Utah and Idaho territory in the west of the continental divide. (The northern boundary of Wyoming Territory was defined by the organization of Montana Territory in 1864.) When the UP first came to Wyoming in 1867, the railroad exerted a tremendous amount of influence on the government. Often it seemed that governments existed primarily to serve the interests of the railroad, first with federal military support to pacify Indians, unruly squatters or striking coal miners, and then by creating the structure of territorial government needed for conducting business. In Gov. John A. Campbell's 1869 inaugural address to the Wyoming Territorial Legislature, he noted that, "For the first time in the history of our country, the organization of a territorial government was rendered necessary by the building of a railroad. Heretofore the railroad has been the follower instead of the pioneer of civilization." As leaders of one of the largest private landholders and employers, UP executives made decisions that affected every town and impacted the wealth of Wyoming. Territorial officials fought for the right to tax property owned by the railroad and ultimately prevailed in an 1873 court case. After this, Wyoming Territory collected one-third of its property taxes from the UP right of way, track and rolling stock. Congress creates the Union Pacific For the company and the nation, the primary motivation for building a transcontinental railroad was to get to the Pacific Ocean. The idea for such a railroad first appeared in a pamphlet in 1832, but gained more credence with the signing of treaties that opened up trade with China and Japan, and with the 1849 gold rush to California. Merchants, migrants and miners wanted to speed the trip to California and Asia by avoiding the long ocean journeys via Cape Horn and the Isthmus of Panama. In 1854, Congress created the Pacific Railroad Survey to study the viability of prospective train routes advocated by southern and northern states. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis sent out parties to identify routes at the 49th, 47th, 41st, 35th, and 32nd parallels. As a devoted southerner, Davis, who would later become the president of the Confederacy, preferred the southernmost route from New Orleans to California. The 41st parallel report by Edward Beckwith built upon previous reconnaissance made by Howard Stansbury in 1851. On the advice of Jim Bridger, Stansbury had scouted Black’s Fork, Bitter Creek and a low pass over the southern Laramie Range via Lodgepole Creek and Crow Creek. In 1854, Beckwith identified Weber Canyon as a good route between the Green River Basin and the valley of the Great Salt Lake. Many years later, Grenville Dodge, the chief engineer during construction of Union Pacific, claimed he discovered the pass over the Laramie Range in 1865 while being chased by a band of Indians. The story of the Indian chase is not substantiated by his journal entries from that day, but it does seem clear that he found the route that would become known as "the gangplank" for its even grade, and which Interstate 80 follows now from Cheyenne west to the summit of the Laramie Range. The 41st parallel survey identified the route that would eventually be used by the Union Pacific. It offered both the shortest route west and the best crossing of the Rocky Mountains. But for the rest of the decade, railroad plans stalled because of tensions between North and South over whether and where slavery would be allowed to expand in the West. The secession of the Confederacy at the opening of the Civil War allowed the remaining members of Congress to take action on a transcontinental railroad. President Abraham Lincoln chose a northern route for the railroad, with Council Bluffs, Iowa, on the east bank of the Missouri River as the terminus. Lincoln did so at least partially because Dodge, a Union general and railroad engineer, had in the late 1850s shown him maps of a prospective railroad following the Platte River across Nebraska. The federal government offers land and financing Lincoln signed the Pacific Railway Act on July 1, 1862. The act created the Union Pacific, and subsidized the Union Pacific and already-existing Central Pacific railroads by granting 10 square-mile sections of land for each mile of track laid. In addition, the government loaned the railroads $27 million, enough to cover half the cost of construction. The loan would last 30 years at a charge of six percent interest. The Union Pacific also sold $11 million of stock, and bonds totaling $30 million. Most of the investment came via financiers in New York who sold stock and bonds on the East Coast and in Europe. Investors included wealthy merchants from the China trade, Civil War financiers, and European nobility. The chief financier and general manager of the Union Pacific was Thomas Durant, a vigorous self-promoter who seemed to care less about building railroads than earning money. Durant’s allies included Union Pacific President Oliver Ames and U.S. Representative Oakes Ames, two brothers from Boston who showered members of Congress with gifts of stock to gain favorable legal treatment for their line. The paper value of Union Pacific stock far exceeded the actual capital valuation of the company, in part because the company sold its bonds on par, meaning an investor might buy a $10 bond for a discounted price of $6.30, the par value. This “watered stock” put shareholders at risk, since there was no guarantee their shares would ever reach the face value. Selling stock at par also made it difficult to pay back the government loans because companies didn’t have as much cash value as they claimed on the books. Such questionable financing, however, expedited construction. The UP also fought territorial attempts to tax its land grant, which resulted in an 1875 ruling against the railroad on that question. The company surveyed its land very slowly to try to avoid taxation, and it didn't secure patents on land until interested buyers appeared. The checkerboard pattern of ownership made few ranchers interested in purchasing the land, however, as they needed large, intact acreages to raise livestock in a dry climate. The UP floated a proposal to abandon the checkerboard by taking all the land within 20 miles on one side of the tracks and releasing all railroad land on the other side. The territorial government rejected the proposal in 1878, however, because it would create "endless confusion." In the 1870s, the UP used its cars for shipping meat to packinghouses in Omaha and Chicago. A system of stockyards and slaughterhouses developed which enabled cattle grown on the Wyoming ranges to be shipped to Chicago for slaughter with the beef then transported in refrigerated cars to the East Coast and even to Europe. This helped create Wyoming’s cattle industry, which brought huge investment into the territory from the East and from Great Britain, and led to the construction of the lavish Cheyenne Club where cattlemen enjoyed fine dining and urban luxuries on the Wyoming high plains. In 1884, the UP began selling some of its land grant acreages to prominent Wyoming livestock growers like F.E. Warren, the Wyoming Central Land and Improvement Company, the Swan Land and Cattle Company and George Baxter. In 1886, Congress passed a law allowing the taxation of all railroad-grant land, regardless of whether final patents had been issued. The builders build the road Nearly every one of the construction managers and engineers who built the road had served as Union officers in the Civil War, and they brought their organizational and logistical prowess to bear in commanding the work. The chief railroad engineer, Grenville Dodge, had rebuilt lines in the South during the war while serving as a Union general. On Dec. 2, 1863, construction began on the railroad in Omaha, Nebraska Territory, but only made 40 miles by the end of 1865. The following year the line made it 260 miles, stopping at North Platte, Nebraska Territory for the winter. In 1867 the road made it another 240 miles before stopping at Granite Canyon on the slopes of the Laramie Range west of Cheyenne. The following year construction raced across 500 miles of southern Wyoming, entering Utah at the beginning of 1869. Surveying was considered as some of the most hazardous work for the Union Pacific Railroad, particularly in 1867, when two chiefs of survey crews, Lathrop L. Hills and Percy Browne, died during attacks from Indians. Browne’s party suffered three separate attacks before he perished. James Evans replaced Hills, and became the namesake of Evanston, Wyoming Territory. Dodge also honored surveyor John A. Rawlins by naming a town for him. The surveyors also took on the tough duty of camping out for the winter of 1866-1867 at the summit of the Laramie Range to make sure they located the line away from deep snowdrifts. The surveyors eventually linked a series of topographic features to create a favorable route. From the East, a natural pass or “gangplank” up the Lodgepole Creek Ridge west of Cheyenne provided a steady grade over the Laramie Range, followed by an easy descent onto the plains of the Laramie Basin. From there the route rounded the northern slope of Elk Mountain to reach the North Platte, moving on to enter the Wyoming Basin, also known as Great Divide Basin over a low ridge north of Bridger Pass. After leaving that basin, the railroad picked up Bitter Creek as a watered route into the Green River Basin. From there the route followed the right bank of the Green River to Black’s Fork, then crossed over a ridge into the Bear River drainage, and then another ridge into Weber Canyon and the Great Salt Lake Basin. Track-laying crews completed the line into Cheyenne on Nov. 13, 1867. Dodge laid out the town site and selected the location for locomotive shops. The following March, the Union Pacific board of directors selected the town as the location for a major depot and repair shops, ensuring Cheyenne’s future as an important railroad town. Cheyenne grows; more end-of-the-tracks towns appear Within a few months of its founding, Cheyenne had a population of 4,000 people, earning it the nickname of “The Magic City of the Plains.” The end of the tracks stayed in Cheyenne for nearly six months due to difficult construction over the Laramie Range, which gave the town more of an economic boost than other end-of-the-tracks towns that had much shorter heydays. Like all such towns, Cheyenne businesses provided materials for the railroad as well as entertainment for the workers. Cheyenne boasted nearly 70 places to buy a drink in 1868, along with numerous brothels, gambling houses and theaters. Among the city’s gainfully employed were actors, dancing girls, fiddlers, banjo players and bagpipers. Cheyenne also hosted the “Big Tent”, a notorious canvas wall tent set up in different towns as the end of the tracks moved across Nebraska and Wyoming. Inside, customers who spent enough money could get a drink, play a game of cards, dance with a girl, hire a prostitute and get treated for venereal disease all in one visit. Such mobile tents, along with the lawlessness they attracted, gave the end-of-the-tracks towns a descriptive nickname: “Hell on Wheels.” By February 1868, as the end of the tracks moved west, Cheyenne started to lose population to Laramie, underscoring the city’s dependence on the UP and the transient nature of the railroad boom. By May 4, 1868, crews had laid rails all the way to Laramie, but not before building across the formidable Sherman Summit, also known as Sherman Hill. At an elevation of 8,200 feet, the rail line over the Laramie Range became the highest railroad in the world at the time. Just west of the summit, a gorge created by the miniscule Dale Creek required the largest bridge built by the Union Pacific west of the Missouri River. The timber for the Dale Creek trestle came from the forests of the upper Midwest. In total, the bridge measured 125 feet high and 1,400 feet long. Laramie’s first few months brought a degree of lawlessness not seen in Cheyenne. Robberies occurred daily. Vigilantes responded by killing the perpetrators without trials. The first elected mayor wrote a letter of resignation explaining that incompetent city officers made it impossible for him to administer the town's provisional government. Railroad money attracted a large, varied assortment of people. Some stayed; many moved on to other opportunities. For every town father like Laramie banker Edward Ivinson, there were dozens of free-floating laborers, unattached men, prostitutes, gamblers, swindlers and thieves who scavenged the dollars spilling out of the pockets of the rail workers. Luckily, the end of tracks moved on as crews moved north across the Laramie Plains. Benton, Wyoming Territory, near the crossing of the North Platte River, became an even more notorious Hell on Wheels town because of its incredible consumption of whiskey. But this town did not survive. Perhaps the worst incidence of violence in a “Hell on Wheels” town occurred in Bear River City southwest of Evanston on Nov. 3, 1868, when vigilantes broke into the jail to capture and lynch three “garrotters.” A riot ensued, and the local police took refuge in a store as a mob burned the jail and the office of the Frontier Index. The editor of the newspaper, Leigh Freeman, fled the town for Fort Bridger. The police shot their way out of town. Twenty-five of the rioters died in the foray and another 50 or 60 were wounded. Aside from Sherman Summit, Wyoming’s major physical obstacle was crossing the high divide between Black’s Fork of Green River and the Bear River Drainage. The route required steep grades of 90 feet per mile. On Dec. 16, 1868, the railroad arrived in Evanston on the Bear River. The Trains Create Faster Cross-Country Passage The rails moved into Utah around the beginning of 1869. With that, the river of construction money with tributaries in the East and Europe began to dry up. The cash had provided the explosive energy that dynamited the road cuts and fed the sweating mules that graded the right of way. It motivated the 10,000 men who cut down timber for railroad ties and spiked countless rails across the high plains of Wyoming. But when the railroad shifted into maintenance and operation mode, many of those workers moved on to new opportunities. In the summer of 1869, the non-Indian population for all of Wyoming Territory stood at 8,104, with 2,305 in Cheyenne; 2,027 in Albany County; 460 in Rawlins; 1,923 in Sweetwater County. Acquiring enough population to gain statehood would take another 20 years. Wyoming Territory had a railroad, but rather than bringing settlers to the area, it served mainly as a transportation route between the eastern states, the Pacific Coast and Asia, and as a military transport system. The railroad played a major role in killing off the buffalo and efficiently delivering troops that broke the resistance of the American Indian tribes of the norhtern plains in the late 1870s. Before the railroad was completed, the trip from Missouri to remote places like northern Wyoming Territory took months. The railroad reduced that travel time to a matter of weeks, putting the military in position for the final push to force the Lakota and Cheyenne onto reservations, which finally happened after the Black Hills gold rush and the 1876 Powder River campaign made famous by Gen. George Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn. The Union Pacific brought in the first sizable influx of permanent non-Indian residents to Wyoming. Out of the lawless chaos of railroad construction camps emerged towns that gradually grew more orderly. The railroad also created supporting industries, including locomotive maintenance, steel manufacturing, coal mining and logging for railroad ties. Given the fickle nature of railroad management, business owners found it hard to tell which towns would grow, and more cautious merchants stayed in Cheyenne and Laramie. Until other railroads built into Wyoming beginning in the 1880s, almost all the population of the territory lived in the UP railroad towns of Cheyenne, Laramie, Rawlins, Rock Springs, Green River and Evanston. Many towns that the railroad didn’t favor withered and died, however. Squatters often occupied lots in the towns without buying the land from the railroad. The railroad called on the U.S. Army to drive out squatters in Cheyenne, Green River and Brownsville near the North Platte. Shaky finances make for low-quality construction The railroad served its purpose of providing transportation, but it was neither well built nor safe. Workers died in boiler explosions, falls from moving trains and collisions. Some brakemen broke their necks on snow sheds with low clearance. The hastily built Union Pacific line needed to be rebuilt almost from the moment of its completion. Grenville Dodge later referred to the railroad he built as “two ballasted streaks of rust.” The quality of construction suffered because of financial shenanigans on the part of company board members. Thomas Durant, along with Oliver and Oakes Ames, had formed a construction company called Crédit Mobilier, through which the Union Pacific funneled the payments for its contractors. Crédit Mobilier took in much more money from the UP than it paid out in expenses. The promoters of the company earned between $13 million and $16.5 million in profit after an investment of $4 million. Some of that profit went to dozens of members of Congress to whom Oakes Ames sold shares of Crédit Mobilier stock at deeply discounted prices. Congress censured Oakes Ames after investigating the scandal, and destroyed both brothers' reputations in the process. Oakes Ames died in Massachusetts soon afterward, in 1873. The UP later built the Ames Monument on Sherman Summit between Cheyenne and Laramie in an effort to restore the tarnished memory of the brothers. The monument was finished in 1882; in 1883, the Massachusetts Legislature passed a resolution exonerating Oakes Ames. In the late 1870s, meanwhile, the UP began replacing the soft iron of its original rails because the metal wasn’t strong enough to bear the traffic. The company established a rolling mill in Laramie, where it transported the original scrap iron rails to be re-rolled into steel. To attract the rolling mill, Albany County agreed to provide $18,000 to the UP, to levy no taxes on the mill for 10 years, and to reduce taxes for other UP property. This cut the county’s assessed valuation by nearly $91,000. The UP completed the rolling mill at a cost of $188,293 and employed about 100 men. The mill stood as Wyoming’s leading manufacturer for many years until it was destroyed by fire in 1910 and not replaced. The Union Pacific did not take on further construction in Wyoming Territory until 1884, when it seized on an opportunity to gain its own connection to the Pacific Coast. By building northwest from Granger, Wyo., toward the Columbia River, the railroad company gained a connection with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company and a route to Portland. This freed the UP from its previous reliance on the Central Pacific to haul its traffic west from Utah. Violence and robberies plague the line The Rock Springs Massacre occurred in 1885, when a gang of disgruntled white miners attacked the Chinese neighborhood in Rock Springs, burning houses and killing 28 Chinese miners in one of Wyoming’s worst incidences of ethnic violence. Territorial Gov. F.E. Warren called in the military to quiet the disturbance, and the Chinese gained rail passage to Evanston only to be sent back to Rock Springs by railroad management. In 1899 and 1900, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch stopped UP trains in Wyoming to rob passengers and break open the safes in the express cars. The first robbery occurred on June 2, 1899, at Wilcox, just north of Rock River, after which a large posse pursued the thieves to no avail. Union Pacific Board Chairman Edward Harriman attempted to contact Cassidy regarding these robberies, but the meeting never took place. On August 29 of the following year the outlaws pulled off another robbery near Tipton, Wyo. These were some of Cassidy’s most famous exploits. While such thievery made for sensational headlines, a much greater disaster occurred in 1903, when a Union Pacific coal mine exploded in Hanna, killing 169 miners. In 1908, another explosion in Hanna killed 59 men. The remains of the dead still lie in the mines, because there was no way to retrieve them. Bankruptcy leads to reorganization In 1893, the country descended into a financial panic. Transcontinental traffic plummeted and did not generate enough income to pay the interest on the UP’s debts. This caused the company to fall into receivership. A court-appointed receiver took control of all the assets and income in order to ensure payment to creditors. The receiver reorganized the company and improved bridges, rolling stock and rails. The revamped company was auctioned in Omaha in November 1897. A group of investors bought the company for $81.5 million, and Edward Harriman won election as chairman of the board. Harriman traveled the whole route in an observation car to see for himself where problems might be fixed and more money made. Then in 1898, the UP embarked on an extensive reconstruction project to make the railroad operations more efficient. The first phase of the project cost $25 million, and in the end, under Harriman’s leadership, the UP spent $98 million on improvements and $62 million to build or buy new lines: $160 million total. The line in Wyoming saw some of the most significant improvements. On Sherman Summit in the Laramie Range, workers relocated the tracks several miles south and away from the town of Sherman, the Ames Monument, and the rickety Dale Creek Trestle. Harriman ordered that the line be double-tracked in this area, while preserving the old line. An 1,800-foot tunnel combined with a 900-foot dirt fill over Dale Creek made for a net reduction of 250 feet in the line’s elevation. These improvements straightened the line and reduced the overall grade on that section from over 68 feet per mile to 43 feet per mile. Engineers also reduced curvature near Green River by cutting new roadbeds into nearby shale ledges—difficult work. But the biggest change in Wyoming shortened the crossing over the Bear River Divide from 21 miles to 10 miles when a 5,900-foot tunnel was dug through Aspen Mountain. Tunnel construction began in 1899. Crews faced difficulties with flooding and oil seepage as they dug through soft coal deposits. At one point a gas explosion killed several men and mules. The tunnel finally opened in 1901 after 30 months of work. Harriman also called for improvements to railroad depots, like adding electric lights and heat. In the alkali-soil town of Rock Springs, he had hundreds of carloads full of good soil delivered so the trees and shrubs they planted could survive. In Cheyenne, Rawlins, and Green River he saw that workers improved parks. Harriman finished most of his improvements by 1902, but even after his death in 1909 work continued on double-tracking the UP line across Wyoming all the way to Granger, Wyo. until 1917. Edward Harriman’s son Averell later served as president of the UP from 1932-1946. While a small portion of the improvements were cosmetic, the overall effect of Harriman’s efforts made the UP into the most profitable railroad among its peers, earning $8,167 in revenue per mile compared to the $7,528 earned by its closest competitor. World War II brings technological developments At the beginning of World War II, the UP developed the 4000-class Big Boy steam locomotives, the biggest and most powerful engines that represented the climax of steam technology. At top speed they could reach 80 miles per hour. The power of the Big Boy engines surpassed the already advanced 9000-class steam locomotive, which had the capacity to pull trains at a swift 50 miles per hour. The 9000-class boasted a very long wheelbase and served the route from Iowa to Green River, Wyo. In 1948, UP began using gas turbine electric locomotives on some trains. Advances in rolling stock kept pace with the constant improvements in infrastructure. In 1952 and 1953, an $18 million project reconstructed the line over Sherman Hill, and a new line created an easier passage over the divide west of Rawlins between the North Platte and the Great Divide Basin. The UP’s Big Boy locomotives remained in use until 1959. Large crews based in the Cheyenne shops maintained these machines in top condition for the demanding climb over Sherman Summit to Laramie. On July 23, 1959, the last steam train made a run from North Platte, Neb., to Cheyenne, ending the era of steam power and causing a major transition in the working lives of the skilled laborers in Cheyenne’s steam locomotive shops. The late 20th century brings expansion, improvements The latter 20th century brought advances in technology, corporate organization and the UP’s first expansion in to northern Wyoming. The UP’s computer control system for trains debuted in 1969. The same year, the Union Pacific Corp. formed as an umbrella company over the Union Pacific and its various subsidiaries. Increased travel by interstate highways and air transportation reduced the UP’s passenger business to the point that Amtrak took over that traffic in 1971. On Aug. 16, 1984, the UP opened a connector line to the coal fields of Campbell County, Wyo., allowing it to compete with the Burlington Northern in that region. End-of-train units eliminated the use of cabooses in 1984. Double-stack trains that carried two storage containers on one car debuted soon thereafter. The legacy of the UP in Wyoming In politics, economy and culture, Wyoming began as a colony of the Union Pacific Railroad, and it still bears signs of those origins today. By the end of the 20thcentury, the UP continued as a strong economic force in Wyoming, though other kinds of development diminished the influence it had in the territorial era. It took until the 1970s—a full century after the golden spike—for the mineral industry to unseat the railroad as the most powerful industry in the state. Mineral severance taxes since then have far surpassed railroad property taxes as a major funding source for state government operations. Yet patterns set by the railroad remain. The argument about how to tax UP property laid the groundwork for discussions on how much to tax corporations in Wyoming. The push-and-pull dynamic that first existed between railroad lobbyists and territorial legislators in the late 1800s continues today between advocates for fossil fuel industries and Wyoming lawmakers. The influence of the UP in Wyoming government endured after the turn of the 20thcentury. A 1908 editorial in the Cheyenne Leader, a Democratic newspaper, remarked that, "The Union Pacific has ruled Wyoming ever since it was organized as a territory. It controlled and used the Republican machine and has owned every legislature with one possible exception in forty years." Wyoming’s political culture carried the mark of the UP’s presence for generations after initial construction. The southern tier of counties along the UP line developed first, and as a result became the location of the state’s most important institutions: the university in Laramie, the state prison in Rawlins, the state hospital in Evanston and of course, the Wyoming Capitol in Cheyenne. Wyoming’s central and northern counties developed later and with smaller initial populations, meaning that political representation and power centered along the older towns along the UP line. This bred resentment of the southern counties and towns, and of Cheyenne in particular, as northern politicians tried to gain state support for their counties. To this day, Wyoming’s political party demographics are influenced by the fact that the UP’s 19th and 20th century coal mines in Carbon, Sweetwater and Uinta Counties, and its machine shops in Cheyenne attracted union representation, making those communities a stronghold for the labor movement and the Democratic Party, even as the UP leadership courted Republican leaders in the statehouse. Wyoming brands itself with the images of women’s equality and romantic cowboys. But in reality, the industrial force of the railroad defined Wyoming from the beginning of the territory. - The Frontier Index,1868. This newspaper was published in the succession of end-of-tracks towns as the Union Pacific was built. Access it by searching the Wyoming Newspaper Project. - Coutant, C.G. The History of Wyoming from the Earliest Known Discoveries. Laramie, Wyo.: Chaplin, Spafford, and Mathison, Printers, 1899, 621. - Farnham, Wallace D. "Grenville Dodge and the Union Pacific: A Study of Historical Legends," Journal of American History, LI, no. 4 (March 1965): 638-639. - King, Robert A. Trails to Rails: A History of Wyoming’s Railroads. Casper, Wyo.: Endeavor Books—Mountain States Lithographing, 2003, 11-42. - Klein, Maury. Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad 1862-1893. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1987, 1-212, 480-497, 641-658. - __________. Union Pacific: Volume II 1894-1969. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006, 28-30, 49-68. - Larson, T. A. History of Wyoming. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965, 36-41, 52-58, 62-63, 77,108-111, 117, 148, 175, 200, 222-223, 295, 339, 341-342, 378, 489, 523. - McPhee, John, Rising from the Plains. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1986, 54-64. - Union Pacific. “150 Years: The History of Union Pacific.” Accessed Dec. 29, 2012, at http://www.up150.com/timeline. - ___________. “Charting the Future.” A three-minute video on Harriman and the UP reconstruction. Accessed Feb. 2, 2013, at http://www.up150.com/player/1344491048001. - Vance, James. The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. 148-181, 204-206. - ___________. “The Oregon Trail and the Pacific Railroad, a Contrast in Purpose.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 51, no. 4 (December 1961): 368. Accessed Feb. 2, 2013 at http://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/pdfs/1206/vance_railroads.pdf. - White, Richard. It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993, 246-257. For Further Reading - Ambrose, Stephen E. Nothing Like it in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-69. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000. This book provides a readable narrative of the construction of the railroad, but contains factual errors. “Progress of the Union Pacific.” Golden Spike National Historic Site. National Park Service. Accessed March 6, 2018 at https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/hh/40/hh40l.htm. - United States Citizenship. "Chinese Immigration and the Transcontinental Railroad." Accessed May 6, 2014 at http://www.uscitizenship.info/Chinese-immigration-and-the-Transcontinental-railroad/. Good article on the topic, with links to much more information about Chinese immigrants, their role in building the transcontinental railroad and more. - White, Richard. Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2011 - Accompanying the article, all the images except the “Great Event” poster are from Wikipedia, and used with thanks. - In the photo gallery, the early photos of Granite Canyon and the Sherman roundhouse are from the USGS photo library, used with thanks. Andrew J. Russell’s photo, Temporary and Permanent Bridge Green River Citadel Rock in Distance, c. 1868 is an Imperial plate collodion glass negative, 10 x 13, is from the Andrew J. Russell Collection, the Oakland Museum of California. Used with permission and thanks. The scan of the 1885 William Henry Jackson photo of the train crossing the Dale Creek trestle is from the collections of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles. Used with thanks.

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Biology caters to these intriguing aspects through various sub-disciplines or branches. Tending to go, move, or slant back; receding. ), Mesopotamia (2112 B. In such cases, each parent is called a carrier of the disease. At BYJU’S, we provide you with video lessons that contain an elaborately animated representation of the actions and reactions of the Biological world. The study or science of meaning in language. Funky Cheese Rinds Release an Influential Stench. ’ ‘Gina was a really interesting person - studying biology and chemistry to go. Revision notes designed for AS and A Level Biology students. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes. The competence of a speaker with regard to the interpretation of the meaning of linguistic structures. Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is a rare genetic disorder that affects 1 in 20,000 children. The definition of done is an agreed upon list of the activities necessary to get a product increment to a done state by the end of a sprint. Authors of most PLOS. As a result, an individual heterozygous for an autosomal recessive allele is known as a carrier. Microsoft Security Essentials Definition Update Decem Provides real-time protection for your home PC that guards against viruses, spyware, and other malicious software. To have a child born with what’s called an “autosomal recessive disease” like sickle cell. Another word for definition. There is a separate definition of disability for children (under age 18) who are applying for the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program. Pringle, “How to Be Manipulative”, in American Scientist, volume 100, number 1, page 31: 1. More Definition videos. Antisemitism and xenophobia the international community shares a solemn responsibility to fight those evils” the committee on Antisemitism and Holocaust Denial called the IHRA Plenary in Budapest to adopt the following working definition of antisemitism. Biology, an international, peer-reviewed Open Access journal. 2 days ago &0183;&32;Dominant and Recessive Traits List 1． Widow’s Peak. According to some ex-employees of Apple and NeXT, he was intolerant of anything he viewed as a failure and his foul-mouthed tirades were the stuff of legend. By doing so, the IHRA set an example of responsible conduct for other international fora and provided an important tool with practical applicability for its Member Countries. See full list on holocaustremembrance. Autosomal recessive disorders occur when a person has defects in both copies of an autosomal gene (a gene that is located on any of the autosomes) (Figure 3. · Federal Poverty Level (FPL) Definition. Genes vs Alleles: v=F09kUKWSvAQFind more at www. Recessive X-linked ichthyosis is a genetic disorder in which there is very dry skin. By News Staff / Source. In that case, no, recessive alleles by definition do not express that particular phenotype. &0183;&32;BMC Biology is recruiting new reviewers. News An invitation to change a life. 553; P In 4, 6, 9, 3, 7 the lowest value is 3, and the highest. Recessive genes are usually represented by a lowercase letter in a Punnett square, as opposed to the uppercase letters of dominant genes (see example at right). An autosomal recessive disorder means two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop. In opposition to autosomal dominant trait, a recessive trait only becomes phenotypically apparent when two copies of a gene (two. Choose from 500 different sets of biology flashcards on Quizlet. Animals, plants and fungi. Definition synonyms, definition pronunciation, definition translation, English dictionary definition of definition. Depuis le 1 er avril, l'Anesm a rejoint la Haute Autorit&233; de sant&233; Retrouvez nos missions et nos travaux sur le site de la HAS Acc&233;der au site. Describing a gene (or its corresponding characteristic) whose effect is shown in the individual only when its allele is the same, i. Christopher Intagliata. Biology examines the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and. Reach every student. Parkin mutations are most frequent, explaining -50. Course Content. See full list on biologydictionary. Find out more about us. Recessive (adj. What is the difference between dominant and recessive traits? Mastering Biology; Find resources for working and learning online during COVID-19. From anatomy to ecology and microbiology to zoology, the course options available for those interested in pursuing studies in biology are extremely wide-ranging. Abnormalities in genes or chromosomes leads to expression of genetic disorders. X-linked recessive diseases most often occur in males. 536 (95% CI, 0. · The Spark Augment: Recessive is an item added by Botania. The living organisms of a particular region. Some of the recessive genetic disorders in humans are explained in the following article. Read the latest articles of Trends in Cell Biology at ScienceDirect. &0183;&32;Standard deviation measures the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean. Bryan Sykes obituary. A definition. This leadership definition captures the essentials of being able to inspire others and being prepared to do so. Upon his return to Apple, he was forced to cut staff and was quoted as expressing concern for families of employees that were laid off. This type of definition is often used where the term is difficult to define verbally, either because the words will not be understood (as with children and new speakers of a language) or because of the nature of the term (such as colors or sensations). The recessive allele is expressed because there isn’t a dominant one to mask it. Low penetrance recessive alleles imparting large effects have been implicated in several other complex traits such as patent ductus arteriosus, Hirschsprung disease, or autism. More news for Biology. See full list on en. So the fact is that most folks who start out with a modicum of innate leadership capability can actually become very good, even great leaders. So, let's just remind ourselves that the mother, because she's female, is going to be XX, have two X chromosomes. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries as it flows through them. While there are core skills and activities common to both SL and HL students, students at HL are required to study the options and some topics in greater depth as well as some additional topics. If the alleles of a gene are different, one allele will be expressed; it is the dominant gene. Biology is the scientific study of life, and when we say that, we mean every ounce of life on the face of this planet. ‘The recessive 1930s brought the reversal of this globalism while a new one was later formed during the Cold War. A biology resource site for teachers and students which includes lesson plans, student handouts, powerpoint presentations and laboratory investigations. Definition Essay. We've got 13 rhyming words for recessive &187; What rhymes with recessive? A Texas Woman’s University biology team, led by associate professor Michael Bergel, Ph. In the spirit of the Stockholm Declaration that states: “With humanity still scarred by. Adjective a recessive genius who was most comfortable working alone in his chemistry lab Recent Examples on the Web: Adjective This meant that the newborn French sinistrals carried two copies of a recessive gene, which increased a tendency to produce lefties but was delayed in expression. Using the letter "T" as an example, only in "tt" (the homozygous recessive genotype, indicated by blue) would the recessive physical trait appear. The CDD represents the "policy" aspect of Android compatibility. Messenger RNA gave us a COVID-19 vaccine. Definition: Addiction is a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences. As in much of biology, the most satisfying truths in ecology derive from manipulative experimentation. In a business setting, this can mean directing workers and colleagues with a strategy to meet the company&39;s needs. Apply Here. But what&39;s really exciting is where the field of biology is going. These disorders are usually passed on by two carriers. If an organism has one dominant and one recessive allele, it will show the dominant trait. , a ewe is a female sheep). Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Explore ecology and evolution research that inspires new thinking beyond the discipline. May, Shoeless Wayne Santos, “Baroque” (game review), GameAxis Unwired, Hardware Zone Pte, page 51: 2. IHRA experts determined that in order to begin to address the problem of antisemitism, there must be clarity about what antisemitism is. The recessive gene responsible for most families with childhood SMA has been localized in 1990 to a small region of the long arm of chromosome 5 (5q11. Dominant refers to the relationship between two versions of a gene. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of her. Antonyms for Recessive lethal mutation. Signification : cr&233;e une base de donn&233;es appel&233;e nom_base. If an individual in a leadership role does not meet profit expectations set by boards, higher management or shareholders, her or she may be terminated. , intervention, placebo, or. The biology of the whale. Racist synonyms, racist pronunciation, racist translation, English dictionary definition of racist. Biology concerns all life forms, from the very small algae to the very large elephant. Learn More. This is just one illustration of how the IHRA has equipped policymakers to address this rise in hate and discrimination at their national level. Organisms in a population are less likely to survive and reproduce due to inbreeding. 1 people chose this as the best definition of recessive: The definition of recessi. What are dominant and recessive genetic disorders? SaaS is one of three main categories of cloud computing, alongside infrastructure as a. 577 (95% CI, 0. Autosomal recessive inheritance means that the gene in question is located on one of the autosomes. On, the 31 member states of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA), of which the United States is a member, adopted a non-legally binding “working definition” of anti-Semitism at its plenary in Bucharest. This is the regularly scheduled date for the AP Biology Exam. An allele is a specific variation of a gene, or specific segment of DNA. Elle est charg&233;e de : d&233;livrer un avis relatif au b&233;n&233;fice du r&233;gime &233;conomique de la presse (tarifs postaux et fiscaux privil&233;gi&233;s) des publications ;. Question: With A-dominant And A=recessive, Which Of The Followings Represent A Carrier? BMI does not measure body fat directly, but research has shown that BMI is moderately correlated with more direct measures of body fat obtained from skinfold thickness measurements, bioelectrical impedance, underwater weighing, dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and other methods 1,2,3. Learn all about various cell types, cellular anatomy, and cellular processes. Read on to know more. A single recessive gene on that X chromosome will cause the disease. · NIH Definition of a Clinical Trial. If both copies of the gene have the same deleterious mutation, the defect is termed homozygous. Cell Biology. Courses are designed to provide a solid background in the physical. What is biology? One example of the effects of inbreeding was seen in Charles II of. A brief look at how it can increase employee engagement and communication is provided as well as a list of the differences between the Internet and intranet. 2 synonyms for recessive: recessive allele, recessionary. Google has many special features to help you find exactly what you're looking for. A recessive allele does not become a trait unless both copies of the gene, one from mom and one from dad, are present. In general, biologists study the structure, function, growth,. A person will not have these traits if they have two recessive alleles. Biology students at SL and HL undertake a common core syllabus and a common internal assessment (IA) scheme. Evidence to support the theory. &0183;&32;A recessive gene is that gene that can be masked by the dominant gene. The recessive red mutation, as the name suggests, is a recessive mutation. She showed the characteristic electron microscopic feature of Alport syndrome, including thickening and splitting of the basement membranes of both the. &0183;&32;One of a pair of genes whose action is expressed only when two copies are present. The community that forms the Department of Biology at the University of Oklahoma (OU Biology) is repulsed by the 400-year legacy of social injustices, discrimination, and oppression and the present-day manifestations of racism. It can be summed up in the statement that:. Your teacher may choose to organize the course content differently based on local priorities and preferences. After founding Pixar Animation Studios and NeXT Computer he was eventually rehired by Apple in 1997 as CEO and went on to develop the revolutionary iPod, iPhone, and many other products. First-Year Launch: The Creativity of Science, or Scientific Thinking in Biology. Definition definition, the act of defining, or of making something definite, distinct, or clear: We need a better definition of her responsibilities. A chronic disease is one lasting 3 months or more, by the definition of the U. Definition f (plural definitions) 1. If we consider that previous example, the wrinkle character is not expressed in the first generation due to masking effect by the dominant allele. We used homozygosity mapping and exome sequencing to study a cohort of nine Portuguese families who were identified during a nationwide, population-based, systematic survey as displaying a consistent phenotype of recessive ataxia with oculomotor apraxia (AOA). The term 'biology' is relatively modern. Definition definition: 1. The condition presents usually at birth or within 6. This course provides an introduction to the dynamic, creative, and open-ended process that is the scientific method. Deletions or mutations of the telomeric copy of survival motor neuron (SMN1) gene are disease specific and confirm the. We are looking to expand our reviewers’ pool. Definition definition is - a statement of the meaning of a word or word group or a sign or symbol. Consultez les chiffres cl&233;s, l'identit&233;, les dirigeants de toutes les entreprises immatricul&233;es au RNCS (Registre National du Commerce des Soci&233;t&233;s). The subject matter tested covers the broad field of the biological sciences, organized into three major areas: molecular and cellular biology, organismal biology, and population biology. Advancements in technology have opened up even more insights about life and its constituents. Definition definition, the act of defining, or of making something definite, distinct, or clear: We need a better definition of her responsibilities. Principaux rep&232;res, publications, orientations, programmes et activit&233;s de l'OMS en mati&232;re de pr&233;vention de la violence dans le monde. (used with a sing. Recessive is a quality found in the relationship between two versions of a gene. · The foundation of biology as it exists today is based on five basic principles. Cell Division Cell Types Cell Ultrastructure Enzymes - fast, specific catalysts Gene Technology Genes, DNA, RNA Large Molecules Plasma Membrane Respiration. Jobs died on Octo at the age of 56. ) 1670s, from Latin recess-, past participle stem of recedere (see recede ) + -ive. Here is his experiment: As you can see, when Mendel bred a purebred plant with green peas to a purebred one with yellow peas, all the plants in the next generation had yellow peas. (usually with the definite article the) A clear instance conforming to the dictionary or textbook definition. Biology 2e is designed to cover the scope and sequence requirements of a typical two-semester biology course for science majors. Last medically reviewed on Janu Medically reviewed by Debra Sullivan, Ph. Biology (countable and uncountable, plural biologies) 1. You searched up the definition of definition? The definition of life has long been a challenge for scientists and philosophers, with many varied definitions put forward. Quest-ce qu'une AMAP Le fonctionnement. This question hasn't been answered yet Ask an expert. · Definition: Addiction is a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences. Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act toward achieving a common goal. Com, Elsevier’s leading platform of peer-reviewed scholarly literature. Formal definition. Chemical Basis of Life. The Five Sense Organs in Human Beings. Zohar&39;s lab focuses on basic and applied aspects of. These are numbered pairs of chromosomes, 1 through 22. For instance, the term Natural History was used to explain animals, plants fungi and other lifeforms in their natural environment. SmartDraw includes 1000s of professional healthcare and anatomy chart templates that you can modify and make your own. The disease may be very severe and associated with neonatal purpura fulminans (NPF) or intracranial thromboembolism. The Department of State has used a working definition, along with examples, of anti-Semitism since. ARPKD can cause a child to have poor kidney. The sense organs — eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose — help to protect the body. A normal person will have 23 pair of. Recessive traits are expressed only if both the connected alleles are recessive. Even after his death, his reputation lives on. Policies, behaviours, rules, etc. Examples in Humans. Just as completed items which fit the definition of “done” are said to be “DONE-done”, items that fit the definition of ready are called “READY. Older adults naturally have a lower volume of water in their bodies, and may have conditions or take medications that increase the risk of dehydration. The effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked. · The recessive allele is expressed because there isn’t a dominant one to mask it. To calculate it: • add up all the numbers, • then divide by how many numbers there are. Illustrated definition of Mean: The Arithmetic Mean is the average of the numbers: a calculated central value of a set of numbers. 23, 24, 36. &0183;&32;To be considered compatible with Android, device implementations MUST meet the requirements presented in this Compatibility Definition, including any documents incorporated via reference. For example, the gene for cystic fibrosis is recessive, and the disease will not occur if. &0183;&32;The Open Source Definition. January 1, Robert M. Study: Kangaroos Can Intentionally Communicate with Humans. Biology definition is - a branch of knowledge that deals with living organisms and vital processes. Definition 1. This section contains many topics on Biology and Health Sciences and each of these categories contain many free biology books and resources and these are highly beneficial for teachers and students of Health and Biology professionals. It causes the pigeon to display an overall brick red coloration. ISO brand standards add that a brand “is an intangible asset” that is intended to create “distinctive images and associations in the minds of stakeholders, thereby. The IHRA is the only intergovernmental organization mandated to focus solely on Holocaust-related issues, so with evidence that the scourge of antisemitism is once again on the rise, we resolved to take a leading role in combatting it. &0183;&32;Biology is the study of living things. &0183;&32;Autosomal Recessive Inheritance: The understanding of the laws of inheritance is very critical in trying to appreciate how different traits and conditions are passed on in families and through generations. Leadership requires traits that extend beyond management duties. The Spark Augment: Recessive is an item added by Botania. The science of life and of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution and encompassing numerous fields such as botany, zoology, mycology, and microbiology. Special emphasis is given to articles which promote the understanding of life in the sea, organism-environment interactions, interactions between organisms, and the functioning of the marine biosphere. The Arithmetic Mean is the average of the numbers: a calculated "central" value of a set of numbers. The text provides comprehensive coverage of foundational research and core biology concepts through an evolutionary lens. The definition itself is not a license; it is a tool to determine whether a work or license should be considered "free. WordReference English dictionary. A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). The European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP) developed a practical clinical definition and consensus diagnostic criteria for age-related sarcopenia. Recessive: translation adj. The scaling is usually prominent on the back of the neck, upper trunk and extensor surfaces of the limbs. Monitoring of the implementation of the SME definition. &0183;&32;NIH Definition of a Clinical Trial. Biology Biology is the study of living organisms and their structure, life-cycles, adaptations and environment. Dimples, freckles, cleft chins, and a widow’s peak are all dominant traits, so not having these traits is recessive. Then, when he crossed the purple offspring with each other, 75 percent of their offspring had purple flowers and 25 percent had white flowers. Des classiques de nos r&233;gions aux tendances actuelles : tartes soleil, assiettes one pot, v&233;g&233;tarien, g&226;teaux. In lab and field courses, students do open-ended, cross-disciplinary research and learn by doing. During reproduction, there is a crossing over of chromosomes between the mother and father. The Basics of Organic Chemistry. And since it is an X-linked recessive trait, we're going to be dealing with the sex chromosomes. Student Emergency Support Fund Read More. Recessive allele, allelomorph - (genetics) either of a pair (or series) of alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same locus on a particular chromosome and that control the same character; "some alleles are dominant over others" Based on WordNet 3. Linguistics sense is from 1879; in genetics, 1900, from German recessiv (Mendel, 1865). People who study biology are called biologists. Definitions can be classified into two large categories, intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term) and extensional definitions (which try to list the objects that a term describes). The gene contains 2 alleles: one for straight hairline, which is recessive and the other for widow’s peak, which is dominant. Vente de livres num&233;riques. Information and translations of IXL in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. Biology books online These biology books are designed to allow students and all biology enthusiasts to gain insights into subjects such as kinetics, cancer biology or clinical biochemistry. With MyLab and Mastering, you can connect with students meaningfully, even from a distance. Learning biology could be a hard job if you don’t create an effective method to memorize the hundreds of terminologies and definitions involved. We added 3 numbers): 18 &247; 3 = 6 So the mean is 6 Note: there are. Biology definition: 1. The quantitative aspects of biology - including molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, and cell biology - represent the core of the academic program. Individuals receive one version of a gene, called an allele, from each parent. We keep the library up-to-date, so you may find new or improved content over time. Illustrated definition of Term: In Algebra a term is either a single number or variable, or numbers and variables multiplied together. See full list on byjus. Their parents, each with a single dose of the mutated gene, appear normal and are called heterozygotes, or gene carriers. So, all you see is the dominant protein being made, and thus the dominant phenotype. Like Reply Report 1 2 years ago Jhonny Vicente Lopez Benavides. Perhaps, many times we must overcome the classical separation between recessive and dominant inheritance patterns. They have the structures common to all cells: a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. This experiment shows the principle behind simple dominant and recessive inheritance, w. D&233;finition : L’interop&233;rabilit&233; est la capacit&233; que poss&232;de un produit ou un syst&232;me, dont les interfaces sont int&233;gralement connues, &224; fonctionner avec d'autres produits ou syst&232;mes existants ou futurs et ce sans restriction d'acc&232;s ou de mise en œuvre. Expert Answer. Antonyms for recessive. You have the same two alleles and both can produce equal mRNA and protein levels, but they differ by a nucleotide/codon, which gives rise to the distinct functions and thus produce distinct phenotypes. Pepper". The pattern (bar,check etc. Biology includes the study of genes and cells that give living things their special characteristics. 12 synonyms of recessive from the Merriam-Webster Thesaurus, plus 15 related words, definitions, and antonyms. Cf Autosomal dominant, Autosomal recessive. Racism definition: 1. Learn more. Click on the tabs below for more insight into course structures, specializations and career paths. Stresses can be external (from the environment, psychological, or social situations) or internal (illness, or from a medical procedure). Normally, a person has two copies of every gene, one acquired from his/her mother while the other is from the father. Personalize learning, one student at a time. Biology 101: Intro to Biology has been evaluated and recommended for 3 semester hours, which may be transferred to over 2,000 colleges and universities. Definition is a rhetorical style that uses various techniques to impress upon the reader the meaning of a term, idea, or concept. Biology is the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. A project is temporary in that it has a defined beginning and end in time, and therefore defined scope and resources. Here, you can browse videos, articles, and exercises by topic. Ready, set, share your preprint. A more modern definition of public relations was drafted several decades later, a definition that still stands today: “Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics. PLOS Biology PLOS Computational Biology PLOS Genetics PLOS Medicine PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases PLOS Pathogens. The approach of combining consensus discussions. Une d&233;finition des sectes Secte: (d&233;riv&233; du latin sequi, "suivre"; selon certains &233;tymologistes, le mot secte viendrait du latin sectare, "couper") Sens originel : Ensemble de personnes qui adh&232;rent &224; une m&234;me doctrine religieuse ou philosophique. Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. In genetics, incapable of expression unless the responsible allele is carried by both members of a set of homologous. You’ll be able to apply your new knowledge and skills in many different areas and fields of work. Recessive alleles show their effect in inheritance if the individual has two copies of the allele also. Definition may be used for an entire essay but is often used as a rhetorical style within an essay that may mix rhetorical styles. The most common cause of dehydration in young children is severe diarrhea and vomiting. Recessive alleles are represented by a lower case letter, for example, a. · X-linked recessive diseases most often occur in males. First, the recessive gene might not make a protein at all. Recessive allele is denoted by a small letter. What are synonyms for recessive? The Y chromosome is the other half of the XY gene pair in the male. Other traits expressed due to recessive genes include attached earlobes, inability to roll one’s tongue, and round (versus almond-shaped) eyes. Students who meet this requirement will be exempt from General Biology 111. A recessive gene is only expressed when an organism has two recessive alleles for that gene. The most popular dictionary and thesaurus for learners of English. Biology is the study of life and inherently recognizes the intrinsic value of diversity - all lives are unique, valuable, and contribute to the richness of our planet. In one experiment, he crossed a purple-flowering pea plant with a white-flowering pea plant, and all the offspring were purple. Males have only one X chromosome. Prior to arriving at an office it is best (sometimes required) that you call or email first. The amendments also add to the list any institutional investors included in the accredited investor definition that are not otherwise enumerated in the definition of. Biomolecules such as nucleic. Many companies now have IT departments for managing the computers, networks, and other technical areas of their. The word biology is derived from the greek words /bios/ meaning /life/ and /logos/ meaning /study/ and is defined as the science of life and living organisms. For instance, theoretical biology is a branch of biology that encompasses mathematical models to investigate certain principles that affect life. If the alleles are different, the dominant allele will be expressed, while the effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked. Now at the molecular level things can be different. If homozygous deficiency is a well-known cause of recessive inheritance and it was reported as the cause of a congenital pattern in mice similar to SEN syndrome, this inheritance pattern could also be observed in human's SEN syndrome, especially when it occurs in inbred families. When offspring in a population are less healthy and have less of a chance of surviving and reproducing due to recessive genes inherited through inbreeding, this is called inbreeding depression. Biology includes rich features that engage students in scientific inquiry, highlight careers in the biological sciences, and offer everyday. 1800 from a New Latin coinage biologia; the term *βιολογία (*biología) did not exist in Ancient Greek (although Greek βιολογία (viología) is itself borrowed from both English and French biologie). Version &233;lectronique du dictionnaire de l'Acad&233;mie fran&231;aise. Individuals receive two versions of each gene, known as alleles, from each parent. Some recessive phenotype examples are unremarkable, such as blue eye color, while others are unusual, such as the genetic disease hemophilia. GET OUTTA HERE. And biology is one of our Frankly, even in the last hundred years, we&39;re just starting to scratch the surface of understanding it. Ask and answer questions about the living world and its. Let F represent the dominant allele for. Also called semasiology. See also: français, francais, and Francais. This provides a detailed insight into the concepts. Organisms have many physical and behavioral traits. Effective leadership is based upon ideas (whether original or borrowed), but won&39;t happen unless those ideas can be communicated to others in a way that engages them enough to act as the leader wants them to act. Dictionnaire de définitions : trouvez la définition d&39;un mot ou d&39;une expression en français, avec ses synonymes; enrichissez votre vocabulaire en français. ) Schedule I. · A recessive allele does not become a trait unless both copies of the gene, one from mom and one from dad, are present. All the expected queries of the students are answered by the subject matter experts. This page is about the various possible words that rhymes or sounds like recessive. By the end of this. , randomization) specified in an approved protocol that stipulates the assignment of research subjects (individually or in clusters) to one or more arms (e. Several forms of autosomal recessive parkinsonism are known. Tous les d&233;c&232;s depuis 1970, &233;volution de l'esp&233;rance de vie en France, par d&233;partement, commune, pr&233;nom et nom de famille! · Definition of IXL in the Definitions. ) of recessive red birds, as well as the base color (blue, brown, ash-red) is hidden (to some extent) by the recessive red factor, this mechanism is called epistasis. Previous question Next question. How to use biology in a sentence. They can be used to define text styles, table sizes, and other aspects of Web pages that previously could only be defined in a page&39;s HTML. The main difference between dominant and recessive genes is that the dominant genes always express the dominant trait whereas the recessive genes express the recessive trait. · The law-making or legislative component was the most recessive component of the legal system of hunter-gatherers, although decisions or advice given by mediators were remembered and used again to settle similar violations of rules or disputes among parties. Find definitions, meanings, synonyms, pronunciations, translations, origin and examples. More Recessive images. Other terms that came before biology included Natural Theology and Natural philosophy. Kangaroos, marsupial mammals that have never been domesticated, can intentionally. The reduced likelihood of inbreeding in large populations. An outstanding group of faculty, each with a vigorous, internationally recognized research program, is available to teach courses in their specialties as well as core courses for the major. As we understand things at a deeper level, at a molecular level, we&39;re going to start thinking about how can we even do things like engineer biology. Biology is the science that studies life, and living things, and the evolution of life. This can give a clear picture of topics such as photosynthesis, human anatomy, bacteria structure. The object of these prizes is to stimulate and encourage original investigation by the aid of the microscope in the biologyof North America, and, while the competition is open to all, it is especially commended to advanced students in biology in such of our universities and colleges as furnish opportunity for suitable work. Arteries are. 3 specializations are aimed at preparing students for research and development, and offer training to students as specialists in technical and regulatory professions (industrial executives, engineers and project. Energy: All living things require energy, and energy flows between organisms and between organisms and the. Recessive re-ses´iv 1. 7 million species documented till date, the earth is the only planet in the universe where life is known to exist. This activity was designed for remote learning during the Pandemic. Opposite of dominant; hemophilia is a recessive trait. For more information, see using a parameter value. All eukaryotic organisms contain cells that have a nucleus, organelles, and many internal membranes. Org - the preprint server for Biology Skip to main content. The scientific study of the. Occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States, or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to intimidate or coerce, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum;. Combien de temps vous reste-t-il? Tending to recede. Hemophilia C. Type: Determines if the parameter is a string, array, object, boolean, integer, float, or datetime. Software as a service (SaaS) is a software distribution model in which a third-party provider hosts applications and makes them available to customers over the Internet. Medical Definition of Hormone Medical Author: William C. · Pioneers in Language Reference for 200 years. The time-saving online video lessons in the Introduction to Biology unit provide a basic overview of Biology and a cover topics which, while not unique to Biology, are necessary prerequisites to a study of Biology. Biology caters to these intriguing aspects through various sub-disciplines or branches. Expand All. -> Jessica simpson ears -> How to pronounce acetaminophen

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How well aligned are our ECE and school sectors? JUDE BARBACK looks closely at a child’s transition from early childhood education to school in New Zealand. One of the most common challenges faced by a new entrant teacher is when a child joins his or her Year 0 class and is not ‘school ready’. Any efforts to push on with the reading, writing, ‘rithmetic journey are hindered by the fact that this child has not been adequately prepared for the realities of school life. Essentially, school readiness means that children should be able to manage themselves appropriately in the school environment. Ideally, a Year 0 student should be able to listen carefully to stories, follow instructions, sit quietly on the mat, raise hand to ask a question, put on shoes and jersey, put bag away, wash hands, sit and eat food at break times, pack bag and carry it, and so on. Liz Lapish, an experienced Year 0/1 teacher at Maungawhau School in Auckland, agrees that basic school readiness is really important in making new entrants feel confident, positive, and able to cope with the practical independent challenges of being “a big school kid”. For most freshly turned five-year-olds there is generally no expectation to have a firm grasp on reading and writing yet. Inconsistencies between ECE services Lapish says that in her experience, while some ECE centres focus well on school readiness, others do not, creating a huge barrier to learning for some children in the class. “There is such a huge variety in the quality of teaching and learning in ECE centres around my school and some of my parents have been horrified when I have had to inform them that their child, who has been in an expensive day care environment, has very little academic knowledge nor readiness for school skills. “It is heart-breaking to see new entrants who have little confidence and self-esteem as they can see that their peers are more capable and knowledgeable than themselves. Children shouldn’t have to feel like that, particularly at five, when beginning school should be fun and exciting.” Lapish believes there needs to be more consistency between ECE centres in their approach to school readiness. “I feel that it is about time that the Government needs to put some greater thought and effort into giving all five-year-old children the same opportunity to achieve when they arrive at school by getting a more consistent and quality-based early childhood programme specifically for children four and a half years of age.” Indeed, there is variable quality. In 2011, the Education Review Office (ERO) looked at the various transition programmes run by ECE centres and found that, while many were excellent, some were well below standard and involved inappropriate skill and drill teaching that wasn’t meaningful to children. Further to this report, ERO’s national evaluations last year called to strengthen ECE practice so that all services are reflective and intentional about curriculum priorities. However, chief executive of New Zealand Childcare Association, Nancy Bell, says the idea of applying a consistent approach across all ECE centres is not entirely straightforward. “I think that different ECE services – and likely different schools – will hold differing views on what children ‘should’ be able to do on school entry. Most ECE services will focus on developing positive learning dispositions by ‘noticing, recognising and responding’ to individual children’s interests and strengths within a broadly enabling curriculum.” Bell says there is likely to be differing emphases on typical school readiness behaviours, depending on how much they are valued in a specific setting, as determined by discussion amongst teachers, parents and children. “Our view is that the education system should wrap around the child to support best continuity of learning. Ideally this means the ECE services and schools communicate about the children in their communities and how best to support good transitions. This will inevitably involve some ‘preparing’ for the new context of school, but also, ideally, some continuity of practices that are age appropriate and support children’s competence and confidence.” The difficulty, as Lapish suggests and Bell acknowledges, is that this communication is complicated by the fact that most schools draw their children from many ECE services. In many cases, these may be located nearer to children’s parents’ workplaces than where they live and will go to school and hence the relationship between an ECE service and a school may be minimal and occur only through the parents. Is Te Whāriki still relevant? One thing that is shared by most early childhood centres is Te Whāriki, the curriculum or guidelines for early childhood education in New Zealand. Most early childhood organisations hold Te Whāriki in high esteem. Selena Fox, chief executive of New Zealand Tertiary College, believes Te Whāriki remains relevant and describes is as “a very wise document”. “I believe it is a real gift to our sector,” says Fox. “It is not a script but a set of guidelines to help enable early childhood educators to make sensible, wise choices.” While many, like Fox, count its non-prescriptive nature as one of its virtues, there have been calls for better implementation of Te Whāriki in early childhood centres. The 2012 ECE Taskforce, while taking the view that Te Whāriki has stood the test of time well, called for a review of how it was being implemented. Consequently, the Education Review Office focused on the implementation of the strands of Te Whāriki in its 2013 national evaluation of New Zealand early childhood education. The ERO report found that many ECE services are inclined to focus more on the strands of Wellbeing and Belonging rather than Contribution, Communication, and Exploration. The ERO report is an indication that there is more work needed to widen and deepen ECE curriculum implementation and to ensure that all children access the full ECE curriculum. There is also the question of how well Te Whāriki aligns with The New Zealand Curriculum. Claire McLachlan, professor in childhood education at Massey University, believes there is a “mismatch” between the two curriculum documents. She believes there needs to be more done within teacher education to span the early years (zero to eight years) and bridge Te Whāriki with The New Zealand Curriculum. “Te Whāriki … is sadly out of step with both research and changes in population that make multilingualism and multiliteracies much more important than Te Whāriki acknowledges.” Bell disagrees. “I think that there is strong alignment between the two documents.” She points out that both Te Whāriki and The New Zealand Curriculum include domain-specific knowledge – that is, key learning areas – and generic competencies. “I think it’s likely that schools may focus more on domain knowledge and ECE services more on generic competencies but both contexts will teach both in an integrated way.” Bell says that building professional knowledge between ECE services and schools could only strengthen practice in both settings. The National Standards burden on a new entrant Lapish believes a head start on basic literacy and numeracy skills can be advantageous to a child’s learning, particularly as the requirements of Year 1 National Standards mean there is a huge amount of learning that young children must achieve alongside just settling into school life. National Standards have attracted much controversy since their inception, including some questioning over its appropriateness to measure five-year-olds. “I don’t think that the Ministry of Education… seems to understand the consequences and pressure that National Standards has placed on young children and their parents, and they clearly don’t understand that not all children have access to quality ECE opportunities.” Lapish believes the ideal class size for a Year 0 class is 15 students, with a maximum of 18, particularly given the inequality of ECE learning programmes and experiences and the demands of National Standards. “We don’t have the luxury of time to allow children to cruise into school anymore, so academically, it certainly gives children a boost if they can hold a pencil correctly and have some development of fine motor skills for writing, can write their own name, can identify both the letter name and sound in their name, may know other letter name and sounds, etc.” Literacy and numeracy McLachlan says that early childhood teachers should be working towards the Literacy Learning Progressions for school entry, but in her experience, very few ECE teachers know about these. McLachlan, who has published widely on the topic of early literacy, says the research evidence is really clear that children who enter school with strong “literate cultural capital” will do better at school than those who don’t. International research such as the National Early Literacy Panel Report (NELP, 2009) states that there is strong evidence on the importance of 11 aspects of literacy learning in early childhood. Of these, the most significant are alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness (awareness of sounds in words), and vocabulary. Alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness are needed for decoding and encoding (reading and spelling), while vocabulary is needed for comprehension. Lapish thinks all children need to be given the opportunity to learn basic literacy and numeracy skills, especially in their last six months of pre-school – although she sees no problem with encouraging these skills at younger ages if the child shows interest in learning. “I don’t believe that children should have to wait until they go to school to learn skills that they are naturally drawn to learn.” McLachlan agrees. “I would argue that children’s thirst for knowledge should be encouraged. There is no reason not to encourage reading and writing in children younger than five as long as it is done in an appropriate meaningful way, such as letter writing to Grandma, playing scrabble, or joint readings of favourite books.” When to start formalised learning? Any conversations about literacy and numeracy in ECE settings need to be carefully balanced with those about the primal needs of young children, their natural urges to play, discover, and create. In the UK, children begin formalised learning at four years old. While many New Zealand teachers may feel this is too young, there is some concession for the fact that in ‘Reception’, children all receive the same opportunity to learn basic numeracy and literacy skills and school readiness required for school and enter Year 1 on roughly equal footing. While the notion of formalised learning at ECE level is generally not supported in New Zealand, some new entrant teachers feel that it would be of great benefit if ECE teachers kept track of where children were at, and focused on ensuring that all were equipped with the basic skills before starting school. “I believe that children must be allowed to be children, we don’t need to formalise them too soon but in today’s world it would be a benefit for all children if they all could arrive to school and with all having an understanding of the simple basics,” says Lapish. PD and teacher education Part of the problem, according to research conducted by McLachlan and Alison Arrow, is that many ECE teachers lack in-depth understandings of both how literacy develops and what are the most effective pedagogies for supporting literacy learning in ECE settings. “We have had some success with different approaches to professional learning, but the most effective methods are quite time consuming (for teachers and for us), and realistically, are too expensive to be used across the board,” says McLachlan. Bell agrees that professional learning is essential for ECE teachers. “We think there is a need for professional development for ECE teachers so that they are being very intentional in their curriculum choices, in collaboration with their communities.” McLachlan believes that fixing the teacher knowledge problem has to start in initial teacher education programmes. However, McLachlan says there are difficulties with this approach as well, due to the ideological positioning of some lecturers who don’t think that domain knowledge (such as literacy or numeracy) should play a large part in ECE and are more interested in collective learning and communities of learners in ECE rather than dealing with the issues of individual differences and children with particular learning needs. “There is a somewhat dangerous ideological ‘strengths-based’ position adopted in New Zealand, which means that some children’s learning needs are either minimised or overlooked.” It is therefore unsurprising that ECE centres differ so heavily, when there are such different schools of thought on some of the fundamentals around early childhood education at teacher education level. When is the right time to start school? Many schooling systems around the world, including the UK’s and the United States’, have children start school on the same date – usually 1 September – while in New Zealand, children typically start school the day they turn five. There are obvious advantages and disadvantages to both systems with regard to timing, age, teaching and class sizes. McLachlan points out that the Starting School research conducted in Australia identified that schools need to be ready for children, not children ready for school – an important distinction by her reckoning. “Regardless of when and how we start children at school, children will never all be the same.” Lapish, who has taught in both the UK and New Zealand, does not believe either system presents any management issues for her in the classroom. She thinks we have it about right in New Zealand, with most children ready for school at five years of age. “Juggling different entry dates is not a problem as usually you know they are coming and they just slot into academic groups as they arrive depending on what they actually can do or know.” Legally, children do not have to start school in New Zealand until they are six – a fact that is not widely known by parents. “What I would like to see is that parents are made aware that children do not have to start school at five. It would be helpful if ECE teachers could identify and have discussions with parents of children who could do with some extra time just playing and maturing more within their early childhood environment. “Some children – usually boys – really struggle with starting school at five. They are just not ready. It’s too late when they have got to my door and many parents are unaware that this is possible. Last year, one boy in my class would have really gained more by being given more time at pre-school and his mother said she would have happily kept him in early childhood for a little longer as she was aware of his social and academic immaturity. She sent him to school because she thought she had to. He certainly wasn’t ready for the challenges of school, nor the complexity of school life. It took him six months to be ready to learn.” There is some debate over whether it is wise to hold children back. “The very old maturational notion of giving children the ‘gift of time’ simply delays children further,” says McLachlan. “In reality, I like our system of starting school individually but think we could do more in terms of putting support in place for children in their first year of school. Currently, our formal assessment of learning does not occur until children are six years – the research suggests that the earlier intervention can occur the better, so some children do not get the support they need in a timely manner.” McLachlan says that readiness is a really problematic concept as children are on a developmental continuum, which is influenced by both biological and environmental factors. There has been much research on the differences between girls and boys when it comes to school readiness. Lapish agrees that, generally speaking, boys often require more time and opportunity to play and be active and do not show the same appetite for academic learning as girls of the same age, who often want to do writing, reading, drawing and play teachers. The transition itself Research shows that the transition to school process is the most important transition a child will ever make as it is their first significant transition in their life. If it is not a smooth or positive experience children can be very apprehensive when experiencing other transition processes in the future. So what makes the ideal transition? The aforementioned Starting School study showed that the transition is different for children, their parents and their teachers – they all have different expectations. Lapish thinks it is great if the new entrant teachers can visit the children in their kindergartens and ECE centres before they come to school. She also suggested, based on the experience of her daughter’s kindergarten, that once a term, Year 1 classes could have an open hour or morning whrre the local ECE centres come and visit as a big group to give the children a feel for what school is like. School visits are important and every school has their own protocols around this. Some encourage just two, others more. Lapish thinks about four visits is ideal. “To prepare the individual child, most children benefit from about four visits, usually once per week for about an hour and a half leading up to their fifth birthday. Most children are fine with this but some need longer so what I do is offer the parent the opportunity to squeeze a few extra sessions if I feel it would help the child settle easier on the big day.” She also advocates the ‘buddy system’, a practice used in many Year 0 classes. Moreover Lapish feels a better and more consistent system for children six months prior to their fifth birthday would significantly improve transition to school. “By having six months in ECE that is purely focused on school readiness skills and basic literacy and numeracy knowledge but learnt through a developmental approach (play dough, sandpit, cutting, pasting etc.) that is fun and interesting would suit many children. “More communication between schools and the ECE centres in their areas would be great too.” Pre-schools on site One suggestion for making the transition to school from early childhood education is to establish pre-schools on the same sites as schools. A growing number of schools are now pursuing this option, thanks to a shift in Ministry of Education policy. Among them is Amberley School in North Canterbury. Principal Kevin O’Halloran told the Herald last year that he hoped it would eventually be mandatory for primary schools to have a pre-school on site. Like Liz Lapish, he agreed that more children were arriving at school without the necessary basic knowledge. Having the preschool on site is likely to encourage more people to attend early childhood education. Despite 20 hours’ free early childhood funding, poorer communities struggle with extra costs, transport problems, and a lack of centres. Lapish thinks it is an excellent concept. Based on her experience working in a school in the Hokianga with a pres-chool onsite, Lapish found it was hugely beneficial for the children, as they were able to visit her class regularly and get to know her – their future teacher – as well as partake in school activities like singing and sports. Lapish found it beneficial from a teacher’s perspective too as she got the opportunity to develop relationships with the children and get a better idea of their potential learning needs. “It completely relaxed the children and gave them confidence. School wasn’t this big scary strange or daunting experience for them. It was fun and positive and ensured greater confidence and they were super keen to get to five as quickly as possible.” Lapish likens the flow-on experience of the Hokianga school to that achieved by the school she taught at in London, which incorporated the kindergarten and reception classes. However, McLachlan counters that if there is no transition programme in operation then it makes little difference whether or not it is on the same site as the school. “Ideally co-location should enhance transition, but this still depends on collaboration between centre and school.” Building better bridges Collaboration between the sectors sounds good in theory, but studies have shown that it doesn’t translate as easily into practice. In research conducted by University of Auckland educationalists and published in Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, it was found that of early childhood educators and school teachers’ beliefs and practices about the transition – and despite a commitment to collaborate – early childhood educators and school teachers had very different expectations of each other and most were dissatisfied with the current arrangements. The study highlights the need for a shared commitment to cooperating. There are many possible reasons why collaboration is not as good as it could be in some areas: inconsistencies in early childhood teacher education or a need for more professional learning perhaps? Different emphases placed on aspects of ECE and primary curricula? Or perhaps a need for a more prescriptive transition programme between ECE and school? Maybe a better approach to sharing professional experience between sectors? Or simply better communication between ECE, school and family? Maybe a commitment to improving all of these things? Each suggestion will no doubt bring forward its proponents and opponents, but whatever it takes will surely be worth it if it means children are getting the best possible start to their education.

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The First World War, and after it the Russian revolution, sharply changed the situation in the South Caucasus. Truly, until 1917 the outward situation in the region was relatively stable. However, combat operations on the Russian-Turkish front prepared the ground for future shocks. Since the autumn of 1914, Armenian volunteer units, founded in the South Caucasus, came forward against the Turks. A little bit later in 1923, one of the leaders of the “Dashnaktsutun” party and the first prime- minister of independent Armenia, O. Kachaznuni, exactly described the situation that then existed in Armenian society: “We unconditionally orientated ourselves with Russia. Having no ground, we were keen for victory; we were sure that the tsarist government would grant the autonomy of Armenia that would consist of the released Armenian areas in Turkey and Transcaucasus Armenia for our loyalty, our efforts and support. O ur idea was cloaked in the mist. We imposed our own desires on others; we gave great importance to the insignificant words of irresponsible people and ceased to understand reality and, under the influence of self- hypnosis, lapsed into daydreams. We overestimated the power of the Armenian people, our political and military importance as well as the support that we provided the Russians. We also overestimated our pretty modest worth and, naturally, we exaggerated both our hopes and expectations (73). That very strange wordy reasoning of one of the leaders of the Dashnaks and of Armenia in 1918-1920 was cited especially in order to illustrate how similar were both the reactions and psychology of Armenians in the initial stage of conflicts with Azeris early in, as well as at the end of, the twentieth century. That serious disappointment which, as usual, awaited the Armenians, was natural. But then in 1917 the revolution burst upon Russia and the people of the Transcaucasus were left on their own. They used that opportunity very poorly and, mainly because of the policy of the leaders of “Dashnaktsutun,” who again turned out to be under the influence of the idea of establishing “Great Armenia from Sea to Sea” that had been cultivated for decades. That is why, having come to power on 28 May 1918, Dashnak leaders almost immediately made territorial claims to Georgia and Azerbaijan. Certainly there were also territorial disputes between Azeris and Georgians. Nevertheless, the leaders of Azerbaijan and Georgia held negotiations and on 25 April 1919, managed to solve territorial issues and later, on 27 June 1919, even signed a joint defense agreement against the aggression of Russia. Unfortunately, they failed to analogously solve their problems with Armenia. Moreover, in early December 1918, Armenia suddenly launched a war against Georgia. Due solely to the intervention of the English, combat operations were stopped in three weeks. Armenian-Azeri relations, which Armenians considered through the prism of events in Turkey and dreams of “Great Armenia,” were much worse. The fact that, in 1917 after the collapse of the Russian empire, only Armenians had serious armed forces in the South Caucasus–as many as 35,000 Armenians that fought with Russian troops against the Turks–played an important role (74) and they formed the basis of the Armenian army, which many Russian officers and soldiers joined. Besides that, the Dashnaks had armed units (four thousand) that also played a role in Azerbaijan, primarily in Baku. In November of 1917, soviet power was established in Baku. Meanwhile, Stepan Shaumyan headed the Baku Council of Commissars. All key posts, including the military, were also occupied by Armenians. A month later, the first Armenian units appeared in Karabakh and smashed twelve Azeri villages there. T hat forced Azeris to form self defense units. For that purpose, arms were obtained or forcibly captured from Russian soldiers who were retreating to their homeland through Azerbaijan. The fast growth of popularity and influence of “Musavat,” the national party in Azerbaijan, made soviet power in Baku unsteady. The situation became complicated in the spring of 1918 when the Musavatists, who had been very loyal to the Bolsheviks, then demanded Russian communists advised Shaumyan to meet the demands of the Azeris. However, Shaumyan was an ardent opponent of providing autonomy, considering it “a dream of Azeri nationalists” to make Baku “the capital of an Azeri khanate” (75). The tragic conclusion was inevitable. On 30 March 1918, during a protest meeting of Azeris against the disarmament of several hundred soldiers of the former Russian “Muslim division” to the Soviet units that were returning through Baku to Lankaran, an incident occurred that served, in the words of Shaumyan, “as a cause” for large-scale operation against the peaceful Azeri population. Besides that, 6,000 soldiers of the Red Army as well as 4,000 people, including a unit of Dashnaks, were consciously used by Shaumyan and his associates and, as a result, those bloody events took on the “character of a national slaughter” even in the estimation of Shaumyan (76). And so it was, as the Red Army in Baku was also headed by Armenians and, at the same time, a number of them were Dashnaks. As a result, about 12,000 peaceful inhabitants died and tens of thousands of Azeris escaped from the city (77). The mass slaughter of Azeris leaped over the borders of Baku. Units of Armenians under the command of Dashnak S. Lalayan organized a real pogrom in April in Shamakha city, killing 7,000 Azeris there and in 58 surrounding villages. At the same time, a unit of 2,000 Dashnaks under the command of Amazasp was sent to the north of Azerbaijan by the order of Shaumyan. There it smashed Guba city and 122 surrounding villages, killing 2 ,000 Azeris. The cities of Agdash, Goychay, Salyan Lankaran were smashed, or, as the soviet historians later wrote, “soviet power was established there.” At the same time, Armenian military units began the mass massacre of Muslims (Azeris and Kurds) in the territory of Erivan province, trying to clear the territory of them and to marshall the compact Armenian population for the announcement of an independent Armenia. According to incomplete data, about 80,000 Muslims then escaped from Armenia to Azerbaijan. This led to the breakdown of the Transcaucasian Seym that formally carried out the authority in the region. Georgia on 26 May 1918, and Azerbaijan and Armenia on 28 May announced their independence. As Baku was under the control of the Bolsheviks and Dashnaks, Ganja became the temporary capital of Azerbaijan at that period of time. The announcement of Azerbaijan‟s independence was met with extreme hostility in Baku and on 12 June, by Shaumyan‟s order, Red Army and Dashnak units began attacking Ganja. As Armenians constituted the majority of the attacking troops, events took on pronounced national character. That is why the Azeri population in the region rose up hand- in-hand for the struggle and, with the help of Turkish units, defeated the enemy by the 1st of July. Then, having assumed the offensive themselves, Turkish and Azeri units entered Baku by force. O n 15 September 1918, Turkish-Azeri units entered Baku. The March pogroms were yet fresh in memory and then it was the turn of Armenians: at least 9,000 Armenians died in the course of battles on the avenues of approach to the city and during slaughters in the city (78). Meanwhile, the chief events developed in Karabakh. At the end of summer 1918, the Armenian army, under the command of Andranik, entered Zangezur and by October defeated 115 villages there, killing 7,700 and wounding 2,500 Azeris and K urds. 50,000 people escaped far inland into Azerbaijan. In Armenia itself, where 135,000 people lived in 199 Muslim villages were defeated. Many Muslims died and others escaped to Nakhchivan (79). At the end of September, Turkish units began an attack against Dashnak units and on the 1st of October they entered Shusha without a fight. The Dashnaks units retreated to the mountainous parts of Karabakh and declared the establishment there of “Nagorny-Karabakh Republic” (80). Thus, the term “Nagorny Karabakh” appeared for the first time. Meanwhile, in November 1918 the First World War ended. Germany and its allies took second place. Turkish troops left the South Caucasus. Placing their hope in the allies, the Armenians stopped attacking Karabakh by the request of England and France. Moreover, in Tbilisi on 23 November 1918, representatives of the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan, through the mediation of the allies, signed a ceasefire and agreed to solve their territorial disputes at the Paris Peace Conference. However, resolute Dashnaks who also hoped to expand their territory were very soon disappointed by the actions of the allies in the South Caucasus. As O.Kachaznuni then mentioned, the English “showed such an absolutely unexpected and strange generosity to the Georgians and Azeris. Certainly we were dissatisfied with the English and discovered that they were ungrateful. That was the easiest way to explain to oneself this incomprehensible phenomenon. We found them ungrateful and alleviated our souls. But we did not look for the sources of their ingratitude anymore” (81). The response of the Dashnaks to the “ungrateful” allies soon followed: in early December 1918, Armenian troops almost simultaneously attacked Georgia and Azerbaijan. About 40 Muslim villages were destroyed in Zangezur. Combat operations were stopped only after a sudden protest by the English. In early January 1919, Major-General V.M.Thomson, the commander of the allied troops in the region, sent Khosrov Sultanov, as a representative of the government of Azerbaijan in the capacity of Governor-General to Karabakh and Zangezur (82). In re sponse, on 19 January 1919, units of the Armenian army began an attack on Shusha and on the 21st of January the government of Armenia issued an edict announcing the establishment of a “Temporary administration of the Armenian units of Zangezur and Karabakh” headed by Arsen Shakhmazyan. In February of the same year, the head of the allied mission in Karabakh, English Major- General D.I.Shuttleworth, put forward the project of governing that area. By his order, Kh.Sultanov was recognized as the general- governor of Karabakh and his assistant was Armenian. A Council consisting of three Armenians, three Azeris and an Englishman, a member of the allied mission, answered to them. However, Dashnak leaders in Karabakh rejected that project (83). In March and April 1919 Thomson in Yerevan and Shuttleworth in Shusha unsuccessfully tried to find a compromise solution. The English, irritated by the confrontational position of the Karabakh Armenian national council, which was under the strong influence of dashnaks, promised to expel the latter from the region. The firm position of the allies had its results: on the 23d of April 1919, the fifth session of Armenians of Karabakh for the first time recognized the authority of Azeri general- governor although with a minor reservation. The conflict parties began to look for forms of cooperation. In order to resolve the contested issues, on 25 June 1919 the government of Azerbaijan offered the leadership of Armenia to establish a joint governmental-parliamentary commission consisting of representatives of both parties and representatives of the allied powers. In early July, Sh. Rustambekov, a member of the Azeri parliament, took part already as a member of the government in the work of the sixth session of Karabakh Armenians. Finally, on the seventh session, held on 15 August 1919, the Armenians of Nagorny Karabakh passed an agreement with Azerbaijan. According to it, the Armenian part of Nagorny Karabakh would be included in the territory of Azerbaijan on the basis of territorial autonomy of the whole Karabakh and national-cultural autonomy of its Armenian population until the final resolution of the issue at the Paris Peace Conference. Meanwhile the Shusha, Djevanshir and Djebrail uyezds constituted a special administrative unit of general Karabakh province and, at the same time, the administration in the mountainous, Armenian zone was appointed by Armenians. A council was established consisting of three Azeries and three Armenians under the general- governor himself. The latter were elected by the Congress of Armenians of Nagorny Karabakh. The functions of that council under the general- governor were very broad and thus the principal issues of interethnic character could not be implemented without prior discussion in the council. Under the general- governor himself there was an assistant on civil matters, to which position an Armenian was appointed. At the same time the Congress of Karabakh Armenians nominated two candidates to the Azeri government one of them would be approved. The limited military units would lodge only in Shusha and K hankendi and any their movements should be carried out according to the agreement of Armenians (84). Contemporaries highly evaluated that agreement which formed the basis of the English draft with certain corrections. On 5 September 1919, the newspaper “Borba” (“Struggle”) in Tbilisi noted: “Maybe the Karabakh Agreement will not accomplish a lot. It should not be forgotten that a century long hatred cannot be eliminated so soon. Maybe it will be violated tomorrow. Maybe the mountain part of Karabakh will soon again become an arena of combat operations. While not overestimating the importance of that agreement, we can not help welcoming it. We can not help mentioning that in this case we see the first serio us experience in solving the Armenian-Muslim dispute by mutual agreement not slaughter…Life in Karabakh has made the conflict parties understand that even the worst peace is better than continuous slaughter… Armenian and Tatar (Azeri – A.Y.) masses everywhere should sooner or later understand that the sword is not capable of cutting the knot of contradictions that is known as Armenian-Tatar relations…” It was not without reason that the Dashnaks tried to defile and to annul the Karabakh agreement. The party, while living with the concept of national hatred, instinctively felt that there was even the most insignificant, even the least possibility to end the fatal hatred of the two nations”. The Western powers decided not to rest on their laurels. American Co lonel William N. Haskel, appointed by the Union Supreme Commissariat of the South Caucasus, visited Yerevan and then in early September he paid a visit to Baku, where he met with the head of the Azeri government, N. Usubbekov. In the course of their last meeting, Haskel rejected the words attributed to him by the Armenian press and mentioned “that he considered it necessary for Karabakh, including Zangezur, to ultimately pass to Azerbaijan. But as for Nakhchevan, Sharur and Daralgez, that territory should compose a neutral area. That zone should be governed by the local population itself through their elected people and the administration should be headed by a European or American general-governor. Meanwhile, Azeri currency should be used in that neutral zone.” Thus, the zone would be beyond any influence of the Armenian Republic and the Armenian armed forces would not be allowed there and only refugees can return there” (85). After the negotiations and the receipt of the agreement by the leadership of both republics on 25 October 1919, the powers of Entente announced the establishment of the allied zone of governance under the command of an American general- governor in the Nakhchevan and Sharur uyezds. U.S. Army Colonel Edmund D. Daily, a US Army engineer, was appointed to that post. A month later in Tbilisi, on 23 November 1919, an agreement between Azerbaijan and Armenia was signed. According to it, the parties agreed to stop combat operations and to solve the disputed issues in a peaceful way. Meanwhile, according to that agreement, Armenia removed its troops from Zangezur. It was also decided to convene an Armenian-Azeri conference as soon as possible. O n 14 December 1919, the conference took place and the outcome of the November agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan was confirmed. On 11 January 1920, on the initiative of Lord George Kerzon, the Supreme Council of allied powers unanimously passed the decision on the de- facto recognition of the independence of Azerbaijan, as well as of Armenia and Georgia. At the same time, the peace conference in Paris recognized Azerbaijan‟s right to Karabakh. Having already accused the allies of “ungratefulness and the betrayal” of their interests, Dashnak leaders again took up arms. While Armenian troops gathered in Zangezur, the Dashnaks launched a broad propaganda campaign in Karabakh. In the meantime, the situation of Azerbaijan was extremely difficult, as in January 1920 Soviet Russian troops approached the border of Azerbaijan. And so, on the night of March 23 1920, while Muslims were celebrating their New Year, Armenians suddenly attacked Azeris in Shusha and other populated areas of Karabakh (87). That aggression and the attack begun by Armenian units forced the government of Azerbaijan to send almost all their armed forces to Karabakh. Shusha suffered most of all in the course of the March battles in Karabakh. It was literally ruined. Both sides had big losses. Then, in April 1920, the 9th Congress of Armenians of Karabakh passed a decision to renege on the agreement concluded on the 7th congress about joining Azerbaijan. The heavy fighting in Karabakh and other districts of the country served the communists of Azerbaijan as a cause to appeal to Russia. On 27 April 1920, Soviet troops captured Baku and a month later Karabakh. Thus, independent Azerbaijan ceased to exist. A little later the turn of Armenia and Georgia came and, after a two year break, the authority of Russia, now Soviet, was restored in the South Caucasus. Summing up the outcome of the second Armenian-Azeri conflict, the following should be noted. On the one hand, the better orderliness and propagandist abilities of Armenians were confirmed once again. Moreover, the attention to that was paid not only outside Azerbaijan but also inside the republic. The newspaper Azerbaijan stated directly on 8 December 1918: “We Azeris are not yet experienced in politics and we can not use those methods which others do, particularly our evil- wishers. We could not make noise all over Europe, to importune the mighty of the earth and we even failed to get “good press” in Europe.” At the same time, the important role of Russia in the lives of the nations of the South Caucasus was revealed. The revolution in Russia and the civil war that broke out drew the attention of Russia away from the region. The leading political forces of the nations of the South Caucasus, being left on their own, had no tradition or experience of independent state governance. That made their situation very shaky even against the background of a weakened Russia. However, instead of uniting their small forces, they immediately began combat operations against each other. That happened mainly because of the phantom and dangerous struggle of the leaders of the “Dashnaktsutun” party to restore the ancient “Great Armenia from sea to sea,” which made territorial clashes with Georgians and Azeris inevitable. Finally, unlike the first Armenian-Azeri conflict, the leading countries of the West then played a certain role in the fate of the region. At a certain stage in 1919, the western powers even managed to restore peace for a short time in Nagorny Karabakh, which they considered part of Azerbaijan. However, the activity of the allies was not very active or consistent. That is why, when the authority of the communists became stronger in Russia, they established their power over the pallid republics of the South Caucasus without difficulty. Author: ARIF YUNUSOV Source: KARABAKH: PAST AND PRESENT

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Star Solomon's Seal (Maianthemum stellatum), family Liliaceae (Lily) There are about 30 species in this genus. Star Solomon's-seal is a common plant occuring widely over much of North America and Canada. It ranges from Alaska to California; northern British Columbia to the southern Rocky Mountain states of Colorado, Nevada, and Arizona; east to the New England states, and south through the Carolinas. The flowers on the plant are small but bright and appealing looking, while the foliage is broad in a pleasing symmetry. Very pleasant to the eyes. It is native to North America, Central America, and Europe. In British Colunbia the Nuxalk Indians collected the ripe berries from starry Solomon's-seal from July to August for food. The rhizome sampling of the plant have revealed high concentrations of manganese, iron, and zinc but we have heard of no specific cultivation of the plants for the purpose of extracting these substances. Quote from the USDA Forest Service Database: "IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE : Starry Solomon's-seal fruits and leaves are eaten by grizzly bears foraging in avalanche chutes and stream bottoms in northern Montana and southern British Columbia. In northern Idaho, elk consume the leaves of starry Solomon's-seal in summer, and ruffed grouse eat the berries in the fall." End quote. Plant location: The plants in these panels were sighted in two locations; Ingalls Creek in Washington on May 19, 2007 and Larch Mountain in Oregon on July 1, 2007.Bloom season: Blooming begins in May and June, with our latest viewing in July. There are only 12 species in this genus, and 2 varieties: porteri and brevilobum. The species is a perennial herb used for its medicinal properties. Osha grows in parts of the Rocky Mountains, especially in the North American Southwest. The flowers of this species can also be pink with the plants sometimes mistaken for stunted Cow Parsnip. USES: Some records of Native American tribes using this species: Zuni Drug (Antirheumatic (External) Infusion of root used for body aches. (Ceremonial Medicine) Root chewed by medicine man and patient during curing ceremonies for various illnesses. (Throat Aid) Crushed root and water used as wash and taken for sore throat. Apache, Chiricahua & Mescalero Eaten without preparation or cooked with green chile and meat or animal bones. Yuki (Protection) Roots used to ward off rattlesnakes. PER Plants For a Future: The roots, seed and essential oil (obtained from the roots and the seed) of this plant are a bitter, camphoraceous warming herb that stimulates the circulation, kidneys and uterus. They are also antirheumatic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge and stomachic. They are used internally in the treatment of eruptive fevers, bronchial infections, digestive complaints, toothache, painful menstruation and retained placenta. They have also been used to treat TB. and headaches. An infusion of the roots is used externally to treat body aches. The root is harvested in the autumn and can be used fresh or dried. FunFacts: Osha is the word for "bear root" in a Native American language (Ute) and osha is referred to as "Bear Medicine" since the plants are eaten by bears for what appear to be medicinal purposes. Native Americans often observed that bears would seek out stands of osha and consume the plants roots directly after emerging from winter hibernation or when wounded or sick. WIKIPEDIA: Osha roots have a collar of dead leaf material surrounding the root crowns which is hairlike in appearance. The roots dry very quickly and are very astringent when fresh, and can cause blistering of the mouth and mucous membranes in humans if ingested fresh. The dried roots do not have this astringent affect. Roots of older plants are far stronger and bitterer than those of younger plants. Native Americans typically harvest the younger plants for medicinal use. Plant location: We saw this specimen in the Medicine Bow National Forest. The date was July 22, 2009. Found in the following states: AZ, CO, MT, NM, NV, UT, WY. Strictly a mountain plant, it is most commonly found in deep, moist soils rich in organic material, per WIKIPEDIA. Bloom season: Unknown. Sticky currant (Ribes viscosissimum), family Grossulariaceae (Currant) Sticky currant is one of 150 species in the genus Ribes. This plant is distributed widely in the west and is a native of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate regions. The common name probably derives from the presence of glands that secrete a thick gummy substance. The plant produces black berries with a blue wax finish that are also extremely gummy. Unfortunately this lovely plant carries a tainted reputation. Efforts are made in many states even to eradicate the plant. It is one of two hosts of the plant disease White Pine Blister Rust. This information comes from WIKIPEDIA: 'Another form of control practiced in some areas is to diligently remove Ribes plants from any area near white pines. Because the infection moves from currant plants, to pines, and back again, it cannot continue to exist without its alternate host. Although effective in theory, removal of currants is rarely successful in practice, as they readily re-grow from small pieces of root left in the soil, and the seeds are very widely spread in birds' droppings.' A tenacious plant.USES: Native American Ethnobotany has the following record of use by the Montana Indian tribe: Fruit highly esteemed as an article of diet. See the other Ribes species <> Red-flowering Currant <> found at: Plant location: Sighted on June 17, 2007 on a hike in Esmerelda Basin, Washington state. It is found in the following United States: AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY. See the BONAP distribution map, here.Bloom season: an early summer blooming perennial. Subalpine Buckwheat (Eriogonum subalpinum), family Polygonaceae (Buckwheat) This species is similiar to the species umbellatum, actually is a variety of the same species. Often it is shown in it's dried state. It tends to color very attractively as it ages. Plant location: Again, this is a specimen from Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. We had passed through Centennial, headed up into the park proper on July 21, 2009, when we saw these lovely plants on the left side of the road at the base of an embankment. Same location as the Taper-leaved Penstemon. See it on page 4 of the Blue/Purples.Bloom season: June to September. Hairy Manzanita (Arctostaphylos columbiana), family Ericaceae (Heath) These delicate white globes resemble Salal and White Mountain Heather. The differences are subtle, look for a covering of white-ish hairs on the stems of the plant. The flowers can also be pink. Here is what WIKIPEDIA has on the genus: 'There are about 60 species of manzanita, ranging from ground-hugging coastal and mountain species to small trees up to 6 m tall. Most are evergreen (one species deciduous), with small oval leaves 1-7 cm long, arranged spirally on the stems. The flowers are bell-shaped, white or pale pink, and borne in small clusters of 2-20 together; flowering is in the spring. The fruit are small berries, ripening in the summer or autumn. The berries of some species are edible.' End quote. Plant location: Sighted on June 17, 2007 on a hike in Esmerelda Basin, Washington state.Bloom season: All through spring and, for us, early summer. It is a perennial. Common Yampa -or- Squawroot (Perideridia gairdneri ssp borealis), family Apiaceae (Carrot) A smaller group of species in the carrot family, the genus Perideridia hosts 13 members. They are native to western North America. Per WIKIPEDIA is this: 'The plants have a unique appearance for members of the parsley family, and are tall (1-3 feet) and grasslike, with threadlike leaves 1-6 inches long that resemble blades of grass. The plants effectively mimic tall grass and are virtually invisible until they flower, since they tend to grow in grassy meadows, and prefer full sunlight. Like most members of the parsley family, Yampa produces umbels of white flowers. The small roots of Yampa are about the size of a large unshelled peanut. The plants are widely distributed in moist open meadows and hillsides up to 7,500 feet across Western North America and Northern Mexico.' End quote. USES: There are many uses of this plant recorded by native american indian tribes for both food and medicine. Some of those include: 'Yampa (Perideridia gairdneri) was an important staple crop of Native Americans in Western North America, and was relished by American Indians to the point the plants were over-harvested to extinction in many areas. The nutlike roots of the plant are crunchy and mildly sweet, and resemble in texture and flavor water chestnuts. Yampa roots were either baked or steamed, and were reported to have excellent flavor and nutritional qualities. The seeds of Yampa were used as a seasoning and resemble caraway seeds in flavor. Yampa roots contain rapidly assimilatable carbohydrates, and were used by hunters and runners as a high energy food to enhance physical endurance. Uncooked Yampa roots are a gentle laxative if consumed in excess and were used medicinally for this purpose.' Plant location: Seen on the beautiful Beartooh Highway (Wyoming side) near Yellowstone National Park. GPS coordinates: N44? 55.751 W109? 42.152. September 1, 2009. Elevation 7461'. Found in the following United States: CA, CO, ID, MT, NV, OR, SD, UT, WA, WYBloom season: July through August commonly. The photograph usually found in this frame is of the foliage of the plant. Normally the foliage appears as a very thin blade configuration looking rather like grass. Our specimens were advanced in their season with the foliage dried away to almost nothing - hence nothing to photograph. Instead enjoy the immature flower buds, delicate and pretty in pink. White Campion -or- Evening Lychnis -or- Snowy Campion (Silene latifolia subsp. alba), family Caryophyllaceae We were taken by surprise at these lovely pure white flowers blooming so late in the year. Never having seen this species before, we have no idea if these blooms were at their best. Sometimes late in the season we have seen flowers that looked mightly piqued. It was certainly a treat to see these, made us hungry for SPRING. These are known to grow at low elevations. We regret that we did not note our elevation for this sighting, since it was a mountain location. There are about 300 species in this genus. Plant location: North Cascades, Washington state LATE in the season - October 2007.Bloom season: According to the book Wildflowers of the Pacific Northwest, this plant blooms all summer, but in our experience, AND THEN SOME!! White Melilot -or- White Sweet Clover (Melilotus albus), family Fabaceae (Pea/Legume) One of 14 species in the genus, albus is found throughout the United States. It is a perennial herb/forb with numerous medicinal and edible uses. This is a plant that has both male and female organs. USES: From Plants for a Future is this: 'Dried leaves can be toxic though the fresh leaves are quite safe. This is due to the presence of coumarin, the substance that gives some dried plants the smell of new mown hay. Taken internally it can prevent the blood from clotting. Leaves and seedpods - cooked as a 'bean soup'. The pea-like seeds are used as a seasoning for bean and split-pea soups. Young shoots - raw or cooked. Added to salads or used as a potherb. Only fresh shoots should be used the dried leaves contain coumarin. Used as a vanilla-like flavouring. An oil obtained from the seed is used in paints, varnishes etc. The dried leaves smell of new-mown hay and are used as an insect repellent. The dried leaves contain a substance called coumarin, this is an anti-clotting agent and has been used as a basis of the rat killer 'warfarin'. End quote. Plant location: Seen at the Quake Lake Visitor Center in Montana on August 28, 2009. Elevation 6705'. GPS Coordinates N44? 49.864 W111? 25.553. Per WIKIPEDIA is this on the habitat: 'White sweet clover is native to Europe and Asia. It was introduced to North America in the 1600s for cattle forage purposes and is now widespread throughout Canada and the United States, where it has become invasive and can outcompete native plant species. White sweet clover can grow up to 2 meters in height and can produce abundant amounts of seeds that readily float and disperse in water. This has allowed the plant to colonize natural habitat such as riparian areas all across much of North America.' End quote.Bloom season: May through October. Western Spring Beauty (Claytonia lanceolata), family Portulacaceae (Purslane) This flower really lives up to it's name! Where do we put it, white, yellow, pink, purple? It has all those hues! There are only 26 species in this genus but our specimen has a fairly widespread distribution for wildflower lovers to enjoy. The Claytonia's are mostly North American natives, but some can be found as far away as Asia. The family group here though, is much extended with around 20 genera and 500 species. There are even members to be found in the Artic. How we wish we could sight them in ALL their locations. See the other Claytonia - Alpine Spring Beauty - at Plant location: Sighted on June 17, 2007 while hiking the Esmerelda Basin trail outside of Cle Elum Washington.Bloom season: April through July in mountain foothills to the high alpines. Elk Thistle (Cirsium scariosum), family Asteraceae (Aster/Sunflower) FunFact: An early explorer of Yellowstone National Park where we saw these plants was lost for over a month in the park in 1870. He is said to have survived in great part by eating the roots of Elk Thistle. According to the website Native American Ethnobotany the roots of the plants were eaten raw, or pit-baked, by the Flathead, Nez Perce, and Kutenai peoples. There are 95 species in Cirsium. Plant location: Seen in the Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, on August 28, 2009. GPS coordinates: N44? 35.775 W110? 23.248. The elevation was 7819'. The plants sprout lavendar flowers when in bloom. These had dried to brown at the time we photographed this specimen. It is native to much of western North America from Canada to Mexico, where it grows in a variety of habitat types. It is recorded in the following United States: AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY.Bloom season: July to August. Bunchberry, Dwarf Cornel -or- Canadian Bunchberry -or- Crackerberry (Cornus canadensis), family Cornaceae (Dogwood) This is one of our favorite flowers from the white group. The symmetry of the white bracts against the lovely leaf structure is just so pleasing to the eyes. The bracts are actually leaf scales. The actual flowers of the Bunchberry plant are in the center of the white bracts and look like stubby black afterthoughts! According to Dr Dee Strickler, the plant produces a fruit that he calls drupes, which look like berries but are described by him as tasteless.USES: Records of uses by Native American tribes of this species abound: Abnaki Drug (Analgesic) Decoction of whole plant taken for side pains. Algonquin, Quebec, Tete-de-Boule Infusion of leaves used as a cathartic tea. Decoction of plant and other plants used for colds. Plant mixed with other plants and used by women for stomachaches. Carrier, Southern Drug (Eye Medicine) Strong decoction of plant, without berries, used as an eyewash. Costanoan (Febrifuge) Decoction of inner bark used for fevers. Iroquois (Tuberculosis Remedy) Decoction of whole plant taken for tuberculosis. Algonquin, Quebec Berries used as a nibble food. Hoh and Quileute (Smoke Plant) Leaves dried and smoked. Berries used in ceremonies. Per the website Plants For a Future: Other uses - The fruit is rich in pectin, so is an aid in making jam, pies, puddings etc. A good dense ground cover plant, growing well in light woodland. It takes a little while to settle down and needs weeding for the first few years but becomes rampant when established and can then spread 60 - 90cm ... per year! The pollination process of this plant is extremely interesting! The following is from WIKIPEDIA: 'Each flower has highly elastic petals that flip backward and release springy filaments that are cocked underneath the petals. The filaments snap upward flinging pollen out of containers hinged to the filaments. This motion takes place in less than half a millisecond and the pollen experiences 800 times the force that the space shuttle does during liftoff. The bunchberry has one of the fastest plant actions found so far requiring a camera that takes 10,000 frames per second to catch the action' End quote. Our friend Bunchberry is not only native to North America, but also to Northern China, far eastern Russia, and Japan. Plant location: The photos are from two sightings - Cathedral Rock in Washington state on June 25, 2005, and the Sunrise area of Mt Rainier in early July, 2007.Bloom season: June and July, per Dr. Dee Strickler in Wayside Wildflowers of the Pacific Northwest. The plant is a low spreading perennial. Sickletop Lousewort -or- Parrot's Beak -or- Leafy Louswort (Pedicularis racemosa ssp. alba), family was Scrophulariaceae (Figwort) - now in Orobanchaceae (Broomrape) This lovely specimen is one of two subspecies of racemosa. The genus hosts 36 species total. This species is a perennial subshrub/herb and is a native to North America. USES: The website Native American Ethnobotany has only one vague record of use: Thompson tribe - Plant used medicinally for unspecified purpose. From the marvelous book by Janis Lindsey Huggins WILD AT HEART is this: 'If using Louseworts for medicine or food use caution. They can absorb toxins from nearby plants. For example, louseworts growing with Senecio species are known to contain their toxic alkaloids'. End quote. AND, while the genus name Pedicularis means 'little louse' and plants from the group were believed to give animals grazing nearby lice...hair and wigs were long ago powdered with the plant's substance to get rid of lice! Ok then!Plant location: Photographed July 22, 2009 on Hwy 130 in the Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. States that host this species are AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, OR, UT, WA, WY - per the USDA Plant database. It grows in coniferous forests.Bloom season: Expect to see these lovely flowers from June to September. California Corn Lily -or- False Hellebore (Veratrum californicum), family is considered to be Melanthiaceae or Liliaceae The Lily family association is the more common. There are 11 species, and two varieties, in this genus. It is native to mountain meadows in southwestern North America and the Rocky Mountains TOXIC:THIS PLANT IS EXTREMELY POISONOUS, especially the roots. THIS PLANT IS A KILLER. The Idaho Panhandle website has this on the plant: 'It is a tall, erect plant, all parts of which are highly toxic and potentially fatal. The highest concentration of toxins are in the roots. Early spring foliage seems to be more poisonous than mature leaves. Poisoning symptoms include burning sensations in the mouth, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, blurred vision, hallucinations, and general paralysis. It may cause birth defects if consumed by pregnant females. The occasional cases of human poisoning have been attributed to misuse of medicinal preparations. Veratrum species are used medicinally to treat high blood pressure though doses are difficult to standardize. This plant was used medicinally by American Indians for external afflictions and as a local anesthetic. It was also occasionally used in cleansing rites as a purgative.' End quote. USES: From Plants For a Future: Although a very poisonous plant, California false hellebore was often employed medicinally by a number of native North American Indian tribes who used it mainly as an external application to treat wounds etc. It also had quite a reputation as a contraceptive. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism. Any use of this plant, especially internal use, should be carried out with great care and preferably only under the supervision of a qualified practitioner. The root is analgesic, disinfectant and febrifuge. A decoction has been used in the treatment of venereal disease. The roots have been grated then chewed and the juice swallowed as a treatment for colds. A poultice of the mashed raw root has been used as a treatment for rheumatism, boils, sores, cuts, swellings and burns. The dried and ground up root has been used as a dressing on bruises and sores. A poultice of the chewed root has been applied to rattlesnake bites to draw out the poison. The powdered root has been rubbed on the face to allay the pain of toothache. A decoction of the root has been taken orally by both men and women as a contraceptive. A dose of one teaspoon of this decoction three times a day for three weeks is said to ensure permanent sterility in women. According to the website Native American Ethnobotany, the tribes who used this species included: Paiute, Shoshoni, Thompson, Washo, Miwok, Karok, and Blackfoot (who used the pounded roots as snuff). BIZZARE birth defects can result in animals who have ingested this species:TWO-HEADED CALF Cyclopamine (a substance isolated from corn lily) was named for one-eyed lambs which were born to sheep which grazed on wild corn lily at a farm in Idaho. In 1957 the US Department of Agriculture started an eleven-year investigation which led to the identification of cyclopamine as the cause of the birth defect. Human female infant born in 2006, India, with the defect. Plant location: Mark photographed this specimen in the area of Twisp Washington, late July 2007. FOund in the following United States: AZ, CA, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY.Bloom season: June through August. Tuber Starwort (Pseudostellaria jamesiana), family Caryophyllaceae (Pink) Thanks to Dr. Mary Dubler this plant has been identified! She found the specimen in the book Rocky Mountain Flora by James Ells. There are only three species in the genus Pseudostellaria. The others are sierrae (California only) and oxyphylla (only in Idaho). The family includes 88 genera and about 2,000 species. There are only 2 species in this genus, living from 1968' to 11,154' in elevation. USES: This perennial herb was used by Native Americans: 'Navajo, Kayenta (Ceremonial Medicine) Plant chewed for corral dance. (Dermatological Aid) Poultice of plant applied to hailstone injuries.' An interesting account is found at the website Plants for a Future: 'Although no mention has been seen for this species, the leaves of some members of this genus contain saponins. Although toxic, these substances are very poorly absorbed by the body and so tend to pass through without causing harm. They are also broken down by thorough cooking. Saponins are found in many plants, including several that are often used for food, such as certain beans.FunFact: It is advisable not to eat large quantities of food that contain saponins. Saponins are much more toxic to some creatures, such as fish, and hunting tribes have traditionally put large quantities of them in streams, lakes etc in order to stupefy or kill the fish. Plant location: Seen in the Cle Elum Washington area in early June of 2007. The USDA plant database has the plant in the following states: (AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, TX, UT, WA, WY). Habitats include Woodland Gardens; Sunny Edge; Dappled Shade; Shady Edge; Cultivated Beds.Bloom period: Some websites mention that the seeds of the plant will germinate in early spring and bloom through summer.

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The Calling of the Westminster Assembly - by Dr. John MurrayArticles on the 1647 Westminster Confession of Faith Today, many Christians are turning back to the puritans to, “walk in the old paths,” of God’s word, and to continue to proclaim old truth that glorifies Jesus Christ. There is no new theology. In our electronic age, more and more people are looking to add electronic books (ePubs, mobi and PDF formats) to their library – books from the Reformers and Puritans – in order to become a “digital puritan” themselves. Take a moment to visit Puritan Publications (click the banner below) to find the biggest selection of rare puritan works updated in modern English in both print form and in multiple electronic forms. There are new books published every month. All proceeds go to support A Puritan’s Mind. Watch the Video on the Complete 1647 Westminster Confession with all Subordinate Documents proved by the KJV (3rd Edition): UPDATED 1647 Westminster Confession with KJV Bible Proofs From The Presbyterian Guardian, volumes 11 and 12 (1942-1943) It should be conceded, without fear of intelligent contradiction, that the Westminster Confession of Faith, Larger and Shorter Catechisms are the finest creedal formulations of the Christian Faith that the church of Christ has yet produced. This is not to deny that in certain particulars some other creeds may surpass these Westminster standards, nor does it mean that these standards have attained such a degree of perfection that they could not possibly be improved. But it does mean that they are the most perfect creedal exhibitions that we possess of the truth revealed in Holy Scripture. Many people are familiar with the Confession and Catechisms and yet know very little regarding the history of the Assembly that produced these documents. One of the most important Parliaments that ever existed in England was what is known as the Long Parliament. It continued from November 1640, until it was dissolved by Oliver Cromwell in April 1653. It was this Parliament that was responsible for the calling of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. Shortly after the Long Parliament began its work, the House of Lords appointed a committee consisting of ten bishops and twenty lay peers to take into consideration all innovations in the church concerning religion. In the autumn and winter of 1641 there was prepared what is known as the Grand Remonstrance of the House of Commons. In this remonstrance the desire was expressed that there should be “a general Synod of the most grave, pious, learned and judicious divines of this island, assisted by some from foreign parts professing the same religion with us, to consider all things necessary for the peace and good government of the Church.” In 1642 a declaration of the Parliament of England was sent to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. This declaration contained a plea for the prevention of civil war. The answer of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland deplored the tardiness with which the reformation of religion progressed, and contended that religion is not only the means of the service of God and the saving of souls but also “the base and foundation of kingdomes and estates”. It also reiterated the plea “that in all his Majestie’s dominions there might be one Confession of Faith, one Directory of Worship, one publick Catechisme, and one form of Kirk Government”. On April 19, 1642, the House of Commons ordered that the names of divines fit to be consulted with be presented to the House. In less than a week this list was completed. It consisted of two divines from each county in England, two from each university, two from the Channel Islands, one from each county in Wales, and four from the city of London. On May 9th of this year the bill for the calling of an assembly of divines was brought in to the House of Commons. The House of Lords slightly amended the bill and fourteen names were added to the list of divines. By June 1st, the bill passed both Houses of Parliament. But the King’s assent was withheld. Two other bills met with the same fate. Both Houses then resorted to the method of Ordinance by their own authority. By June 12, 1643, this Ordinance for the calling of an assembly passed both Houses. As so much interest and importance attach to this Ordinance, part of it should be quoted here. It reads thus: “Whereas, amongst the infinite blessings of Almighty God upon this nation, none is or can be more dear unto us than the purity of our religion; and for that, as yet, many things remain in the Liturgy, Discipline, and Government of the Church, which do necessarily require a further and more perfect reformation than as yet hath been attained; and whereas it hath been declared and resolved by the Lords and Commons assembled in Parliament, that the present Church-government by archbishops, bishops, their chancellors, commissaries, deans, dean and chapters, archdeacons, and other ecclesiastical officers depending upon the hierarchy, is evil, and justly offensive and burdensome to the kingdom, a great impediment to reformation and growth of religion, and very prejudicial to the state and government of this kingdom; and that therefore they are resolved that the same shall be taken away, and that such a government shall be settled in the Church as may be most agreeable to God’s holy word, and most apt to procure and preserve the peace of the Church at home, and nearer agreement with the Church of Scotland, and other Reformed Churches abroad; and, for the better effecting hereof, and for the vindicating and clearing of the doctrine of the Church of England from all false calumnies and aspersions, it is thought fit and necessary to call an Assembly of learned, godly, and judicious Divines, who, together with some members of both the Houses of Parliament, are to consult and advise of such matters and things, touching the premises, as shall be proposed unto them by both or either of the Houses of Parliament, and to give their advice and counsel therein to both or either of the said Houses, when, and as often as they shall be thereunto required.” Chapter XXIII of the Westminster Confession of Faith deals with “the Civil Magistrate”. Section III of this chapter reads as follows: “The civil magistrate may not assume to himself the administration of the Word and sacraments, or the power of the keys of the kingdom of heaven: yet he hath authority, and it is his duty, to take order, that unity and peace be preserved in the Church, that the truth of God be kept pure and entire; that all blasphemies and heresies be suppressed; all corruptions and abuses in worship and discipline prevented or reformed; and all the ordinances of God duly settled, administered, and observed. For the better effecting whereof, he hath power to call synods, to be present at them, and to provide that whatsoever is transacted in them be according to the mind of God.” The last sentence of this section is the defense, on the part of the Westminster Assembly, of that Ordinance of the English Parliament of 1643 in accordance with which the Assembly convened on July 1st of that year. The Westminster Assembly was the creature of the Long Parliament. The Westminster divines did not, of course, regard the authority of Parliament or of any civil magistrate as essential to the calling of an assembly such as the Westminster Assembly was. In Chapter XXXI, which deals with “Synods and Councils”, the divines also said: “As magistrates may lawfully call a synod of ministers, and other fit persons, to consult and advise with, about matters of religion; so, if magistrates be open enemies to the Church, the ministers of Christ of themselves, by virtue of their office, or they, with other fit persons, upon delegation from their Churches, may meet together in such assemblies” (Section II). Nevertheless the Westminster Assembly was actually convened by Ordinance of Parliament. The Assembly consisted of some one hundred and fifty members. Thirty were members of Parliament, the remainder divines, representing the chief parties of English Protestants except that of Archbishop Laud. The Assembly was called to meet on July 1, 1643. Two days before the meeting a royal proclamation was issued prohibiting the meeting. Notwithstanding this royal interdict, sixty-nine of those appointed met. They convened in Westminster Abbey for divine service, and both Houses of Parliament adjourned for the purpose of attending the service of worship. Dr. Twisse, the prolocutor of the Assembly, preached. After divine service the members of the Assembly met in the Chapel of Henry VII. The Assembly adjourned until July 6th. Certain instructions for the conduct of the Assembly were framed by both Houses of Parliament in consultation with certain of the divines. As given by John Lightfoot, a member of the Assembly, these read as follows: (1) That two Assessors be joined to the Prolocutor, to supply his place in case of absence or infirmity. (2) That Scribes be appointed, to set down all proceedings, and those to be Divines, who are not of the Assembly, viz. Mr. Henry Robens and Mr. Adoniram Byfield. (3) Every member, at his first entry into the Assembly, shall make serious and solemn protestation, not to maintain any thing but what he believes to be truth in sincerity, when discovered unto him. (4) No resolution to be given upon any question the same day, wherein it is first propounded. (5) What any man undertakes to prove as necessary, he shall make good out of Scripture. (6) No man to proceed in any dispute, after the Prolocutor has enjoined him silence, unless the Assembly desire he may go on. (7) No man to be denied to enter his dissent from the Assembly, and his reasons for it, in any point, after it hath been first debated in the Assembly, and thence (if the dissenting party desire it) to be sent to the Houses of Parliament by the Assembly, not by any particular man or men, in a private way, when either House shall require. (8) All things agreed on and prepared for the Parliament, to be openly read and allowed in the Assembly, and then offered as the judgment of the Assembly, if the major part assent. Provided that the opinion of any persons dissenting, and the reasons urged for it, be annexed thereunto, if the dissenters require it, together with the solutions, if any were given to the Assembly, to these reasons. When the Assembly met on July 8th, the following protestation was taken by every member, Lords and Commons, as well as divines: “I, A.B. do seriously and solemnly protest, in the presence of Almighty God, that in this Assembly, whereof I am a member, I will not maintain any thing in matters of doctrine, but what I think in my conscience to be truth; or in point of discipline, but what I shall conceive to conduce most to the glory of God, and the good and peace of his church.” This protestation, it should be noted, is of the nature of a solemn oath. It would be well for all to be animated by the spirit that evoked its composition and by the determination that the taking of it expresses. In accordance with the provisions of the Ordinance quoted above, the Assembly was largely occupied for the first three months with the revision of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England. One of the most interesting accounts we possess of the actual work of the Assembly is given us by Robert Baillie, one of the Scottish commissioners to the Assembly. It gives us, from the pen of one admirably fitted to write, a sample of actual procedure in the sessions of the Assembly. Under date of December 7, 1643, Baillie writes: “On Monday morning we sent to both Houses of Parliament for a warrant for our sitting in the Assemblie. This was readilie granted, and by Mr. Hendersone presented to the Proloqutor; who sent out three of their number to convoy us to the Assemblie. Here no mortal man may enter to see or hear, let be to sitt, without ane order in wryte from both Houses of Parliament. When we were brought in, Dr. Twisse had ane long harangue for our welcome, after so long and hazardous a voyage by sea and land, in so unseasonable a tyme of the year. When he had ended, we satt doun in these places which since we have keeped. The like of that Assemblie I did never see, and, as we hear say, the like was never in England, nor any where is shortlie lyke to be. They did sit in Henry the 7th’s Chappell, in the place of the Convocation; but since the weather grew cold, they did go to Jerusalem chamber, a fair roome in the Abbey of Westminster, about the bounds of the College fore-hall, but wyder. At the one end nearest the doore, and both sydes are stages of seats as in the new Assemblie-House at Edinburgh, but not so high; for there will be roome but for five or six score. At the upmost end there is a chair set on ane frame, a foot from the earth, for the Mr. Proloqutor Dr. Twisse. Before it on the ground stands two chairs for the two Mr. Assessors, Dr. Burgess and Mr. Whyte. Before these two chairs, through the length of the roome, stands a table, at which sitts the two scribes, Mr. Byfield and Mr. Roborough. The house is all well hung, and hes a good fyre, which is some dainties at London. Foranent the table, upon the Proloqutor’s right hand, there are three or four rankes of formes. On the lowest we five doe sit. Upon the other, at our backs, the members of Parliament deputed to the Assemblie. On the formes foranent us, on the Proloqutor’s left hand, going from the upper end of the house to the chimney, and at the other end of the house, and backsyde of the table, till it come about to our seats, are four or five stages of fourmes, whereupon their divines sitts as they please; albeit commonlie they keep the same place. From the chimney to the door there is no seats, but a void for passage. The Lords of the Parliament uses to sit on chaires, in the void, about the fire. We meet every day of the week, but Saturday. We sitt commonlie from nine to one or two afternoon. The Proloqutor at the beginning and end hes a short prayer. The man, as the world knows, is very learned in the questions he has studied, and very good, beloved of all and highlie esteemed; but merelie bookish, and not much, as it seems, acquaint with conceived prayer, [and] among the unfittest of all the company for any action; so after the prayer he sitts mute. It was the canny convoyance of these who guides most matters for their own interest to plant such a man of purpose in the chaire. The one assessour, our good friend, Dr. Whyte, hes keeped in of the gout since our coming; the other, Dr. Burgess, a very active and sharpe man, supplies, so farr as is decent, the Proloqutor’s place. Ordinarlie there will be present above three-score of their divines. These are divided in three Committees; in one whereof every man is a member. No man is excluded who pleases to come to any of the three. Every Committee, as the Parliament gives order in wryte to take any purpose to consideration, takes a portion, and in their afternoon meeting prepares matters for the Assemblie, setts doune their minde in distinct propositions, backs their propositions with texts of Scripture. After the prayer, Mr. Byfield the scribe, reads the proposition and Scriptures, whereupon the Assemblie debates in a most grave and orderlie way. No man is called up to speak; bot who stands up of his own accord, he speaks so long as he will without interruption. If two or three stand up at once, then the divines confusedlie calls on his name whom they desyre to hear first: On whom the loudest and manifest voices calls, he speakes. No man speaks to any bot to the Proloqutor. They harangue long and very learnedlie. They studie the questions well before hand, and prepares their speeches; but withall the men are exceeding prompt, and well spoken. I doe marvell at the very accurate and extemporall replyes that many of them usuallie doe make. When, upon every proposition by itself, and on everie text of Scripture that is brought to confirme it, every man who will hes said his whole minde, and the replyes, and duplies, and triplies, are heard; then the most part calls, To the question. Byfield the scribe rises from the table, and comes to the Proloqutor’s chair, who, from the scribe’s book, reads the proposition, and says, as many as are in opinion that the question is well stated in the proposition, let them say I; when I is heard, he says, as many as think otherwise, say No. If the difference of I’s and No’s be cleare, as usuallie it is, then the question is ordered by the scribes, and they go on to debate the first Scripture alleadged for proof of the proposition. If the sound of I and No be near equall, then sayes the Proloqutor, as many as say I, stand up; while they stand, the scribe and others number them in their minde; when they sitt down, the No’s are bidden stand, and they likewise are numbered. This way is clear enough, and saves a great deal of time, which we spend in reading our catalogue. When a question is once ordered, there is no more debate of that matter; but if a man will vaige, he is quicklie taken up by Mr. Assessor, or many others, confusedlie crying, Speak to order, to order. No man contradicts another expresslie by name, bot most discreetlie speaks to the Proloqutor, and at most holds on the generall, The Reverend brother, who latelie or last spoke, on this hand, on that syde, above, or below. I thought meet once for all to give yow a taste of the outward form of their Assemblie. They follow the way of their Parliament. Much of their way is good, and worthie of our imitation: only their longsomenesse is wofull at this time, when their Church and Kingdome lyes under a most lamentable anarchy and confusion. They see the hurt of their being to establish a new Plattforme of worship and discipline to their Nation for all time to come, they think they cannot be answerable, if solidlie and at leisure, they doe not examine every point thereof.”

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(PDF version here) Richard Held and Alan Hein raised 20 kittens in pitch black darkness. Which is the kind of thing you should only do if it’s necessary to prove a point critical to understanding how the world works. Thankfully they did just that. The two MIT cognitive scientists, working in the 1960s, showed that seeing the world around you was not enough to understand how it works. You had to actually experience that world to learn how to operate in it. The scientists raised cats in total darkness to control the relationship between seeing and learning. Once a pair of kittens were old enough to walk, they were placed in a lighted box for three hours a day. In the box was a kind of carousel, with each kitten placed in a harness. One of the cat’s legs reached the floor, and its walking movements made the carousel move in a circle. The other cat’s legs were restrained by the harness. It could see everything going on – the movement, the other cat walking around in circles – but its legs never touched the floor. It had no active control over the carousel. After eight weeks of daily carousel walks the cats were brought into the real light-filled world to test what they had learned. They were tested to see if they’d automatically place their paws on a surface they were about to be set down upon. And if they’d avoid a steep ledge, walking around to a gradual ramp instead. And whether they’d blink when an object was quickly brought close to their face. The results were extraordinary. 100% of the cats whose legs had control over the carousel’s movements tested normal. The cats who only watched, but never controlled, the carousel were functionally blind. They bounded towards the steep ledge and fell straight off. They didn’t put their paws out to land on a surface. They didn’t blink when an object accelerated toward their face. It wasn’t that they couldn’t operate their bodies – they learned to do that in the dark room they were raised in. But they couldn’t associate visual objects with what their bodies were supposed to do. The two cats grew up seeing the same thing. But one experienced the real world while the other merely saw it. The result was that one was normal; the other was effectively blind. One of the most important topics in business and investing is whether all of us are, in some ways, like these blind cats. Sure, we’ve read about the Great Depression. But most of us didn’t live through it. So can we actually learn lessons from it that make us better with our money? Sure, we all know about the 2000 dot-com bust. But many – maybe most – investors and founders weren’t active back then. So do they actually understand the power of bubbles as well as those who did live through it? My generation, the millennials, has never experienced significant inflation. We can read about gasoline lines of the 1970s and 15% mortgage rates in the 1980s. But am I as concerned about monetary policy as the Baby Boomer who does remember those things? And is the Baby Boomer as concerned as the Venezuelan who’s experienced hyperinflation? The answer to these questions is – at best – maybe. I say it’s one of the most important topics because it affects everyone. What I’ve experienced as an investor is different from what you’ve experienced, even if we’re from the same generation. And the generation and country you’re born into, the values instilled in you by your parents, and the serendipitous paths we all wander down are out of our control. Investor Michael Batnick says, “some lessons have to be experienced before they can be understood.” We are all victims, in different ways, to that truth. This report digs into the effect difference experiences we’ve had have on our ability to make smart decisions about business and investing risk. Part 1: Blind Spots Two events shaped the 20th century: The Great Depression and World War II. The 1960 Democratic primary pitted a man who didn’t experience the former against a man who didn’t experience the latter. And voters took note. John F. Kennedy grew up in one of the wealthiest American families, and the rare clan whose wealth surged during the Great Depression. His father Joe Kennedy’s life goal was to make so much money that his kids could devote their life to politics. He did just that. In 1960 journalist Hugh Sidey attempted to gauge Senator Kennedy’s economic credentials. “What do you remember about the Depression?” Sidey asked. JFK responded candidly: I have no first-hand knowledge of the depression. My family had one of the great fortunes of the world and it was worth more than ever then. We had bigger houses, more servants, we traveled more. About the only thing that I saw directly was when my father hired some extra gardeners just to give them a job so they could eat. I really did not learn about the depression until I read about it at Harvard. Kennedy then leaned forward and told Sidey, “My experience was the war. I can tell you about that.” He then recounted his battle experiences for more than an hour. Sidey later reported: If I had to single out one element of Kennedy’s life that more than anything else influenced his later leadership it would be the horror of war, a total revulsion over the terrible toll that modern war has taken on individuals, nations and societies. It ran ever deeper than his considerable public rhetoric on the issue. Kennedy ran against Hubert Humphrey, whose personal history was an almost mirror image of his own. Humphrey was born in his father’s store in Wallace, South Dakota. It didn’t get much better from there. Smacked by the Great Depression, he was forced to drop out of college after a year to help his father keep the store afloat. He struggled financially for the rest of his life. It had a lasting impact on his thinking. During the campaign Humphrey said he learned more about economics from one dust storm during the Depression than he did in all his college economics courses combined (he later finished his degree). Humphrey could relate to everyday Americans and their money problems in a way Kennedy never could -– a point he repeated often during the campaign. But unlike Kennedy, Humphrey did not see combat during World War II. He was turned down by the Army and Navy because of colorblindness and hernias. The Kennedy campaign turned the tables and used Humphrey’s lack of war experience as evidence that he didn’t understand something that was central to Americans’ lives. They created what was almost certainly a false narrative that Humphrey was a draft-dodger – unforgivable to American families who lost almost half a million soldiers in the war. Stumping for Kennedy, Franklin Roosevelt Jr. told crowds: “There’s another candidate in your primary. He’s a good Democrat, but I don’t know where he was in World War II.” Both campaigns used the same logic: someone who merely read about a big event cannot fully empathize with those who experienced that big event. Which is a point that comes up often in investing. Two years ago Marc Andreessen said that tech stocks have been undervalued for most of the last 15 years. It partly explains why they’ve produced great returns. The cause of undervaluation, he explained, was the mental scars left by the dot-com implosion in 2000. “If you live through one of these scarring crashes, you get psychologically marked,” he said. It scarred investors, founders, journalists, regulators, everyone. Investor Tren Griffin wrote: I have a lot of muscle memory that resulted from the Internet bubble. There is no way you can fully convey in words the experience being in the lead car as an investor in that roller coaster. Looking at the cycle after the fact is nothing like looking ahead and not knowing what will happen next. The experience still impacts the way I think and act. That last point is important, because something began changing in Silicon Valley over the last few years. Andreessen again: One thing that’s happening is now enough time has passed that enough kids are coming to the Valley who don’t have a memory of the crash. They were like in 4th Grade when it happened. We get in these weird conversations where we’re telling them cautionary tales of what happened in 1998, and they look at you like you’re a Grandpa. We have a new generation of people in the Valley who say, ‘Let’s just go build things. Let’s not be held back by superstition.’ This new generation might help explain why Silicon Valley risk-taking grew over the last five years. The number of VC funds, the number of VC-backed deals, the valuations those deals fetch, and the number of college grads to get into startups has surged. The typical Silicon Valley founder in your head might look like a 21-year tinkering in their dorm room, and some are. But the median age of a startup founder is actually 40. Yet even a 40-year-old was likely in college during the dot-com rise and fall. They avoided the carnage. So they think about risk and reward in totally different ways than a 40-year-old founder did five or 10 years ago. This is not just anecdotal. In 2006 economists Ulrike Malmendier and Stefan Nagel from the National Bureau of Economic research dug through 50 years of the Survey of Consumer Finances – a detailed look at what Americans do with their money. In theory people should make investment decisions based on their goals and the characteristics of the investment options available to them at the time (things like valuation and expected return). But that’s not what people do. The research showed that people’s lifetime investment decisions are heavily anchored to the experiences those investors had with different investments in their own generation – especially experiences early in their adult life. Our results explain, for example, the relatively low rates of stock market participation among young households in the early 1980s (following the disappointing stock market returns in the 1970s depression) and the relatively high participation rates of young investors in the late 1990s (following the boom years in the 1990s). This holds true across asset classes. Ten-year Treasury bonds lost almost half their value from 1973 to 1981, adjusted for inflation. Those who lived through these blows invested considerably less of their assets in fixed-income products than those who avoided them due to the luck of their birth year. Back to my generation, the Millennials, who have never experienced inflation: When we invest on our own, we put 59% of our assets in cash and bonds, and 28% in stocks, according to UBS Wealth Management. And of course we do: Many of us started making money in the teeth of the Great Recession and the largest bear market in generations, which also happened to be the period when bonds not only preserved but grew wealth as interest rates fell to 0%. That’s our history. That’s what we know. And what we know is more persuasive than what we read. The Financial Times interviewed Bill Gross, the famed bond manager, last month. “Gross admits that he would probably not be where he is today if he had been born a decade earlier or later,” the paper wrote. His career coincided almost perfectly with a generational collapse in interest rates that gave bond prices a tailwind. That kind of thing doesn’t just affect the opportunities you come across; it affects what you think about those opportunities when they’re presented in front of you. This was Andreessen’s point: In hindsight we know tech stocks were undervalued for most of the 2002-2015 period. But the generation that lost most of their money in the tech bust didn’t even recognize that opportunity. It took a new generation who lacked the scars of the bust to see it. Our own unique experiences impacts more than just investing behavior. In a study of men graduating from college between 1979 and 1989, Yale economist Lisa Kahn found that those entering the labor market during poor economic times earned 7% less than those graduating in a strong economy. That gap lasted seemingly indefinitely: 17 years after graduation, Kahn found those who began their careers in recession still earned less than those who began when the economy was strong. You can imagine that a group who experiences that kind of pain will have different views about economic policies than a group who happened to graduate during a booming economy. And it’s not because one group is smarter than another; most of it is just the chance of what generation they were born into. Where you were born matters too. European economies have tended to be more risk-averse, downside-protection, savings-net-oriented than the U.S. economy. Why? Perhaps in part because European economies spent most of the 20th Century either collapsing or rebuilding from two world wars, both of which completely wiped out the life savings of tens of millions of residents. America paid a human price in combat, but the wars were an economic boon. Compare that to Germany and Japan in the years following 1945, when a full-blown humanitarian crisis developed. At the end of the war German farms only produced enough food to provide its citizens with 1,000 calories a day. Part of Japan’s current demographic decline is due to a cultural preference for small families, which started when the government created policies and incentives to reduce births as the country teetered on famine in the late 1940s. You can’t expect countries whose experiences are that divergent from our own to have similar views about economic and social policies. And this goes beyond economics. There are theories that big wars tend to happen 20-40 years apart because that’s the amount of time it takes to cycle through a new generation of voters, politicians, and generals who aren’t scarred by the last war. Other political trends – social rights, economic theories, budget priorities – follow a similar path. Whether you agree with her or not, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez’s response to Joe Lieberman’s jab that she’s not the future of the party – “New party, who dis?” – echoes a trend that’s been followed for centuries. JFK’s inaugural address declared: The torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans – born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage – and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed. The Civil Rights Act – started by Kennedy, finished by Johnson – is an example of something that would have been impossible in one generation but was doable in another generation who grew up with different experiences and views than their parents. Part 2: Can We Ever Learn? The big question is: Which investing group is better off? The veterans who lived through a crash and came out paranoid, or the newbies who never experienced it and are now willing to take bigger risks? I don’t think there’s ever a clear answer to that question. Long-term business and investing skill is the intersection of getting rich and staying rich. Different generations whose formative experience was calm and growth-oriented may be better at getting rich – they’re willing to take risks. But generations whose upbringing was punctuated by crash and decline may be more attuned to staying rich – conservatism, room for error, and rational pessimism. The best investors find a balance between the two, toggling between the two traits at the right time. But that’s rare. And the reason it’s rare even among smart people is because the psychological scars of our experiences don’t discriminate on IQ. Or more specifically, they sit above IQ in the information hierarchy that people use to make decisions. Michael Batnick has made the point that having experienced a big event doesn’t necessarily make you better prepared for the next big event. Few bond investors – even grizzled veterans – have lived through a sustained rise in interest rates. But, he writes: So what? Will the current rate hike look like the last one, or the one before that? Will different asset classes behave similarly, the same, or the exact opposite? On the one hand, people that have been investing through the events of 1987, 2000 and 2008 have experienced a lot of different markets. On the other hand, isn’t it possible that this experience can lead to overconfidence? Failing to admit you’re wrong? Anchoring to previous outcomes? It’s never clear one way or another. People with different experience than us aren’t necessarily smarter. They just see the investing world through a different lens. Part of why learning through experience isn’t necessarily good or bad is due to the lessons we take away from experience. Jason Zweig of The Wall Street Journal once noted: I often like to say that people are too good at learning lessons, and the lesson that people should have learned after the Internet bubble burst in early 2000 was that day trading is a really bad idea. But people are too good at learning lessons, so they learned an overprecise lesson, which was that day trading Internet stocks is a really bad idea. So in recent years we see the same people who day-traded internet stocks going into day-trading foreign currency. I have a theory about why this hyper-specific learning happens. My son is three. He’s amazing. But he’s three. So he doesn’t know very much. What’s amazing about a three-year-old is that they learn fast, but virtually everything they know came from what they’ve observed and experienced firsthand. He’s never sat through a history lecture, spent an afternoon analyzing stock charts, or had a long dinner with someone from another country. Everything in his head came directly from an experience he’s had. He therefore has no idea how most things work. Imagine trying to get him to understand the nuances of NATO; impossible. Or LIBOR; can’t do it. Enormous, important chunks of the world do not exist in his brain. He has no concept of them. But he doesn’t walk around confused all day. He understands his world perfectly. It’s a world shaped by, and explained with, the few mental models he’s picked up in his three years. Ice cream is good. Blankets are warm. Toys are fun. Naps are not. I don’t need a bath. That’s his world. And everything he comes across fits into one of those simple three-year-old mental models that he’s built in his head. When his parents tell him it’s time to put his toys away, or that he can’t eat ice cream for breakfast, his frustration is caused by experiencing something that doesn’t fit into his mental models. Ice cream is good, so if mom says I can’t have it, that’s not good and I’m going to cry. He has no concept of a balanced diet, or the consequences of a poor diet, even if we explain it to him. But, in the moment, he’s not looking for an explanation. He’s trying to match the world he lives in to a mental model he has in his head. Even though he knows almost nothing, he doesn’t realize it, because he tells himself a coherent story about what’s going on based on the little he does know. And we all do this, regardless of age. I don’t know what I don’t know. No one does. But we can’t walk around confused all day. Nassim Taleb says “I want to live happily in a world I don’t understand.” Which is exactly what we do. We take the world we live in and try to make a coherent story out of it based on the mental models we’ve developed during our lifetimes. Those models are only useful when they’re simple. That’s when they become automatic. Complex, nuanced models – like the art of negotiating – are hard. But simple ones like “say thank you when someone helps you” – are easy to grasp. This is where Jason’s point comes back in. Specific lessons are easier to build mental models with, so they’re what we take away from experience. Learning that you’re susceptible to the siren song of bubbles is hard and nuanced. But learning that “tech stocks hurt me so I should avoid tech stocks in the future” is an easy lesson. My son could pick it up. It doesn’t matter that it’s not a very good lesson. It’s an easy one, so we use it. There’s a related issue here about how we process the memories of our experiences. In his book on World War II, historian Joseph Balkoski writes that “One firm lesson that serious World War II researchers have learned is that the reliability of human memory varies drastically from one veteran to the next.” Veterans recalled experiences that were verifiably false. Time, Balkoski writes, “can play subtle tricks on the mind, and the historian’s thorniest problem is to separate those rare fully substantiated accounts from the more typical yarns that time has established.” Daniel Kahneman calls this the “experiencing self” and the “remembering self.” They can be two completely different minds. Memories of big events are influenced by a few punctuated moments, not the full story. Kahneman once gave the example of a study showing how people remember colonoscopies: [What influenced memories was] determined completely differently from what we would have thought. It was simply an average of the worst moment in the colonoscopy, and how badly it hurt when the procedure ended. Those two variables really gave you excellent prediction of, when you ask people, “Would you want to have another one of those, or would you rather have another painful procedure?” Or you ask them, how much total pain was it? How bad was the whole experience? He later wrote: The experiencing self is the one that answers the question: “Does it hurt now?” The remembering self is the one that answers the question: “How was it, on the whole?” Memories are all we get to keep from our experience of living, and the only perspective that we can adopt as we think about our lives is therefore that of the remembering self. An investing version of this came a few years ago. The S&P 500 gained 27% in 2009 – a fantastic return. Yet when asked in early 2010, 66% of investors thought it fell that year, according to a survey by Franklin Templeton. The market then rose 31% in 2013. That was the fifth-best annual return since World War II. But a 2014 Gallup poll asked 1,000 active investors how much they thought it increased, and only 7% knew the gain was over 30%. One-third thought it was flat or declined. Perhaps the explanation for this gap between experience and memory is the market trauma that took place in early 2009, or the political circus of 2013, scared investors enough to create specific memories that were stronger and easier to recall than the actual overall experience. It’s also an example of relying on mental models that are simple and easy to recall, even if they’re not complete. The imperfect side of memory complicates the question of “can we learn lessons without experiencing events?” It’s not even clear that people who experience big events can learn from their own past. They can be influenced by their past in a way that guides their future decisions. Learning is something different. But let’s assume you go out of your way to be as open-minded as possible, becoming a student of history and putting yourself in others’ shoes. Can you learn? Yes, of course. But there are endless asterisks. The hardest part of studying history is that you know how the story ends, often before you begin researching a topic. And I don’t think you can un-remember that fact when reading about an event. Particularly difficult is attempting to put yourself in someone’s shoes and imagining their emotions when you know how the story ends but they, at the time, did not. SEAL Team 6 gained fame after it killed Osama Bin Laden. Video games and movies were made glorifying the raid. But President Obama later said the odds placed on whether Bin Laden was actually in the target house were 50/50. Last year I heard one of the SEALS involved in the mission speak at a conference. He said, regardless of whether Bin Laden was in the house, the team felt the odds they’d all be killed in the mission were also 50/50. So here we have a 75% chance that the raid would have ended in disappointment or catastrophe. Which is not something the people creating glorified video games of an epic adventure think about. They highlight the badass success and glory, because that’s how the story ended. But no one knew that before or during the raid. A corollary in business and investing is that there is a thin line between bold and reckless. The hindsight view of outcomes can blind us to other scenarios that easily could have happened, which makes learning lessons about how much risk we should take in the future difficult. I can say “2009 taught us that you should buy when there’s blood in the streets.” But it’s easy to forget how bad the financial crisis was, and how different the outcome could have been. Fed chairman Ben Bernanke allegedly told a group of congressmen in 2008 to prepare for martial law within 48 hours if the banking system were allowed to collapse. That’s the kind of thing that’s easy to forget as we look back and learn lessons. Same with business. We think Mark Zuckerberg is a genius for turning down an offer to sell Facebook to Yahoo. But people criticize Yahoo with as much passion for turning down its own buyout offer from Microsoft. Hindsight is the only difference between the two. What is the lesson for entrepreneurs here? I have no idea. I don’t think anyone does. That’s the point. “The customer is always right” and “customers don’t know what they want” are both accepted business wisdom. Examples of both are only known with hindsight, and it’s impossible to think about these topics with an open mind when you know the eventual outcome of how certain products perform. Another hard part about learning vicariously is that there’s a difference between learning and learning so well that it compels you into action. A 13-year-old girl being killed by a drunk driver is something everyone reading this article will agree is atrocious. Yet virtually all of us will say it’s atrocious without taking further action. But Candace Lightner’s daughter was that 13-year-old girl, so she created Mothers Against Drunk Driving to do something about it. Personal experience is often what pushes you from “I get it” to “I get it so well that I’m going to do something about it.” Same in investing. Spreadsheets can model the historic frequency of big declines. But they can’t model the feeling of coming home, looking at your kids, and wondering if you’ve made a mistake that will impact their lives. Studying history makes you feel like you understand something. But until you’ve lived through it and personally felt its consequences, you may not understand it enough to change your behavior. Anchoring to your own history is not a problem with a clear and simple answer. There is no, “Just do X and you can overcome this problem.” It’s one of those things where the best we can do it to become a little more aware of its presence. Going out of your way to speak with people whose backgrounds are different than yours, knowing that their view of the world may look nothing like your own, though they are just as sure of their views as you are of yours, is a humbling thing. But it’s so important to expand your mind to the range of possibilities you may come across as an investor. I think it’s probably the most important kind of learning an investor can accomplish – going out of their way to figure out what kind of worldview and experience they haven’t had that others who have just as much influence over market outcomes have had. As Jim Grant says, “Successful investing is getting others to agree with you … later.” If those other people will never agree with me because their personal history blinds them to my view, then my view and my forecasts may never become reality. A practical side of this is having room for error in your decisions and forecasts, knowing that your view of the world is a tiny fraction of all the other views that can influence the economy. Another takeaway is remembering that people whose views and decisions look crazy to you may be less crazy than you think, because they’re being made by people whose views on risk and reward were shaped in a different world than you’ve experienced. I don’t understand why someone would want to put all their money into gold after the financial crisis, or crypto in recent years. But my financial experience is probably different than people who have done those things. I don’t get why anyone would want to become a lawyer, or a zoologist, or a pilot; those things don’t appeal to me at all. But maybe all lawyers and zoologists and pilots experienced something in their life that made those jobs appealing. And maybe they’d be appealing to me if I had those same experiences. When you realize that other people can make decisions that look crazy to you but make perfect sense to them because they’ve experienced something you haven’t, you become less cynical about the investing industry and more focused on whatever works for you. We should always try to make people better informed, but with the idea that people with the same information will often come to different conclusions. “Personal finance is more personal than it is finance,” says Carl Richards. To each their own. I always try to remember that before criticizing others’ decisions. “Your yesterday was not my yesterday, and your today is not even my today,” writes the book Our Kids. When the study was over the blind cats were left in a fully lit room. Forty-eight hours later, all were effectively normal, regaining their “vision” and learning how to match the world around them to their movements. Eight weeks of seeing their world taught them virtually nothing. Two days of experiencing it, and they had it all figured out.

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Kevin T. Kilty Figure 1. Spectrum of surface pressure as measured at Cheyenne, Wyoming, during a part of the period of 1984-1996. The spectral analysis shown in Figure 1 I did on a whim. I had no idea what I would find by looking at the surface air pressure records, but what I saw in this record surprised me greatly. I do not have any answer to this puzzle at all, and my searches of the WWW have turned up suprisingly little to help me. I think this is a first rate amateur science project. I will tell all that I know about the topic in this somewhat long posting. It is obvious to everyone that the weather varies over a daily cycle and over the course of a year. There are also the weather cycles of frontal systems in the mid-latitudes, which are strongest in spring and autumn and do not follow a regular cycle in time. One might wonder if there are other regular weather cycles too subtle to readily detect. Figure 1 shows a spectral analysis of surface pressure as recorded at Cheyenne, Wyoming during some part of the period 1984 to 1996. There are several sharp signals in the spectrum. I cannot quote the period of these signals precisely because of the scale of this plot and limited resolution of my method, but the most obvious cycle lies between periods of 356 and 374 days. This is the well known annual cycle of surface pressure which results from the changing temperature of the ground surface and atmosphere through the year. Weather stations above 400m elevation have lower pressure during the winter; stations below 400m show the opposite. The next peak occurs near 182 days, or twice per year. It is the first harmonic of the annual cycle; and results from surface temperature not following the changing insolation exactly. The next largest signal occurs at a period near 29.68 days. The length of the data stream (somewhere near 12 years) permits an ultimate resolution of only 0.02 cycles per day. Thus I can say with some authority that the true period of this signal is between 29.48 days and 29.88 days (remember that period=1/frequency). This brackets one cycle per lunar month and suggests very likely that the cause involves the lunar tide. This explanation may leave us to wonder why there is no prominant peak near 14.84 days as well, which would represent the semilunar month. The only other interesting signal occurs near 60 days. I have no idea what it represents. It may be the sixth harmonic of the annual cycle, but that leaves us to wonder why the other intermediate harmonics are not also present. As I said earlier, the large pressure variations that accompany mid-latitude storms do not occur on regular cycles and contribute only to the noisy background of this spectrum. An enormous amount of daily weather information, including temperature, precipitation, winds, and pressure are available on-line in records of the national climatic data center at http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/. These pressure data are from Summary of the Day (SOD) archives, which are data set TD-3210. Just as our moon and sun cause ocean tides, they also cause tides in the solid earth and in the atmosphere. Since a general discussion of tides will only slow us down at this point, I plan to merely summarize the tidal components that a person often observes in the ocean. For someone who is interested in an elementary explanation of tides more thorough than mine please visit this web site. If you desire a more mathematical description, please refer either to Appendix II at the end of this document, or I refer you to Lamb's book on Hydrodynamics. There is a semi-diurnal tide (twice per day) which results from a combination of lunar and solar gravity, and the curved path in space the Earth follows as a result. There is also a once per day (diurnal) component which results when the moon and sun are not directly over the equator. Because the moon revolves around the Earth once per lunar month, there is also a semi-monthly and monthly component to the tides. These components are more or less visible over the entire oceans depending on local influences such as shape of shoreline, depth of local ocean and so forth. We expect to observe all these same tidal components in the atmosphere as well, but there are some differences. First, let me summarize what seems known about the short period tides in the atmosphere. By short period I mean tides that go though a cycle in one day or less. The semi-diurnal lunar tide (L2) is the only lunar component that is observable, and it is only possible to observe easily in the tropics. The other lunar tides are too small to observe in ordinary weather records. The diurnal solar tide (S1) is large enough to observe but has an amplitude that varies quite a lot from one place to another. This seems to imply that it results not from the sun's gravitational field (tide), but from local variations in how the sun heats the earth and air. The semi-diurnal solar tide (S2) is small, but it is much larger than (L2), which is somewhat unexpected. Lord Kelvin suggested in the 19th century that this was because the atmosphere had a resonance near a period of 12 hours that couples only through heating of the atmosphere. These tides amount to only 1mb (1 millibar) of pressure variation in the tropics, where they are largest, and only a hundredth of that or so in mid latitudes. The solar tides, which actually result from heating, not gravity, are quite interesting. They all appear to be harmonics of a 24 hour solar day. Some of the components propagate westward with the sun each day. Other components are called non-propagating. They too are harmonics of the 24 hour day, but they remain stationary at one locale. Although non-propagating components are particularly mysterious, they appear to result from local release of latent heat that the solar tide triggers. By analogy with the short period tides, you might expect to observe long period tides in the atmosphere as well. There is an annual tide from the annual variation in solar insolation, which I alluded to in the first paragraph. Figure 2 shows the average of station pressure at Peterson Field in Colorado Springs, Colorado over a 15 year period from 1950 to 1965. It shows this annual variation of solar tide. The peak amplitude occurs in the first week of August when it is about 0.30inHg or 10mb above the least mean amplitude which occurs sometime in mid February. You will also notice that the pressure variation does not follow a perfect sinusoid, but instead, the pressure rise is quite steep in late June, and falls quite abruptly in mid November, just about the time of the first big storm each winter season. This lack of sinsoidicity leads to a second harmonic in the annual cycle, so there is a semi-annual component which is very prominent in Figure 1. I will refer to some results in this data later. Figure 2. Singularity diagram built by averaging surface pressure each day of the year over 15 years (1950-1965) at Peterson Field, Colorado Springs, Colorado. According to all sources I have read to this point this annual cycle (and perhaps its first harmonic) is the only long period tide observed in the troposphere. There are monthly tidal components observed in the mesosphere and thermosphere, but these supposedly do not appear at the Earth's surface. Now I will point to Figure 1 again and ask what this represents. Is this apparent 29.68 day period truly the lunar tidal period? It is perhaps fortuitous that I produced the spectrum of Figure 1 on my first attempt. I have not kept any notes regarding exactly how I processed this data. I do not know, for example, whether I used the station pressure or the sea level pressure. I know for certain that I did not use the entire period from 1984 to 1996, but I am uncertain what subinterval I did use. I do know I used the Burg algorithm to calculate the spectrum. In Figure 1 the 29.68 day component is the third most significant signal, just behind the annual and semi-annual signals. In order to verify what I had done several years earlier, I re-analyzed this data again recently. Figure 3 shows a spectrum, calculated using the Burg algorithm once again, of the 4017 days that comprise the record of 1984 through 1994. The 29.68 day signal is still apparent, but it is slightly less significant than it was in the original analysis. This tells me that the 19.68 day signal, whatever it may represent, varies in significance from one time interval to another. This is, perhaps, even more interesting than having a signal that is extremely consistent. Figure 3. Spectrum of surface pressure as measured at Cheyenne, Wyoming, over the full period of 1984-1994. Burg Algorithm 708 point estimator. One thing that you may notice about Figure 3 is that there are several apparent signals near 29.68 days. There are also several different ways to measure a lunar month. Most of these measures have a period near 27.5 days. For example, the anomalistic month (one perigee to the next) has a mean period of 27.55 day. Certainly there would be some component of lunar tide that would follow this period, whether or not we could observe it. However, the synodic lunar month, which has a period near 29.53 days is probably the most significant. This lunar period is one that measures the duration between one lunar crossing of the solar meridian to the next. In other words, it is exactly the period of what in the ocean we call the "Spring Tide." While 29.53 days is a mean synodic period, the actual period from one lunar cycle to another can vary by 13 hours. Easily this is enough variation to explain many discrepencies in our observations. I, personally did not expect to observe a tidal component over the lunar month for the following two reasons. I have had several occasions where I have had to make tidal corrections for geophysical surveys. The largest tidal correction I've ever made was a little over 100microgals, while the Earth's gravitational acceleration is about 1000gals. The tidal effect is only about 10-7 that of the Earth itself. A sobering thought is that the open ocean tides are a mere 0.10m height. I have added a second appendix to this note which outlines a more exact theory, but needless to say, we expect atmospheric tides to be quite small and difficult to observe. My point is that tides are a miniscule effect compared to the 5 to 10mb variations of storm systems. However, the 29.68 day signal is quite apparent on Figures 1, and 3. You may have already begun to wonder what a spectral analysis of the singularity diagram in Figure 2 shows. This is extremely interesting, because the singularity diagram begins on the same day each year. If any cycle has a phase that varies from one year to the next it is removed through averaging in the preparation of this diagram. So, only signals that are some multiple of a yearly cycle can show up. First there is an annual component. The next most significant component is twice per year, and the next two, which are about equal in significance, are 4 cycles per year and 19 cycles per year. The 6 times per year component, which is visible in both figures 1 and 3, isn't here at all. Either it didn't exist in the period 1950-1965, or it didn't exist at Colorado Springs (Only about 150 miles south of Cheyenne), or it has random changes of phase that average away in the singularity diagram. This 60 day cycle is interesting in its own right. As I said earlier, I have very little information regarding this phenomenon, and I can find precious little on the world wide web. In fact, a search of the web soon becomes frustrating because I have found that so many people use the term "atmospheric tide" to mean the anomalous ocean tide which results from the pressure disturbance of a moving storm system. These people are not describing a tide in the atmosphere, which is what I am interested in here, but rather one in the ocean. I have found a few references to long period tides in the atmosphere. For example, tides in the mesosphere and thermosphere are mentioned. There is also a book in which Richard Lindzen has written about tides in the atmosphere which may be a good source of information, and an even older book by Sydney Chapman. I hope to get one of these books soon. I do not expect that we are blazing new scientific trails here, but it may be that no one has paid much attention to such long period tides in the atmosphere. Here is a list of things to ponder. First, the observation may be spurious. Perhaps the suggested spectral component is... In conclusion, I have observed an unexpected phenomenon,which I have assumed is related to the monthly lunar tide, and which is rarely if ever mentioned in text books or on the WWW. I know very little about the phenomenon and I know there is an enormous field of research that could be conducted using data that is already on the WWW. If anyone is interested in pursuing any of this project let me provide you a little information to get started. I have mentioned how to find the SOD data at NOAA. When I first looked at the data that comprise Figure 1 several years ago this data was free to download. It generally costs money to download now, and the cost is roughly 0.10 dollars per KiloByte. Yes, you and I know the true cost of delivering data over the internet is just about zero, but NOAA has the data and they call the shots here. There is a way around this. You can download huge monthly files of global SOD data from NCDC from a data set different than TD-3210. There are restrictions that this data not be shared with commercial entities. The monthly files are available from 1994 to the present time. Each file is about 5+ MBytes in WinZip format and contains SOD data from 1000 or more stations from around the world. It is a huge data resource, and a cooperative effort among several people interested in weather could download it all and share it. Whether you decide to purchase SOD records from NCDC, or download the free global SOD records, you should begin with a download of a file of station names which is available for each, and download a file containing a description of the data and its format. This will help you find exactly the station name of a locality you wish to analyze and what data are actually available. Please keep in mind that the SOD archival data is not comprehensive. There are many stations that have kept only daily temperature data for most of their existence. Other stations have an extremely complete set of data. You will have to search a data file to see if it contains appropriate data. I can supply a program which can read TD-3210 SOD data records and build an ASCII file of raw data. I will soon write a similar program to handle the global SOD records if they are different in any way. I will supply source code as well as a 16-bit executable which you can run from a DOS prompt under DOS, Windows, or NT. You may find the FFT and Burg algorithms, along with instructions at my web site. If, after reviewing all of this information, you yet have questions, please send me an e-mail message, and together we can walk though things to get you started. Very truly yours, Kevin T. Kilty A spectrum is a collection of simple components that are added together to produce a complex signal. When we use the term spectrum we typically mean sine and cosine functions as components, but there are other possibilities. One new, and interesting example are the components called "wavelets." The prototype spectrum is the collection of various pure colors of light that go into making white light, and which a prism or grating will separate. In all of the cases that I discussed in this note the signal is a time series. They are numerical values of some quantity collected at equally spaced time intervals. Strictly speaking, a true spectrum exists only for time series that are statistically the same over all time intervals, and which have existed for all time. Since neither of these restrictions obtain in practice, we can do no better than estimate the true spectrum. How well we estimate depends on three things: Aliasing is a difficult concept to grasp, but it is essential to understanding spectral analysis. All of the data that we work with consists of numbers taken at discrete instants of time. Generally the time interval is a constant. However, the phenomenon that we are observing has a value at all intermediate times. It is obvious that if we collect data too infrequently, we cannot detect rapid variations in between the successive samples. But, the situation is actually worse than this. If we sample too slowly we risk confusing very fast variations with very slow ones. A simple example is easy to come by. Suppose that the signal we sample is a sine function with a period of 1 second. Suppose that we sample this each second and estimate the spectrum. We think that the spectrum would show a single component with a period of one second. But we are sampling so slowly that each number is the same, and instead of detecting a variation, we estimate that the data are constant in time. A one second period sign wave is aliased to look exactly like a DC signal in this example. This confusion in assigning frequency is called "aliasing." To avoid it we have to sample frequently enough that no significant components are missed; or we have to electronically filter the data prior to taking samples. The highest possible frequency we can assign without ambiguity is one cycle for each two samples, and is called the Nyquist frequency. The effect of aliasing is generally not easy to describe, but almost everyone is familiar with two examples. Phantom patterns in an image can result from aliasing. Moire patterns, for example, result from aliasing a periodic spatial image. Another example is a strobe light which samples a rotating object so slowly that it aliases the motion and makes it appear stationary. Thus, sometimes aliasing is useful. We collect data for only a brief span of time. If our data are varying extremely slowly, we cannot expect to detect this variation accurately in a brief span of data. Therefore, the span of our data certainly sets a limit to the slowest signal we can detect. Once again, the situation is actually a little worse. The span of data that we measure determines the best resolution we can attain between any adjacent components of a spectrum. Amateur astronomers will recognize an analogy with telescopes. Having a limited aperture on a telescope limits resolution of closely spaced objects. In an analogous manner signal time span limits the resolution of closely spaced components of the spectrum. The analogy with optics goes further. In order to improve the resolution of a small aperture, a lense can be darkened progressively from its center to its edge. The resulting apodized objective will provide better resolution of closely spaced objects at the expense of a darker image. In time series, likewise, we may taper data using a window such as the Tukey window (cosine taper), and the Parzen window (cubic polynomial taper). Applying these windows improves resolution, but it does so at the expense of discounting information, especially at the extremes of our data. There are many ways of estimating spectra, but a common way is to use a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). An FFT requires evenly spaced data. Sometimes data are evenly spaced when they are collected. However, if they are not, we have to interpolate the data. This links a spectral estimate with the performance of an interpolating algorithm. An FFT has a further effect. If we have samples of data over a particular time span, the FFT algorithm implicitly assumes that the data are periodic and have a period equal to this same time span. For example, if I extract a segment of tide data that is three months in length, the fourier transform assumes that the tides just repeat in this same pattern every three months. Obviously this is not so, and it leads to some error in estimating the true spectrum. One might conclude that an FFT is like a Fourier series that has been truncated at the Nyquist frequency. However, this characteristic of the FFT to make all signals periodic makes it behave as a trigonometric interpolator. It produces a spectrum that is an aliased Fourier series. An FFT also errs in estimating the spectrum in another way. If the beginning and end of the sampled signal are not equal, the time series is discontinuous, and the FFT will calculate too much power in the high frequency part of the signal. The same thing happens if any derivatives of the data are discontinous. Another way to estimate a spectrum is as follows. We imagine that we can pass our series of data through a device designed to figure out what information there is in the data and remove it. What comes out of the box, then, is a series of random numbers completely devoid of information. Such a device is the inverse of my acoustic box! We put in a signal and what comes out is white noise. The only device that could do this is one that acts like the inverse of the spectrum. So if we know the operation of the device we also know the spectrum. There is a computer algorithm, due to John Burg, which can figure out how to remove all the information from a signal. Once the algorithm figure how to do this, we can use its design to obtain the spectrum of the data. One advantage of this method is its ability to precisely locate peaks in the spectrum. The spectra of pressure cycles results from the Burg algorithm. In this appendix I will do what I said in the opening paragraph would only slow me down. I will discuss some mathematical aspects of atmospheric tides. To find what is known as the tide-raising potential, I shall use the classical theory of gravity, confine it to the Earth-Moon system, and ignore rotation of the Earth. First let me write the potential due to the Earth at a point (P) on its surface. F=GM/r; r=radius of the Earth, M=its mass, and G=universal gravitational constant. From this potential we can obtain Earth's gravitational field (acceleration) as g= - dF/dr = - GM/r2. We can write a very similar equation for the potential due to the Moon at the same point W = Gm/R; m=Moons mass and R=distance from the Moon to P. It is extremely inconvenient to carry around two equations written in terms of two distances, so we will do something that is common in physics, we will use a Taylor expansion to write R in terms of D (earth-moon distance), r, and a. The relationship is suggested in Figure 4. W = - Gm(r/D)3(cos2a-1/3)/r Air is a fluid and it will organize itself at equilibrium so that an equipotential surface is also a surface of constant pressure. In my idealized model, composed of a spherical earth that does not rotate, if the Moon were not present the equipotential surfaces would be spherical shells, the height of which we would find as z = F/g. However, the presence of the Moon disturbs this situation so that the true potential heights are z = (F+W)/g. The disturbed geopotential height is W/g, and you may calculate its amplitude range between a = 0, directly beneath the Moon, and a = p/2. The result is 0.7m. This 0.7m of air at sea level produces a pressure of 0.08mb. Thus, the equilibrium tide model produces a lunar (L2) amplitude of 0.08mb pressure--a very small pressure indeed. Figure 4. Earth-Moon system and explanation of mathematical notation and symbols. The simple equilibrium tide I have outlined above hardly applies to the real Earth for two reasons which follow. I will not go into any details here. I'll stop at this point. I think you amateur scientists should be convinced at this point how complex the study of atmospheric tides could become.

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The Mesha Stele, or Moabite Stone The Mesha Stele, also known as the Moabite Stone, is a stele (inscribed stone) set up around 840 BCE by King Mesha of Moab (now part of modern Jordan). Mesha tells how Chemosh, the god of Moab, had been angry with his people and had allowed them to be subjugated to Israel, but then Chemosh returned and assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab. Mesha also describes his many building projects. Some say it is written in the Phoenician alphabet, but others say it is written in the Old Hebrew script, which is closely related. The stone was discovered intact by Frederick Augustus Klein, an Anglican missionary, at the site of ancient Dibon (now Dhiban, Jordan), in August 1868. Klein was led to it by a local Bedouin, although neither of them could read the text. Before it could be seen by another European, the next year it was smashed by local villagers during a dispute over its ownership. A “squeeze” (a papier-mâché impression) had been obtained by a local Arab on behalf of Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, and fragments containing most of the inscription (613 letters out of about a thousand) were later recovered and pieced together. The squeeze and the reassembled Mesha Stele are now in the Louvre Museum. Watch the Video: https://youtu.be/IryEJ9vPw0o What is Significant About the Mesha Stele? - The stone was discovered intact in August 1868 by Frederick Augustus Klein, an Anglican missionary, at the site of ancient Dibon (now Dhiban, Jordan) - After several failed negotiations to purchase it, the Mesha Stele was broken into dozens of pieces and scattered among the Bedouin. In the 1870s several of the fragments were recovered by scholars and reconstructed—comprising only two-thirds of the original Moabite Stone. A paper imprint (called a squeeze) that had been taken of the intact inscription allowed scholars to fill in the missing text.* - The Mesha Stele is the longest Iron Age inscription ever found in the region - It contains references to Israel and to YHVH – the God of the Israelites - The Mesha Stele story parallels an episode in the Bible’s Books of Kings (2 Kings 3:4–8)with some differences (due to different perspectives – see below), - It speaks of Mesha imploring the god of Chemosh, the god of the Moabites, to go before him in battle. We see here how a leader of an ancient people sought the power of their god to go before them and help them achieve victory. - The Mesha Inscription provides valuable information on the similarities between ancient Hebrew and the Moabite language, and the political relationship between Moab and Israel at one moment in the 9th century BCE - The Mesha Stele is regarded as genuine by the vast majority of biblical archaeologists today, on the basis that there were no other inscriptions of comparable age known to scholars at the time. According to one scholar, it is impossible that it could have been forged. Why is The Mesha Stele Evidence for the Truth of the Bible? Both documents, 2 Kings 3 and the Mesha Inscription, describe the same event, the revolt of Mesha, but from entirely different perspectives. Mesha made his record of the event on a stone slab, or stela, 3 ft high and 2 ft wide. Unfortunately the stone was broken into pieces by the local Bedouin before it could be acquired by the authorities. About two-thirds of the pieces were recovered and those, along with an impression made before the stela was destroyed, allowed all but the last line to be reconstructed. There are a total of 34 lines, written in Moabite, a language almost identical to Hebrew. It is the longest monumental inscription yet found in Palestine. The Perspective of Events from the Bible: 2 Kings 3 The Bible in 2 Kings 3 recounts how Joram, Jehoshaphat, and the king of Edom combined forces to attempt to bring Moab back under Israelite control. They attacked from the south and were successful in routing the Moabite forces and destroying many towns (2 Kgs 3:24–25). But when the coalition tried to dislodge Mesha from Kir Hareseth (modern Kerak), they were unsuccessful. After Mesha sacrificed his oldest son on the ramparts of the city, “the fury against Israel was great they withdrew and returned to their own land” (2 Kgs 3:27). The campaign must have taken place between 848 and 841 BC, the only time when Joram and Jehoshaphat were both on the throne. Although the campaign met with some success, it appears that Moab retained its independence. This is confirmed by the Mesha Inscription. The Mesha Inscription Perspectiveof Events The Mesha Inscription (see actual text below) gives us “the rest of the story.” It reads, in fact, like a chapter from the Old Testament. Its language, terminology and phraseology are exactly the same as what we find in the Bible. Mesha credits his successful revolt and recapture of Moabite territory, as well as other accomplishments, to Chemosh, national god of Moab. He does not, of course, record his defeat in the south at the hands of the coalition armies. Similarly, although the Bible records Mesha’s revolt, it gives no details on his successes. So each record, accurate in its own way, records events from a different perspective. The Actual Text of The Mesha Stele The translation used here is that published by James King (1878), based on translations by M. Ganneau and Dr.Ginsberg. Line numbers added to the published version have been removed. I am Mesha, son of Chemosh-gad, king of Moab, the Dibonite. My father reigned over Moab thirty years, and I have reigned after my father. And I have built this sanctuary for Chemosh in Karchah, a sanctuary of salvation, for he saved me from all aggressors, and made me look upon all mine enemies with contempt. Omri was king of Israel, and oppressed Moab during many days, and Chemosh was angry with his aggressions. His son succeeded him, and he also said, I will oppress Moab. In my days he said, Let us go, and I will see my desire upon him and his house, and Israel said, I shall destroy it for ever. Now Omri took the land of Madeba, and occupied it in his day, and in the days of his son, forty years. And Chemosh had mercy on it in my time. And I built Baal-meon and made therein the ditch, and I built Kiriathaim. And the men of Gad dwelled in the country of Ataroth from ancient times, and the king of Israel fortified Ataroth. I assaulted the wall and captured it, and killed all the warriors of the city for the well-pleasing of Chemosh and Moab, and I removed from it all the spoil, and offered it before Chemosh in Kirjath; and I placed therein the men of Siran, and the men of Mochrath. And Chemosh said to me, Go take Nebo against Israel, and I went in the night and I fought against it from the break of day till noon, and I took it: and I killed in all seven thousand men, but I did not kill the women and maidens, for I devoted them to Ashtar-Chemosh;and I took from it the vessels of Jehovah [YHVH], and offered them before Chemosh. And the king of Israel fortified Jahaz, and occupied it, when he made war against me, and Chemosh drove him out before me, and I took from Moab two hundred men in all, and placed them in Jahaz, and took it to annex it to Dibon. I built Karchah the wall of the forest, and the wall of the Hill. I have built its gates and I have built its towers. I have built the palace of the king, and I made the prisons for the criminals within the wall. And there were no wells in the interior of the wall in Karchah. And I said to all the people, ‘Make you every man a well in his house.’ And I dug the ditch for Karchah with the chosen men of Israel. I built Aroer, and I made the road across the Arnon. I took Beth- Bamoth for it was destroyed. I built Bezer for it was cut down by the armed men of Daybon, for all Daybon was now loyal; and I reigned from Bikran,which I added to my land. And I built Beth-Gamul, and Beth-Diblathaim, and Beth Baal-Meon, and I placed there the poor people of the land. And as to Horonaim, the men of Edom dwelt therein, on the descent from old. And Chemosh said to me, Go down, make war against Horonaim, and take it. And I assaulted it, And I took it, for Chemosh restored it in my days. Wherefore I made…. …year…and I…. Comparing the Biblical Record to the Mesha Inscription The main problem in correlating the Mesha Inscription with the Bible has to do with synchronizing the chronology of the two sources. 2 Kings 3:5 (cf. 1:1) simply states, “But after Ahab died, the king of Moab rebelled against the king of Israel.” Ahab, father of Joram, died in ca. 853 BC, so Mesha’s revolt must have taken place some time after 853 BC. According to the Mesha Inscription: “Now Omri took the land of Madeba, and occupied it in his day, and in the days of his son, forty years.” The Mesha Inscription not only mentions Mesha, king of Moab, known in the Bible, but also Omri, one of the most powerful kings of the Northern Kingdom (1 Kings 16:21–28), who ruled 885–873 BC. Omri established a dynasty which lasted until his grandson Joram was assassinated by Jehu in 841 BC. The term “son” in the inscription simply means descendent, as we know from the Bible and other ancient Near Eastern texts. Thiele gives absolute years for the period from the beginning of the reign of Omri to the sixth year of Joram as 885 to 846 BC, or 40 years (1983:217). Thus, it appears that Mesha revolted in the sixth year of Joram, ca. 846 BC. The Bible indicates that the retaliation by Joram recorded in 2 Kings 3 took place immediately upon Mesha’s revolt (verses 5–7), or 846 BC. This date falls within the time period of 848–841 BC when both Joram and Jehoshaphat were ruling. The God of Israel vs. Chemosh the god of Moab The Mesha Stele contains the earliest mention of YHVH, the God of the Israelites, outside of the Bible. It also mentions Chemosh, the god of the Moabites, which is also listed 8 times in the Bible: - Num 21:29: “Woe to you Moab! You have perished, O people of Chemosh!” - Judges 11:24 “Do you not possess what Chemosh your god gives you to possess? So whatever the LORD our God has drive out before us, we will possess it.” - 1 Kings 11:6-7: “Solomon did evil in the sight of the LORD (YHVH), and did not fully follow the LORD, as did his father David. The Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the abomination of Moab, on the hill that is east of Jerusalem…” - 1 Kings 11:33: “because they have forsaken Me, and worshipped … Chemosh the god of the Moabites…” - 2 Kings 23:13: “..Chemosh, the abomination of the Moabites” - Jer 48:7: “For because you have trusted in your works and your treasures, You shall also be taken. And Chemosh shall go forth into captivity, his priests and his princes together.” - Jer 48:13: “Moab shall be ashamed of Chemosh” - Jer 48:42; 48:46: “And Moab shall be destroyed as a people, becasue he has magnified himself against the LORD… Woe to you, O Moab! The people of Chemosh perish”. Chemosh is mentioned 11 times in the Mesha Stele (see text above), as is idolized by Mesha as the god of his nation. Of course in the inscription he tells his view of how his god led him, protected him, and cared for him: - Mesha made a high place for Chemosh, since Chemosh gave Mesha victory over his enemies (line 3) - Because Chemosh was angry with Moab, Omri oppressed Moab (line 5) - Chemosh gave Moab back her territory (line 9) - Mesha slew the people of Ata-roth to satisfy Chemosh (lines 11–12) - Mesha dragg-ed the altar-hearth(?) of Ataroth before Chemosh (lines 12–13) - Chemosh directed Mesha to attack the town of Nebo (line 14) - Mesha devoted the inhabitants of Nebo to Chemosh (line 17) - The altar-hearths(?) of Yahweh from Nebo were dragged before Chemosh (lines 17–18) - Chemosh drove the king of Israel out of Jahaz (lines 18–19) - Chemosh directed Mesha to fight against Horanaim (line 32) - Chemosh gave Mesha victory over Horanaim (line 33) Other Archaeological Evidence Supporting the Bible According to Numbers 21: 21-25,31, Dibon was captured from the Amorites by Israel and assigned to the tribe of Reuben (Jos 13:17). But evidently it was reassigned to the tribe of Gad, since Gad built the city (Nu 32:34) and it was called “Dibon of Gad” (Nu 33:45, 46). The ruins of Dhiban were excavated 1950–1956 and 1965, and a city wall and gateway were found, as well as a large podium which the excavators believe supported the royal quarter constructed by Mesha. In addition, a text from around the time of Mesha was found which refers to the “temple of Che[mosh],” and nearly 100 cisterns were found on the site and in the surrounding area, possibly made in response to Mesha’s directive to “make yourself each a cistern in his house” (lines 24–25). Its interesting to note that in his prophecy against Moab, Isaiah states, “Dibon goes up to its temple, to its high places to weep” (15:2, NIV). Jeremiah also predicted that the fortified cities of Dibon would be ruined (48:18 cf. 48:21–22). Evidence for The House of David Mentioned Line 31 of the Mesha Stele is perhaps the most significant line in the entire inscription. In 1993 a stela was discovered at Tel Dan in northern Israel mentioning the “House of David” (see Bible and Spade , Autumn 1993: 119–121). This mid-ninth century BC inscription provided the first mention of David in a contemporary text outside the Bible. The find is especially significant since in recent years several scholars have questioned the existence of David. At about the same time the Dan stela was found, French scholar Andre Lemaire was working on the Mesha Inscription and determined that the same phrase appeared there in line 31 (Bible and Spade, Summer 1995: 91–92). Lemaire was able to identify a previously indistinguishable letter as a “d” in the phrase “House of David.” This phrase is used a number of times in the Old Testament for the Davidic dynasty. What Can We Learn from the Mesha Inscription? - The Mesha Stele is yet another example of how archaeology supports the truth of the Bible. The Bible continues to be confirmed by archaeological finds, over and over again. Which should bring confidence in the believer to but his/her full trust in the reliability of scripture. - If the Bible contains a prophecy, you can bet it will come true. This has been confirmed numerous times through archaeological discoveries. - Nations are backed by either the One True God, or a god of the evil one. Mesha pays homage to his “god” Chemosh, the god of his country, who speaks to him and directs his actions. It is said in scripture that the nations all have their gods, working behind the scenes, motivating and directing the activities of nations. For example, see Daniel 1013: “But the price of the kingdom of Persia withstood me twenty-one days; and behold, Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me, for I had been left alone there with the kings of Persia. Here we see that a demon prince of Persia was doing spiritual battle with this angel who was sent to Daniel. - Realize there is a is a spiritual battle going on behind every physical battle, and we must remember that the spiritual realm is much more powerful than the physical realm. The spirit is eternal; the physical temporal. The entire physical universe sprang into existence from the Spirit of God (Gen 1:1 “In beginning created God the heavens and the earth”.) - The God of the Bible – YHVH – is the one and only true God – there is no other. History is “His Story”, and He wins in the end. While the leaders of the nations truest in their various gods, there is only one Almighty Creator God, the Maker of the heavens and the earth. It all started with Him, and will end with Him (He is the Alpha and the Omega, the A-Z). Believers need to remember to always seek Him first, before we go into any battle, and He will bring His own victory. As 2 Cor 10:3 says, “For although we walk in the flesh, we do not war according to the flesh. For the weapons of our warfare are not of the flesh, but mighty in God for pulling down strongholds.” Which God are You Placing Your Trust in? Where are you in your relationship with the LORD? Are you trusting in high places, and in treasures such as Mesha? Or will you place your trust in the one, true God – the Maker of the heavens and the earth? God is reaching out to everyone one of His creatures, and “not willing that any should perish”. We have a;; “sinned”, all fallen short. But He has not left us alone. He loves you and I so much that He became one of us in the form of Jesus , or Yeshua. He lived a perfect life, and gave Himself as the perfect, spotless sacrifice to pay for all of humankind’s sins. Why not ask God to reveal Himself to you? If Jesus is who He claims to be? Here is a link to Billy Graham’s web site that can show you how you can invite Jesus into your life and be the creation He has always intended you to be … Take Me to Steps to Peace With God ==> http://www.billygraham.org/SH_StepsToPeace.asp Wikipedia, “Mesha Stele”. Ref https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Stele Associates for Biblical Research: “Mesha, King of Moad” Ref http://www.biblearchaeology.org/post/2006/09/27/Mesha-King-of-Moab.aspx#Article

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Set the onion bulbs 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm.) All onions are biennials, meaning they take two years to complete their life cycle. ; Dig a narrow furrow, sow seeds and cover lightly with Yates Seed Raising Mix.. Onion seeds only need to be sown 6mm deep, so don’t be tempted to plant them too deeply otherwise they won’t be able to grow. You can start onions from seeds, sets or plants indoors and then transplant into the garden later. Be sure to grow some keeping or storage onions … Tamp the soil down gently in the cells to settle it. Warm soil temperatures, on the other hand, can trigger onion seed germination in as little as four days. Place the onion piece into the center of the pot. This is the onion's germination period. Red onions, unlike other varieties, … There is a difference in flavor with white onions milder than red, and having a shorter storage life than red onions. Growing Onions from Seeds. Position the mat in bright, indirect sunlight away from heating or cooling vents. When To Harvest Red Onions. Pour potting soil into the cells, filling them to 3/4 inch below their tops. This is a very rough guide to growing Onions (seeds, sets and Spring Onions) in the UK, but even within the UK, the climate varies, so due allowance must be made for local conditions. Space onion sets 4–6 inches (10.2–15.2 cm) apart, and onion seeds 1–2 inches (2.5–5.1 cm) apart. What Is A Spring Onion – Tips On Growing Spring Onions, Scallion Picking: How Do You Harvest Scallions, Growing Scallions - How To Plant Scallions, Unique Paving Ideas – Creative Ways To Use Pavers In The Garden, Sensory Walkway Ideas – Creating Sensory Garden Paths, Grow A Recycled Garden With Kids: Recycled Planters For Kids To Make, Italian Stone Pine Information – How To Care For Italian Stone Pines, Pomegranate Houseplants – How To Grow Pomegranates Inside, Planting Black Walnut Trees: Learn About Black Walnut Tree Growing, Planting Bulbs: How Long For Bulbs To Grow, Cut Flower Gardening: Growing Flowers For Others, Pieces Of Garden Wisdom – Gardening Tips For Beginners, Garden Renovation: Giving Life To Neglected Garden Beds, Ordering Plants: Planning The Spring Garden Begins In Winter. Bunching Onions: 700 per packet; 12,500 seeds/Oz. Growing Onions for Show Articles by John Trim. Space individual seedlings 3 to 4 inches apart in rows spaced 10 to 12 inches apart. Keep the container in a warm place. Which are better – onion seeds or onion sets? Show Winning Onions. Plants will emerge within 10-14 days, but many take longer in colder weather. When planting onion sets, plant them between 2 and 6 inches apart, and don’t bury them more than 1 inch under the soil. You can plant onion seeds, onion sets or onion seedlings. Pour potting soil into the cells, filling them to 3/4 inch below their … Growing onions from … Why Seeds? Onion plants grow well in raised beds or raised rows at least 4 inches high. Lay them out to cure with the tops still attached, in a warm, airy place. … Space the seeds 1 cm (0.39 in) apart if using a container. Red onions can be eaten raw, boiled, broiled, baked, creamed, steamed, fried or pickled. Spacing for Onion seeds/plants and seed rate The optimum Onion spacing is 15 cm between the rows and 10 cm between plants. How to grow onions in a garden. © Copyright 2020 Hearst Communications, Inc. Plant onion sets (immature onions) 5-10cm (2-4in) apart in rows 25-30cm (10-12in) apart from mid-March to mid-April. When the seedlings are a few inches tall, prick them out and transplant into fresh, peat-free multi-purpose compost. Find more gardening information on Gardening Know How: Keep up to date with all that's happening in and around the garden. Growing red onions is as easy as any other type of onion. Using a watering can with a rose, thoroughly water seedlings and sets directly after planting to settle … How Long Do Red Onions Take to Grow? There is a difference in flavor with white onions milder than red, and having a shorter storage life than red onions. Photos by Jean English. Growing Your Red Onions. Transplant onions outdoors six weeks after starting indoors. If you use sets or transplants, plant them ¾ inch deep and 3 inches apart (Fig. When is planting and harvesting time for red onions? Place the flat on top of the mat. Mature red onions are ready for harvesting when the green top withers, falls over and starts to turn brown. Most gardeners will actually plant onion sets, which are the second year bulbs for a quicker harvest, but, if you're in no rush you can plant them directly from seed and wait the life cycle. Onion Seeds, Sets or Seedlings. How to Plant Onion Seed Starts. If you are planting seed, they will need to go in the ground 3 to 4 weeks earlier than onion sets. X Research source This way, your seeds will be ready for your garden when it’s time to plant them. Feeding. Gently push the sets into soft, well-worked soil so that the tip is just showing, and firm the soil around them. As you fill the 20 litre pot pack the compost around a 3 litre pot. Seeds are drilled on the rows opened at 10cm space and 0.5 to 1cm depth against the bed length and slightly covered with soil. Yes. Gently push the sets into soft, well-worked soil so that the tip is just showing, and firm the soil around them. Plant onion seeds indoors 8–10 weeks before transplanting them outside just before the average last frost date in your area. We prefer planting onion sets over seed, simply because they establish quickly, and are easier to plant. To harvest the onions, dig the onions up and shake off the loose soil. Choose a spot that receives plenty of sun. Onions take a while to develop from seed. apart. Position. Water the onions until they are wet, but not drenched. If you’re going to plant onions very early in the season it’s best to use sets because they will start to grow faster and not need any hardening off or protection to get them started.. Gardeners from Zone 6 north will do well with the red, white and yellow onion sets and 'Walla Walla Sweet' onion seeds while everyone can grow the 'Evergreen Long White Bunching' onions, 'Early Italian' and 'Extra Select' garlics and 'Dawn Giant' leeks. Growing red onions from seed is a straightforward process as long as you choose the right cultivar to plant. A cool-season, frost-hardy vegetable, onions (Allium cepa) are grown from seed, sets or starts -- or seedling transplants. These cool-season vegetables are grown by gardeners either from seeds or from small bulbs. How To Plant . Starting Seeds. Should I Grow Onions from Seed or from Sets? The second part is: Cultivating Large Exhibiton Onions. The key advantage which an onion set has over an onion seed comes from the fact that when you plant an onion set it is at a far more advanced stage of growth compared to an onion seed. The spacing of onions varies depending on how you initiate the growth process. Space the plants 6 inches (15 cm.) deep in the soil and approximately half an inch or more apart. To get onions off to a good start, mix an organic or time release fertilizer into the soil prior to planting. Notes Both types of onion come in a multitude of varieties with varying planting times, thus different harvesting times. Starting your own onions from seed is a great way to “think spring” in February, and the return on investment come midsummer can be huge, and delicious. Place the flat on an even work surface. The easiest way to plant red onions is to use onion sets. A little tip. Red onions sport magenta or purple skins with white inner flesh. Choose the right type of seed for your growing zone. How to Grow Onions From Seed. Single Plants: 15cm (5") each way (minimum) Rows: 10cm (3") with 20cm (7") row gap (minimum) Sow and Plant. With regards to white vs. red onions, there’s no difference when growing red onions as opposed to growing onions in general. Where to Plant Onions: Grow bulb onions in full sun. Planting Onions. The type of onion you can plant and when you plant them depends where you live. Watch for germinating seeds 10 to 14 days after planting. Bulb Onions: 450 per packet; 7,500 seeds/Oz. Onions are a good winter crop in the home garden. Place them about an inch (2.5 cm.) Place large scallions in a bowl of water over pebbles. Both types of onion come in a multitude of varieties with varying planting times, thus different harvesting times. Plant onion sets in soil. When seeding onions for bulbs, plant them ¼ inch deep during October through December. Fertile, well drained soil with compost dug in. This is called “banding” and makes sure the nutrients are exactly where the young onion roots can find them. I also wasn’t content with the limited variety of onion sets available and usually labeled as yellow, white, and red. Maintaining Onion Seedlings. The seed will germinate in 7 to 10 days at 70°F (21°C), longer in cooler soil. To start onion seedlings indoors in February or March, fill a container nearly to the top with a seed starting mix and then make two furrows, about 1/2-inch deep, for the onion seeds. Sometimes known as purple onions, these large onions are easily identified by their purplish skin color and slightly red flesh. Place a heat mat on a flat surface in a room with a constant temperature of 70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. If you plant onion seeds, you won't see these green shoots for a week or two. The key is starting onion seed indoors early enough so that the starts have a sufficient amount of time to mature. Once established, transplant seedlings into the garden, 10-15cm apart. Start your seeds indoors 6-8 weeks before planting them outside. Many of the seeds or sets acquired from large seed production companies are hybrids,which means the seeds are a cross between two parent varieties chosen for specific characteristics. Plant them in fertilized soil and let them do their thing! They’re biennials, which means they take two years to mature if planted from seeds. Replace the cover after watering. Planting seeds: Seeds can be started indoors 4 to 6 weeks before you plan to set seedlings out or you can direct sow seed in the garden when the soil temperature is at least 40°F (4.4°C). For both, germinate in a smaller or partitioned container first; after four to six weeks, transplant your seedlings into a larger container, ten inches deep with three inches between each plant. As with carrots, the seedlings can be thinned out to 2-3cm, then later to 7-10cm as they continue to grow. Planting Red Onions Choose an area with full or partial sun. Wait for green shoots to develop after a few days if you planted onion sets. Most gardeners plant onion sets, the second year small red onion bulbs, to hasten the maturation and harvest of the onions. ... to flat white and red onions, to bunching or spring onions. If you are new to growing food, you will be happy to hear that onions are one of the easiest vegetables to grow. When you come to plant up the onions remove the empty pot and you have a perfect ready made hole in which to plant your onion. When a lot of people plant onions, they don’t start their own seeds. Sow your red onion seeds indoors in a potting tray or small container. To maximize growth of your seedlings, weed around the roots regularly, so they don’t block the sunlight from the young plants. The soil will need to be well-drained, loose, and rich in nitrogen. Germination of onion seeds takes 1-2 weeks, depending on conditions. I use recycled berry containers to grow onion seedlings. You can pull onions after a few weeks if you just want to use them as scallions, but for full size onions, you must be patient and let them mature. Onions (Red) Growing Guide Crop Rotation Group. To start onion seedlings indoors in February or March, fill a container nearly to the top with a seed starting mix and then make two furrows, about 1/2-inch deep, for the onion seeds. Keep reading to find out how to grow red onions! Allium (Onion family) Soil. There are a number of benefits to planting onions from seed, rather than from sets or transplants (seedlings). You can plant onions from seed, sets or seedlings in a sunny part of your garden that has well-fertilized, sandy soil. Sow onion seed indoors as early as January, so they are large enough to plant out in spring. The flavour varies slightly from type to type, but the growing conditions are basically the same. Onions are staples in most vegetable gardens, and are usually grown from sets.Growing onions from seed, however, is just as easy. Planting onion seed allows you to grow more varieties of onions, including sweet, Spanish, white, red, and yellow onions as well as leeks and shallots. So, are red onions easy to grow? Choose an area that receives full sunlight for six to eight hours per day and contains fast-draining, fertile soil. Birds can be a problem lifting the … Planting onion sets into a rich trench of compost and fertile soil helps get them off to a great start. Onion sets are simply slightly developed onion bulbs, while onion seedlings are small plants. Growing onions from seed opens up a wide diversity of shapes, flavors, sizes, and colors to grow. We usually plant a mix of white, yellow and red onions each fall to … Loosen the soil to the depth of 6 inches with a shovel two to four weeks before the last frost date. Collecting Onion Seeds from the Right Plants Before we talk about how to harvest onion seeds, we need to say a few words about what kind of onions you can harvest onion seed. Turn the mat on and adjust its temperature setting to 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Place the seed in the soil and cover it with a thin layer of compost. Growing Your Red Onions. Place seed onions in large pots of soil, they will grow whole onions. Frost tolerant. How to Start White Swan Coneflower From a Seed, Alabama Cooperative Extension System: Growing Onions, Oregon State University Extension Service: How to Grow Great Onions, Master Gardeners Santa Clara County: Onions - Description & Growing Tips. Seeds will germinate in 4-10 days when started indoors. Onions require an open and sunny site, fertile soil, and good drainage. You can now harvest the onions or leave them in the ground to be stored and used as needed. In the second year, the onion bulbs mature until they're ready for harvest. Many varieties of red onions exist today and each is a cultivar of the bulb onion (Allium cepa). Water your seeds immediately. Long-day varieties grow best when planted in areas of the U.S. located above an invisible line drawn from San Francisco to Washington, D.C. Short-day varieties grow best in areas south of this line. Keep the soil evenly moist, but never soggy. Fill the cells with water from a watering can one to two times to moisten the soil completely. Onions can be grown either from seed or from an onion "set." The best time for planting onion seeds outdoors is in spring, as soon as the soil can be worked in your area. All onions need plenty of sun and well-draining soil with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8. Make sure to leave some root on the end of the onion set. Advantages of Growing Onion Sets. An Onion seed rate of 4 to 5 kg is sufficient for raising seedling required for one-acre land. Sign up for our newsletter. When to Plant Onion Plants. First we will … Apply a 10-10-10 nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium water-soluble fertilizer at a rate of 1/2 teaspoon per gallon of water. Onions can be grown from seed in which case start in pots under cover in late summer before planting out autumn to winter. Using sets, or small onion bulbs, allows the resulting plants to reach maturity more quickly than plants started from seeds. Place a clear plastic cover over the top of the flat to raise the humidity level. layer of compost into the soil before adding the fertilizer. It’s also far more affordable, as a packet of 100 seeds costs far less than an onion set, and offers you a greater range of choice.Read on for a complete guide to growing onions from seed. 5. deep so the roots are well covered but the neck isn’t set too deeply. (spring onions … After you've done your planting, the next step is helping them grow. Tui’s Onion Growing Guide tells you when to plant onions and gives tips on feeding, protecting and harvesting. In the succeeding year, red onion bulbs mature until they’re ready to harvest. How to Grow Red Onions From Bulbs. Plants compete for resources in their given area and if not spaced correctly, the plants will suffer with insufficient water, light, and nutrients. How to Plant Onions: Onions can be grown from seeds, seedling transplants, and sets. If you choose the wrong type of onion for your area, you may not get a very successful crop. When the seedlings are a few inches tall, prick them out and transplant into fresh, peat-free multi-purpose compost. You can lay a light layer of grass clippings or other fine mulch around the onions, but be sure to keep it away from the onion tops which need full access to the sun. Planting onion seeds usually provides the best results, as seeds are more disease resistant. Transplant seedlings into the garden once they reach 1/4 inch in diameter, about 50 to 60 days after their planting date. Turn off the heat mat and remove it from underneath the tray. Mix a 2-inch (5 cm.) If you plant onion seeds, you won't see these green shoots for a week or two. Time to Germination. Add additional soil, if needed, to maintain the correct level. When planting transplants into the garden, space plants 4 to 5 inches apart in rows 12 to 18 inches apart. For full-sized onions allow one plant per 6- or 8-inch pot, or for green onions plant them just an inch or two apart in a larger pot or windowsill planter. Once seedlings have sufficient leaf growth, thin them down to around 3-4 inches (7.6 to 10 cm.) Prepare the bed well, sow seeds into sprinkled seed raising mix 6mm deep and gently cover the seeds. Full sun. There are many onion varieties, from sweet onions to red onions and yellow onions, whose hardiness can withstand cool temperature planting and growing. For those of us that have a real winter, plant onions inside 8-10 weeks before your last frost date in spring (earlier is better). apart in furrows 12 inches (30 cm.) The bulb (or common) onion has brown, yellow, or red skin and is round, elongated, or flattened. Sow seed in a pot or tray of moist seed compost, about 1cm apart. You can grow red onions from seed, transplants or directly from the bulb. Onion plants are simple to grow and provide a number of benefits through companion planting, giving your flora and vegetable garden all-natural, organic defenses against pests and other detrimental effects. In clay soil, grow in raised beds or rows. Prior to planting, improve your soil by digging in Yates Dynamic Lifter Soil Improver & Plant Fertiliser. apart. Onions, like other members of the Allium family, are biennials, producing seeds in their second year of growth. How To Grow Onion Plants From Seed? When the plants are about 6 inches high, thin them to one plant every 2 to 3 inches. With regards to white vs. red onions, there’s no difference when growing red onions as opposed to growing onions in general. Seeds should be sown ¼ inch deep. They will continue growing leafy tops. Eat the extra plants as green onions. Transplant onion seedlings that were started indoors about 4-6 weeks before the last expected frost or freeze date, provided the ground is not frozen. Onion Plants For many growers, onions and leeks are too long of a season crop to grow from seed. Stop watering the onion when around 10 percent of the tops begin to fall over. Read on to learn more. Now you can enjoy these flavorful vegetables all summer and into the fall by growing them from transplant. It’s possible to sow seeds directly in the garden (or plants onion sets), but starts will move things along much quicker. Wait for green shoots to develop after a few days if you planted onion sets. Once established, transplant seedlings into the garden, 10-15cm apart. Fill a well-draining seedling tray with cocopeat if you are growing them indoors and fine soil if you are growing them outdoors. As the onions cure, the roots shrivel and the necks dry out. Our Garden Planner can produce a personalised calendar of when to sow, plant and harvest for your area. A culinary staple, onions are an essential vegetable in American gardens. When To Plant Onion Seeds UK? Alliums are the earliest seedlings to be started indoors. Johnny's onion line-up includes a selection of full-size varieties for all day-length adaptations, as well as specialty types like bunching, cipollini, and mini onions. Store the cured onions in a cool, dry place between 35-50 F. (1-10 C.). If planting rows, space them at least one and half to two feet (.45 to.61 m.) apart. When going to plant onions you have a choice of 3 methods.You can plant onions by sets, seed, or transplants. Remove the cover when the majority of seeds germinate. Label the container with the name of the onion variety. Do not plant the seedlings deeper than they were previously growing. To sow on prick out into trays 8 x 6 or into individual tray cells. Sow seed in a pot or tray of moist seed compost, about 1cm apart. There are three different categories of onions: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. Add straw mulch between rows of onions. Collect onion seeds and use them to grow onions. While there are many varieties of yellow onion, its less utilized cousin, the red onion, has its place in the kitchen for its mild sweet flavor and brilliant color. Check the soil daily for signs of moisture loss. Fill a plastic flat with cell packs. Okay, so you have patiently waited throughout the summer and are itching to dig up the red onions and try them. These sets are second year bulbs that you can find at a garden store. Red Onion seeds can be sown throughout the year, but it is best grown in winters. Sow seed … Fertilize the seedlings once per week, beginning two weeks after germination occurs. Sow 2-3 onion seeds per cup, take care to not sow it in too deep, and cover it with a light sprinkling of soil. Although red onions are sometimes used for cooking, their sweet mild flavor actually makes them more popular as an onion to appear raw in salads or on top of hamburgers. They are members of the Alliaceae family, along with scallions, leeks and garlic. Start seeds indoors about 6 weeks before transplanting to the garden. Spacing for onion seeds differs from that of sets or more developed onion plants. Keep the onions dry with good air circulation so they don’t rot. Onions are best planted in the early spring and harvested by the end of the season. We usually plant a mix of white, yellow and red onions. How to grow onions in a garden. When to Transplant Sow seed ¼ to ½ inches (12mm) deep. Place the seeds 1 inch apart. Options also include organic or conventional, hybrid or open-pollinated, seeds or plants, and red, yellow, or white bulbs. Onion roots are shallow, so they need a consistent supply of water, which will also garner you sweeter onions. … Onions are biennial plants that take two years to complete their life cycle. Before planting your onions, work in aged manure or fertilizer. Onions are ready to harvest when the bulbs are large and the green tops begin to yellow and fall over. Bunching onions (or scallions) are harvested small. If you live in a cool climate, such as the Midwest or North, or you don’t have the time or room to grow seeds indoors, onion sets are a practical option. Sprinkle seeds in the furrows and cover them lightly with more soil mix. As well as variations in climate, there are also numerous different named varieties of the different vegetables - always read the seed packet for detailed guidance for particular varieties. Eighty-seven percent of the onion varieties used in cooking is culled from the common yellow onion. ; Dig a narrow furrow, sow seeds and cover lightly with Yates Seed Raising Mix.. Onion seeds only need to be sown 6mm deep, so don’t be tempted to plant them too deeply otherwise they won’t be able to grow. Onions can be planted in either the spring or fall. Sow onion seeds directly into drills outside in March onwards or you can kick them off in a propagator or glasshouse if you are lucky enough to have one. It’s possible to sow seeds directly in the garden (or plants onion sets), but starts will move things along much quicker. Product Link : Red/Yellow/White Onion Sets. If you're in a milder area, you may be able to get away with starting onion seed directly in the garden. Plant seeds indoors eight weeks prior to the last average frost date in your area. If you are planting seed, they will need to go in the ground 3 to 4 weeks earlier than onion sets. We usually plant a mix of white, yellow and red onions each fall to have a good variety the following year. If you’re wondering why you should plant onion sets rather than seeds, read about the following advantages. After you've done your planting, the next step is helping them grow. Onions varieties offer different sizes, shapes and colors. How to Grow Onions. Start seeds in flats indoors 4-6 weeks before the last frost date. There are two ways you can grow onions: directly planting seeds or with onion sets. As your seedlings grow, the slender stems will get longer. Expect this to happen in mid to late summer. How to Sow Onion Seeds: Start onion seeds indoors 8-10 weeks before your last frost date (look up yours here at PlantMaps.com). Plant onion sets (immature onions) 5-10cm (2-4in) apart in rows 25-30cm (10-12in) apart from mid-March to mid-April. Options also include organic or conventional, hybrid or open-pollinated, seeds or plants, and red, yellow, or white bulbs. Choose a spot that receives plenty of sun. These categories are based on what plant hardiness and growing zone you live in. Never allow the soil to become completely dry. Sign up to get all the latest gardening tips! Fill a gardening pot two-thirds full with potting soil. The Vegetable Gardener's Bible, 2nd Edition: Discover Ed's High-Yield W-O-R-D System for all North American Gardening Regions; Edward C. Smith, The New Seed Starter's Handbook; Nancy Bubel. Let the flat set until the excess moisture finishes draining from the cells' bottoms and out through the flat's drainage holes. Both work well and have different advantages. Green onions can be grown in … Growing Onion Seed Plants. You can grow onions from sets or seeds. Plant onions so that no more than one inch of soil is placed above the sets or seedlings; if too much of the bulb is buried, the growth of the onion will be reduced and constricted. Remove the cover and mist the soil when the top 1/4 inch begins to dry. They therefore spring into active growth much more reliably and quicker. Prior to planting, improve your soil by digging in Yates Dynamic Lifter Soil Improver & Plant Fertiliser. Shallot sets will work in most areas of the country, but in the lower South look for 'Louisiana Multiplying' shallots. Water seedlings when the top 1/2- to 1-inch layer of soil becomes dry. Make sure the fertilizer is beneath the planting furrow. Water your onion plants weekly but let them dry out between weekly watering. Planting in the Garden. Cover the seeds in each cell with a 1/4- to 1/2-inch layer of soil. This is the onion's germination period. The containers are about 4 inches deep and have plenty of holes for drainage. Mist the cells with a spray bottle of water to moisten the top layer of soil. And gives tips on feeding, protecting and harvesting time for red onions rows and 10 cm the! From type to type, but many take longer in cooler soil gently the... The roots shrivel and the necks dry out between weekly watering and whole onions in sun. 2.5–5.1 cm ) apart sets.Growing onions from seed, or transplants, and in! Aged manure or fertilizer with water from a watering can one to two to., unlike other varieties, … growing your red onion bulbs, plant them where., read about the following year eaten raw, boiled, broiled, baked creamed... Onion sets, or red skin and is round, elongated, or small container the … 4 are,. 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Plastic cover over the soil will need to go in the first year, seed, or., loose, and firm the soil around them fertilizer at a garden store year bulbs that you can them. Last frost date number of benefits to planting or open-pollinated, seeds with. Ground 3 to 4 inches high, thin them down to around 3-4 inches ( cm. ( immature onions ) 5-10cm ( 2-4in ) apart raw, boiled, broiled, baked,,... Surface in a multitude of varieties with varying planting times, thus harvesting! ( 10-12in ) apart in rows 25-30cm ( 10-12in ) apart water seedlings when the top of the.! Way to plant out in spring spring onions label the container with the limited variety onion! 6.0 and 6.8 onion you can enjoy these flavorful vegetables all summer and easier... Covered but the growing conditions are basically the same planting and harvesting with regards to white vs. red.. To yellow and fall over more quickly than plants started from seeds ¼! 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Total joint replacement (also known as total joint arthroplasty) is regarded as among the most valued developments in the history of orthopedics. The procedure relieves pain and restores function to patients whose joints have been destroyed by trauma or disease. Although natural, human articular cartilage is the best bearing surface for joints, when there is too much damage to these tissues, man-made joint replacements are required. However, the higher level of friction in man-made implants compared to a person's natural bearings means that wear becomes an ongoing concern for joint replacement patients. This article covers the following aspects of joint implant materials: The ongoing problem of wear in joint replacement implants has led to the reintroduction of many alternative bearing combinations. Compared to healthy, organic cartilage surfaces, which have a surface friction of nearly zero, the friction between these man-made bearing surfaces is hundreds of times higher. This friction subjects the implant components to wear that can limit the longevity of the joint replacement and induce inflammatory responses in the tissues surrounding the joint itself. For this reason, producing a low-friction bearing is fundamental to replacing damaged joint surfaces with implants fabricated from man-made materials. This will hopefully eliminate the need for an additional revision surgery by minimizing: Clinically speaking, friction and wear lead to the release of very small particles (typically less than 4/100,000 of an inch, or about 200 times smaller than a grain of sand) into the surrounding joint cavity. This initiates an aggressive inflammatory response. The body mounts a cellular reaction to try to deal with the wear debris. This reaction, unfortunately, often leads to unwanted destruction of bone (called osteolysis) around the implant. When osteolysis becomes severe, it can cause pain, loosening of the implant and the need for revision surgery to replace the implant components. One way to relieve the problem of osteolysis and increase the longevity of joint replacements is to improve the wear resistance of the bearing materials. As younger and more active patients are seeking and receiving joint replacements, the importance of developing new materials to combat wear also increases. At HSS, the age at which patients undergo knee replacement surgery is rapidly decreasing (see Fig. 1). This change in the demographics of patients seeking knee replacement is the primary motivation for improving implant materials. All the materials currently in use in joint replacement are considered safe from a medical standpoint. They are highly biocompatible, meaning that they cause little if any detrimental local or systemic problems due to an immune response or an allergic reaction. Nonetheless, as total joint replacements remain in service for long periods of time, concern remains that adverse tissue responses may arise as a result of the continual release of wear particles from the prosthetic materials. Determining whether new types of implant bearing surfaces effectively reduce wear versus the conventional metal-on-polyethylene bearings is not as easy as it may seem. We are limited in our ability to study wear in the laboratory by our inability to simulate the lubrication conditions, the loads and the motions that occur over a broad range of daily activities by our patients. Joint simulators are currently the best tools for studying wear because they provide an effective means of screening whether or not one combination of bearing surfaces is better than another. No acceptable animal models exist, and computer analyses of implant wear have only been proven to be effective for simpler constructs, such as ball-in-socket implants for the hip. Complicating the problem further is that wear mechanisms differ depending on the joint. For this reason, data collected on a hip simulator may have little relevance for wear in a knee, elbow or shoulder replacement. Furthermore, the question is not just one of reducing the amount of wear, but also of the ways in which the size, shape and surface chemistry of released wear particles differ among various bearing surface combinations. These factors may ultimately influence the biological reaction and subsequent tendency for osteolysis. Ultimately, the effectiveness of these surfaces can only be proven based on clinical results from prospective, randomized studies of total joint patients who have received either conventional or new bearing combinations. Some of these data have already started to emerge, so reviewing the current laboratory and clinical data for each of the new bearing surfaces is essential (read below). There are three main types of joint implant materials, and they each have their advantages and disadvantages: In the 1960s and 1970s, several materials were tried as bearing surfaces in joint arthroplasty, including Teflon® and metallic alloys such as stainless steel and cobalt-chromium alloy. But through the 1980s and much of the 1990s, the preferred combination was ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene bearing against cobalt-chromium. Polyethylene results in a low coefficient of friction when bearing against a highly polished metallic or ceramic surface. Today, metal-on-polyethylene and ceramic-on-polyethylene combinations are considered as primary choices for bearing surfaces. However, ceramic-on-ceramic are also considered, as are metal-on-metal bearings in hip resurfacing surgeries. Metal-on-metal bearings were among the first to be used in total hip arthroplasty and found clinical success in the 1960s and 1970s. Metal-on-metal hip joints fell out of favor by most orthopaedic surgeons once the clinical results with metal-on-polyethylene joints proved superior. However, failures during this earlier time period were likely due to poor metallurgy, poor manufacturing techniques and inferior implant designs. The casting process used to make metallic implants suffered from poor quality control. This sometimes restulted in products that had inferior wear resistance and which were prone to fracture in the body. Early metal-on-metal designs also often had small head-to-neck ratios. For this reason, it was common to experience impingement between the neck of the artificial femoral component and the rim of the artificial acetabulum. This impingement creates additional wear and can knock the acetabular component loose from the surrounding bone. Improved metallurgy and manufacturing techniques led to resurgence in the use of metal-on-metal bearings for hip replacement. Cobalt-chromium alloys with well-controlled grain sizes and finely distributed carbides provide superior hardness and wear resistance compared to earlier versions of the alloy and to stainless steel and titanium alloy. Clearance and conformity between the bearing surfaces and a smooth surface finish on the metallic bearings are now recognized as important factors that must be controlled as part of the design and manufacturing processes. Laboratory evidence from hip joint simulator studies has confirmed that these bearing surfaces can provide low wear joint implants. The strength of cobalt-chromium alloys in comparison to polyethylene and their increased toughness over ceramics provide additional benefits from the standpoint of hip implant design. For example, the surface thickness of a one-piece metallic acetabular component can be smaller than modular components made from polyethylene and metal or from ceramic and metal, so larger femoral head sizes can be incorporated, providing an advantage in cases where joint stability is an issue. Similarly, the ability to manufacture large metallic shells allows for surface replacement of the hip joint, a bone-conserving operation geared toward young, active patients with good bone stock in the femoral head and neck. Metal degradation concerns Concerns with metal-on-metal bearing in total hip replacement continue to exist because clinical studies show that the release of ionic debris in metal-on-metal combinations is considerably higher than with other bearing combinations. Metal ions are transported to distant locations in the body, and elevated levels of metals have been found in serum and urine from patients with metal-on-metal hip replacements. In rare cases, the systemic levels have been associated with cobalt toxicity. Several factors can influence metal levels in such cases, including the diameter of the joint. For example, resurfacing of the hip is intended to be bone-conserving by employing a large metallic cap secured to the head of the femur and a matching large metallic shell in the acetabulum. But as the size of the head increases, so does the amount of wear; indeed, metal-on-metal resurfacing patients have a significantly greater increase in serum chromium and cobalt levels than patients with a conventional total hip with a much smaller diameter metal-on-metal bearing. Metal-on-metal bearings are not recommended for patients with poorly functioning kidneys because metal ions that would otherwise be excreted through the kidneys can build up in the blood. Also, though being a pregnant woman or a woman of child-bearing age is not necessarily a contraindication for metal-on-metal bearings, studies continue regarding metal ions crossing the placenta. Clinical evidence is mounting that osteolysis and implant loosening in total hip patients with metal-on-metal bearings may be associated with hypersensitivity to metallic debris, but the direct scientific link between hypersensitivity and loosening remains to be found. Hypersensitivity has not been a significant problem for implants employing metal-on-plastic bearings, so the assumption is that the increased metal burden caused by both bearings being metallic may be responsible for these hypersensitivity reactions but not a direct cause of loosening. Metal-on-metal bearings have not been applied to many joints other than the hip. Most other joints require different designs to provide adequate function, and therefore suffer from additional wear mechanisms for which metal-on-metal surfaces have few advantages. “There is no universal agreement by surgeons on the precise indication for metal on metal bearings,” says Steven B. Haas, MD, Chief of the Knee Service at HSS, “but most surgeons agree that younger patients are the best candidates.” Hip surfacing preserves more bone in the patient than conventional hip replacement. This has the potential of being a first-line treatment of painful, disabling arthritis in younger, active patients. If revision surgery is needed, the preservation of bone is an advantage in converting to a full hip replacement device. However, long-term results using current technology in the US are not yet available. Prospective outcome research on hip surface replacement is currently being performed at HSS, which will further define the role of surface replacement surgery. One of the most used bearing surface combinations for joint replacement is metal on polyethylene, a form of plastic that provides marked durability. The two groups most traditionally considered for this material are: From a clinical perspective, metal on polyethylene has the longest-term data available for hip replacement. There will be some degree of measurable wear, but the effects of wear degradation related to metal on polyethylene, more often than not, are local phenomena that can readily be followed radiographically. The goal of finding new means of reducing wear degradation in polyethylene has lead to some interesting developments in this material in the last two decades. A substantial leap forward was made with the discovery in the late 1980s of the role of oxidation in the wear performance of polyethylene. Polyethylene components, like most medical devices, are most often sterilized by exposure to gamma radiation. Unfortunately, the radiation, while penetrating through the component, has enough energy to break the chains that form the molecular backbone of the polymer. If the radiation exposure is performed while the component is exposed to air, the broken ends can react with oxygen, causing harmful changes, including a decrease in molecular weight, a dramatic loss of ductility, and a decrease in strength. The combined effect makes the polyethylene markedly more susceptible to wear. One important form of alternative bearing surface has emerged simply by removing the chance that the polyethylene can oxidize during the sterilization process. Device manufacturers have accomplished this task in two ways: Though these alterations in sterilization can eliminate degradation, they do not all have the same beneficial impact on wear. Techniques that eliminate irradiation altogether also eliminate the benefit of the additional cross-linking between the molecular chains in the polymer that occurs with gamma radiation. Indeed, clinical results show increased rather than decreased wear in hip replacements employing polyethylene components sterilized by exposure to ethylene oxide rather than irradiation. Perhaps the most significant alteration in modern polyethylene joint replacement components is the inclusion of elevated levels of radiation, beyond those required to simply sterilize the implant. The goal is to induce even higher levels of cross-linking than occur with the conventional sterilization dose. Significantly reduced wear is the primary advantage of elevated cross-linking. Highly cross-linked polyethylenes have been in clinical use since about the turn of the millennium, and results show dramatic decreases in wear in total hip replacements over those seen with conventional polyethylene. This increased wear resistance has also renewed interest in larger femoral heads as a means of reducing the risk of dislocation. With a larger head size, sliding distance between the bearing surfaces is increased and the resulting amount of wear is high, so conventional metal-on-polyethylene bearings were typically small in diameter (32 mm or less). So, the improvement in wear resistance allows surgeons to also implant hip replacements with inherently better stability. The changes in mechanical properties that accompany increased cross-linking may pose the biggest threat to the clinical effectiveness of these materials. Increased cross-linking, while decreasing wear, makes the material more brittle. The use of this material in knee replacement is limited. “There are little clinical data on the use of highly cross-linked polyethylenes in knee replacement, and some of the laboratory data raise concern,” notes Dr. Haas. Indeed, the types of motion and wear that occur in knee replacement could lead to fracture or other failure of the highly cross-linked polyethylenes in knees. This is not to say that polyethylene degradation is a thing of the past. Highly cross-linked polyethylene components examined after being retrieved from patients at revision surgeries have shown continued degradation, but at rates much lower than those seen with the conventional polyethylene irradiated in air back in the twentieth century. To minimize the chance that such degradation would be a long-term problem, even newer forms of hihly cross-linked polyethylenes containing antioxidants like vitamin E have been introduced. Those these materials have not shown a further improvement in wear above that of highly cross-linked polyethylenes without antioxidants, they have shown increased resistance to degradation. Fully dense ceramics, alumina and zirconia, are used in total joint replacements specifically for the purpose of providing more wear resistant bearing surfaces; they have few other mechanical advantages over metallic alloys. Because of their hardness, ceramics can be polished to a very smooth finish and remain relatively scratch resistant while in use as a bearing surface. The most significant disadvantage of ceramics is their brittle nature, making them susceptible to fracture. As with the case of metal-on-metal bearings, where improvements in metallurgy have sparked renewed interest, improvements in ceramic quality have led to increased interest in ceramic bearings. Increased chemical purity and reduced grain size have lead to increased strength and a dramatic reduction in the number of fractures seen clinically. Nonetheless, strength and toughness remain issues, particularly in acetabular components of ceramic-on-ceramic hip replacements, where impingement of the femoral and acetabular components at extreme ranges of motion can lead to fracture. Most patients whose active lifestyles subject them to repetitive impact are not good candidates for ceramic bearings. For example, patients in their fifties who are looking to remain actively engaged in less rigorous sports such as golf are typically a good fit for this type of implant. Two types of ceramic bearing materials are commonly used: a zirconia-toughened alumina and an oxidized zirconium material. The latter material is made by ceramizing a zirconium metallic alloy so that the surface layer, forming the bearing surface for the femoral head of a total hip replacement, transfroms into zirconia ceramic. Long-term experience with alumina ceramic-on-conventional polyethylene bearings for hip replacement showed reduced wear rates over those typically seen with metal-on-conventional polyethylene bearings, with an associated decrease in osteolysis. The newer zirconia-toughened alumina bearing against highly cross-linked polyethyene has shown wear rates comparable to that of metal-on-highly cross-linked polyethylene bearings. Concern that the zirconia in these materials would undergo a harmful transformation into a less suitable crystalline phase, thus increasing wear and decreasing strength, has not been borne out by measurements on retrieved components removed from patients at revision surgeries and on artificially aged laboratory specimens. Thus, zirconia-toughened ceramic has become a viable bearing material for hip replacement. Alumina-on-alumina total hip replacements have been used more extensively in Europe than in the United States. In general, alumina-on-alumina joints have shown very low wear rates clinically, though the results are design dependent. Recent reports also show excellent wear resistance in young patients, with no measurable wear and no evidence of osteolysis even beyond a decade of follow-up. Furthermore, very few implant fractures have been observed, even in this high demand patient population, lending further credence to the improved mechanical properties of alumina. One unusual issue affects a small number of patients who have alumina-on-alumina bearings: reports of an audible squeaking sound during normal ranges of motion after surgery. Studies have shown that 1-10% of these patients may experience this problem. While ceramic bearings have been used extensively in hips, the use of ceramic bearings in other joint replacements is much more limited. For joint designs such as knee replacements that require bearings with nonconforming surface shapes to provide the patient with adequate function, the advantages of ceramic-on-ceramic bearings are unclear. Alumina-on-alumina bearings for knee replacement have been used primarily in Japan. Evidence for the effectiveness of these bearings is very limited, given the short length of follow-up, the lack of comparative data for other bearing surfaces in the same design, and patient selection (for example, one study was limited to only rheumatoid arthritis patients). Oxidized zirconium,known as Oxinium (which is a brand name applied by orthopedic device manufacturer Smith & Nephew), is a metal-ceramic hybrid technology. Zirconium alloy, a metal, is treated with high pressure and heat in the presence of oxygen; this process converts the metallic surface of the implant to a ceramic. This leads to an implant that has surface properties of ceramic, which is harder, smoother, and has less friction than the metal. Oxinium is used for femoral heads in hip replacement and the femoral component in knee replacement. Although clinical experience has been promising, further testing is necessary. The clinical data thus far on implant survival and wear in knee replacement have been positive, but longer term studies will be needed to prove that the improved bearing properties of oxidized zirconium lead to longer lasting implants.” "The final frontier in man-made joint replacement is the longevity of the implant, to prevent the problem of osteolysis,” explains Edwin P. Su, MD. “The alternate bearings are an attempt to bring it to the next level and get a further increase in longevity by decreasing the wear degradation problems.” The future of joint replacement may see the implementation of other intriguing surface materials. Surfaces made of diamond have been produced recently, and there is much discussion of the promise of hardened titanium, due to its smooth exterior. Is there one "best bearing" combination that fits all joints in all patients? Probably not. Most joint replacement surgeons will use all types of surfaces, recognizing that there are advantages and disadvantages. "At the end of the day, we have to customize what we do for patients on an individual basis” says Dr. Padgett. The age of the patient, the patient’s expected activity levels, and the extent of the patient’s joint problems are among a long list of factors that the surgeon must consider in choosing an implant. And despite the concern over wear and osteolysis, it must be remembered that joint replacement is a highly successful treatment with few complications. Perhaps one set of bearing materials will eventually emerge as the best for each joint in the body. That will depend on clinical experience as well as continuing research and development to understand the biological consequences of wear and to adopt further improvements in materials as they become available. For now, the decrease in wear afforded by the new bearing surfaces represents an impressive milestone in the further improvement of total joint replacement. Summary by Dr. Wright with contributions by Mike Elvin. Updates from Dr. Wright.

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Progress English Class 11 Notes Chapter 22 pdf download Khyber Pakhtunkhwa textbook board Peshawar class 11 English notes, for class 11 federal board, essay, shart question, summary, and long question. Progress Progress English Class 11 Notes Chapter 22 pdf 2021 What is the significance of the title of the play ‘Progress? The title holds significance with respect to the central idea of the play. The writer delivers a thought-provoking message through his play that progress does not mean the development and brutal use of the weapons of mass destruction. The title is ironic in nature as it is not about progress rather focuses on the worrisome aspect of destruction of the human race by the use of latest armament. What is the central idea of the play ‘Progress? The central idea of the play ‘Progress’ is that we should not favour war as it causes destruction of mankind on a large scale. We should not give rise to the feelings of hatred, and enmity through wars. Basically, this play is written after the First World War. The writer wants to spread the message of humanism through this play as he believes that anything that is against humanity should be abolished for the peaceful living of all human beings. Q.3) Describe the climax of the play ‘Progress’ in a few lines. The climax of the play ‘Progress’ happens at the moment when Mrs. Meldon comes to the room of her brother Professor Corrie and is shocked to see the invention of her brother. As she is against wars and destructive weapons, she asks her brother to destroy the invention by his own hands otherwise it would cause much damage to humanity and peace of the world by killing millions of people. Q.4) What is one-act play? Illustrate it with examples from the play ‘Progress.’ One-act play means a play that has only one act. It may consist of one or more scenes. One-act plays are made up of the basic and significant elements of theme, plot, character, and dialogue. The play ‘Progress’ is a one-act play as it has only one act that happens at the house of Prof. Corrie. It has a central theme that war should be avoided for a peaceful living. It has two major characters i.e. Prof. Corrie and his sister Mrs. Meldon. The whole play has the series of dialogues that are helpful in delivering the message quite effectively to the readers. Furthermore, one -act play has one action, time, and place. Here, the whole play has limited time for one action and the place is the same i.e. Prof. Corrie’s room. Q.5) What is the plot? Write down the plot of the play ‘Progress.’ According to the definition, plot is all about the main events of a play, novel, or film, devised and presented by the writer as an interrelated sequence. With respect to the plot of the play, the events happen in a concrete sequence. It is a one-act play written after the 1st World War. The whole play takes place in the room of Prof. Corrie. He is a scientist who has developed the formula for the devastating bomb. He is quite excited for his invention as he is going to be a wealthy man due to it. In the meantime, his sister, Mrs. Meldon arrives at his home and on entering his room and listening to his invention, she becomes depressed as she loves humanity and wants to see peace in the whole world. Whereas, Prof. Corrie wants to see more destruction in less time. Mrs. Meldon is in a state of grief and mourning as she has lost her only son Eddie at the war and then her husband as well. She is suffering from the pain war has inflicted upon her that’s why she wants her brother not to invent the disastrous bomb that will take the life of innocent civilians. But, Prof. Corrie shows resistance in listening to her advice. When Mrs. Meldon knows the evil intentions of her brother and his resistance against destroying the bomb formula, she takes his life by killing him with a knife. Though she does not want to do that, she finds it essential to save humanity and world’s peace. Hence, she gives preference to a matter related to human beings over her brother’s life. Q.6) Write the character sketch of Mrs. Meldon. Mrs. Meldon is one of the major characters of the play. She is the sister of Prof. Corrie who is a scientist and working on developing a dangerous bomb that will cause huge damage to the world. She is a sensitive, emotional, and peace-loving lady. She is 43 years of age. She is a dignified woman who shows sensible behaviour throughout the play. She is in a state of mourning as she has lost her only son Eddie at the war and her husband too. She is left all alone in the world to bear the pain of loneliness. She is against war as it takes the life of innocent human beings. She considers war nothing just an organized butchery of youth. When Mrs. Meldon comes to know about the evil intentions of her brother, she wants him to destroy the formula of that bomb. She does not want anyone else, especially the mothers, to bear the same pain of losing their sons at wars. She tries her level best to stop her brother from inventing the bomb and calls him the most stupid man on this earth. When she comes to know that her brother is not going to destroy his invention, being an extremely emotional lady, she takes the knife and kills her own brother just for the sake of humanity and world peace. Q.7) Draw the character of Prof. Corrie as a despiser / hater of humanity. Prof. Corrie is a clear reflection of a person who is a hater of humanity. He is a selfish, greedy, self-centered, and evil minded person who just thinks of his own. He considers human beings worthless creatures. He has developed a formula for a destructive bomb that can take the life of a huge number of innocent people when used in wars. With this invention, he dreams of becoming a wealthy person. He is such an insensitive person that he feels pleasure in witnessing destruction of mankind. Q.8) What type of mother is Mrs. Meldon? Illustrate through her character that themes of literature are universal and exist across all cultures and societies. Mrs. Meldon is a sensitive, caring and loving mother. She is a lover of humanity and hates war as it kills millions. She has only one son Eddie who has lost his life during the First World War. After his death, she becomes all alone. Most of the time, she used to talk about Eddie, his childhood, youth and his killing at the war, this is the clear reflection of her selfless, unconditional love for his son. Her character strengthens the point that themes of literature are universal and exist across all the cultures and societies as almost every country’s poets and writers have given tribute to women as mothers through their unique, thought-provoking and heart-touching writings. For instance, some of the famous poems that are written by poets belonging to different countries on the theme of mother, her love, care, and affection are: “To My Mother” by Edgar Allan Poe, “Mother O’ Mine,” by Rudyard Kipling, “Maa Teri Azmat ko Salaam” by Sajid Ali, etc. In every culture, the role of a woman as mother remains the same that she has to bring up her children with utmost care and affection whether she is a housewife or a working lady and she asks for nothing in return from her children. Q.9) Was Mrs. Meldon justified in killing her brother? Give your considered view. Though it is a crime to take anyone’s life, but here the killing of Prof. Corrie by his sister Mrs. Meldon was justified. The reason was quite obvious that Mrs. Meldon was a lover of humanity and hated war. When she came to know about the evil intentions of her own brother and the life-threatening weapon he had invented, at first she tried to convince Prof. Corrie to destroy his invention. When he refused to do so, she decided to take the life of her brother just in order to save humanity. Hence, it was a justified act as sometimes it becomes necessary to eliminate the evil elements of the society with iron hands. Q.10) What was the cause of the quarrel between Mrs. Meldon and Prof. Corrie? The major cause of quarrel between Mrs. Meldon and Prof. Corrie was the dangerous invention of Prof. Corrie that if used in wars would kill millions in just a few seconds. Mrs. Meldon was not in favour of that so she tried to convince Prof. Corrie to destroy his formula but he kept on refusing as he was a selfish, cruel, and greedy sort of a person. Q.11) Contrast the characters of Mrs. Meldon and Prof. Corrie, highlighting the dominant traits of their personalities. Mrs. Meldon is a peace loving lady, she loves humanity and hates war. She is a dignified woman, though she is depressed, and dejected but she never lost her senses. She is a sensitive and emotional lady. On the other hand, Prof. Corrie is a lover of war and wants to shatter world’s peace by inventing his destructive bomb. He is a selfish, greedy, self-willed, and insensitive man who just cares for his own evil intentions and wealth that he will earn through his invention. What is the conflict in the play ‘Progress?’ How is it resolved? The main conflict in the play ‘Progress’ is ideological in nature. Mrs. Meldon loves peace and hates war whereas Prof. Corrie, her brother, wants to see the destruction of the world with the invention of his bomb. Mrs. Meldon tries her best to stop Corrie from inventing the bomb but to no avail. He keeps on refusing to destroy the bomb formula and shows inclination towards inventing it. When Mrs. Meldon knows that Prof. Corrie will not move back from his plan, in rage she kills him with a knife just to save humanity and peace of the world. In this way, the conflict is resolved. Q.13) Suggest another ending for the play ‘Progress.’ The play ended bearing a criminal and brutal touch. The play ‘Progress’ can be ended in another way. If I were the writer of the play, I would have given another ending to the play. It might be like that Mrs. Meldon would call the police and Prof. Corrie would be arrested and sent to jail. He would get severe punishment or life imprisonment due to his evil intentions and invention of a disastrous war weapon. In this way, Mrs. Meldon would not involve herself in any criminal act and Prof. Corrie would get the desired punishment. Q.14) True progress means “The destroying of the means of destruction.” Elaborate this statement in light of the play ‘Progress.’ Yes, it is a bare fact of reality that true progress means “The destroying of the means of destruction.” It is clearly evident from the play “Progress” that Prof. Corrie is killed by his sister Mrs. Meldon as he is involved in the brutal act of developing a formula for a bomb that will devastate the world in a matter of just a few seconds. In order to save humanity and world’s peace, his sister takes his life so he will not be able to work further on his devastating invention and will not take the lives of million innocent people in savage wars. So, it can be said that if the means of destruction are destroyed only then we can cherish peace on this earth. How was Eddie killed? Eddie was killed in the First World War. He was a part of the battalion that was fighting against the enemy. He was just nineteen and was not much aware of the happenings at the battlefield. He was killed when he was sitting in a less shallow trench with his men for eight days and nights. A piece of shell came right into the middle of a group of them and destroyed all of them at once. In this way, Eddie had lost his life. Nobody knew exactly about the place of his burial but Mrs Meldon came to know that he had been buried behind the line somewhere. Q.16) Describe the physical and mental conditions of Mrs. Meldon after the death of her son Eddie. Mrs. Meldon, a lady of forty three, was in a state of grief and sorrow due to the sudden death of her only son Eddie in the First World War. She was dressed in black, because of the fact that she was a widow but most importantly to mourn her son’s death. First her son died, and then her husband too due to heart failure. Hence, she was left all alone in the world to suffer the great pain of loss. Though she was mentally disturbed but she was not a fretful, complaining lady who had suffered bereavement. She suffered the pain with dignity and grace and never lost her senses. She showed sensible behaviour throughout the play. She became quite emotional, dejected, and sensitive after facing all the unexpected, severe circumstances in her life. At the end, when she killed Prof. Corrie, her brother, it can be said that it might be an act of madness. Q.17) Why does Mrs. Meldon hate war? Mrs. Meldon hates war because she herself suffers a great loss due to such brutal wars. She believes that war is nothing but just an organized butchery of young people. She considers war a way to destroy human peace and aggravate the world’s law and order. Mrs. Meldon loves humanity that’s why she does not want any other mother to go through the same painful situation as she is passing or has passed after losing her only son Eddie in the First World War. Q.18) What is Mrs. Meldon’s view about war? Mrs. Meldon is totally against war as she believes that war is an organized butchery of youth. She believes that war snatches world’s peace and is a threat to humanity. According to her point of view, war is the most terrible thing in this world. Q.19) What is Prof. Corrie’s view about war? Prof. Corrie is in favour of war. He is a scientist and develops a formula for a devastating bomb that will kill a huge number of people at once. He is a lover of war and wants to make war more swift and terrible. He believes that his invention is the most humanitarian intervention and is of the opinion that wars will never end only if they are so horrible that no nation will engage in one unless absolutely driven to it. Q.20) Bring out the ideological conflict between Mrs. Meldon and Prof. Corrie. The ideological conflict between Mrs. Meldon and Prof. Corrie is that Mrs. Meldon loves humanity and represents peace loving people. Whereas on the other hand, Prof. Corrie is in favour of war and wants to destroy human peace and cause world’s destruction at a massive scale. A. Write a detailed summary of St. JOHN GREEN ERVINE’s ‘Progress.’ St. John Green Ervine has written a wonderful one-act play titled as ‘Progress.’ This play is written after the 1st World War. Prof. Corrie and his sister Mrs Meldon are the major characters of the play. Prof. Corrie is a scientist of around 60 years of age. He is in his room, working on his new invention i.e. a dangerous bomb that has the capacity to kill millions in just a few seconds. He is quite exhilarated at his invention. He is a self-centered, greedy, insensitive person who just cares for himself. In the meantime, his sister Mrs. Meldon, aged 43 enters his room. She is in a state of sorrow as she has lost not only her only son Eddie at the war but her husband as well. Now, she is left all alone in this world. He excitedly tells her about his new invention of a dangerous bomb. On hearing that, she becomes quite annoyed as she hates war and the weapons that are used in it to take the life of innocent people. She does not show much interest in her brother’s invention for which Prof. Corrie criticizes women. He in his excitement forgets that his sister is in grief as today is her son’s death anniversary. Rather, he keeps on talking about his invention. He tells her that his invention will definitely revolutionize warfare. In contrast, Mrs. Meldon is talking more about his son’s death and the memories associated with him. Prof. Corrie says that he would become rich when he sells his formula to the government. Mrs. Meldon criticizes him for that as he is just thinking about himself against the massive killing of people. He simply ignores her remarks and further informs her that his invention would make the war more speedy and terrible. Being a peace-loving lady, Mrs. Meldon is against such an invention as she believes that war is nothing but just an organized butchery of young people. Mrs. Meldon tries her best to convince her brother to forget about that invention and must think sensibly for the peace of the whole world and safety of humanity. Prof. Corrie does not pay much heed to her advice as he has his own evil intentions of destroying the world’s peace by killing people on a massive scale during war. He shows resistance and calls her a fool. In rage, Mrs. Meldon goes to the table, and turns it over that destroys Prof. Corrie’s invention. He becomes quite aggressive at that and says that though you have destroyed my invention but I have the whole formula in my mind and I would work on it again. When Mrs. Meldon becomes sure that Prof. Corrie would never give a second thought to his wicked plan, she takes a very difficult decision of taking his life. She picks the knife from the table and drives it at the back of her brother Prof. Corrie. She admits her crime but she is not guilty at that as she knows that whatever she has done is just for the sake of humanity and peace of the world. B. Re-write ‘Progress’ as narrative/story, using omniscient third person as point of view. You can also suggest another ending to your narrative/story. Title: A Scientist’s Treacherous Invention This is a narration based on the after effects of war on human life and the wicked plan of inventing a dangerous bomb. The whole story revolves around two major characters i.e. Prof. Corrie, an evil-minded scientist and his sister Mrs. Meldon, a sensitive, emotional, and peace-loving lady. Once upon a time, there lived a scientist named Prof. Corrie. He was an elderly man of around sixty years of age. He was a wicked, self-willed, and greedy person. He was working on inventing a dangerous bomb. With that, he had a plan to earn wealth and kill thousands of people at once during war. One day, he was in his room, busy in the creation of his invention, when his sister Mrs. Meldon came to his home. He knew that she was coming that day but he didn’t bother to go to the station to pick her. Mrs. Meldon entered his room, and Prof. Corrie apologized to her. He was quite excited at his invention that he just forgot to have a talk with his sister. Mrs. Meldon , 43, was very sad as it was the day of his son’s death anniversary. She had only one son Eddie who had lost his life at the war. She bore that pain with dignity but later on, she had lost her husband as well and that made her all alone in this world. She came to her brother’s home to share her grief but she was quite disappointed as her brother was very much involved in his own invention. He kept on talking about his invention and told her that his invention would revolutionize warfare and help in winding up the wars in less time with more destruction. Mrs. Meldon was not at all in favour of war, so she tried to convince her brother to destroy his invention. Prof. Corrie was a stubborn and self-centered person so he was not interested in her advice. He said that he would not give up his plan. Mrs. Meldon asked him to change his mind just for the sake of humanity. She said that she wanted her to do so as she didn’t want any other women to go through the same pain of losing their near and dear ones at the war. This sentence of Mrs. Meldon melted his heart, and turned him into a selfless, sensitive, and peace-loving person. All at once, Prof. Corrie changed his mind from negative to positive. He realized his mistake that he was going to make. With tears in his eyes, he then got up in rage and destroyed his invention with his own hands. He thanked his sister for opening his eyes and mind. Moral: We should think more about humanity and world peace against our own interests.

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By acting now and working together, we can develop the solutions to avoid a climate disaster and make sure everyone has access to clean, affordable, and reliable energy. — Bill Gates Global momentum is building to achieve net zero in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions—and to do so more quickly than previously envisioned. Getting there will require unprecedented levels of innovation. While a fast-rising number of companies and governments are committing themselves to ambitious net-zero goals, most focus the strategy exclusively on emissions and expect the necessary technologies and solutions to become available as needed. Annual global emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents now amount to about 51 gigatons. Some estimates, such as the P4 pathway defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), show that today’s technologies have the potential to reduce global emissions by about two-thirds. More innovation-driven projections—such as IPCC’s low-energy demand pathway, P1—do not bank on any new technologies but instead assume radical business model and policy innovation. It is clear that reaching climate change goals requires new technologies and novel business models and markets. Fortunately, there’s momentum building for a new generation of innovative solutions. A big reason for optimism is that within the solutions lie major opportunities for businesses, investors, and governments. They should start with a shift in mindset—looking at companies as providers of solutions rather than only sources of emissions, focusing on new sources of revenue over rising costs, and seeking transformative models rather than incremental improvements. Companies can create business advantage and value while accelerating climate action and helping to meet the 1.5°C target envisioned in the Paris Agreement. Governments can boost economic growth with support for what we call climate solution innovation. (See Exhibit 1.) Major companies are already on the move. General Motors, among others, has said that it wants to end the production of gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles by 2035. In February, the chairman of Fortescue Metals Group told the Financial Times, “In 15 years’ time, the world energy scene will look nothing like what it does now. Any country which does not take green energy very seriously, but clings to polluting energy, will eventually get left behind.” Here’s how we can have our climate cake and eat it, too. Seismic shifts are beginning to occur in government policies and public- and private-sector initiatives. Consider a few examples. In September 2020, the president of China committed the country to achieving carbon neutrality by 2060—an enormous challenge for the world’s biggest annual carbon emitter—but a recent BCG analysis found that China has economically attractive and socially viable pathways to achieve its decarbonization goals. The total cost will be substantial—about $13.5 trillion to $15 trillion through 2050, but the investments will have a material benefit for GDP, contributing 2% to 3% during the first half of the century. Green technology investments alone will account for more than 2% of China’s GDP by 2050. Far from hindering economic growth, decarbonization could in fact stimulate the economy. As part of South Korea’s Green Growth strategy, the government provided early support for battery storage projects. Investment in R&D enabled breakthroughs in stable multicycle charging and support for early integrated battery deployment. Lithium-ion battery costs declined nearly 90% from 2010 to 2019, and South Korean battery producers captured a leading market share by 2013. Combating climate change has entered the mainstream, and corporate and venture capital investment in climate technologies is on the rise. In 2020, US investors doubled the money they put into exchange-traded funds focused on environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria—rising to $25 billion. Industry groups, such as the influential Business Roundtable in the US, are emphasizing the need to embrace sustainable practices and lead the way through investment and innovation. A January 2020 Bloomberg News article spotlighted ten multibillionaires around the world whose fortunes come substantially from early forms of climate innovation. The most exciting action is taking place at the leading edge. The first generation of “green champion” companies is generating shareholder returns at levels similar to those of such high-flying tech firms as Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google. From October 2017 to October 2020, some companies—including Enel Group, Iberdrola, Neste, NextEra Energy, and Ørsted—generated annual total shareholder returns on the order of 30%. The returns for an emerging wave of second-generation green champs, including Beyond Meat and Tesla, ranged from almost 70% to 80%. (See Exhibit 2.) The value of Tesla alone far outstrips that of any other car maker. These and other forward-looking companies are demonstrating that climate solution innovation is all about creating value. They are showing how to create new revenue streams by entering new markets or developing offerings that cater to high-priority economic and social needs. They are winning new customers and strengthening their brands through positive environmental and social contribution. Early movers are using scale and market position to create network effects and lower costs. Innovators are building more resilient business models through reinvention in the most critical parts of the value chain, reducing exposure to increasing costs and regulatory constraints. Companies can choose from various approaches to climate solution innovation, but they are well advised not to limit their ambitions to one or two options. They can both improve existing models and markets and create brand new ones. Equally, they can scale up existing technological solutions and support the development of more disruptive ones. (See Exhibit 3.) In all instances, though, companies need to move away from looking at themselves only as sources of emissions and see themselves as potential providers of solutions for a fundamental societal need. It’s also important to recognize that they don’t necessarily need new technology to innovate. While breakthroughs in technology are critical to generate new opportunities, both in terms of value creation and climate impact, not all companies need to play in the breakthrough tech fields. There remains huge potential in deploying and scaling up existing technologies through business model innovation and, especially, digitization. Below we explore the opportunities in each area and examine what leading companies are already doing. Reengineer. Climate change is quickly altering the context for most businesses. Those that can successfully innovate will outperform others and secure long-term value by moving quickly toward better, accelerated deployment of existing low-carbon solutions. Customers and investors are embracing companies that demonstrate viable solutions. Consider the example of Neste, which has leveraged technology able to transform fats into molecules that can replace fossil fuels to help customers reduce GHG emissions. Neste has developed renewable fuels for road, air, and marine transport as well as for chemicals (including base oils and plastics). Originally the state oil company of Finland (the Finnish government continues to own about 35%), Neste envisioned becoming the world’s leading producer of renewable diesel in the early 2000s and has transformed its business to make the transition from oil and gas to renewable fuels. Neste began production of 100% renewable diesel in 2010 and has since expanded to three global production facilities. It owns 1,000 gas stations in four countries, including Finland’s first low-emission service stations, which feature renewable diesel and electric-vehicle charging. It also offers GHG emission-reduction services to customers through Neste Engineering Solutions. In 2019, Neste helped customers reduce GHG emissions by 9.6 million tons, the equivalent of removing 3.5 million passenger cars from the roads for a full year. Neste’s ambition for a second wave of growth is to become a global leader in renewable and circular solutions. Neste generated overall revenue growth of 6% to €15.8 billion in 2019 with renewables revenue rising 24%. With more than 25% of its revenue considered “clean,” the company has earned high ESG ratings from investors and others. In a completely different industry, Norwegian crop nutrition company Yara is using satellite technology to help farmers around the world optimize yield and quality while minimizing waste and cost. Established in 1905 as the world’s first producer of mineral nitrogen fertilizers to solve the emerging famine in Europe, Yara today offers crop nutrition products, solutions, and knowledge. According to Svein Tore Holsether, the company’s president and CEO, “Yara’s business model is centered around building a profitable business by solving societal challenges. Over the past decades, Yara has moved from an owner of assets and producer of fertilizer to becoming a complete solutions provider, both for farmers and food companies. We are transitioning from growing volume to growing value. This is a decisive, conscious, and forward-looking development, allowing for improved value creation and answering to stricter regulations and a rightfully stronger public engagement.” Yara’s portfolio of digital farming solutions enables farmers to maximize the yield and quality of their harvests while reducing environmental impact. For example, professional market solutions, such as Atfarm, allow farmers to monitor crop growth through satellite images, receive fertilization recommendations tailored to their fields, and make in-season adjustments throughout the year. N-Tester is a handheld precision farming tool that allows farmers to measure crop nitrogen requirements in real time. The Yara Water Solution uses crop-sensing technology to increase nutrient and water use efficiency. Yara also has an entire suite of solutions for small farmers that includes a weather forecast app and a networking app that connects farmers to peers and experts. From a business point of view, Yara’s investment in digital solutions is helping farmers find ways to monetize over a century’s worth of agronomic knowledge. Yara focuses on developing scalable and accessible solutions to meet the needs of more than 500 million small farmers and robust platform solutions to meet the needs of large enterprise farmers. A few lessons on climate-inspired business reengineering can be drawn from Neste and Yara. First, climate action should be firmly embedded in a company’s strategy, purpose, and culture. This goes beyond simply signing a pledge. It means having a plan, making climate action part of the business, and regularly reviewing progress against KPIs, just as is done in every function and business unit. Second, companies can use the transformation to shift perceptions of their external valuations. Management needs to develop a new shareholder value story with clear articulation about the potential for long-term value in low-carbon businesses. Finally, companies need the right capabilities to succeed, including innovation-oriented talent and an open approach to partnerships and coalitions. Reboot. Often, existing constraints thwart new technologies from reaching their full potential. An additional innovative solution is required to break through barriers or present a new way of solving a problem. Major technologies for combating climate change, such as battery power and wind-generated electric power, have established their viability in the marketplace but need a technological assist to move to the next level of impact. In 2011, two former Tesla employees and a professor at Georgia Tech, in Atlanta, recognized that materials developed using nanotechnologies could dramatically increase the energy density of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries and enable smaller, lighter, longer-lasting electronic devices. This advance promised to have a major impact on the range of electric vehicles (EVs) and boost mass adoption of affordable, long-range battery-powered cars. The resulting company, Sila Nanotechologies, has developed a silicon-based anode that replaces graphite in lithium-ion batteries. The new anode improves the energy density of batteries by 20%, meaning that 20% fewer cells are needed in each battery pack, and the battery costs 20% less. Sila products can be dropped into existing commercial-battery-manufacturing processes. Manufacturing partners can produce higher-performing cells in their existing factories on current production equipment; they do not need to retool. The improved battery technology can be applied to a variety of other applications besides EVs, including consumer electronics, electric power storage and transmission, and electrified flight, all of which have the potential to accelerate the world’s transition to renewable energy. On the basis of its latest round of funding, Sila is now valued at $3.3 billion. The company has partnered with BMW, and Daimler is both a partner and investor. A big constraint on wind-generated power is the construction of wind farms in locations with a steady airstream and a limited number of neighbors. Offshore locations are an attractive solution, but constructing windmills in deep-water settings, where winds blow strongly and more steadily, has been prohibitively expensive—until recently. Enter Equinor, with new technology that enables offshore wind turbines to float, obviating fixed moorings. Motion controllers and sensors regulate the turbine blades in relation to wind speed, intensity, and direction to prevent capsizing. Equinor’s Hywind Scotland, the world’s first floating wind farm, powers some 20,000 British homes. The company’s upcoming 88-megawatt Hywind Tampen floating wind farm will power five oil and gas installations in the North Sea with renewable power. Floating wind farms could power up to 12 million homes in Europe by 2030. In both of these cases—as in others, such as Form Energy, which has developed long-duration energy storage technology that could be a major missing piece in the clean-energy puzzle—the key to the breakthrough was recognizing a bottleneck or significant constraint to emerging technologies and innovating a technology to remove or get around the barrier. Reimagine. Satisfying changing customer demands, particularly those rooted in evolving views of climate change, may require reimagining business models and services. Consider mobility, for example. Before the pandemic hit, many consumers were already rethinking the concept of single-car ownership and embracing alternatives, such as renting and ridesharing, as they looked toward a future of autonomous vehicles and robotaxis. Tech giants, including Apple and Google, have been piloting autonomous driving, and major auto OEMs, including GM and Volkswagen, have been exploring autonomous-vehicle manufacturing and mobility models. Upstarts turned unicorns—such as BlaBlaCar, Grab, Lyft, and Uber—were early mobility movers. Another unicorn, DiDi Chuxing, has pioneered mobility as a service in China. Founded in 2012 as a taxi-hailing service, DiDi rapidly expanded its portfolio of offerings to encompass artificial intelligence (AI), big data, smart city transportation and self-driving technology. It serves more than 550 million users in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and Russia, and provides more than 10 billion passenger trips a year. Daily trip volume for DiDi’s core mobility services exceeded 60 million during the first week of October 2020. Its multimodal mobility-as-a-service platform attracts more active users, who then drive higher utilization rates—which, in turn, attracts more active drivers and vehicles through improved profitability. Ultimately, riders experience a better user experience via reduced wait times and costs. DiDi offers a full range of app-based transportation and local services including taxi hailing, private-car hailing, peer-to-peer ridesharing, buses, bikes, e-bikes, designated driving, automobile solutions, delivery and logistics, and financial services. Its ecosystem-based approach accelerates adoption (the DiDi miniprogram is available on the WeChat platform, for example) and boosts innovation. The company is laying the foundation for the spread of autonomous and connected EVs as well as smart cities. In 2019, nearly 1 million electric cars operated on DiDi China’s platform, accounting for one-fifth of all EV mileage in China. This translates into a reduction of 0.59 million tons of CO2 emission every year. From 2018 to 2019, DiDi platform reduced the CO2 emission of its carpooling, bike, and EV services by a total of 1.3 million tons. In November 2020, in partnership with BYD, DiDi unveiled D1, the world’s first EV custom-built for ride hailing. The most recent round of funding pegged the company’s valuation at $57.6 billion. New models are making an impact on business and climate change in other sectors as well. Indigo Ag offers farmers a package of innovative services that promote more beneficial agricultural practices (such as data-driven recommendations from agronomists and patented microbiome seed treatments) as well as data science, satellite imagery, and analytics for measuring on-farm emissions and global crop productivity. Indigo has also started a carbon offset marketplace that incentivizes farmers to use regenerative farming practices that increase carbon sequestration and reduce emissions. The resulting carbon offsets can then be sold to businesses that need them. The company has established partnerships with other companies, NGOs, and scientists to collect data, measure carbon sequestration, and quantify best practices. Indigo Carbon, a program launched in June of 2019, helps farmers transition to regenerative growing practices that prioritize soil health and carbon sequestration, and connects them with buyers seeking to offset their carbon emissions through verified agricultural carbon credits. The program offers a unique path for sustainably minded brands to address their climate footprint and diversify their ESG strategy. The company has established partnerships with organizations across the agricultural ecosystem, including two leading GHG registries—the Climate Action Reserve and Verra—to help farmers scale the adoption of farming practices that are more beneficial for people and the planet. Octopus Energy is an energy tech innovator providing customers with easy access to 100% renewable energy through a cutting-edge digital platform known as Kraken. The platform allows the company to pay customers to use renewable energy during periods when generation is high, thus avoiding paying higher costs when renewable supplies are low. Octopus has grown rapidly and now serves 1.9 million homes and 25,000 businesses in the UK alone. It also has operations in Australia, Germany, Japan, and the US, and it intends to reach 100 million customers in multiple countries by 2025. (It has experienced more than 400% annual growth in its customer base since 2016.) In addition to a novel technology platform, Octopus owes a good part of its success to its customer-centric approach (not always the norm in the utility industry), which delivers best-in-market service and experience. The company makes its software available to competitors in the spirit of advancing development of the climate solution ecosystem. California-based Pachama was started by two technologists from Argentina with the idea of using the natural strengths of forests to combat climate change. Pachama leverages two key innovations. One is using satellite data, AI, and automation to modernize carbon markets by accurately measuring the carbon store of forests in real time. The company’s AI and remote-sensing platform enables independent verification of carbon captured in forests, which allows B2B and B2C customers to measure the impact of their carbon credit investments. The other is a marketplace platform that disintermediates middlemen and makes it much easier for local landowners to certify their results and get paid for their reforestation efforts. Pachama democratizes its technology by allowing customers to access the satellite imagery and sensors that provide information on emissions and carbon captured on reforested land. Invent. Innovations based on deep tech can generate enormous economic value, but their ultimate impact extends far beyond the financial realm to everyday life. They have the potential to fundamentally change everything from energy, transport, and agriculture to health, education, and entertainment. Deep-tech innovations can satisfy existing needs and create new models and markets, but incumbents that want to play will have to be willing to disrupt themselves before they are disrupted by others. Consider three examples. Joyn Bio, an agriculture technology company founded in 2017 as a joint venture between Ginkgo Bioworks and Leaps by Bayer, works to minimize the agriculture industry’s environmental footprint, starting with nitrogen. Most plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen in its natural form, yet it is essential for healthy crop growth. The agriculture industry relies on nitrogen fertilizer to increase crop yield, but the production and use of nitrogen fertilizer generates 3% of worldwide global GHG emissions, which degrade soil, water, and air quality. Joyn uses synthetic biology to engineer microbes that can enable cereal crops—such as corn, wheat, and rice—to fix nitrogen from the air into a usable nutrient. Joyn is developing a microbial solution that can fix nitrogen efficiently enough to reduce the use of synthetic fertilizer by 30% to 50% without affecting crop yield. The company’s platform for microbe engineering will also be leveraged across other sustainable agriculture applications in pest control, disease management, and potentially even carbon sequestration. The innovation is made possible by exclusive access to Ginkgo Bioworks’ genetic code base and manufacturing capabilities, as well as Bayer’s industry expertise and proprietary microbial-strain library. Growing demand for meat and livestock farming accounts for 15% of GHG emissions and 25% of earth’s available landmass and fresh water. Memphis Meats produces good-tasting and healthy meat products by harvesting them from cells instead of animals. This results in a direct one-to-one substitution for structurally complex animal meat without added antibiotics, providing healthier and safer food. At scale, eliminating the need to raise and slaughter animals will involve significantly lower caloric input and water, land, and energy use than conventional meat production. Memphis Meats’ latest round of funding will enable the company to open a pilot plant, expected to be operational in the next 12 months. Though cellular cultivation technology is expected to cultivate edible meat while using up to 90% less land and water than conventionally produced protein, the path to commercialization will require collaboration from a full ecosystem of participants, including companies, retailers, regulators, and consumers. Four characteristics combine to distinguish deep tech from other fields of R&D: The biggest challenge for incumbent companies looking to invest in new solutions is developing the capability to reimagine and rethink problems. Innovation systems (whether internal or external, such as labs or incubators) need to turn their focus from executing existing solutions toward fixing new problems. Many companies should further develop their capabilities so that they can adopt scientific innovations. At the moment, for example, Fortune 500 companies devote an average of less than 2% of their revenues to R&D. The companies pursuing innovative climate solutions will not succeed in a vacuum. Broad and deep ecosystems involving thousands of players are taking shape to combat climate change. They will be crucial for the sustainable application of advanced technologies—such as gene editing, nanotechnology, and quantum computing—that promise solutions to some of our biggest social and economic challenges. (See Exhibit 4.) These ecosystems encompass not only businesses, but investors, governments, universities, research institutions, and others, and each type of participant has a distinct and important role to play. Since ecosystems are collaborative organisms, a big part of the challenge for each player is to find the best way to contribute to the ecosystem—and profit from its participation. Here’s a brief look at the priorities for companies, investors, and governments. Companies are not confined to one area of innovation: they can—and should—play in multiple areas at once or explore opportunities in the four quadrants of the climate innovation canvas over time. (See Exhibit 5.) From a macro point of view, new technologies and business models can have a much larger impact on achieving the 1.5°C pathway, but these models and technologies are not guaranteed and will not replace existing ones overnight. Individual companies can defend against competition and hedge their bets by playing in multiple areas. They should apply three lenses to identify opportunities. The first is global need: the acute climate-related threats and the way they affect customer needs and demands. How do they change the competitive environment and drive pressure on the business ecosystem to reduce carbon emissions? The second is a company’s own strength and capabilities. What are its existing assets and expertise? Can it bring the surrounding ecosystem or partnerships to bear? Does it have the entrepreneurial culture and imperative to innovate? Has it developed a climate mission and a vision for a sustainable future? Third is the company’s potential for impact. Can it drive both economic and climate impact? Does it have the ability to change the game? These are big questions for any company, but the challenges of our time demand that businesses rise to the occasion. Existing frameworks, such as those developed under Mission Innovation’s Net-Zero Compatible Innovation Initiative, provide guidance for companies at the forefront. The ones that respond will find ample opportunities to create substantial value in the process—and reap the rewards from appreciative investors and customers. Venture capital investment in climate technology is growing five times faster than the average rate of investment across all industries. Climate investment soared from $418 million in 2013 to $16.3 billion in 2019. We identified more than 75 funds that are already taking a variety of approaches to climate investment, including focusing on general climate technology, high-impact technology, vertical technology, and deep tech. But all this money is still a fraction of the $1.4 trillion in private equity and venture capital that was available for investment in 2019. The various segments of the investment community can do more. Venture capital funds and their limited partners can expand their comfort zones to adopt the kind of problem-focused approach taken by most climate innovation ventures. For example, Flagship Pioneering applies a hypothesis-driven innovation process based on existing technologies to imagine products or reimagine value chains. It helped start or nurture more than 100 scientific ventures, resulting in more than $34 billion in aggregate value. Deep-tech investors also need to reset their expectations—which does not necessarily mean accepting lower returns. They can extend fund lifetimes to allow sufficient time to de-risk R&D and launch the resulting products. They can recognize the greater complexity of technology and business models involved and spread their investments across technologies and sectors. For example, Breakthrough Energy Ventures, which has raised more than $2 billion, has a 20-year time horizon and is backed by Bill Gates and other notable limited partners, including Jeff Bezos, Michael Bloomberg, Richard Branson, Vinod Khosla, Jack Ma, Xavier Niel, and Masayoshi Son. About 90% of the company’s portfolio consists of deep-tech ventures geared toward climate change or sustainability goals, and about 50% of its staff have earned doctorates. More funds are combining investment with active support and assistance. In 2020, Amazon unveiled its Climate Pledge Fund, a venture capital program directed at sustainable technologies. The company plans to become carbon neutral by 2040. Microsoft has created the $1 billion Climate Innovation Fund and announced that the company will be carbon negative by 2030. SOSV Investments, which invests in about 150 new startups a year, has an accelerator program that includes a network of 1,000 global mentors and an alumni community of more than 2,000 founders around the globe with deep market and technical expertise. The program provides access to an extensive infrastructure of laboratory and maker spaces, and SOSV introduces startups to sector-specific corporate partnerships and later-stage venture firms focused on the same verticals. For their part, private equity firms can emphasize the impact of climate tech ventures on the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to their investors and the companies that they invest in. Sweden’s EQT Partners, for example, describes itself as “a purpose-driven global investment organization” that has “decided to align all investment decisions in support of achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as well as ownership actions to drive the development of the portfolio companies in this direction.” Private equity managers can de-risk their portfolios with ventures that will inevitably disrupt incumbents and shift or create new value pools. They can also fill gaps in skills and increase understanding of technology by building in-house expertise and networks. Larry Fink, the CEO of BlackRock, the largest fund manager in the US, wrote in 2021 that “Climate change has become a defining factor in companies’ long-term prospects.” Still, most investors approach the climate challenge from the perspective of environmental, social, and corporate governance goals, looking first at risk and how companies can conduct business in a long-term, responsible way. The climate solution perspective focuses first on opportunity—how companies can produce goods and services that contribute to the society we want to build. The financial community needs to focus more intently on actual results and how investors can contribute to financing the transition to new technologies and models. Governments have been active in supporting climate solution innovation, albeit to varying degrees and with different approaches. Carbon pricing is a critical lever, but to have maximum impact, prices need to be set at the right level and uniformly applied. (In this regard, the Bank of England recently told companies to prepare for prices of $100 a ton.) At the same time, the transition to a world of low-carbon emissions is about not just individual businesses but entire integrated systems. Carbon pricing alone cannot correct for a system locked in at current emission levels. To achieve 1.5°C compatibility, governments must develop policies to exert pressure on carbon-intensive products, technologies, and practices, as well as enable, incentivize, and scale up innovations that have the potential to completely circumvent system lock-in. In China, for example, strong government direction and support for science and technology innovation parks have led to the development of technology-focused R&D centers. One such center, Nanopolis Suzhou, hosted more than 200 private-investment firms, including numerous major international venture capital investors, and more than 300 nanotech companies in 2017. In Europe, both the EU and national governments fund R&D for advanced technologies that contribute to climate solution innovation. The EU’s Horizon Europe program involves €26 billion for basic research, €53 billion for applied research, and €14 billion to support innovation and startups from 2021 through 2027. The purpose of the Joint European Disruptive Initiative (JEDI) is “to bring Europe in a leadership position in breakthrough technologies.” Germany’s government has agreed on a national hydrogen strategy to build up industrial generation facilities with a capacity of 5 gigawatts by 2030. Germany will provide €7 billion to ramp up hydrogen technologies and an additional €2 billion will be invested in setting up large-scale hydrogen production plants in partner countries. The new administration in the US has already signaled its intent to bring increased support for climate change initiatives. Yet despite the initiatives underway, most governments around the world can do even more to establish policy frameworks that enable and incentivize climate innovation and reposition national economies toward value chains and models that are compatible with a 1.5°C low-energy demand world. A Pandemic Points the Way The global response to the COVID-19 pandemic has shown how quickly and forcefully companies, investors, and governments can move when called to effective action. (See Exhibit 6.) Few would have predicted a year ago that discovering, developing, testing, and bringing to market not just one but multiple vaccines in fewer than 12 months was remotely achievable or that the ways of working would change forever with digital collaboration tools—which are now the new default. Yet harnessing the power of science and advanced technology, entrepreneurship, smart policy, investment, and the collaborative efforts of the ecosystem has proven that radical progress is possible. Climate solution innovation is no less urgent. And it offers an enormous opportunity to build economic models and individual company advantage for the long term. Until now, many companies, investors, and governments have seen climate actions and considerations as a hindrance: meeting targets could limit growth, increase costs, and cause them to fall behind competitors. Evidence has demonstrated that climate innovation should be seen as a major opportunity to build long-term success and advantage. As Mark Carney, the former governor of the Bank of England, put it, climate change is “the greatest commercial opportunity of our time.” The authors are grateful to the following for their input and assistance: Ajay Chowdhury, Alex Dewar, Antoine Gourévitch, Megan Moore, and David Young of BCG; Ann Mettler of Breakthrough Energy Ventures; Cilia Indahl of EQT Foundation; Massimo Portincaso of Hello Tomorrow; Edelio Bermejo of LafargeHolcim; Massamba Thioye of the UNFCCC; and Anthony Hobley of the Mission Possible Platform and the World Economic Forum.

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The subject of a talk given to the S.A. Military History Society by Dr. F. J. Hewitt on 9th May 1974 I must ask you to forget that we are in the seventies where the achievements of science are taken for granted, and to think back to the late thirties when the Spanish Civil War made it clear to the British public that, in any major war in Europe, they would be in the front line. In the absence of any method of detecting and observing the movements of aircraft there appeared to be no real defence against the bomber by day, let alone by night. How then was the problem of airborne attack on Great Britain largely solved and, in the latter part of the War, a major bombing offensive against occupied Europe maintained? Radar certainly was not solely responsible for this achievement, but radar, or more strictly superiority in radar, played an altogether indispensable role in both defence and offence. Radar also played an indispensable role in anti-submarine warfare which was equally vital to Britain's survival. Radar, in fact, dates back to before World War II though it was not known as such then. As with all good inventions, at least four countries claim the credit for it - the French, the British, the Americans and, of course, the Russians. It all depends on what we mean by radar. The definition can become complicated if we try to be too precise. I shall take the simplest. I regard radar as a system for indicating the presence and position of an object by means of the scattering or echoing of radio waves by that object. Radar involves the measurement of the time the radio waves take to travel from their origin to the scattering object, and back. This time element is vital in the definition of radar. By knowing the travel time and the speed of travel of the waves, the range can be determined. Once we accept that radar involves the transmission of radio waves, the detection of the echo and the measurement of the travel time, we have little difficulty in saying that radar was an American invention. In 1923 two American scientists, Breit and Tuve, used this method for measuring the height of the layer of ionized gas high up in the earth's atmosphere, the ionosphere. They measured the time taken for the waves to reach it and return, which was about a thousandth of a second. Knowing the speed of travel of radio waves, they calculated the height of the layer to be about 160 kilometres. The word 'radar', coined some twenty years later, is derived from Radio Detection and Ranging. As far as military devices are concerned, the position of the United Kingdom is quite clear. As the war clouds gathered in the late thirties, the need for some means of detecting the approach of enemy bombers was becoming more and more pressing. However, the concept of radar arose indirectly. There was then, as there still is today, talk of a death-ray as the ultimate weapon and there were various claims in this regard. The radio physicist, Watson Watt, at the National Physical Laboratory was thus asked by the British Government to report on the possibilities of a death-ray. Watson Watt quickly expressed the view that at that time death-rays were not a practicable proposition but added for good measure that it should nevertheless be possible to detect the presence of aircraft by the reflection of radio waves from them. He was immediately invited to demonstrate this and he did so at short notice by using radio signals from one of the Daventry shortwave radio transmitters. Watson Watt himself was an expert on the ionosphere and fully familiar with the method of Breit and Tuve. The next step to pulsed transmissions was obvious to him and he pursued the matter so vigorously and with such support from the Government and the RAF that by early 1939 there was a chain of operational radar stations along the east coast of England - a chain of stations which remained operational, without any great changes, throughout the War. Watson Watt was knighted at the end of the War for his services, and died recently. I had the privilege of experiencing his remarkable knowledge and ability on many occasions. As far as I am concerned he was the father of radar. I would like to convey to you something about the South African story but at this stage I must, in the main, give you my story. The whole South African story has yet to be written or, if it has been written, I am not aware of it. My involvement started in January 1940 when I reported as a raw physics graduate to the then Dr Basil Schonland, at the Bernard Price Institute of Geophysical Research at the University of the Witwatersrand. Sir Basil, as I shall call him, had by that time become a world-recognized expert on lightning and I had originally been offered a post with him for lightning research, but late in 1939 Sir Basil had been approached by the Department of Defence and he had put himself and his Institute at their disposal. What had happened was that the British Government had notified Commonwealth countries, in extreme secrecy, of the development of a system for the detection and location of aircraft, RDF (Radio Direction Finding) as it was then called, and had invited them to send senior scientists to the United Kingdom with a view to acquainting them with the principles, so that each country could build up a team who could in due course assist in the introduction of RDF systems as and when they became available. Sir Basil did not go to the United Kingdom. No one went from South Africa, but instead it was arranged that Sir Basil should meet the distinguished New Zealand scientist, Sir Ernest Marsden, on his return from the United Kingdom to New Zealand. Sir Basil, in fact, met Marsden's ship in Cape Town and travelled round the coast to Durban. Marsden had some rather vague documents in his possession. Copies of these and notes made by Sir Basil on their discussions whilst at sea were all Sir Basil had to work on. Those of you who may have known Sir Basil will realize that he was not interested in gathering a team in preparation for the arrival of equipment from overseas. He gathered a team without delay - but with the object that they should design equipment themselves and, in fact, they did this with such success that the first radar echo was 'seen' on December 16, 1939. The echo was thought to be from the Northcliff Water Tower. My guess is that it was from the whole of Asvogelskop, but who is to argue that now? The team who did this consisted of Sir Basil Schonland, Professor Bozzoli (now Vice-Chancellor of the University of the Witwatersrand), Dr P. Gane (a geophysicist at the BPI), Professor W. Phillips (now Deputy Vice-Chancellor of the University of Natal) and Noel Roberts from the University of Cape Town. One can only have the very highest regard for their achievement. All they really received from the United Kingdom in the way of guidance was that it could be done and the broadest description of 'how'. They had none of the more advanced electronic components or test equipment that was available in the United Kingdom. For components they bought what was available in Johannesburg on the amateur radio market. Of test equipment and instruments they had very little indeed. They had to improvise for all measurements except the most conventional. A slightly later version of the first transmitter Our first sets worked on a wavelength of about 3.5 metres, not far off the wavelength of our present FM service in this country. At that time it was about the shortest wavelength at which we could generate a reasonable amount of power. The valves we used were bought in Johannesburg and were Eimac 250 THs. I can remember this number after thirty years but cannot remember today's date! We were able to generate about five kilowatts with a pulse length of twenty microseconds (twenty millionths of a second). Developing a transmitter to do this was no easy task. The techniques for generating such short pulses were very different from those used in communications and broadcasting. Looking back at this transmitter now, I realize that just about everything was wrong with it, but it worked! The pulses of radio waves generated by the transmitter (50 per second and too low for efficiency by present day standards) were then radiated by an aerial system which sent out waves in a wide beam - 30 degrees or so wide. This beam could be pointed in any direction by the operator by rotating the whole set-up mechanically. In the early days, a second, identical aerial system was used to receive the very weak echo signals. It had to be pointed in the same direction. Some idea of the aerials used is given in the accompanying picture. The version shown is, in fact, a later model - circa 1941. Aerial system - From a painting by Official War Artist, Geoffrey Long Typical display of those days - From a painting by Geoffrey Long After this short trial period which had really been very successful, we packed up the station and waited for sea transport to Mombasa. Sir Basil flew up. We travelled on 'SS Rajula' with, I think, a Transvaal Scottish Regiment of the 1st Division. We were odd men out. We had had no time for military training but were in a military unit with military ranks. I had done the normal ACF (Active Citizen Force) training pre-war ending up as an NCO but had no officer training. At Mombasa, Movement Control had never heard of us and packed us off to Nairobi, though we knew we were destined for the protection of Mombasa and the convoys supplying the South African Forces in East Africa. At Nairobi we were promptly sent back to Mombasa - not the last time in the next five years that such things were to happen. Back at Mombasa, attached to the 1st Anti-aircraft Brigade, things were better organized. After a few days we moved up to Mambrui some ten miles north of Malindi and about 100 miles north of Mombasa, where we were to establish the station. Here we encountered serious technical problems. We had not previously operated off a diesel generator and the voltage fluctuations of the single cylinder engine wrought havoc with the timing circuitry - the precision of timing having to be of the order of a millionth of a second. I think that sorting this out in the field was the start of my real relationship with Sir Basil. Over the next fifteen years or more he had a very significant effect on my career, our final close association being in the early fifties when, at his suggestion, I was developing radar for the study of lightning - the full circle. Our first test flight was disastrous. Half-way through it, there was a smell of burning and a transformer failed. The cause was poor circuit design and we had to make a modification in the field. From then on things went reasonably well and we achieved reasonable serviceability. Our job at Mambrui was to detect possible Italian bombers proceeding down the coast to attack Mombasa. Theory had it that this would take place at dawn and dusk. We, therefore, operated for about fourteen hours a day, with priority for the dawn and dusk periods and the moonlight hours. Only once did we see Italian aircraft. They bombed the airstrip-at Malindi 16 kilometres away. We did not see them coming in but we saw them going out to sea afterwards for 56 kilometres and then lost them because of our restricted coverage arc of 180 degrees. So much for the theory of their flying along the coast. As a result of this we modified our aerials to cover the full 360 degrees - and thenceforth had endless trouble with breaking feeders. Operationally the station was linked to Mombasa Fortress by HF radio and later an indifferent telephone. The HF radio was also indifferent. We passed plots using an elementary code. The idea was to alert the gun crews and get fighters up. At that time we were not thinking of guiding interceptions. In more active theatres of war such techniques were perforce being developed. Whilst we were in East Africa work proceeded apace at home. More sets were built, many improvements were introduced and the first steps at the improved handling of the plots from a number of stations by a 'filter room' were taken. In fact, by the end of 1940 when sets were sent up for the protection of Nairobi, a filter room was included. I assisted briefly with the installation of a set at Thika near Nairobi and then went to Mombasa where an entirely different type of set had arrived from South Africa. This was designed to guide searchlights by providing an accurate bearing and to give accurate range to anti-aircraft guns. It had a claimed bearing accuracy of about a degree and a range accuracy of several hundred metres, far in excess of what otherwise was available, but the set was not properly developed and, for mechanical reasons in particular, it had to be abandoned. I went up to Egypt in April 1941 in preparation for the move of the East African stations to the Middle East. These were to be fully integrated with the RAF and together we selected sites on the coast of Sinai. The stations at El Arish, Rafa and El Midan were operational by mid-1941. We passed our plots to the RAF filter room at Ismailia and we had our first experience of real operations. The stations performed well and much better than in Nairobi because, at this wavelength, performance over the sea is better than over land. We frequently plotted hostile bombers at ranges of around 120 kilometres and the stations operated there for a year or so. I left in November 1941, and the stations closed in the course of 1942, I think, and were replaced by very large RAF stations. In South Africa during this time the Unit, the Special Signals Services, had grown considerably. Stations were established at the four ports using South African built equipment initially, though with British CD/CHL sets introduced at Signal Hill, Cape Town and in Durban early on. The South African Stations were used originally for the tracking of shipping but, with the return of personnel from the Middle East, procedures were adopted for aircraft observations as well. These radar sets (RDF at that time) were very simple. Other developments were coming thick and fast. The first we encountered in South Africa was the ASV (air to surface vessel). This was a lightweight set carried in aircraft for coastal patrol duties. In the early days its range on shipping was perhaps 16-32 kilometres and it could see a surfaced submarine but not a periscope. Our main problem lay in aerial installations - aeroplanes and large aerials are scarcely compatible. If I remember rightly, mid-1942 involved some of my colleagues heavily in installing ASVs in the first Lockheed Venturas. Besides the ASV there were many exciting developments in the United Kingdom where applied research was active as never before. I was fortunate in being sent to the United Kingdom in 1942 to study a completely new development, microwave radar. A brilliant achievement at the University of Birmingham had led to the possibility of radar at a wavelength of ten centimetres. This made possible very narrow beams, freedom from the effects of ground and performance from small aerials never obtainable before. This invention was the cavity magnetron. In the United Kingdom microwave radar made possible really effective airborne radar, known as AI (Air Interception) for night fighters for defence against night bombers, but it was quickly proved to be a major weapon of offence as a navigation and bombing aid of unprecedented versatility. This system was known as H2S. Microwave radar in a bomber presents the pilot with a map-like picture of the ground over which he is flying. Coastlines, rivers, towns and even large bridges can be seen. Such a system, of course, is entirely independent of ground radio stations and aircraft could thus operate beyond the range of the precise radio position fixing systems that had also been developed, such as Gee, H and Oboe. These three systems were closely related to radar and had quite unprecedented accuracy, but their range was limited. These radar devices, highly accurate up to the range of the ground stations, less accurate but invaluable beyond the range of the ground stations, were the key to the whole night bomber offensive of the RAF. I think the invention of the magnetron, vital to H2S and AI and in due course ASV, is recognized as the most significant invention of the War. Churchill himself in his World War II memoirs refers to the 'decisive role played by H2S' and deals with the whole subject in surprising detail. Many of the famous Churchill memos deal with radar. My interest in centimetric radar in the United Kingdom was firstly to study the completely new techniques involved and a microwave radar set developed for naval use for the detection of surfaced submarines. Sir Basil Schonland had persuaded the Royal Navy to make available two such sets to be installed in the Cape. He argued that such a set on the top of Table Mountain would have a range on a surfaced submarine of nearly 160 kilometres. Back in South Africa in 1943, we installed the sets on Signal Hill and at Cape Point where they gave excellent results and greatly strengthened the coverage provided for the previous year or so by the South African sets. We did, however, have many operational problems. We had no way of distinguishing fishing boats from other small objects. There was no control on fishing boat movements and aircraft, sent out to identify suspicious echoes, became annoyed at finding fishing boats. We felt it hardly fair that radar should be blamed. Also our South African sets in particular were notoriously inaccurate in their bearings and at times would produce erratic tracks with apparent bursts of high speed on the part of the target, solely due to inaccuracies. I was posted to Cape Town at the beginning of 1943 as Company Commander fresh back from the United Kingdom and centimetric radar, and within the first two weeks three large ships went aground. Each had been plotted by the coastal radar system for some two hours before it struck. One ship went aground right in Camps Bay. You can imagine the post-mortems. It was quite a baptism of fire for me. Hasty measures were introduced by the operational people to warn ships approaching the coast of possible danger. A few weeks before we installed a centimetric radar at Saldanha Bay, another ship went aground right next to the harbour entrance. It was carrying two further centimetric radars for us. We managed to get on board the ship and salvaged the sets which had then been immersed in a mixture of sea water and potassium permanganate for several weeks. Surprisingly enough, in due course, we got one to work. At about this time a most sophisticated anti-submarine radar arrived unheralded in South Africa in the first Lockheed P VI aircraft to come to this country. This was a three centimetre radar known as ASD. Beautifully designed and constructed, it was one of the first products of the American electronics industry after the concept of the cavity magnetron, referred to earlier, had been given to the United States by the United Kingdom. This set was used extensively on coastal patrols. Towards the end of the war one of these ASD sets was specially fitted to Field Marshal Smuts's York, not for anti-submarine purposes but for navigation in the way mentioned earlier for the airborne radar used in bombers. These three-centimetre wavelength sets were also excellent for detecting thunderstorms and heavy rain and were invaluable for flying through the tropics at night. Improved versions of this type of set are, of course, fitted in all modern civil aircraft largely for this purpose. In South Africa, for our coastal defence purposes, we thus relied for the first two or three years of the war on our locally designed and built equipment. Gradually larger and more sophisticated sets became available from the United Kingdom. By late 1943 we had a fairly extensive system for the detection of surfaced submarines, surface vessels, low- and high-flying aircraft. We also had limited facilities for directing fighter aircraft to intercept unidentified aircraft detected by the radar system. This particular facility was provided by a special type of set known as a GCI (Ground Control Interception). It had been developed in the United Kingdom in the critical 1940/41 era for night bomber interception. Basically it was a conventional radar set as described previously but the aerial system, and hence the beam it transmitted, rotated several times a minute providing the controller with an elementary picture of the tracks of all aircraft within range. By means of this and knowing which aircraft was the fighter the controller could issue instructions as to how to intercept. The stations we installed here were relatively elementary. The threat of air attack had decreased by then and the more sophisticated equipment used in the United Kingdom towards the end of the war was never installed in South Africa during the war. When our South African stations in Sinai were dismantled the crews were in the main attached to the RAF and operated GCIs of this nature in the Italian campaign. I had no personal experience of this. Other activities in which we were involved in South Africa were special types of radar for anti-aircraft fire control and for coastal artillery fire control. One of these sets known as the GL II (Gun laying), a relatively long wavelength radar of British origin, somewhat outdated even then but excellently engineered to its maximum potential, had borne the brunt of the anti-aircraft fire control for the defence of London during the early blitz. I remember seeing remarkable figures of 'rounds per bird', as they call it, in the various phases of the blitz. If I remember rightly, in the early stages prior to the GL II something like 75 000 rounds of anti-aircraft ammunition were fired for each aircraft shot down. Using GL II anti-aircraft fire-control once the techniques had been developed, this figure came down to about 2 000. Later with the centimetric fire-control the figure was about 800. The flying bomb (an ideal target, because of its flying straight and at a constant speed) with centimetric fire-control and electronic predictor and proximity-fused ammunition, was almost a sitting duck. But of course the flying bombs did not always fly within range of the batteries - they flew so low. I mention these figures from London in what is essentially a South African talk because, in fact, South Africa played a part here through Sir Basil Schonland. He was on loan to the British Government at the time and was the Superintendent of the Army Operating Research Group. His Group played a major part in analysing anti-aircraft fire-control practices and in developing procedures to increase the accuracy. I myself was in the United Kingdom during 1944/45, reporting to him on other duties, so I was aware at least of what he was doing. For this reason also I am not well informed on the closing phases in South Africa in so far as radar is concerned. As far as the overseas story is concerned my remarks have been most superficial for the subject is vast and complicated. My remarks have largely been directed at the technical side, with very little about the personnel involved. Two names must be mentioned - Col. Hodges, previously Professor Hodges of the University of Natal, who took over command of the Unit concerned late in 1940 after the first of us had gone to East Africa. He came up to Nairobi at the turn of the year and was OC whilst we were operating in Sinai. Later he returned to South Africa as activities at home increased. I must also mention the name of Brigadier F.C. Collins, Director of Signals through the whole period. His confidence in a Unit with so many academics in key positions was remarkable. The technical staff initially consisted mainly of electrical engineering graduates and as many electronic technicians as could be found. There was a sprinkling of physicists and mechanical engineers. Operators initially were a great problem. In East Africa and the Middle East we had men from all walks of life. Some were very bright and some were not. I remember an operator who had never read the time to closer than the nearest five minutes and we expected him to read ranges based on measurements to microseconds, and to plot ranges and bearings accurately and read off co-ordinates to three significant figures. In South Africa the problem was solved by using women operators. A very high standard of recruit was attracted and a high level of operating efficiency was achieved under conditions which frequently must have been both boring and tiring. I have placed prime emphasis on the technical side because I believe the early technical achievements were most remarkable. Having been associated with electronics and telecommunications research and development ever since, I never cease to wonder at the pace achieved in the late 1939 early 1940 phase in a field full of baffling problems. There was, in fact, a happy post-war sequel. Six junior members of this team formed the basis of the Telecommunications Research Laboratory set up by Sir Basil Schonland as part of the CSIR, in 1946. This team remained together for more than ten years and, in fact, in 1957 when Sputnik 1 was launched unheralded, the team showed it had not lost touch. Within two days, (a weekend in fact) tracking equipment was improvised and the orbit of the satellite was established. Within a fortnight one of the members (since then unfortunately emigrated to the USA) calculated the expected lifetime of the satellite in terms of this orbit, and published his results in 'Nature'. He thus gave the world the first and, I think, only reasonably accurate prediction of the lifetime of Sputnik 1 - an event that proved him correct to within 15 per cent. Quite remarkable! The team subsequently dispersed; perhaps just as well as electronics technology is essentially a young man's field. 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The Birth of EPA by Jack Lewis [EPA Journal - November 1985] The official birthday of EPA is December 2, 1970. Like any other birth, EPA's needed progenitors, and a family tree stretching back for years. Surely no factor was more pivotal in the birth of EPA than decades of rampant and highly visible pollution. But pollution alone does not an agency make. Ideas are needed--better yet a whole world view--and many environmental ideas first crystallized in 1962. That year saw the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, first in serial form in the New Yorker and then as a Houghton Mifflin best seller. This exhaustively researched, carefully reasoned, and beautifully written attack on the indiscriminate use of pesticides was not exactly light reading. Yet it attracted immediate attention and wound up causing a revolution in public opinion. An inveterate bird-watcher, Carson derived her missionary zeal from her fear that fewer species of birds would be singing each spring unless pesticide poisoning was curtailed. The readers of her book, however, were less alarmed by the prospect of a "Silent Spring" than they were about people dying from any number of hidden poisons lurking in what had previously seemed a benign environment. It was not hard to wax hysterical after reading in Carson's book that "the common salad bowl may easily present a combination of organic phosphate insecticides" that could "interact" with lethal consequences to the unsuspecting salad muncher. Silent Spring played in the history of environmentalism roughly the same role that Uncle Tom's Cabin played in the abolitionist movement. In fact, EPA today may be said without exaggeration to be the extended shadow of Rachel Carson. The influence of her book has brought together over 14,000 scientists, lawyers, managers, and other employees across the country to fight the good fight for "environmental protection." Skeptics then and now have accused Carson of shallow science, but her literary genius carried all before it. Followers flocked to Carson's cause--rendered all the more sacred by her premature death in 1964. Suddenly, everywhere people looked, they saw evidence of nature's spoilation. Concern over air and water pollution spread in widening eddies from the often-forgotten core of the movement: a highly detailed and intellectually challenging book about commercial pesticides. The disillusioning effect of the Vietnam war enhanced the popularity of Silent Spring. When people heard of the defoilation tactics used in the jungles of Indochina, they became more receptive to the "environmental" ideas advanced by Carson and her countless imitators. The cognoscenti even began using a more arcane term--"ecology"--in reference to a science of the environment, then still in its infancy. The period 1962 to 1970 witnessed a slow erosion in the popularity of the word "conservation," as man himself replaced trees and wildlife as the endangered species, bar none. Overpopulation and industrialization had left mankind trapped in a deteriorating environment. The damage was not just esthetically displeasing but threatening to the very survival of man. Environmentalism gained strength as a movement dedicated to ending--and if possible--reversing this decline in the human environment. Everywhere television programs, symposia, and "teach-ins" raised the burning question: "Can Man Survive?" In May 1969, U Thant of the United Nations gave the planet only ten years to avert environmental disaster; the following month, he blamed the bulk of planetary catastrophe on the United States. Under Secretary of the Interior Russell E. Train spoke skeptically at the April 1969 Centennial of the American Museum of Natural History: "If environmental deterioration is permitted to continue and increase at present rates, [man] wouldn't stand a snowball's chance in hell [of surviving]." By late 1969, the subterranean rumblings heralding the impending explosion could already be heard. On August 31, Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska complained: "Suddenly out of the woodwork come thousands of people talking about ecology." On October 20, Robert Bendiner--in a signed New York Times editorial--had a startling prediction to make: "Call it conservation, the environment, ecological balance, or what you will, it is a cause more permanent, more far-reaching, than any issue of the era--Vietnam and Black Power included." The Nixon Administration, although preoccupied with an unpopular war and a recession-ridden economy, took some stopgap action on the environmental front in 1969. In May, President Nixon had set up a Cabinet-level Environmental Quality Council as well as a Citizens' Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality. His critics charged that these were largely ceremonial bodies, with almost no real power. Stung by these charges, President Nixon appointed a White House committee in December 1969 to consider whether there should be a separate environmental agency. The President had already asked Litton founder, Roy L. Ash, to take a sweeping look at organizational problems throughout the government. It was at just this time that Congress sent to the President a remarkable bill known as the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Senator Gaylord Nelson (D-Wis)--looking back at the "Environmental Decade" in 1980--called NEPA "the most important piece of environmental legislation in our history." It is easy to see why. A tone of high-minded idealism pervades this statute. NEPA's stated purposes were: "To declare a national policy which will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment." "To promote efforts which will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare of man." "To enrich our understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to the Nation." To further these ends, NEPA called for the formation of a Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) to give the President expert advice on environmental matters. The CEQ was also charged with reviewing Environmental Impact Statements, which were now required of all federal agencies planning projects with major environmental ramifications. In an era of bitter ideological disputes, public opinion was virtually unanimous on the need for the national environmental policy NEPA would generate. Turning his reluctant consent into a show of visionary statesmanship, President Nixon chose to sign NEPA on New Year's Day, 1970--thus making the signing his "first official act of the decade." He named future EPA Administrator Russell E. Train to be the first CEQ Chairman. NEPA's New Year's Day signing did prove to have more than symbolic significance. Enactment of this law set the stage for a year of intense activity on the environmental front. Senator Gaylord Nelson recalls that right after the passage of NEPA, "the issue of the environment exploded on the country like Mount St. Helens." The authors of the first CEQ Annual Report on Environmental Quality had the same sense of an unprecedented watershed. In August 1970, they wrote: "Historians may one day call 1970 the year of the environment--a turning point, a year when the quality of life [became] more than a phrase..." It was in this atmosphere of intense concern for environmental issues that President Nixon delivered his 1970 State of the Union Address. Speaking to both houses of Congress on January 22, the President proposed making "the 1970s a historic period when, by conscious choice, [we] transform our land into what we want it to become." He continued this activist theme on February 10, when he announced a 37-point environmental action program. The program gave special emphasis to strengthening federal programs for dealing with water and air pollution. Two months later, on April 22, the first Earth Day celebration brought 20 million Americans out into the spring sunshine for peaceful demonstrations in favor of environmental reform. Senator Gaylord Nelson (D-Wis.) and Congressman Paul McCloskey (R-Calif.) gave bipartisan sponsorship to the event, but its popularity far surpassed their widest expectations. President Nixon was not caught by surprise. He had spokesmen deployed throughout the country to present the Administration's case at teach-ins. The first Earth Day lives in popular memory to this day as a joyous and life-affirming moment in American history. The theatrical flair of some of the demonstrators had a great deal to do with its success. Oil-coated ducks were dumped on the doorstep of the Department of the Interior...A student disguised as the Grim Reaper stalked a General Electric Company stockholders' meeting...Demonstrators dragged a net filled with dead fish down Fifth Avenue, and shouted to passers-by, "This could be you!" The phenomenal success of Earth Day gave greater priority than ever to environmental issues. In particular, it strengthened the impact of the report that Roy L. Ash of the President's Commission on Executive Reorganization had submitted on April 15. That report argued strongly than an independent agency was needed to coordinate all of the Administration's new environmental initiatives. In sending Reorganization Plan No. 3 to Congress on July 9, the President admitted that he had first been reluctant to propose setting up a new independent agency. Eventually, however, he was convinced by all "the arguments against placing environmental protection activities under the jurisdiction of one or another of the existing departments and agencies." These arguments were twofold: first, the primary mission of each existing department would bias any decisions it made on a government-wide basis concerning the environment; second, the same factors might raise questions about the objectivity of any existing department as a standard-setting body for other agencies and departments. To avoid such pitfalls, President Nixon called for "a strong, independent agency." The mission of this "Environmental Protection Agency" would be to: Establish and enforce environmental protection standards. Conduct environmental research. Provide assistance to others combatting environmental pollution. Assist the CEQ in developing and recommending to the President new policies for environmental protection. The components of the new agency were pieced together from various programs at other departments. From the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) came several functions: those of the National Air Pollution Control Administration, the bureaus of Water Hygiene and Solid Waste Management, and some functions of the Bureau of Radiological Health. The Food and Drug Administration of HEW gave up to EPA its control over tolerance levels for pesticides. The Department of the Interior contributed the functions of the Federal Water Quality Administration and portions of its pesticide research responsibilities. EPA gained functions respecting pesticide registration from the Department of Agriculture. From the Atomic Energy Commission and the Federal Radiation Council, the new agency gained responsibility for radiation criteria and standards. Two of these programs--HEW's National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA) and Interior's Water Quality Administration (FWQA)--represented the core of the federal government's pollution-control apparatus prior to the birth of EPA. The air program was founded in 1955 in reaction to a wide range of alarming problems: the suffocating blanket of smog covering greater Los Angeles; the 1948 atmospheric inversion that temporarily raised the death rate in Donora, Pa., by 400 percent; a London "fog" in 1952 that killed 4,000 people over a four-day period. Equally severe water pollution problems--untreated sewage and industrial waste, dying rivers and lakes--led to the founding of the predecessor of the FWQA in 1948. NAPCA began as a research body with no regulatory powers. The Clean Air Act of 1963 gave NAPCA enforcement authority to attack interstate air pollution problems. Two years later, the act was amended to permit NAPCA to set air pollution standards for new motor vehicles. In reality, however, little effective use was made of these powers in the 1960s, and they were further diluted by the Air Quality Act of 1967, which re-emphasized the principle of state and local control over air pollution. The Federal Water Quality Administration (FWQA) began as a program in the Public Health Service of HEW but was transferred to Interior in 1966. The FWQA was authorized to give technical assistance to states and localities and to distribute construction grants for municipal waste treatment programs. Like NAPCA, the FWQA gained enforcement and standard-setting powers in the 1960s, but the actual exercise of these powers fell far short of expectations. One of EPA's goals was to give real bite to the federal enforcement bark. But this would clearly be impossible unless EPA's first Administrator was able to fuse the air and water programs as well as those for pesticides and radiation into one effective working entity. Tribal boundaries separated all these programs, and their staff of 5,650 highly skilled and highly competitive people. The challenge of getting this many people to work in harmony would in itself have overwhelmed most managers. But President Nixon made the task facing EPA's first Administrator even greater by insisting upon the importance of viewing "the environment as a whole." The President's charge to the first EPA Administrator was to treat "air pollution, water pollution and solid wastes as different forms of a single problem." The main purpose of the reorganization that gave birth to EPA was to introduce a "broad systems approach [that]...would give unique direction to our war on pollution." This daunting assignment went to a 38-year-old Assistant Attorney General named William D. Ruckelshaus. President Nixon nominated Ruckelshaus on November 9. On December 1, at his Senate confirmation, Ruckelshaus received a magnanimous blessing from the Democratic Party's leading environmental activist, Senator Edmund Muskie (D-Maine): "I hope that you pre-empt the title that has been tossed about loosely in recent years. I hope that you become known as Mr. Clean." That was, indeed, to become the favorite tag for EPA's first Administrator. It was not long before the media were portraying William Ruckelshaus as a knight in shining armor charging out to do battle with the wicked polluters of America. By adopting an aggressive stance toward a wide variety of environmental problems, EPA's new Administrator managed to gain headlines for his infant agency almost from the day of its birth. EPA opened for business in a tiny suite of offices at 20th and L Streets in northwest Washington, D.C., December 2, 1970. A mere five days later, Administrator Ruckelshaus attracted wide media attention when he delivered the keynote address to the second International Clean Air Congress. Ruckelshaus said that he and EPA were starting with "no obligation to promote commerce or agriculture." By promising to enforce "reasonable standards of air quality," Ruckelshaus positioned himself as the governmental advocate of environmental progress, not merely a mediator between industry and the public. In fact, he seemed to envision for EPA a crucial role in the "development of an environmental ethic" among businessmen and citizens alike. On December 11, Ruckelshaus went on the offensive against three cities with noteworthy water pollution problems: Cleveland (of "Burning Cuyahoga" infamy), Detroit, and Atlanta. EPA gave the mayors of these cities six months to come into compliance or face court action. Four days later, he spoke to a Governors' conference of the "imperative" need for unbiased state pollution control boards. (Fortunately, many of these were coming under the aegis of state "environmental protection agencies," a large number of which were founded during the Year of the Environment.) Some of the first problems tackled by EPA were less sublime than the Administrator's rhetoric. A ruling on marine toilets was necessary, but hardly glamorous. A missing interceptor at Key Bridge brought a flood of untreated sewage into the Potomac...and a flood of irate reporters into EPA. Noise fanatics were deafening in their protests over the Supersonic Transport. Agency lawyers had to dredge up a dusty statute from 1899 before they could take any action against factories discharging scalding water into lakes and streams. But the Year of the Environment came to an end on an extremely upbeat note with the signing of a major piece of environmental legislation. The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 was the perfect bookend to balance the National Environmental Policy Act the President had signed with such a flourish on New Year's Day. The Clean Air Act brought dramatic--and substantive--changes to the federal air quality program. The act required EPA to establish national air quality standards as well as national standards for significant new pollution sources and for all facilities emitting hazardous substances. The CAA took dead aim against America's leading source of pollution: the automobile. The law set statutory deadlines for reducing automobile emission levels: 90 percent reductions in hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide levels by 1975 and a 90 percent reduction in nitrogen oxides by 1976. Among the less tangible but vital contributions of the CAA, according to former Deputy Administrator Alvin Alm, were the working arrangements forged while setting and enforcing its standards. These "set the pattern for federal-state relations for years to come." At the outset, President Nixon promised the states a chance to make "a good faith effort" to implement CAA standards, but warned that federal enforcement action against violators would be swift and sure. Alluding to a popular Clint Eastwood picture of the day, the President said that William Ruckelshaus would be "The Enforcer" in cases of air pollution. An early test of EPA's resolve in this matter led to a confrontation with Union Carbide. Under pre-existing air statutes, Union Carbide had been required to submit a timetable for bringing the Marietta, Ohio, plant into compliance with recommended federal standards by the end of 1970. On January 9, 1971, William "The Enforcer" Ruckelshaus rejected Union Carbide's schedule for reducing sulfur oxide emissions from its Marietta plant. The company retaliated by threatening to lay off 625 workers. Eventually, EPA was able to forge a compromise that saved the workers' jobs. This was done without jeopardizing the environmental goal of securing from Union Carbide a workable emission reduction plan. The company's Marietta plant brought its sulfur oxide emissions down 70 percent by April 1972. It is impressive that EPA was able to take the strong positions it did during its early days. Outward appearances did not always square with behind-the-scenes reality. In fact, a state of cheerful chaos prevailed during the first few months of the agency's operation. Program offices were scattered in seven or eight locations throughout Washington, D.C. Even tracking down a particular program team was sometimes an impossible task. Not until March 1971 was the General Services Administration able to move all of EPA's Washington workers into an office complex big enough to house them: Waterside Mall in Southwest Washington--a location that long ago burst its once-ample seams. It was also at this time that semi-permanent space was found for the staff of EPA's embryonic offices in each of the ten federal regions. Getting the regional offices settled was important because of the activist role the new Administrator had in mind for them in his new regime. To organize the EPA monolith, national and regional, Administrator Ruckelshaus tried to foster a "systems approach to pollution problems by grouping both air and water programs under a single Assistant Administrator for Media Programs. A separate Assistant Administrator for Categorical Programs was to monitor three "categories" of manmade pollutants: pesticides, radiation, and solid waste. All five of these programs eventually popped out from under their "systems" groupings and became separate administrative units, with separate Assistant Administrators. A. James Barnes, then a Special Assistant to Administrator Ruckelshaus and now EPA's Deputy Administrator, commented recently that "we were not as true as we should have been to this notion of dealing with environmental problems as a whole." Consolidating specific functions on an agencywide basis was an easier goal to accomplish. Research, enforcement, and management functions--once a part of each of the programs united to form EPA--were drawn together under individual Assistant Administrators responsible for forging unified agency programs in each area. The problem of developing an overall Agency identity was more elusive. Ultimately, it depended a great deal on the leadership qualities of the new Administrator, and there is widespread agreement among those who went through that exciting time that Ruckelshaus' leadership was up to the challenge: "extraordinary"; "energetic"; "very upbeat"; "very free-wheeling"; "much less bound in red tape"; responsible for "fantastic esprit de corps"; "a very gung-ho attitude"; "a family feeling." Ruckelshaus himself refuses to idealize the early 1970s. In fact, he blames the idealism of the Year of the Environment for many of EPA's subsequent problems: "We thought we had technologies that could control pollutants, keeping them below threshold levels at a reasonable cost, and that the only things missing in the equation were national standards and a strong enforcement effort. All of the nation's early environmental laws reflected these assumptions, and every one of these assumptions is wrong...The errors in our assumptions were not readily apparent in EPA's early days because the agency was tackling pollution in its most blatant form. The worst problems and the most direct ways to deal with them were apparent to everyone." Other EPA old hands share Ruckelshaus' desire to de-mythologize the early days of the agency. "There was no 'Golden Age,'" says Howard Messner, who helped get EPA rolling in the early 1970s and then returned to the agency with Ruckelshaus in 1983. "It was dramatic to be here then, but the agency wasn't as productive in terms of substance or achievement as EPA is in 1985. EPA has developed into the most competent agency in the federal government, and morale is still very high among our extremely talented and dedicated staff. Today is the Golden Age."

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Your session will timeout due to inactivity, please choose to continue your session if you’d would like to continue. The arrival of the earliest pioneers near Salem in 1630 was the shaping of Massachusetts as a state. Puritans arriving from an England threatened with civil war came to set up a new colony, intended to be an example to the world of a perfect human society, with rigid Protestant discipline and a devout way of life. This was the beginning of New England and today it is made up of six states including Massachusetts. Boston has been the proud hub of the state since colonial times and is full of fascinating history that can be traced by walking the Freedom Trail and the Black Heritage Trail. Boston also boasts a wealth of culture thanks to the prestigious presence of Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. To the east lie the beaches of the Cape Cod Peninsula as well as the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket that together form the region's most popular holiday destination, equipped with historic towns and plenty of walking and cycling opportunities. Inland Massachusetts is much quieter, with settlements clustered around the fertile river valleys and in the Berkshire Hills to the west. Development of the Berkshires began with the construction of the railway from New York and Boston and it gradually became a favourite summer retreat for wealthy city folk as well as attracting artists and writers. The region is now most famous for its vibrant summer music, dance and theatre festivals, particularly as the Boston Symphony Orchestra has its home at the huge Tanglewood Estate in Lenox. Most of the top tourist attractions in Massachusetts intertwine with the state's history. Puritan pilgrims established the first New England colony in Plymouth in 1620, ushering in a new era for America. Continuing throughout the years, the witch trials in the town of Salem remains notorious for the witch trials of 1692. Boston led the charge into the fight for freedom that became the American Revolution, and Massachusetts was the first state to abolish slavery in 1783. Massachusetts is also the proud home of Harvard, the oldest university in the country, as well as many other distinguished centres of learning, and boasts truly world-class museums and galleries to enshrine its treasures. Sightseeing in Massachusetts mainly appeals to culture vultures and those with scholarly interests, but there is nothing dowdy about the state. Massachusetts has a reputation for embracing the finer things in life and has long been a playground for the wealthy and refined. Beyond the stately old neighbourhoods of Boston, the beaches of Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket have become enclaves for stylish vacationers, and the forested hills of the Berkshires have long been the preferred retreat of many New Yorkers and Bostonians. One of the state's major attractions is the annual display of brilliant fall foliage, making autumn the best time to visit scenic Massachusetts. Those wanting to see the foliage at its most dramatic should drive The Mohawk Trail which winds through the northern Berkshire Mountains taking in some of the state's most beautiful scenery. The two and a half mile (4km) Freedom Trail follows a line of red bricks, or a painted red line on the pavement, linking 16 historic sights associated with the early struggle for freedom from British control and the events leading up to the revolution. Markers identify the stops and provide information from downtown to the North End to Charlestown and Bunker Hill Monument. Sights along the way include Paul Revere House, Boston's oldest surviving house that was home to the famous revolutionary. The Old North Church is also nearby, where two lanterns were hung in the belfry to warn the revolutionaries of the British movements while Revere went on his famous horse ride to warn of imminent British attack. The elegant Old State House was the seat of British colonial government and where the Declaration of Independence was read in 1776. There is a museum of Boston history inside. At the Old South Meeting House, Samuel Adams addressed the revolutionaries in the significant meeting prior to the Boston Tea Party, and a circle of cobblestones marks the site of the Boston Massacre. In Charlestown, the USS Constitution, also known as 'Old Ironsides', is the oldest warship still afloat. Its name was earned after the sinking of the British frigate, HMS Guerriere, during the war of 1812. Bunker Hill Monument is the site of the first formal battle of the American Revolution, fought in 1775. Also along the trail is the beautiful white steeple of Park Street Church, the site of several important anti-slavery speeches, and the Old Granary Burying Ground, where a number of revolutionaries are buried. Add to that the Quincy Market and Faneuil Hall that once were meeting places for revolutionaries as well as bustling marketplaces. Although a complete self-guided trail, the National Park Service also conducts free tours with guides in historic costumes that cover some of the trail's highlights. Today, Beacon Hill brings to mind images of affluence and luxurious living. Yet until the end of the 19th century, it contained a free black community and escaped slaves who owned businesses, built houses and schools, and worshipped together in the churches. Although the black community has since shifted to other parts of Boston, the Black Heritage Trail covers 14 sites important in local black history. Massachusetts was the first state to abolish slavery in 1783. Beginning at the Boston Common, there is a memorial to slave abolitionist Robert Shaw who led the first black regiment recruited during the Civil War. Various sites on Beacon Hill include homes of famous citizens, the city's first racially integrated public school with exhibits portraying the struggle for equal school rights, and a house that was part of the famous Underground Railroad that sheltered runaway slaves from their pursuers. The African Meeting House, part of the Museum of Afro-American History, is one of the most interesting stops on the trail. It was the first black church in the United States, known as Black Faneuil Hall during the anti-slavery campaign. Here, famous abolitionist speeches were made and black people were called to take up arms in the Civil War. There is an informative audiovisual presentation in the gallery. Although a self-guided trail with brochures and maps provided by the Museum of Afro-American History, park rangers also give free daily two-hour tours, which start at the National Park Service Visitor Center. Moored to the bridge is the Beaver II, known as the Boston Tea Party Ship and Museum, and one of the three ships stormed by patriots in 1773 as an act of rebellion against British rule and in particular against the new tax laws imposed on tea. A group of revolutionaries dressed as Mohawk Indians burst from the South Meeting House and boarded the ships that were loaded with tea. They emptied the crate contents into the harbour in an event known as the Boston Tea Party. The Beaver II is an exact replica of the original Beaver I and visitors can learn about the event onboard the ship. The museum has recently been renovated and improved, receiving rave reviews from visitors of all ages. The MIT Museum is located in Cambridge, near the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, one of the most prestigious universities in the US. The relatively small museum houses technology-themed collections. These include holograms, artificial intelligence, robotics, and maritime history, placing specific importance on MIT's contributions to the history of technology. Some of the most interesting exhibits are those of the MIT Hacks, elaborate pranks pulled by students each year. Don't miss the Arthur Ganson gallery of kinetic sculptures, which is also something special. Just across the Charles River from Boston, Cambridge is actually a city in its own right. But the two cities are so closely associated that many people believe them to be one and the same. Cambridge is home to two of the most prestigious centres for education in the country, Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It has a young and vibrant atmosphere due to the 30,000 university students from around the world that reside and study here. The city centres on Harvard Square, a gathering spot that reflects the international culture of its learning community as well as the influence of its students, residents, and business owners. Surrounding the square and lining the streets that spread out from Harvard Square are dozens of bookstores and music shops, cafes, coffee houses, and restaurants. Harvard Square, occupied on one side by the university, is a lively mixture of students and professors, buskers, evangelists, and political campaigners, and is a great place to have a cup of coffee, watch the activity, and soak up the atmosphere. Established in 1636, Harvard University is the oldest in the country and one of the most prestigious institutions of higher learning in the USA. It's famous for its brilliant faculties, which have produced economists, biologists, prize-winning poets, and famous graduates like President John F. Kennedy. It is perhaps equally well-known for its famous dropouts, such as actor Matt Damon and tech icon Bill Gates. The focal point of the university is Harvard Yard, a courtyard surrounded by ivy-covered colonial buildings from the 18th century named for John Harvard, a graduate of Cambridge University in Britain, who died leaving the college half his estate and his entire library. The shoe of John Harvard's statue is rubbed for good luck. Harvard also has some outstanding museums, including the Harvard Art Museums, the Fogg Art Museum, and the Museum of Natural History. The huge collection covers works from the European Renaissance period to the modern day, including works by Renoir, Monet, Van Gogh, and Klee. The Bush-Reisinger and Arthur Sackler Museums are included in the same ticket while the Natural History Museum is renowned for its display of hand-blown glass flowers. The first botanical garden in the United States, the Boston Public Garden provides a tranquil escape from the fast pace of the city centre. Maintained by the Boston Parks and Recreation Department and the Friends of the Public Garden, the botanical garden is a must-see on any exploration of Boston. With more than 600 varieties of trees and colourful displays of well-ordered decorative flowers, visitors can go for a relaxing swan boat ride on the three acre lagoon, enjoy the attractive vista of the city's sardined skyscrapers through the trees, or take pleasure in the numerous public works of art that border the meandering paths. The gardens are a great stop for families wanting a break from sightseeing. Martha's Vineyard is a favourite summer destination for New England's wealthy elite. Tourism is the main economy, boosted by celebrity regulars like actress Sharon Stone and the Clinton family. Martha's Vineyard is far less developed than Cape Cod, but more sophisticated than neighbouring Nantucket Island. Holidays here are dominated by simple pleasures such as the weekly farmers' market, and walks on the miles of coastal pathways. Although it is a peaceful place, Martha's Vineyard does host many events in the summer months, which keeps things lively; however, the influx of people in summer raises prices and makes things less serene so that some travellers prefer to visit off-season. Visiting outside of the busy summer period (June to August) also increases the chance that some of the private beaches in the area will be open to the public. The six towns of Martha's Vineyard have distinct characters. Upmarket Vineyard Haven is the island's main port, receiving ferries as well as private yachts. The fun centre of Oak Bluffs is home to the old Flying Horses Carousel, pizza takeaways, and ice-cream parlours which cater to the young and carefree. The graceful Edgartown has quaint inns, historic whaling captains' homes and stylish boutiques lining the narrow streets, and is the island's oldest settlement. Thirty miles (48km) off the coast of Cape Cod, the small and remote island of Nantucket is an escape from the city stress and chaos of everyday life. The land has miles of unspoilt beaches, rolling wind-swept moors, solitary windmills and lighthouses, church steeples, and peaceful lanes. Its only settlement, Nantucket Town, was once the whaling capital of the world and retains much of its 17th to 19th-century character with historic mansions, old fashioned street lamps, and cosy inns lining the cobblestone streets. Bar a few villages, the rest of the island is mainly residential. There isn't a billboard, fast-food franchise, or flashing neon light in sight. Nantucket has long appealed to wealthy visitors and has grown to a summer vacation retreat for nearly 50,000 tourists. Despite the increasing amount of luxury houses going up, more than 36 percent of the land is protected from development and the island still feels like a romantic paradise. The excellent Whaling Museum is an added attraction to the beaches, strolling and biking, and window-shopping at the exclusive boutiques. July and August are the most popular months and the busiest times, and although off-season has its charms thick fog often covers the island at this time. A great Boston day trip and shopping destination, Faneuil Hill Marketplace offers superb shopping at some familiar designer stores, quality arts and crafts, as well as great restaurants and sidewalk cafés. Four places in one, Faneuil Hall Marketplace encompasses Faneuil Hall, Quincy Market, North Market, and South Market. Set around a cobblestone promenade, the market is a haven for the performing arts with jugglers, mimes, musicians, and magicians entertaining passers-by. Centrally located and operating for more than 250 years, the Faneuil Hill Marketplace is the hub of Boston city life. Drawing large crowds excited by the electric energy, visitors can shop, stroll, eat, and wander. An artwork in itself, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston houses some of the most famous European paintings in the US. Boston's oldest, largest, and best-known art institution, the MFA's collection is one of the planet's most comprehensive, with something like 22,000 artworks including masterpieces by some of the finest artists in the world. With a striking collection of Impressionist paintings, Egyptian sculptures, and a moving exhibition of Japanese and other Asian artworks, visitors should make sure they have ample time to explore the exhibition rooms of the MFA. Have a break and enjoy a coffee or lunch at one the three gallery restaurants or browse the outstanding museum bookstore and shop. Codzilla takes passengers on a high-speed cruise around Boston's harbour. People on board will scream in pure delight as the boat curves, spins, and rips through the harbour for 40 minutes. You'll be travelling at a heart-pumping 40 miles (70km) per hour. Reservations are recommended. Very young kids may be frightened, but generally the whole family will relish the thrill. Numerous other boat tours and cruises are available in Boston's harbour, with more sedate options for those who aren't keen on braving Codzilla. The New England Aquarium is home to Simons IMAX Theatre and the New England Aquarium Whale Watch, which runs from April through October. It features a plethora of some of the world's most amazing marine species, such as the impressive giant pacific octopus, sand tiger shark, green sea turtles, and North Atlantic Right whales. It is an absolute must for children of all ages and any adult in love with the underwater world. The aquarium is a wonderful family attraction for a rainy day. Basic admission includes the aquarium, while the IMAX and Whale Watch charge additional fees. Cape Cod is home to a number of picturesque lighthouses that draw sightseers throughout the year. At one point, there were more than 20 on the peninsula. However, many of them are now decommissioned and knocked down. Those remaining have varying degrees of difficulty in access: some are easy to reach, while others require a hike. Some of the most popular, and easiest to get to, include Chatham Light and Nobska, which offers a spectacular view of Martha's Vineyard. Some that involve more walking are Cape Cod Light and Race Point Light. There are also lighthouses that only viewable from a distance, including Monomoy Light, which involves a boat trip past a very active seal colony. Some of the lighthouses can be rented for weekly accommodation. The Boston Red Sox are a much-beloved part of life in New England. The 'Curse of the Bambino' and their infamous near 100-year losing streak only made their supporters more fanatical. Fenway Park is the oldest Major League Baseball stadium still in use, and has quirky features like The Triangle, Pesky's Pole, and the famous Green Monster left-field wall. Visitors will notice a lone red seat in the right field bleachers, which is where Ted Williams hit the longest home run at Fenway, measuring 502 feet (153m). A baseball game at Fenway Park is a must for any summertime trip to Boston. Hot dog, crackerjacks, and all. Visitors to Boston can take an informative tour of the Sam Adams Brewery and get a look at the brewing process for the popular beer. Named for the revolutionary war hero, the beer has been brewed in Boston since the 1980s. The tour showcases the entire process and allows visitors to taste the special malts used. Tours depart roughly every 45 minutes and last about one hour, with a free glass included for visitors using the Go Boston Card. The brewery does not accept reservations, but they do recommend that visitors arrive fairly early in the day to avoid long waits, especially on Saturdays. All donations benefit local charities. Massachusetts has a humid continental climate, with cold, snowy winters and warm summers, with cooler temperatures in the Berkshires year round, and warmer temperatures along the coast. In general, temperatures in the state reach average highs of 82°F (27°C) in summer, between June and August, and average lows of 16°F (-8°C) in winter, between December and February. Winter snowfall in and around Boston is considerable, with higher levels in the Berkshire Hills. A tiny, unpretentious Italian restaurant with hard working staff and authentic Italian cuisine, Pomodoro is one of those neighbourhood restaurants frequented by locals and foreigners who keep coming back for more. Situated in the Northend, Pomodoro serves a wide range of Italian cuisine from traditional linguine marinara with lots of garlic and fresh herbs to seafood wonders like blackened swordfish, shrimp fradiavolo, and baked haddock. The affordable prices and quality of food make up for the simple decor, with most patrons being mesmerised by the activity and aroma escaping from the open kitchen and the food on their plate. Reservation recommended. Open Tuesday to Sunday for lunch and dinner. Located in Boston's trendy South End, Mistral promises uncomplicated and stylish fine dining. This upmarket restaurant specialises in French cuisine, with an emphasis on fresh, seasonal ingredients. The chef, Jamie Mammano, is highly acclaimed in Boston and the restaurant has a lovely ambience. Reservations are recommended. The Capital Grille is an American steakhouse institution, serving up extremely high quality food in generous portions. Despite being a restaurant chain, The Capital Grille is an upmarket fine dining experience and a good option for special occasions. If you are visiting for a special celebration, mention it to them when you make a reservation as they really do go the extra distance. Although steak of all kinds is the speciality, there are also tantalising seafood and vegetarian options on the menu. The Capital Grille is open for lunch and supper, Monday to Friday, and supper only on Saturdays and Sundays. Reservations are recommended. Boston's eclectic heritage is best appreciated through its foods and nowhere better than at Pho 'n Rice. For the uninformed, pho is deceptively simple traditional Vietnamese soup consisting of light but strong broth and noodles, with pieces of meat and vegetable that continue to cook in the bowl. Pho 'n Rice has added great variations to the traditional meal along with some Thai-style dishes that promise to be light on the wallet and the waistline. They'll even deliver your dinner to you for a small extra charge. Known for serving some of the best clam chowder in Boston, Legal Sea Foods offers a range of fresh local seafood and steaks. The large restaurant has three levels, and the top dining room and balcony offer stunning views of the harbour, and the staff is attentive and knowledgeable. Booking ahead is recommended, as there can be long queues at peak times. Consistently ranked one of the top restaurants in Boston, the Atlantic Fish Company serves up local seafood like crab cakes, mussels, clam chowder, Atlantic cod, and lobster pot pie to hungry tourists and locals alike. The menu changes daily according to the day's catch. The dining room is built to resemble the interior of a classic cruising ship, and the outdoor patio. Atlantic Fish Company is open Sunday to Thursday from 11.30am-11pm, and Friday and Saturday from 11.30am-midnight. Reservations are recommended. Your session will timeout due to inactivity, please choose to continue your session if you’d would like to continue. Your session has timed out due to inactivity.

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The Australian ecosystem is in decline, biodiversity is threatened and native animal species are at risk of becoming extinct. The key driver for this is the animal agriculture industry and the land clearing that this entails, both past and continuing. In a submission to a government inquiry into ecosystem decline in Victoria, Vegan Australia has urged the government to recognise that animal agriculture is a significant driver of environmental damage and climate change and that animal agriculture should be phased out to help protect and restore species and ecosystems. Read the full submission below. Submission to Inquiry into Ecosystem Decline in Victoria Vegan Australia is pleased to have the opportunity to provide a submission to the Environment and Planning Committee Inquiry into Ecosystem Decline in Victoria. We hope this submission assists the committee in recommending actions to address ecosystem decline and biodiversity loss in Victoria. Vegan Australia is a national organisation that informs the public about animal rights and veganism and also presents a strong voice for veganism to government, institutions, corporations and the media. Vegan Australia envisions a world where all animals live free from human use and ownership. The foundation of Vegan Australia is justice and compassion, for animals as well as for people and the planet. The first step each of us should take to put this compassion into action is to become vegan and to encourage others to do the same. Veganism is a rejection of the exploitation involved in commodifying and using sentient beings. The world is currently suffering from an accelerating biodiversity emergency. Species extinctions are increasing, with the UN finding that around one million species are at risk of extinction worldwide. Bushland, forests and wetlands are being destroyed and climate change is affecting ecosystems on both land and sea. These effects also strongly impact Australia, leading to a 2019 Senate inquiry into Australia's faunal extinction crisis. Victoria is fortunate to have a range of ecosystems populated by diverse species, but the same forces damaging worldwide ecosystems are also at work in Victoria. While there are many drivers of this decline, in this submission Vegan Australia will concentrate on one sector, the animal agriculture industry, that research shows causes a high proportion of damage in a number of ways and yet is often overlooked in inquiries like this. The UN 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services puts much of the blame on animal agriculture, saying that the meat industry has a "particularly heavy impact", and identifies animal agriculture as "one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems". Of the major causes of biodiversity loss listed by the report (including the destruction of land ecosystems, overfishing, climate change and pollution), animal agriculture is the primary cause of the deterioration. Fortunately damage caused by animal agriculture may be the easiest to reduce, because animal products can be replaced by plant products with a much lower environmental footprint. This inquiry into ecosystem decline in Victoria is an opportunity for the community to reflect on the damaging impact of animal agriculture on many aspects of the environment and particularly its contribution to biodiversity loss. The extent of the damage is huge, with over half a billion farmed animals bred, raised and killed for food in Australia every year. The animal agriculture industry occupies over half of the Australian landmass, causes the majority of land clearing and emits a significant portion of greenhouse gases. By acknowledging the impact of animal agriculture on the environment, this inquiry allows us to consider alternative ways we can obtain food and fibre which do not involve both the suffering of farmed animals and the environmental havoc animal agriculture causes. The key recommendation of this submission to restore damaged ecosystems is for the government to begin a managed phase out animal agriculture. Acting quickly but in a controlled way will allow the environment to recover while also protecting jobs and the economy. Factors in ecosystem decline and biodiversity loss There are many factors that lead to ecosystem decline. In Australia, the main two are land use by humans (mainly agriculture) and climate change. Others include pollution (land, air and water), hunting, fishing (freshwater and marine) and the impact of introduced species. These factors impact the environment by causing loss of habitat, species decline, species extinction, soil erosion, salinity, vegetation decline, damage to waterways, weed proliferation, loss of fresh water and forest destruction. Regarding land use, in Australia 54% of the Australian continent is used for animal farming. Most of this is land used for grazing, along with some land used for growing food for farmed animals. In other words, over half of the Australian landmass is used to produce animals as food, as shown in the large red area of this pie graph. In contrast, only 4% is used to grow crop plant foods, of which about a quarter is used to grow grains and fodder for feeding farmed animals. Fruits, vegetables and nuts use only 0.1%, cotton 0.1% and sugar 0.1%. The differences are astounding, with a huge amount of land dedicated to raising animals for food, a much smaller part growing crops like wheat and barley, and a tiny amount growing all the fruit and vegetables doctors say we need to eat more of. As can be seen, growing plants for food is an incredibly efficient use of land. Impact of land clearing A key threat to many of Australia's ecosystems and native animals is habitat loss through land clearing, both past and continuing. A shocking report by WWF-Australia found that millions of native animals are killed each year due to the bulldozing of their forest and woodland habitats. Many die during clearing, crushed by machinery or falling trees. Many others die slowly over days or weeks, from injuries, starvation or exposure. Animals left behind in the cleared landscape are highly exposed and vulnerable to predators. The report claims that "habitat destruction through tree-clearing probably counts as Queensland's and possibly also Australia's single largest crisis of animal welfare." Research on soil erosion by the Department of Agriculture in Victoria, found that "under natural conditions, runoff is moderated by vegetation, which generally holds the soil together, protecting it from excessive runoff and direct rainfall." However, excessive clearing, inappropriate land use and compaction of the soil caused by grazing leaves the soil exposed and unable to absorb excess water and leads to erosion, discolouration of water supply and sedimentation of waterways. To prevent this erosion, the research suggests protecting and re-establishing vegetation, planting trees and "maintaining remnant vegetation along drainage lines and eliminating grazing from these areas." A report by the Victorian National Parks Association says that "Victoria's natural habitats are on their knees". After 150 years of land clearing, Victoria is the most cleared state in Australia. The report says that "native vegetation is the best way to maintain habitat for threatened plants and animals. Places with remnant native vegetation support a higher diversity of species than areas that have been revegetated." Victoria continues to clear significant amounts of remnant native vegetation. Another report, by the CSIRO, states that "Land clearing, primarily for agriculture, is perhaps the single most important cause of environmental degradation, loss of species, and depletion of ecological communities." The extent of land clearing in Victoria is made clear by the two maps below. The first map shows Victoria's pre-1750 vegetation types and the second map shows the current native vegetation extent. The white areas in the second map show how much land has been cleared of native vegetation. The main use is for animal agriculture. Animal agriculture is the main driver for land clearing Animal agriculture is the key driver for habitat clearing and destruction in Australia. In Victoria, the most common land use is grazing animals on modified or irrigated pastures, making up about 34% of the state. Additional land is used for growing feed for these animals as well as intensively grown animals. As the Beyond Zero Emissions Land Use Report says "Since colonisation Australia has seen more biodiversity loss than any other continent and this rate is still one of the highest globally. Deforestation and grazing pressure are the major threats to biodiversity, and cause stress to a range of ecological communities across the continent." As can be seen from Figure 2.6 of the BZE Land Use Report, much of Victoria has been impacted by grazing. Native vegetation is still being cleared for agriculture in parts of Australia and although it continues in Victoria to some extent, much of the state has already been cleared. While animal agriculture uses about 34% of Victoria's land mass, plant farming uses 22%, plantation forests 2.5%, urban development 4%, rural residential 2.5% and mining 0.2%. The main driver for past and current land clearing in Victoria is animal agriculture. Climate change, animal agriculture and species extinction The committee has been asked to inquire into the decline of Victoria's ecosystems and pressures on endangered species. One of the key threats is climate change, which will have a disastrous effect on animal species as well as plant species and humans. Some have called the current climate emergency the "Sixth Mass Extinction". So to protect our native fauna from extinction we need to urgently tackle the climate crisis. Animal agriculture is the leading cause of climate change. In Australia, animal agriculture emits about 50% of all greenhouse gases, when accounted over 20 years. Animal agriculture produces greenhouse gases through land clearing for grazing, methane produced by cows and sheep and emissions from manure. In their greenhouse gas calculations, the IPCC and other international environmental organisations use warming potentials (GWPs) of greenhouse gases using a 100-year time frame. The decision to use a 100-year time frame is arbitrary. The IPCC states that "There is no scientific argument for selecting 100 years compared with other choices. The choice of time horizon is a value judgement." The convention to use a 100-year time frame was decided several decades ago, before the urgent need to avoid climate-system tipping points was understood. Given the urgency of the emissions reductions required to avoid catastrophic temperature increases, 20-year global warming potentials are much more relevant. Over 20 years, the global warming potential of methane is about 5 times higher than over 100 years. Animal agriculture is the largest source of methane and so if we measure the impact of sectors using a 20-year time frame, the climate impact of agriculture is significantly higher. The IPCC and other groups also do not take into account the impact of short-term gases on global warming. In the short time we have available to overcome climate change, the global warming potential of these short-lived gases becomes much more significant. Most of these gases are emitted by animal agriculture. When 20-year global warming potentials are used and short-term gases are included, we find that animal agriculture is responsible for about 50% of all greenhouse gases, both in Australia and worldwide. Methane stays in the atmosphere on average about 12 years. This means that reductions in methane emissions will cause more immediate cuts to global warming than reductions in carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide can stay in the atmosphere for over 100 years, so even if carbon dioxide emissions (from, for example, burning fossil fuels) were reduced now, it would take many decades for this to have an effect on global warming. Once we understand that animal agriculture is a major cause of global warming, a simple, effective and relatively quick solution becomes clear. By abolishing the use of animals for food, we not only act ethically for the animals, we also help slow and eventually reverse global warming. At an individual level, the single best thing you can do for the environment is to live vegan. At a societal level, the best thing we can do is to phase out the use of animals in the agriculture industry. Seriously tackling climate is the only hope of protecting Australia's native animals and humans. Animal agriculture causes biodiversity loss: UN report As mentioned in the Introduction, the UN Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services identifies the animal agriculture industry as "one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems" including the risk of extinction of one million species worldwide. The report was released by IPBES, a UN organisation with over 100 member countries, and also found that: - Livestock production (grazing and feedstock) is the single largest driver of habitat loss. - Grazing areas for cattle account for about 25% of the world's ice-free land. - Animal agriculture contributes at least 18% to global greenhouse gas emissions. - Industrial fishing takes place in more than half the world's oceans. - Livestock production uses a large portion of freshwater resources. - One third of the world's crops are used as feed for livestock production. - Animal-based foods, especially beef, require more water and energy than plant-based foods. This means more greenhouse-gas emissions. - The meat and dairy industries use 83% of farmland but contribute only 18% of food calories. - Farmed animals now account for over 90% of all large land animals. - Producing protein via farmed animals is a very wasteful use of resources. It can take from 10kg to 100kg of plant foods to produce just 1kg of animal product. - The demand for grain-fed meat is one of the main drivers of global biodiversity loss. Note that the 18% figure for greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture is determined using a 100 year GWP time frame to compare methane and carbon dioxide. Using a 20 year time frame (much more relevant to the current climate emergency), the figure is about 50%. That is, about half of the world's greenhouse gas emissions are due to the animal agriculture industry. As well as agriculture, the report also lists climate change, pollution and invasive species as damaging to nature, but these have had a relatively low impact compared to the surge in agriculture (mainly animal agriculture) and fishing which are the primary causes of the deterioration. To help reverse some of this damage to the environment, the report recommends that meat consumption be reduced by changes in diet. It suggests that reducing meat consumption in higher-income countries would yield the largest potential gain for the environmental and health benefits. It suggests "improvements in consumption patterns can likely be achieved by reducing subsidies for animal-based products, increasing those for plant-based foods, and replacing ecologically-inefficient ruminants (e.g., cattle, goats, sheep). Research and development of plant-based meat substitutes is also a growing phenomena and potential solution." It also suggests that meat prices are kept artificially low, which can increase consumption. The report mentions that another driver for higher meat consumption is its promotion via advertising, which promotes images of identity, such as masculinity and national and cultural identity. "Given the central role of advertising and marketing in boosting production, policies might seek to rein in the reach of advertising, particularly to children and for resource-intensive products" (such as animal products). The report suggests that regulating the advertising of animal products could reduce their consumption and hence improve the sustainability of food. The report notes that reduced demand for animal products can achieve multiple goals, such as greenhouse gas emission reduction, food security and biodiversity protection. While the report does not call for a vegan diet, it does suggest that the less meat, dairy and egg in a diet, the better for the environment and for health. Some scenarios mentioned in the report call for 50% less meat consumption. Regarding the environment, the best future scenario beneficial for biodiversity envisioned by the report includes "a shift in diet towards less meat." It also states that "significant reduction in consumption of meat and eggs means that less agricultural production would be required, thus reducing associated biodiversity loss." Regarding health, the report notes that "diet related disease is the leading cause of premature mortality." and "increased consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with reductions in various diseases such as cardiovascular disease." In other words, the report is consistent with Vegan Australia's recommendation to phase out animal agriculture. Many invasive species are due to animal agriculture For decades, hundreds of exotic plant species have been introduced in Australia as feed for animal agriculture and have now become invasive weeds which threaten the environment, cause habitat loss and threaten biodiversity. One such species is Gamba grass which was originally introduced to Australia as a pasture species for cattle. It is now a significant invasive week in several parts of Australia and increases the frequency and intensity of wildfires and competes with native grasses. See the ABC News article 'Indigenous rangers dismayed as NT Government allows cattle station to graze gamba grass weed'. By ending animal agriculture, we will not only free up land needed for biodiversity and end the suffering of over half a billion farmed animals every year, but also begin to reverse the damaging impact of invasive pasture grasses. Reusing land currently used by animal agriculture By removing animals from agriculture, a large proportion of land currently cleared for animal agriculture will be freed up. This will allow regrowth and reforestation which will have many environmental benefits, including strengthening ecosystems, increasing biodiversity and allowing endangered species to recover and possibly preventing extinctions in the future. Actively revegetating cleared land or allowing it to regenerate naturally will protect soils and prevent erosion, thus producing cleaner water. Other ways to use the land that will become available when animals are removed from agriculture include: - growing extra plant foods, particularly on land previously used for feed production and dairying - carbon farming (sequestering carbon dioxide) by regrowing vegetation and increasing the carbon stored in the soil - returning land to Aboriginal ownership and control - biochar production from tree crops Carbon farming would enable the land use sector to become a sink for emissions from other sectors, such as power generation and transport. Only a few possibilities are covered here as this is a large and complex task, with many options and which will require further research. The skilled and knowledgeable rural workforce will be a crucial asset in making this change. Impact on the economy of phasing out animal agriculture The economic impact of removing animals from the agricultural system will not be as significant as many people imagine. The animal agriculture industry is a relatively small part of the modern Australian economy. It currently contributes about 1.2% to the Australian GDP and employs less than 1.5% of the Australian workforce. For Victoria, animal agriculture contributes about 1.7% to economic output and employs about 1.7% of the workforce. Compared to industries like manufacturing (18%) and construction (12%), the animal agriculture industry is smaller than almost every other industry in Victoria. Any negative economic impacts of phasing out animal agriculture should be carefully managed to avoid dislocation, by reskilling workers and reusing land for other purposes, such as carbon farming, biochar production and revegetation as described above. Developing the plant-based alternative industry in Victoria will increase and diversify employment opportunities. Evidence that animal products are not necessary for health Vegan Australia's recommendation to phase out animal agriculture implies a shift to a plant-based diet for Victorians. Nutritional science shows that humans have no need for farmed animal food products. In fact, there is a solid body of peer-reviewed scientific evidence to confirm that it actually benefits human health to consume a primarily plant-based diet. Changing to a plant-based diet can help people live a longer, healthier life, and significantly reduce risk of falling victim to many of the serious health threats facing Victorians today. The Victorian Government's Independent Expert Panel report on Interim Emissions Reduction Targets for Victoria notes that "literature is also emerging to indicate that reduced consumption of meat and of other animal products (which are generally emissions-intensive) can produce health benefits." and acknowledges that "reduced consumption of animal products would provide further health benefits." The Victorian Government's Better Health Channel (26) states that vegan diets "can provide many health benefits, such as a reduced risk of chronic diseases, including obesity, coronary artery disease, hypertension (high blood pressure), diabetes and some types of cancer". It also states that vegans "have lower rates of illness and death from a number of degenerative diseases" and that vegan diets "are appropriate for all stages of a person's life". Australia's peak health body, the National Health and Medical Research Council, recognises that a vegan diet is a viable option for all Australians. Australia's top health experts agree with those in other parts of the world that well-planned vegan diets are safe and healthy for all age groups. The Australian Dietary Guidelines state that alternatives to animal foods, such as nuts, seeds, legumes, beans and tofu, can "increase dietary variety and provide a valuable and affordable source of protein and other nutrients found in meats." According to the US Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, "Appropriately planned ... vegan diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may provide health benefits for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. These diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, older adulthood and for athletes." Not only are animal products unnecessary for optimal health, an increasing number of nutritionists and health professionals are acknowledging animal products are harmful to our health. This is supported by decades of good research. A healthy vegan diet helps reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke, cancer, obesity, and diabetes, some of Australia's top killers. The World Health Organisation has stated that processed meats such as bacon cause cancer and the red meat is a probable cause of cancer. A recent issue of the Medical Journal of Australia, dedicated to the question "Is a Vegetarian [including vegan] Diet Adequate?", included the following statements. "A varied and balanced plant-based diet can provide all of the nutrients needed for good health." "Most vegans meet the recommended daily intake for protein." "Vegan diets generally contain just as much or more iron than mixed diets containing meat." "BMI and obesity was lowest for vegans." The China Study by T Colin Campbell is one of the most comprehensive studies on nutrition ever done. Campbell provides compelling evidence linking animal products to disease, including cancer, heart disease, osteoporosis, diabetes, etc. By encouraging a transition to a plant-based diet, the Victorian Government will not only be acting to reverse ecosystem decline in Victoria, but also aligning these actions with the State's other goals, such as responding to the climate emergency, improving public health, developing new industries and creating jobs. We urge the Environment and Planning Committee to recognise that animal agriculture is a key threat to ecosystems in Victoria and to take this into account when making the inquiry's final report. The challenge of ecosystem decline must be met quickly and effectively in order to avert potential catastrophic effects. To help address this challenge, Vegan Australia makes the following recommendations. Phase out animal agriculture over 10 years: Vegan Australia has consistently called for the phasing out of animal agriculture. This will allow damaged ecosystems to be restored and biodiversity to improve. Also, the elimination of greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture, in conjunction with efforts to substantially reduce fossil fuel emissions, will give us the best chance of avoiding climate-system tipping points and averting the worst effects of climate change. Finally, a corresponding improvement in diet will lead to a lower risk of many chronic diseases. Ensure a just transition: The transition to an animal-free agricultural system needs to be managed so that living standards are maintained and there is enough healthy food for everyone. Any negative economic or employment impacts should be minimised and any costs should be borne by the community as a whole. The broader society has an obligation to share the responsibility for this shift, so the burden of the economic costs does not fall solely on rural communities. Vegan Australia proposes a 10 year phase-out period. This period will allow time for adjustments in employment and investment. We recommend that the government consult with experts and workers to plan a controlled phase out of animal agriculture, carefully managing it to allow the environment to recover while also protecting jobs and the economy. Changes to land use, such as regrowth and reforestation, will continue far into the future. It is important that these changes be protected. Again the responsibility to manage these risks lies with society both now and in the future and not just with individual landholders. As with any significant change in the economy, the transition will have real impacts on some individuals, families, communities and businesses. It will be important for the government to build on existing best practice to support impacted individuals and ensure a just transition. Remove subsidies from animal agriculture and give assistance to plant farming: In order to meet this 10 year time frame, Vegan Australia recommends the immediate removal of all subsidies currently given to animal agriculture, and the redirection of these funds to plant farming. In particular, transitional assistance should be given to farmers to switch from animal agriculture to other uses of the land, including plant farming, reforesting, habitat protection and carbon farming. Cease land clearing: A cessation of land clearing would maintain habitat for threatened plants and animals, support biodiversity, reduce erosion and prevent greenhouse gas emissions. Incentivise tree planting: Tree planting schemes should be encouraged, as suggested by the Victorian Government's Independent Expert Panel report on Interim Emissions Reduction Targets for Victoria as part of its support for the development of negative emissions technologies. This should include large-scale afforestation and reforestation projects managed by the Victorian Government. Revegetate land currently used for animal agriculture: The revegetation of land would act as a significant carbon sink, as well as improving biodiversity and other markers of environmental health. Some work has been done in this area already, and that that work has the potential to be expanded drastically. See Vegan Australia's research paper "Moving to a vegan agricultural system for Australia". Efforts to sequester carbon by protecting, restoring or regenerating vegetation should be encouraged and supported through access to carbon offsets or government procurement. Helping endangered ecosystems in this way may have notable social benefits as well. Researchers at ANU have found that landholders who are engaged in environmental programs suffer fewer problems with mental illness. Educate the public about healthy vegan diets and the damage caused by animal agriculture: The Victorian Government's Independent Expert Panel report on Interim Emissions Reduction Targets for Victoria lists one of the main drivers of greenhouse gas emissions as "rising food demand with beef cattle being the biggest contributor of agriculture emissions, followed by sheep and pigs." The government needs to act on this evidence to drive down demand. A concerted effort should be made to educate the public about plant based nutrition and encourage the adoption of healthy vegan diets. This effort should take a whole of government approach and include community groups such as Vegan Australia. The public should be educated about how consuming animal products can increase the risk of many serious chronic diseases, how to eat healthily on a vegan diet and the health benefits of a balanced vegan diet, The Victorian Government should also educate the public about the impacts on the environmental (biodiversity loss, land degradation, climate change, etc) of animal agriculture and the ethical aspects of animal use, Include 20-year GWP figures in future climate change publications: In order to ensure that the public, and lawmakers, are properly informed about the true impacts of agriculture (and other industries) the 20-year GWP figures should be included alongside the 100-year GWP figures along with an explanation of how they differ. This is known as "dual term greenhouse gas reporting". This two-value approach, which indicates the effect over two different time horizons, is suggested by a number of studies. Providing the 100-year figures alone, without any explanation of the underlying assumptions used to arrive at this figure, ignores the potentially disastrous effects of climate-system tipping points, and constitutes a failure to properly inform the readers of these documents. To increase transparency, Vegan Australia also recommends that the Victorian Government urge other organisations and governments, nationally and internationally, to adopt dual term greenhouse reporting in their publications. The aims of Vegan Australia are to help bring about a world where people respect the rights of animals to their own lives, bodies and freedom and where animals live free from human use and ownership. In this submission we recommend that animal agriculture be recognised as a significant driver of environmental damage and climate change and that animal agriculture be phased out over a 10 year period to help protect and restore species and ecosystems. - Tree-clearing causing Queensland's greatest animal welfare crisis, WWF - Animal agriculture and global warming, Vegan Australia - Animal agriculture causes biodiversity loss: UN report, Vegan Australia - Revealed: rampant deforestation of Amazon driven by global greed for meat, The Guardian - Millions of native animals killed to clear land for animal farming, Vegan Australia - Animal farming is major cause of climate change, Victorian government told, Vegan Australia - Koalas Are Going Extinct, Because of You and Me?, Meat Your Future - Beyond Carnism, Dr Melanie Joy - Speciesism: Why Do We Love One Animal But Condemn the Other?, Voiceless - Land use in Australia, Department of Agriculture - The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, IPBES - Indigenous rangers dismayed as NT Government allows cattle station to graze gamba grass weed, ABC News - Beef, the reef and rugby: We have a problem, Paul Mahony - Meat Eaters vs the Great Barrier Reef, Paul Mahony - Beef industry linked to 94% of land clearing in Great Barrier Reef catchments, The Guardian - Moving to a vegan agricultural system for Australia, Vegan Australia - Animal farming is major cause of climate change, Victorian government told, Vegan Australia - Gully erosion, Agriculture Victoria - Australian land use profiles, ABARES - Putting a stop to land clearing, Victorian National Parks Association - Victorian economy at a glance, Invest Victoria - Value of Agricultural Commodities, Australian Bureau of Statistics - Victorian Economic Snapshot, Parliament of Victoria - Australian Industry, Australian Bureau of Statistics - Shifting Diets for a Sustainable Food Future, World Resources Institute - We have a steak in it: Eliciting interventions to reduce beef consumption and its impact on biodiversity, Society for Conservation Biology - Plant-rich diets, Project Drawdown - Independent expert advice on interim targets, Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning - How to implement biodiversity-based agriculture to enhance ecosystem services: a review, Agronomy for Sustainable Development - Here's a good news conservation story: farmers are helping endangered ecosystems, Australian National University - Economy, Jobs and Business Insights, EDA Victoria - State of the Environment 2018, Commissioner for Environmental Sustainability Victoria If you would like to keep up to date with this and other topics, sign up to our newsletter.

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This* story actually started in 2018 with an August 1, 2018 Harvard University news release (h/t Aug. 1, 2018 news item on phys.org) by Leslie Brownell announcing molecular and synthetic biology educational kits that been tested in the classroom. (In 2019, a new kit was released but more about that later.) As biologists have probed deeper into the molecular and genetic underpinnings of life, K-12 schools have struggled to provide a curriculum that reflects those advances. Hands-on learning is known to be more engaging and effective for teaching science to students, but even the most basic molecular and synthetic biology experiments require equipment far beyond an average classroom’s budget, and often involve the use of bacteria and other substances that can be difficult to manage outside a controlled lab setting. Now, a collaboration between the Wyss Institute at Harvard University, MIT [Massachusetts Institute of Technology], and Northwestern University has developed BioBits, new educational biology kits that use freeze-dried cell-free (FD-CF) reactions to enable students to perform a range of simple, hands-on biological experiments. The BioBits kits introduce molecular and synthetic biology concepts without the need for specialized lab equipment, at a fraction of the cost of current standard experimental designs. The kits are described in two papers published in Science Advances . “The main motivation in developing these kits was to give students fun activities that allow them to actually see, smell, and touch the outcomes of the biological reactions they’re doing at the molecular level,” said Ally Huang, a co-first author on both papers who is an MIT graduate student in the lab of Wyss Founding Core Faculty member Jim Collins, Ph.D. “My hope is that they will inspire more kids to consider a career in STEM [science, technology, engineering, and math] and, more generally, give all students a basic understanding of how biology works, because they may one day have to make personal or policy decisions based on modern science.” Synthetic and molecular biology frequently make use of the cellular machinery found in E. coli bacteria to produce a desired protein. But this system requires that the bacteria be kept alive and contained for an extended period of time, and involves several complicated preparation and processing steps. The FD-CF reactions pioneered in Collins’ lab for molecular manufacturing, when combined with innovations from the lab of Michael Jewett, Ph.D. at Northwestern University, offer a solution to this problem by removing bacteria from the equation altogether. “You can think of it like opening the hood of a car and taking the engine out: we’ve taken the ‘engine’ that drives protein production out of a bacterial cell and given it the fuel it needs, including ribosomes and amino acids, to create proteins from DNA outside of the bacteria itself,” explained Jewett, who is the Charles Deering McCormick Professor of Teaching Excellence at Northwestern University’s McCormick School of Engineering and co-director of Northwestern’s Center for Synthetic Biology, and co-corresponding author of both papers. This collection of molecular machinery is then freeze-dried into pellets so that it becomes shelf-stable at room temperature. To initiate the transcription of DNA into RNA and the translation of that RNA into a protein, a student just needs to add the desired DNA and water to the freeze-dried pellets. The researchers designed a range of molecular experiments that can be performed using this system, and coupled each of them to a signal that the students can easily detect with their sense of sight, smell, or touch. The first, called BioBits Bright, contains six different freeze-dried DNA templates that each encode a protein that fluoresces a different color when illuminated with blue light. To produce the proteins, students simply add these DNA templates and water to the FD-CF machinery and put the reactions in an inexpensive incubator (~$30) for several hours, and then view them with a blue light illuminator (~$15). The students can also design their own experiments to produce a desired collection of colors that they can then arrange into a visual image, a bit like using a Light Brite ©. “Challenging the students to build their own in vitro synthetic programs also allows educators to start to talk about how synthetic biologists might control biology to make important products, such as medicines or chemicals,” explained Jessica Stark, an NSF Graduate Research Fellow in the Jewett lab at Northwestern University who is co-first author on both papers. An expansion of the BioBits Bright kit, called BioBits Explorer, includes experiments that engage the senses of smell and touch and allow students to probe their environment using designer synthetic biosensors. In the first experiment, the FD-CF reaction pellets contain a gene that drives the conversion of isoamyl alcohol to isoamyl acetate, a compound that produces a strong banana odor. In the second experiment, the FD-CF reactions contain a gene coding for the enzyme sortase, which recognizes and links specific segments of proteins in a liquid solution together to form a squishy, semi-solid hydrogel, which the students can touch and manipulate. The third module uses another Wyss technology, the toehold switch sensor, to identify DNA extracted from a banana or a kiwi. The sensors are hairpin-shaped RNA molecules designed such that when they bind to a “trigger” RNA, they spring open and reveal a genetic sequence that produces a fluorescent protein. When fruit DNA is added to the sensor-containing FD-CF pellets, only the sensors that are designed to open in the presence of each fruit’s RNA will produce the fluorescent protein. The researchers tested their BioBits kits in the Chicago Public School system, and demonstrated that students and teachers were able to perform the experiments in the kits with the same success as trained synthetic biology researchers. In addition to refining the kits’ design so that they can one day provide them to classrooms around the world, the authors hope to create an open-source online database where teachers and students can share their results and ideas for ways to modify the kits to explore different biological questions. “Synthetic biology is going to be one of the defining technologies of the century, and yet it has been challenging to teach the fundamental concepts of the field in K-12 classrooms given that such efforts often require expensive, complicated equipment,” said Collins, who is a co-corresponding author of both papers and also the Termeer Professor of Medical Engineering & Science at MIT. “We show that it is possible to use freeze-dried, cell-free extracts along with freeze-dried synthetic biology components to conduct innovative educational experiments in classrooms and other low-resource settings. The BioBits kits enable us to expose young kids, older kids, and even adults to the wonders of synthetic biology and, as a result, are poised to transform science education and society. “All scientists are passionate about what they do, and we are frustrated by the difficulty our educational system has had in inciting a similar level of passion in young people. This BioBits project demonstrates the kind of out-of-the-box thinking and refusal to accept the status quo that we value and cultivate at the Wyss Institute, and we all hope it will stimulate young people to be intrigued by science,” said Wyss Institute Founding Director Donald Ingber, M.D., Ph.D., who is also the Judah Folkman Professor of Vascular Biology at Harvard Medical School (HMS) and the Vascular Biology Program at Boston Children’s Hospital, as well as Professor of Bioengineering at Harvard’s John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS). “It’s exciting to see this project move forward and become available to biology classrooms worldwide and, hopefully some of these students will pursue a path in science because of their experience.” Additional authors of the papers include Peter Nguyen, Ph.D., Nina Donghia, and Tom Ferrante from the Wyss Institute; Melissa Takahashi, Ph.D. and Aaron Dy from MIT; Karen Hsu and Rachel Dubner from Northwestern University; Keith Pardee, Ph.D., Assistant Professor at the University of Toronto; and a number of teachers and students in the Chicago school system including: Mary Anderson, Ada Kanapskyte, Quinn Mucha, Jessica Packett, Palak Patel, Richa Patel, Deema Qaq, Tyler Zondor, Julie Burke, Tom Martinez, Ashlee Miller-Berry, Aparna Puppala, Kara Reichert, Miriam Schmid, Lance Brand, Lander Hill, Jemima Chellaswamy, Nuhie Faheem, Suzanne Fetherling, Elissa Gong, Eddie Marie Gonzales, Teresa Granito, Jenna Koritsaris, Binh Nguyen, Sujud Ottman, Christina Palffy, Angela Patel, Sheila Skweres, Adriane Slaton, and TaRhonda Woods. This research was supported by the Army Research Office, the National Science Foundation, the Air Force Research Laboratory Center of Excellence Grant, The Defense Threat Reduction Agency Grant, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Program, the Wyss Institute at Harvard University, the Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group, The Air Force Office of Scientific Research, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada. [emphases mine] Well, that list of funding agencies is quite interesting. The US Army and Air Force but not the Navy? As for what the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada is doing on that list, I can only imagine why. This is what they were doing in 2018, Now for the latest update, a May 7, 2019 news item on phys.org announces the BioBits Kits have been expanded, How can high school students learn about a technology as complex and abstract as CRISPR? It’s simple: just add water. A Northwestern University-led team has developed BioBits, a suite of hands-on educational kits that enable students to perform a range of biological experiments by adding water and simple reagents to freeze-dried cell-free reactions. The kits link complex biological concepts to visual, fluorescent readouts, so students know—after a few hours and with a single glance—the results of their experiments. After launching BioBits last summer, the researchers are now expanding the kit to include modules for CRISPR [clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats] and antibiotic resistance. A small group of Chicago-area teachers and high school students just completed the first pilot study for these new modules, which include interactive experiments and supplementary materials exploring ethics and strategies. “After we unveiled the first kits, we next wanted to tackle current topics that are important for society,” said Northwestern’s Michael Jewett, principal investigator of the study. “That led us to two areas: antibiotic resistance and gene editing.” Called BioBits Health, the new kits and pilot study are detailed in a paper published today (May 7 ) in the journal ACS Synthetic Biology. Jewett is a professor of chemical and biological engineering in Northwestern’s McCormick School of Engineering and co-director of Northwestern’s Center for Synthetic Biology. Jessica Stark, a graduate student in Jewett’s laboratory, led the study. Test in a tube Instead of using live cells, the BioBits team removed the essential cellular machinery from inside the cells and freeze-dried them for shelf stability. Keeping cells alive and contained for an extended period of time involves several complicated, time-consuming preparation and processing steps as well as expensive equipment. Freeze-dried cell-free reactions bypass those complications and costs. “These are essentially test-tube biological reactions,” said Stark, a National Science Foundation graduate research fellow. “We break the cells open and use their guts, which still contain all of the necessary biological machinery to carry out a reaction. We no longer need living cells to demonstrate biology.” This method to harness biological systems without intact, living cells became possible over the last two decades thanks to multiple innovations, including many in cell-free synthetic biology by Jewett’s lab. Not only are these experiments doable in the classroom, they also only cost pennies compared to standard high-tech experimental designs. “I’m hopeful that students get excited about engineering biology and want to learn more,” Jewett said. One of the biggest scientific breakthroughs of the past decade, CRISPR (pronounced “crisper”) stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. The powerful gene-editing technology uses enzymes to cut DNA in precise locations to turn off or edit targeted genes. It could be used to halt genetic diseases, develop new medicines, make food more nutritious and much more. BioBits Health uses three components required for CRISPR: an enzyme called the Cas9 protein, a target DNA sequence encoding a fluorescent protein and an RNA molecule that targets the fluorescent protein gene. When students add all three components — and water — to the freeze-dried cell-free system, it creates a reaction that edits, or cuts, the DNA for the fluorescent protein. If the DNA is cut, the system does not glow. If the DNA is not cut, the fluorescent protein is made, and the system glows fluorescent. “We have linked this abstract, really advanced biological concept to the presence or absence of a fluorescent protein,” Stark said. “It’s something students can see, something they can visually understand.” The curriculum also includes activities that challenge students to consider the ethical questions and dilemmas surrounding the use of gene-editing technologies. “There is a lot of excitement about being able to edit genomes with these technologies,” Jewett said. “BioBits Health calls attention to a lot of important questions — not only about how CRISPR technology works but about ethics that society should be thinking about. We hope that this promotes a conversation and dialogue about such technologies.” Jewett and Stark are both troubled by a prediction that, by the year 2050, drug-resistant bacterial infections could outpace cancer as a leading cause of death. This motivated them to help educate the future generation of scientists about how antibiotic resistance emerges and inspire them to take actions that could help limit the emergence of resistant bacteria. In this module, students run two sets of reactions to produce a glowing fluorescent protein — one set with an antibiotic resistance gene and one set without. Students then add antibiotics. If the experiment glows, the fluorescent protein has been made, and the reaction has become resistant to antibiotics. If the experiment does not glow, then the antibiotic has worked. “Because we’re using cell-free systems rather than organisms, we can demonstrate drug resistance in a way that doesn’t create drug-resistant bacteria,” Stark explained. “We can demonstrate these concepts without the risks.” A supporting curriculum piece challenges students to brainstorm and research strategies for slowing the rate of emerging antibiotic resistant strains. Part of something cool After BioBits was launched in summer 2018, 330 schools from around the globe requested prototype kits for their science labs. The research team, which includes members from Northwestern and MIT, has received encouraging feedback from teachers, students and parents. “The students felt like scientists and doctors by touching and using the laboratory materials provided during the demo,” one teacher said. “Even the students who didn’t seem engaged were secretly paying attention and wanted to take their turn pipetting. They knew they were part of something really cool, so we were able to connect with them in a way that was new to them.” “My favorite part was using the equipment,” a student said. “It was a fun activity that immerses you into what top scientists are currently doing.” The study, “BioBits Health: Classroom activities exploring engineering, biology and human health with fluorescent readouts,” was supported by the Army Research Office (award number W911NF-16-1-0372), the National Science Foundation (grant numbers MCB-1413563 and MCB-1716766), the Air Force Research Laboratory Center of Excellence (grant number FA8650-15-2-5518), the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (grant number HDTRA1-15-10052/P00001), the Department of Energy (grant number DE-SC0018249), the Human Frontiers Science Program (grant number RGP0015/2017), the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (grant number DE-EE008343) and the Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Program. [emphases mine] This is an image you’ll find in the abstract for the 2019 paper, Here are links and citations for the 2018 papers and the 2019 paper, BioBits™ Explorer: A modular synthetic biology education kit by Ally Huang, Peter Q. Nguyen, Jessica C. Stark, Melissa K. Takahashi, Nina Donghia, Tom Ferrante, Aaron J. Dy, Karen J. Hsu, Rachel S. Dubner, Keith Pardee, Michael C. Jewett, and James J. Collins. Science Advances 01 Aug 2018: Vol. 4, no. 8, eaat5105 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat5105 BioBits™ Bright: A fluorescent synthetic biology education kit by Jessica C. Stark, Ally Huang, Peter Q. Nguyen, Rachel S. Dubner, Karen J. Hsu, Thomas C. Ferrante, Mary Anderson, Ada Kanapskyte, Quinn Mucha, Jessica S. Packett, Palak Patel, Richa Patel, Deema Qaq, Tyler Zondor, Julie Burke, Thomas Martinez, Ashlee Miller-Berry, Aparna Puppala, Kara Reichert, Miriam Schmid, Lance Brand, Lander R. Hill, Jemima F. Chellaswamy, Nuhie Faheem, Suzanne Fetherling, Elissa Gong, Eddie Marie Gonzalzles, Teresa Granito, Jenna Koritsaris, Binh Nguyen, Sujud Ottman, Christina Palffy, Angela Patel, Sheila Skweres, Adriane Slaton, TaRhonda Woods, Nina Donghia, Keith Pardee, James J. Collins, and Michael C. Jewett. Science Advances 01 Aug 2018: Vol. 4, no. 8, eaat5107 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat5107 BioBits Health: Classroom Activities Exploring Engineering, Biology, and Human Health with Fluorescent Readouts by Jessica C. Stark, Ally Huang, Karen J. Hsu, Rachel S. Dubner, Jason Forbrook, Suzanne Marshalla, Faith Rodriguez, Mechelle Washington, Grant A. Rybnicky, Peter Q. Nguyen, Brenna Hasselbacher, Ramah Jabri, Rijha Kamran, Veronica Koralewski, Will Wightkin, Thomas Martinez, and Michael C. Jewett. ACS Synth. Biol., Article ASAP DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.8b00381 Publication Date (Web): March 29, 2019 Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society Both of the 2018 papers appear to be open access while the 2019 paper is behind a paywall. Should you be interested in acquiring a BioBits kit, you can check out the BioBits website. As for ‘conguering’ CRISPR, do we really need to look at it that way? Maybe a more humble appraoch could work just as well or even better, eh? *’is’ removed from sentence on May 9, 2019.

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Governments and companies often make promises they can’t or won’t keep. From enhancing educational attainment, to reducing unemployment and cleaning up air and water, governments make promises by setting policies. Equally, governments announce policies designed to get companies to invest, companies often make substantial commitments to the future on behalf of wider society. However, whilst people from President Obama to Sir Nicholas Stern to the musician Bono have called for investment in low carbon technologies to rescue us from the consequences of climate change, rhetoric has often failed to live up to reality. The scale of the investment required is not always appreciated. In their ‘beyond alternative’ or ‘blue scenario’ the International Energy Agency begin to map out the investment needed for renewables to really transform the outlook for energy and climate in the mid 21st century. In 2010 the IEA estimated that to achieve this transformation and keep global temperature rises below 2 degrees, hundreds if not thousands of gigawatts from low carbon sources were required. This happens to be in line with the London Accord bottom up estimates and the Stern Review’s ball park figure of 1% of global GDP from 2007. This represents an annual installation of some 50 carbon capture thermal plants, 30 nuclear plants, 17,000 on and off-shore wind turbines, 100 biomass plants, 130 geothermal schemes, 80 solar concentration plants, 16 GW of hydro schemes, and 200 million square metres of solar cells: a simple estimate of the cost of this quickly reaches some €500 billion a year. Whilst progress is accelerating, and the costs of certain technologies, such as photovoltaics has fallen, in 2015 the shortfall in investment was $171 billion . Source London Accord “A Portfolio Approach To Climate Change Investment And Policy” Investment of this scale cannot come from the public sector alone, private sector investment is required on a truly global scale. However, potential climate change investors have one big doubt – are governments truly committed to decarbonising the economy? All energy projects share similar risks. Universal risks include energy prices, construction costs, operating costs, efficiency, waste and decommissioning. But there is one qualitative difference between traditional fossil fuel energy projects and nuclear or clean tech energy projects, the risk of failed government policy. Developers of low carbon projects, such as wind farms or solar companies, face two major problems turning ideas into reality. The first is showing attractive returns. The second is raising capital. Most low carbon projects will provide attractive returns only if government policies allow a level playing field with fossil fuel power generation- not only in terms of hidden subsidies such as tax breaks, but also in terms of allowing access to power networks by controlling connection costs. Over the long term these should not only lead to lower emissions, but to higher fossil fuel prices and higher carbon prices. Unfortunately, policy commitments on tackling climate change can wither like spring blossoms in late frost, in the face of democratic regime change, or even mid-term if a government feels that its popularity is wavering. Uncertainty about government commitments creates risks which developers, and their investors, are not keen to bear. On the world stage governments claim they are committed, but history raises doubts about their sincerity. Repeated changes of policy on feed-in tariffs for solar power generation in Spain and Germany, a moratorium on on-shore wind power generation in the England and a dysfunctional relationship with nuclear power across Europe bear witness to millions of pounds of wasted professional fees and damaged investments by private companies in a low carbon future. Unfortunately, Government policy is essential to most clean tech profitability. If governments stick to declared targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, renewable energy, or carbon prices, many clean tech projects make investment sense however, if governments are blowing so much hot air, clean tech projects are highly risky. This risk, the risk of government inaction, has significant financial implications as it drives up the cost of finance for clean energy substantially. Lack of confidence in government commitment impairs investment. Lack of confidence also leads to low prices for carbon. For example, the EU ETS market Phase 1 (2005 to 2007) carbon price crashed in 2007 when it became apparent that EU governments had jointly issued far too many permits to emit, i.e. clearly they weren’t committed to reductions. The uncertainty about government commitment manifests itself in three specific risks – government carbon emission targets being missed, fossil fuel prices remaining low, and carbon (emissions) prices remaining low. Missed targets, low fossil fuel prices and low carbon prices reduce the profitability of clean energy, or cause losses. Sovereign Carbon Bonds, a type of Environmental Impact Bond, could provide an important link between government policies and companies as they would help unite businesses, organizations, and governments towards shared goals. Such instruments could provide the necessary link between macroeconomic incentives and microeconomic insurance opportunities that are key to achieve the two degree scenario. Environmental Impact Bonds (EIBs) are government bonds where interest payments are linked to the delivery of an environmental policy specific target. If a target is missed, the yield on the bond increases. In other words policy makers will be held to their promises, and if they fail to deliver there will be a financial penalty. An EIB provides a hedge against the issuing country’s government not delivering on its commitments or targets and could help unite businesses, organizations, and governments towards shared goals. At the Paris climate conference (COP21) in December 2015, 195 countries adopted the first-ever universal, legally binding global climate deal. The agreement, which sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2°C, is due to enter into force in 2020. Before and during the Paris conference, countries submitted Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs). INDCs are comprehensive national climate action plans and are the primary means for governments to communicate internationally the steps they will take to address climate change in their own countries. INDCs reflect each country’s ambition for reducing emissions, taking into account its domestic circumstances and capabilities. Some countries also address how they’ll adapt to climate change impacts, and what support they need from, or will provide to, other countries to adopt low-carbon pathways and to build climate resilience. Carbon Policy Performance Bonds (OAT CPBs) are a simple, and yet powerful idea that could provide a framework for the delivery of INDCs. In its simplest form, interest payments could be linked to the actual greenhouse gas emissions of the issuing country against the targets contained in its INDC. An investor in this bond receives an excess return if the issuing country’s emissions are above the government’s published target. OAT CPBs could be designed against a variety of indices to track performance including - The choice of index allows the public sector to eliminate quite specific risks and so, akin to a surgical strike, take out a policy confidence blockage and enable private sector investment to flow. The ability to choose any of a range of indices provides flexibility to target one or more specific risks in a single structure. OAT CPBs could easily be issued by any government (supra-national, national, state, province) or multi-lateral agency without any need for a global initiative. Documentation would be simple (please refer to the appendix for a term sheet example). Most existing government treasury mandates already allow for these types of instrument. For example inflation indexed bonds are bonds where the principal is indexed to inflation or deflation on a daily basis. They are thus designed to hedge the inflation risk of a bond. The first known inflation-indexed bond was issued by the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1780 The market has grown dramatically since the British government began issuing inflation-linked Gilts in 1981. As of 2008, government-issued inflation-linked bonds comprise over $1.5 trillion of the international debt market . The ability to hedge would enable investors to invest more confidently in projects or technologies that pay off in a low-carbon future because if the low-carbon future fails to arrive the government too bears direct costs of having to pay higher interest rates on government debt. In this way, OAT CPBs eliminate the one risk that differentiates clean tech projects from other energy projects, the uncertainty of government policy actually being directed at a low carbon future. Eventually, if the bonds are actively traded, simple derivatives would allow potential investors in low carbon projects or technologies to obtain a hedge against government risk without having to physically purchase the government bond itself. Derivatives would broaden the appeal to investors prohibited from buying government debt, for example those whose investment mandate stipulates they must invest in low carbon projects only. More complex versions are possible. A developed country could issue the bond, but use an index of a group of developing countries weighted average feed-in tariffs for clean energy, for example, so transferring the risk of those governments’ policies from a private sector investor to the developed country’s government. Mark Carney, Governor of the Bank of England and Chair of the Financial Stability Board, stated in a lecture in Berlin on 22 September 2016 : “.... green finance is a major opportunity. By ensuring that capital flows finance long-term projects in countries where growth is most carbon intensive, financial stability can be promoted. By absorbing excess global saving, equilibrium interest rates can be raised and macroeconomic stability enhanced. And by allocating capital to green technologies, the prospects for an environmentally sustainable recovery in global growth will increase … the more we invest with foresight; the less we will regret in hindsight. Financial stability risks will be minimised if the transition begins early and follows a predictable path, thereby helping the market anticipate the transition to a two-degree world.” “The development of this new global asset class (green bonds) is an opportunity to advance a low carbon future while raising global investment and spurring growth ... The shift to the capital markets from banks will also free up limited bank balance sheet capacity for early-stage project financing and other important infrastructure lending. To reach escape velocity, (green bond) market participants and public authorities will need to coordinate to deliver common green bond frameworks and definitions, and other necessary supporting infrastructure, to build local and cross-border markets. Specific measures could include: OAT CPBs could provide a hedge against an issuing country’s government not delivering on its commitments or targets whatever they may be. Thus they could be issued in any area where policy risk is significant, particularly those where politicians wish to encourage private sector engagement. Policy areas where OAT CPBs could be issued include flooding, education, health, wildlife protection, reforestation, inflation, or unemployment. The ability to hedge enables the same investor to invest more confidently in projects or services that deliver against policy goals, because if the government fails to follow through it will bear direct costs of having to pay higher interest rates on government debt. In fact, a small exercise using the UN Sustainable Development Goals as a template easily inspired OAT CPBs for every category: In finance, a bond is an instrument of indebtedness of the bond issuer to the holders. They are debt securities under which the issuer owes the holders a debt and, depending on the terms of the bond, is obliged to pay them interest (the coupon) and/or to repay the principal at a later date, termed the maturity date. The Latin motto of the London Stock Exchange is ‘Dictum Meum Pactum’ or "My Word is My Bond." Unfortunately the promises of policy markets have never been bankable. By issuing policy performance bonds linked to independent, auditable indices, these ‘bond cuffs’ would directly address the primary concern of private sector investors, lack of confidence in governments’ commitments. For example - In the UK, analysts claim that retail banking is dysfunctional and systemically dangerous because an oligopoly of five retail banks controls 85% of the market. The UK government claims its policies include support for new ‘challenger’ banks. If it’s serious, the UK government could issue a PPB stating perhaps that it would aim for the oligopoly to have less than a 50% market share by 2025. That would show firm commitment. Investors in challenger banks could hedge the risk that future banking regulation would harm their investments by buying such bonds. If the oligopoly were still as strong, the investors would have had some recompense from government. If the oligopoly was weaker, presumable the challenger banks would have done well, and those investors who hedged would have paid the government for their hedge by lending government money at lower rates over that decade. Policy performance bonds could be structured to tackle excessive credit growth, measure effective regulation, or increase non-leveraged home rental markets. Consequently, changes of policy which disadvantage investors in renewable energy investment, can be hedged using OAT CPBs- as the government would be forced to increase interest rates if it failed to reach its CO2 reduction targets, or its targets with regards to GWh of clean energy generation. Following the financial crisis of 2007 -2009 banks were hit by a wave of regulations in the area of governance, market infrastructure, disclosure and capitalisation. Basel III enhanced capital and liquidity requirements, whilst the US Federal Reserve’s Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reserve and Consumer Protection Act and Volker Rule prohibited Banks from engaging in short term proprietary trading. The impact of these regulator strictures has been to increase costs for banks and reduce their ability to support credit growth and economic recovery . The two traditional routes available to corporations seeking capital are issuing shares or issuing corporate bonds. Corporate bond markets are an essential part of capital markets as they bring together businesses who require capital with investors and savers who wish to earn a stable income from their investments and savings. Bonds play a key role in facilitating economic growth, productivity, and employment. As the ability of banks to provide direct funding to the corporate sector has become challenged, post-crisis, policy makers are beginning to look to capital markets as an ever more important source of financing for the real economy, while also underpinning economic stability. However, recently concerns have been expressed about liquidity in the corporate bond market. (A market for a security is considered liquid if investors can trade it – even in large size – at low cost, because their orders have little effect on its price). This matters because any decline in the liquidity of bonds could make it more expensive for borrowers to issue them in the first place, and this could hurt investment and economic growth. Whilst the bond market has doubled in size in the past decade, at the same time, banks - the market-makers for these assets, or traditional shop front - have cut their holdings. The Bank of England estimates there has been a 75% reduction in the bond inventories of dealers in the marketplace since 2008 , fuelled by dealers reluctance to trade corporate bonds and other fixed-income securities due to additional costs of holding them on their balance sheets. This means that buying or selling bonds could become harder, which could in turn lead to larger pricing swings. One possible solution to this problem (in addition to modernising trading infrastructure), is diversifying the range of bonds that can be purchased. A credit default swap (or CDS) is an insurance policy, or protection, against default on a debt. The seller of a CDS is effectively ‘selling protection’, and will pay the buyer of the CDS (who is ‘buying protection’) an agreed amount in the event of a default, or ‘credit event’, of the debtor (i.e. the corporation, bank, or state against which the CDS is written). Credit events are usually a failure of the debtor to make payment on its debt (either loans or bonds), but can also include restructuring or bankruptcy (the definition of a ‘credit event’ is written into the terms of the contract). The buyer of CDS pays an annualized premium to the seller over the life of the CDS in return for this protection. The premium paid for a CDS can be viewed as the probability of a credit event over the life of the CDS contract. Recently, there has been an attempt to make CDS more standardized, and more ‘bond like’ in their structure. For instance, CDS contracts tend to have standardized maturities (such as 3yr, 5yr, 7yr, and 10yrs, with 5yrs being the most popular), standardized contract dates (quarterly) and roll-dates (semi-annual), and even coupons (in Europe this is 1% for IG and 5% for HY). A Policy Default Swap would be similar in structure to a CDS but could indemnify a company or Government against losses incurred as a result of a “Policy Event” preventing it from attaining the targets set in a policy performance bond. Policy events could include changes in public policy resulting from a general election or natural disasters. The concept of policy performance bonds was first formally presented by Z/Yen at the World Bank Government Borrowers' Forum in Ljubljana in May 2009. Since 2009 there have been numerous discussions with national governments, central banks, debt offices, and a number of entrepreneurial national and state governments. Pension funds are particularly interested in using them to hedge government policy risk. One large pension fund stated to a UK minister, “if you issued these policy performance bonds for renewable energy, we’d buy them tomorrow morning, Minister”. The City of London put forward the idea in its climate change form in its 2009 Copenhagen COP submission. UNA put the idea into its 2015 Paris COP submission too. There are certainly complexities in the issuance of this type of bond, such as auditing and authentication of government figures, liquidity, leverage opportunities, stripping, etc., but these are relatively easily overcome. However, the biggest challenge to overcome with respect to the development and issuance of policy performance bonds is political. The long term nature of bonds (with typical maturities of more than 10 years) would require policy stability across parliamentary cycles. A consensus based process for agreeing goals would require a more grown-up style of politics than has been common in recent years, one would be based on evidence based policy. This may be difficult at a national level however, there may be scope to develop these instruments at a sub-regional or city level. Municipal bonds are commonly traded in the United States where more than $3.7 billion of ‘munis’ have been issued Whilst munis are rarer in Europe, national governments may wish to trial Policy Performance Bonds at a city level before issuing OAT CPBs or other types of PPBs as sovereign gilts. Typical term sheets might be explored here: But let’s flesh out two examples of policy performance bonds. An attractive option would be for project developers to issue bonds indexed to the three key risks – government performance against targets, fossil fuel prices against a break-even level, and carbon prices against a break-even level? Such policy performance bond would reduce the cost of capital for a developer exactly in those situations where the profitability of clean energy is threatened by government action, or inaction. Bonds indexed to emissions, fossil fuel prices or carbon prices would transfer the risk from the developer to the investor. But we know that investors are not keen to bear those risks, either, from their reluctance to fund many clean energy projects. Investors cannot easily hedge those risks, but that is exactly where government can help – by issuing debt with the opposite risk profile. Government carbon policy performance bonds would provide greater returns if government falls short of achieving its targets, if fossil fuel prices remain low, or if carbon prices remain low. That kind of index-linked OAT could easily be issued, and it would provide a natural hedge against our project developers’ government risk. An investor would invest in a low carbon project (either equity or debt), and simultaneously buy a proportion of index-linked government carbon bonds. As an example, take an investor looking at investing in a 2010 wind farm that is competitive at £55/megawatt-hour. Say that the price of fossil fuel derived power is £50/megawatt-hour in 2010, with a government target of £75/megawatt hour in 2015. The index-linked OAT to provide a hedge would pay a margin over normal OATs, with the margin a function of the fossil-fuel derived power price. For example, for every £1 below £75, the interest rate could go up by 1%, with a suitable cap at say 20%. For every £1 that the fossil-fuel derived power price is above £75, the interest would reduce by 1% with a minimum of zero. An investor in such OATs would be able to offset the price risk of his or her investment in the wind farm. Other structures are possible, too, linking the principal repayment to fossil fuel prices, or either interest rate or principal to actual emissions in, say, 2020. As a simple example, take an investor looking at investing in a 2010 wind farm that is competitive at €95/megawatt-hour. Say that the price of fossil fuel derived power is €70/megawatt-hour in 2010, with a government target of €105/megawatt hour in 2015. The index-linked OAT to provide a hedge would pay a margin, with the margin a function of the fossil-fuel derived power price. For example, for every €5 below €105, the interest rate could go up by 1%. For every €5 that the fossil-fuel derived power price is above €75, the interest would reduce by 1% with a minimum of zero. A creative borrower might offer leveraged products where the interest rates changed at different rates above or below the target. The benefit to the investor in such bonds (OATs) would be able to offset the price risk of his or her investment in the wind farm. An example of a more complex investment where a carbon index instrument could help considerably, one might take a tidal barrage scheme. Such schemes have characteristically huge capital costs, low costs of operation once installed, and long lifetimes (around 200 years). This means they are difficult to value using conventional discounted cash flow methods. In Index A we show some calculations for a 4 km barrage costing €1.5bn (and some will be 10-20 times larger) producing 2.75 terawatt hours of electricity per year. This scheme needs carbon prices of €40/tonne CO2e to give a payback period around 80 years and a price of €60/tonne for a payback of 30 years. (Carbon prices raise the wholesale costs of electricity produced by conventional means, thus increasing the price that we could charge from the barrage scheme). We show the effect of the investor buying a bond paying 4% index to a carbon price of €60/tonne. The bond is leveraged – above €60, the interest rate falls by 1% for every €20 increase in carbon. Below €60 the interest rate increases by 1% for every €5 decrease in the carbon price, and below €40 the rate increases by 1% for every €2.5 decrease. Here is a graphic of the interest rate structure: The impact of such an instrument is to significantly reduce the investors’ carbon price risk. Interestingly, the investor does not have to hedge the entire capital sum of €1.5billion. Buying bonds of 10% of the project capital (€150m) is sufficient in this case to hedge against a fall in the carbon price to €30/tonne. Without the bond the payback period for the project is 450 years (longer than its expected lifetime), while with the bond its payback is 70 years. As an example, hedging a large renewables project with a capital cost of €1.5bn that produces 2.75 terawatt hours of electricity per year is set out below. The plant produces electricity at a cost of €105/MWh, and the wholesale price of electricity without carbon pricing is assumed to be €90/MWh. The table shows payback periods with and without ‘hedging’ (buying a leveraged 4% bond linked to the price of carbon emissions permits (probably those traded on the EU/ETS). In this case the amount hedged is 10% of the total capital cost or €150m. An alternative hedging approach would be for the project investor to enter into a “carbon swap.” The terms of such a swap would have the investor pay a fixed rate of interest on the notional amount of the swap, and receive a payment based on the difference between the spot carbon price on a payment date and an agreed upon floor. The swap market makers would still require the government to issue the index-linked OATs (the net effect off the swap would be to create synthetic fixed rate OAT) until such time when a forward market in carbon developed, similar to the LIBOR futures market. The advantages of a swap scheme for investors would include, no additional capital outlays for a hedge if the swap were struck “at the market”, with a product whose existing regulatory framework mitigates counterparty risk (notwithstanding today’s headlines). Large participants in mortgages markets already use swaps in a similar way to hedge prepayment risk on fixed rate mortgages by entering into fixed/floating interest rate swaps. The long effective duration of the swap provides an efficient tool to manage the negative convexity inherent in fixed rate prepayable mortgages. Other structures are possible, too, linking the principal repayment itself to emissions, fossil fuel prices or carbon prices, or perhaps feed-in tariffs. Maturity dates, structures and tranches can all be varied. One objection to index-linked carbon OATs is that governments do not control emissions as they do inflation. True, but governments may have as much control. Emissions are at least as much under government control as inflation, which is subject to import/export ratios, money supply, credit, productivity, weather and all the vagaries of an economy. Secondly, in multi-government emissions, such as the European ETS, a quick comparison with the European Central Bank on inflation shows that governments have a similar amount of joint control on emissions. One quick observation is that if people are investing in OATs as well as green or clean tech investments, the investment pool for green tech has shrunk. Strictly, this may be true, but half of something is better than all of nothing. In fact, if people truly believe governments will meet their emission goals, then the index-linked bonds will fall in value and investors will not need to use them in green tech investment, thus all desired investment would be directed at green tech. Moreover, investors, such as insurers and pension funds, are investing on a portfolio basis. Their ability to hedge government risk of non-performance in their portfolio is likely to increase their low carbon holdings markedly. Another observation is that index-linked carbon OATs would be more effective with more leverage, i.e. being more geared with payouts as multiples compared with typical amounts of principal funding. The leverage behind index-linked carbon OATs could be increased if governments wanted simply by leveraging the returns. For example, instead of paying 1% for every €1 below €75 in the initial example above, a government could promise to pay 10%. A real sign of commitment to preventing climate change. Leverage would also become available as investment banks are likely to take index-linked carbon OATs and ‘strip’ them into their component parts, reselling it as a pure option on government commitment and a zero-coupon government bond. Governments claim they are serious about meeting carbon emission targets, serious about moving to a low carbon economy. Governments are likely to issue a large number of OATs over the next few years due to the credit crunch, and the need to balance external deficits with debt . By issuing carbon bonds linked to independent, auditable index metrics such as emission targets, the price of fossil fuel and the future carbon price, governments would remove private investors’ objections that their biggest uncertainty is government commitment. Likewise, given that failure to perform will cost, government would have a real incentive to meet its emission targets. Finally, government debt itself is likely to become a highly competitive market, and index-linked carbon OATs might well be a way of differentiating government debt to make it more attractive. The problem is not investment; it’s confidence. Unlike other ideas, though not to exclude them, government PPBs require no central planning or management, any credit-worthy government can issue them. The funds raised need not be hypothecated, but government carbon policy performance bond prices would provide a real indicator of confidence in government actions. Government carbon policy performance bonds would remove the biggest risk stymying low carbon project developers, lack of confidence in governments enforcing their own policies. In September 2015, environmental regulators found that German automaker Volkswagen Group had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection diesel engines to activate certain emission controls only during laboratory testing. The software allowed the vehicles' nitrogen oxide (NOx) output to meet regulatory standards during testing but produce up to 40 times higher NOx output in real-world driving. At the moment, Volkswagen appears to have applied this ‘cheat’ to an estimated eleven million cars worldwide. In October 2015, the Volkswagen crisis deepened with ‘irregularities’ surrounding the fuel consumption measurements and carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by 800,000 cars. The scale of the deceptions, number of recalled automobiles, environmental damages, effects on health, and even the death toll largely due to heart and lung disease, are still unclear. The UK’s Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs believes “that the effects of NO2 on mortality are equivalent to 23,500 deaths annually in the UK.” Transport is about 47% of UK NOx emissions, but “around 80% of NOx emissions in areas where the UK is exceeding NO2 limits are due to transport”. The European Environment Agency estimates NOx emissions due to transport at around 46% across Europe. Researchers wonder “if strategies used by manufacturers to fool the testing system have contributed to the unexpected failure of countries to reach NOx targets.” While the extent of the swindle is still being calculated, the ramifications of the scandal in distrust of automotive manufacturers, regulators, politicians and business are even murkier. So could a novel, yet simple, approach ensure that future regulatory structures provide a school of hard financial knocks to automotive firms that transgress policy objectives: environmental policy performance bonds. Automotive firms, like Volkswagen, could be forced to sell appropriate environmental ‘policy performance bonds’ in order to enter national markets. One form of policy performance bonds might be NOx bonds’. NOx bonds would link bond interest payments to a NOx emission reduction target. An investor in a NOx bond receives an excess return if the issuing firm’s environmental reduction targets are not met. For example, the bond might pay an extra percentage point of interest for each 5% an automotive company’s emissions are above a target. Failure to meet targets means higher interest payments to investors. NOx targets could be linked to the number of car sold in a specific region (Europe or the USA for example) or country. If the company or companies achieve NOx reduction objectives, no extra interest is paid. If it fails, it could pay a punitive interest rate depending deviation from the target. The bonds would align financial and environmental incentives and help automotive firms regain customer and investor confidence. A government would set out appropriate environmental targets, e.g. average NOx levels from sampling stations a decade ahead, or overall CO2 emissions by vehicles, or average end-user fuel consumption per automotive kilometre travelled. These targets would be linked to a variable bond interest rate, e.g. a base rate plus 1% interest per percentage point a target is exceeded. The effect of a 10% overshoot of NOx targets on a bond with a base rate of 5% would be a bond that paid 15%, quite a significant interest rate. Automotive companies would be uncomfortable issuing such bonds unless they were clear that they intended to ensure targets were met. An acceptable base rate is likely to be set by the market at slightly less than a traditional automotive bond, largely because there is some significant upside for an investor if firms in aggregate fail to achieve the target. Firms issuing such bonds ought to hope for low base rates while there is uncertainty. In effect, investors should be providing firms with loans at below typical base rates in return for betting against them on achieving targets. The maturity date for the bonds should be set over a reasonable time period, perhaps a decade. Of course, the net effect is to encourage appropriate investment in achieving pollution reduction targets. If the low-pollution future fails to arrive, automotive firms wind up paying investors higher interest rates on their debt. If the low-pollution future does arrive, automotive firms had the incentive to help deliver it. If firms tell the truth, they get cheap money. If firms are not committed, they pay. There are some obvious niggles. Not all transport companies are equal. Firms might be ‘encouraged’ to issue bonds in line with sales or market share or calculated pollution. Not all NOx or CO2 or fuel consumption is transport. This observation leads to considering widening the scheme to other sectors. Equally, it invokes caution in ensuring the bonds are effective sticks but not punitive instruments. Further, these could be group targets, e.g. automotive emissions in total for a country. As a group target, automotive bonds might encourage a more systemic approach working together on traffic reduction or advanced technologes. As a group target, firms would have an incentive for policing each others’ compliance. In an ideal world, the automotive industry might issue a ‘funding principles aligning financial and environmental incentives’ report each year. With so much uncertainty about automotive company morals, firms will need ways to distinguish themselves in a crowded market. They also urgently need to regain stakeholder’s confidence and to act instead of react, waiting for financial punishment from regulators. The more firms issued such bonds, the more convinced the market would be that they indeed intend to contribute to reducing emissions and achieving other environmental targets.

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A large part of Thomas Laqueur’s inquiry into modern attitudes toward the dead has to do with “a vast enterprise on a small stage: the work of the dead in western Europe since the eighteenth century.” Among other subjects, he aims to show how the cemetery replaced the churchyard as the main resting place of the dead in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. He also delves into the modern history of cremation. But Laqueur’s central theme is not narrowly historical. It concerns “the long anthropological view—deep time” in which humans have emerged as a species: The book begins with and is supported by a cosmic claim: the dead make civilization on a grand and an intimate scale, everywhere and always: their historical, philosophical, and anthropological weight is enormous and almost without limit and compare. Throughout the book, Laqueur’s antagonist is the Greek philosopher Diogenes (circa 412–323 BCE), who is reported to have instructed his students that when he died he wanted his body to be thrown outside the city walls so that it could be eaten by animals. Diogenes did not care what happened to his body after he died, since at that point he would no longer exist. The ancient Cynic originated a long tradition, “running from antiquity to Charles Dickens in the nineteenth century to Jessica Mitford in the twentieth,” according to which much or all of the care we accord the dead is folly. In Laqueur’s view, this tradition is at odds with strong and enduring human needs. Diogenes “was right (his or any body forever stripped of life cannot be injured), but also existentially wrong, wrong in a way that defies all cultural logic.” The dead body matters “because the living need the dead far more than the dead need the living. It matters because the dead make social worlds. It matters because we cannot bear to live at the borders of our mortality.” The human mind cannot help treating the dead human body as if it were something other and more than a lump of lifeless matter. The Work of the Dead is an extended meditation on this singular fact. Professor of history at the University of California at Berkeley, Laqueur covers an enormous span of time and space in this book. Moving from Diogenes to Augustine and swiftly on to the eighteenth-century English freethinker William Godwin, he shows how in their different ways the Christian saint and the rationalist thinker responded to Diogenes’ counsel. For Augustine, Christians could be even more indifferent to what happened to dead bodies than the pagan philosopher, since Christians believe humans are essentially immortal souls that do not die but go on to another world. Yet it mattered where the common Christian was laid to rest, and the preferred place for more than a thousand years was near the remains of a saint or some sacred relic. The Christian practice reflects “the very deep human desire to live with our ancestors and with their bodies.” Whether or not they believe in an afterlife, human beings need to preserve their “special dead” from oblivion. Laqueur shows how the near-atheist Godwin reacted to the death of his beloved wife Mary Wollstonecraft, who died while giving birth to Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein. Like Diogenes, Godwin was convinced that the dead are “utterly dead.” Yet in his Essay on Sepulchres: A Proposal for Erecting Some Memorial of the Illustrious Dead in All Ages on the Spot Where Their Remains Have Been Interred (1809), the devoted rationalist proposed that the places where noteworthy bodies are buried be identified by name and marked on maps like the scenes of famous battles, creating an “Atlas of those who Have Lived, for the Use of Men Hereafter to be Born.” Here Godwin is a precursor of what Laqueur calls “an age of necronominalism”—the period, “beginning in the late nineteenth century, accelerating after the American Civil War, and ever more so in the century of the Holocaust, the Great War, the Soviet terror and so much more mass death,” in which many have come to feel the need to know the names of the dead and so preserve in memory the persons the dead had been. In Godwin’s case, the impulse to name and place the dead had a directly personal source in the death of his wife. Laqueur writes little that is directly about bereavement; but the death of a loved one is for many people a much greater loss than the prospect of their own extinction. Memorializing the dead bodies of those we have loved is a way of coping with what would otherwise be an intolerable absence.1 Laqueur’s discussion of how the cemetery supplanted the church graveyard as the chief place of interment is a masterpiece of historical investigation. Showing how a complex mix of factors—including concern with public health, the waning power of the Catholic Church, and the emergence of a belief that the place where one is buried should be a matter of personal choice—produced the shift, he describes how sites were created in which the dead were separated from the living as they had not been when they were interred in or near places of worship. With the rise of cemeteries, the dead could be remembered as individuals and buried with their families in a way that was impractical in overcrowded churchyards. Hardly a sentence in Laqueur’s long book is wasted and many seemingly digressive passages are actually integral to his argument. Recounting “my own strange story of caring for the dead,” he describes how, when his father died in 1984 and was by his own wish cremated, Laqueur and his wife mixed his ashes into “a flowerbed by the lake cottage in Virginia where his life ended.” When Laqueur was invited to lecture in Germany more than a decade later, his wife suggested that he take some of the ashes with him and mix them with those of Laqueur’s grandfather, whose grave in the Jewish section of the Friedhof Ohlsdorf cemetery in Hamburg he had visited during a previous trip. Both Laqueur and his wife knew there were no ashes left: “They were by now leached away by the snows of winter and rains of summer…nothing of him could possibly be left.” So after some deliberation they finally decided to take “a small bag of dirt in which there might have been a homeopathically small number of inorganic molecules that had once been in my father and to mix these with the soil of his father’s grave”—a gesture, Laqueur adds, that “would have been regarded by my father as an act of rank superstition.” It is a lovely story, which illustrates the most striking conclusion of Laqueur’s research: the modern “unenchanted”—among whom Laqueur counts himself—know full well that “nothing ‘real’” lies behind the seeming presence of the dead among the living; but they are unable to live with this awareness. It is this inability that has allowed “the reinvention of enchantment” and the emergence of “a new and modern magic.” Given the book’s vast scope, it is inevitable that there should be some lacunae in Laqueur’s survey of modern attitudes toward the dead. But it is surprising that he tells us practically nothing of the rise in the late nineteenth century of psychical research, though it included notable figures such as Alfred Russel Wallace, codiscoverer with Darwin of natural selection, Henry Sidgwick, generally acknowledged to be one of the most significant moral philosophers of the last two centuries, and Arthur Balfour, British prime minister and a subtle writer on religion. These late Victorian and Edwardian thinkers were interested in finding rigorously tested evidence that the human mind survives the death of the body—a distinctively modern way of attempting to keep the dead alive among us. Darwin had shown that humans and animals are kin. Why then should not humans suffer the same fate as other animals, with their minds being snuffed out when their bodies die? It was a prospect these thinkers could not endure. Even as they applied what they regarded as scientific methods, they did not give up magical thinking. A different attempt to use science to bring back the dead occurred in the Soviet Union around the time of Lenin’s death in 1924, about which Laqueur also says next to nothing. He touches on how Marx’s adherents made his grave “a sacred site,” “the tomb of a saint” around which other revolutionary leaders, such as the leaders of the Communist parties of South Africa and Iran, were buried. He makes no mention of the intellectual movement of “God-builders,” which helped shape the decision to embalm Lenin’s cadaver—a group that included the first Soviet minister of trade, Leonid Krasin, who believed that the power of science could be used “to resurrect great historical figures.”2 These Bolshevik visionaries were in no doubt that the human mind is extinguished when the body is finally dead; but they believed that dead bodies could in some cases be reanimated, minds restored, and the persons these bodies had once been returned to life, with the aid of technology. In seeking to reanimate the dead they were at an opposite pole from Marx, who believed (as Laqueur puts it) that “humanity needed an exorcism in order to bring an end to history” and advised revolutionaries to “let the dead bury their dead.” But with the body of Lenin on display in the Soviet state from soon after his death until the state’s collapse and beyond, history did not end. The dead were not exorcised and have remained a troubling presence. The attempt to deliver humankind (or some portion of it) from death by using technology continues today, but Laqueur does not discuss recent cults that offer to preserve us from oblivion by freezing our bodies in sealed capsules or uploading the contents of our brains into cyberspace. These are also expressions of magical thinking, since while technology may someday be able to achieve such feats, death will not thereby be abolished. Human beings cannot permanently escape death as long as human institutions are mortal. Vulnerable to disruption and destruction by war, economic collapse, and the effects of climate change, the sites that house the frozen cadavers and maintain the virtual minds in cyberspace would continue to be exposed to the contingencies of history. Modern movements that aim to defeat death through the power of science add strength to Laqueur’s claim that modern history “is not…a story of progressive disenchantment,” but one in which humankind continually reenchants itself in new ways. The largest gap in Laqueur’s account concerns the reasons for humankind’s attachment to its dead. Repeatedly, he tells us that humans are unique in caring in this way. He allows that a small exception might be made for some species of elephants, which “show an interest in the remains of other dead elephants to a greater degree than to other natural objects”; but these elephants “do not select and visit the skulls of their own relatives more than those of unrelated elephants.” Humans are the only species that cares for its special dead, and have a record of doing so going back “to at least the Upper Paleolithic, 40,000–10,000 BCE, to what used to be called the Late Stone Age.” Humans and other animals “stand on different sides of the border” between nature and culture, and it is the dead that have enabled humans to cross this boundary: “The work of the dead is to make culture.” It does not matter that the dead do not exist. They “remain active agents in this history even if we are convinced they are nothing and nowhere. Their ontological standing is of minor importance. They do things the living could not do on their own.” It is hard to know quite what is meant by such statements. If the dead do not exist, how can they do anything at all? Laqueur is aware of the difficulty: I want to make clear that I am not being delusional by claiming that the dead do work, in the sense that a physicist would understand the term…. Diogenes had a point: the dead—or in any case their bodily remains—can do nothing because they are nothing. They cannot even lift a stick to fend off beasts. Consequently, it would seem that they could not do the far more demanding work I have assigned them. With the exception of ghosts and other unquiet spirits—that is, with the exception of the not-quite-dead or the differently dead…—the dead as represented by the dead body are dead. They therefore do not work (or play) in the space and time of our world. But this only exacerbates the problem. In the disenchanted view of things that Laqueur believes he holds, the fundamental divide between life and death is not between two worlds but between being and nonbeing. There is no “somewhere else” where the dead could act or suffer; when human beings die they leave not only our world but any world. In that case, what can it mean to say that the dead are “active agents”? If this is a metaphor, it seems misplaced and confusing. It is not only that the reader cannot grasp how something that does not exist can do any kind of work. One is left wondering why humans exhibit the concern with the dead that he believes has created civilization. Resolutely, Laqueur refuses to speculate: As far back as we can go, the archeological record seems to support the view that humans and their close hominid ancestors have cared for at least some of their dead. I do not know what this means in terms of human cognitive development or, more specifically, attitudes toward death. I do not think it matters. Instead he simply reiterates his claim: the dead “are central to making culture, to creating the skein of meaning through which we live within ourselves and in public.” Perhaps what he means is simply that the dead work within us because we are unable to let our memories of them go; but it is not clear why humans alone should be attached to their dead in this way. The singular fact that is the subject of the book is left unexplained.3 Laqueur would have done better to relax his self-imposed ban on speculation. Is it awareness of our own mortality and of those who are special to us that accounts for our concern with the dead? In that case it would seem that this concern would be found in any creature that is as self-aware as humans. Caring for the dead would be the price of consciousness. But might self-aware robots be designed that are programmed to be indifferent to mortality—their own and that of others? If so, which human attributes would have to be denied them? Would it be the capacity for love? Or a need to tell their lives as a coherent story, which death frustrates? Such questions are unavoidable if Laqueur wants to advance a “cosmic claim” about the place of the dead in our lives. But he sidesteps the hole at the heart of his book. If the dead dwell within us, it is because we want or need them to do so. Caring for the dead is the work of the living. Marzio Barbagli’s history of suicide is a different sort of book. Cool and forensically analytical in tone, Farewell to the World is instructive in showing the many disparate reasons human beings can have for choosing to quit the scene. A professor of sociology at the University of Bologna, Barbagli’s observes of his fellow practitioners of the discipline: Sociologists, who have always been fascinated by scientific laws, perhaps because they have never found any themselves, became convinced over time that Durkheim’s theory had at least some of the requisites in order to become such a law, and, not without a touch of irony, they called it “sociology’s ‘one law.’” The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) regarded suicide “as a symptom of the ills of society”—a view also voiced by Karl Marx, when he observed in 1846 that the annual number of suicides “has simply ‘to be viewed as a symptom of the deficient organization of our society.’” This view, Barbagli writes, is fundamentally mistaken: The processes of social breakdown were not the only cause, let alone the main factor underlying the rise in suicide numbers up until the early twentieth century. Moreover, it is increasingly clear that an explanation of suicide cannot be fully posited without taking account of the results of studies carried out by historians and anthropologists, psychologists and political scientists. More perhaps than any other action, suicide depends on a vast number of psychosocial, cultural, political and even biological causes and must be analysed from different points of view. Divided into two parts, one on Europe and the West in general, the other on Asia, particularly India and China, Barbagli’s study can be read as a systematic refutation of Durkheim’s theory. Examining voluntary death “over a very long arc from the Middle Ages to the early twentieth century,” he suggests that the rising suicide rates that prompted concern among thinkers such as Durkheim can be traced to a number of profound social and cultural changes, beginning in the closing decades of the sixteenth century and the opening decades of the seventeenth, that marked the crisis and decline of that complex of rules, beliefs, interpretative patterns, symbols and rituals linked to Christianity, which for centuries had guarded men and women against the temptation of taking their own lives. Starting with Augustine, who condemned voluntary death as the gravest of sins in nearly all circumstances, the Christian world prohibited suicide as a crime—according to Thomas Aquinas, “one that was even ‘more dangerous’ than murder since it left no time for expiation.” According to the teaching that developed in the church, Christians “should never succumb to despair.” Even if the situation seems hopeless, they should wait for a miracle. “This system of beliefs,” Barbagli writes, “remained dominant and unchallenged in Europe for over a millennium.” But the great edifice of values, rules, sanctions, beliefs, symbols and categories of interpretation condemning or discouraging suicide…at some point started to crack and shake, before finally collapsing much later, in spite of all the efforts made to shore it up and keep it standing. It is a plausible story, but it could have been made more convincing if Barbagli had said more about attitudes toward suicide in pre-Christian Europe. In ancient Greece and Rome, the freedom to end one’s life was socially restricted in numerous ways; but killing oneself was not seen as a crime against God, as has been the case in monotheistic cultures. Among the many reasons that might make ending one’s life reasonable, the Roman Stoic Seneca, in a letter counseling a young friend, included the boredom with life that may come from having sated one’s desires.4 It is impossible to imagine such a view being accepted in a Christian setting, or in many modern secular moralities. As Barbagli notes, the Bolshevik leaders in Soviet Russia condemned suicide as a form of bourgeois individualism: “In the new society, good communists and workers, they maintained, ought not to take their own lives because they belonged not to them, but to the Party and the class.” Rejection of monotheism does not ensure the freedom to end one’s life as one pleases. Barbagli’s study is rich in examples illustrating the variety of reasons why human beings take their own lives. Some show people escaping repressive policies and societies. Following a campaign launched by Mao against corruption, tax evasion, and fraudulent use of state property in 1951–1952, between 200,000 and 300,000 people are estimated to have committed suicide. Many did so by jumping from the top floors of buildings, since they feared that if they drowned themselves in rivers and their body could not be found, they could be accused of having fled to Hong Kong and their families persecuted. Others show people who had already suffered profound assaults taking their lives. Of around 100,000 women raped by Russian soldiers in Berlin at the close of World War II in 1945, some ten thousand died, “mostly from suicide,” with the fear of being rejected by German society being a major reason the women took their lives. Still others show people choosing to end their lives in order to escape a lingering death or murder. In Nazi Germany, Jews committed suicide when mass deportation to concentration and death camps began in the autumn of 1941. They did so, according to Tobias Ingenhoven, a lawyer from Hamburg, who had sent his daughter to safety in England, “in order to escape the horrific humiliations and degradations, the hunger and cold, the dirt and the illnesses that await us.” Taking their own life was forbidden to inmates in the camps. For some of those expecting deportation, suicide may have expressed a determination to make at least their deaths their own. Some use their deaths as weapons, as kamikaze pilots did in World War II. In Chapter Seven, “The Body as Bomb,” Barbagli discusses the phenomenon of suicide bombing, showing how it began to be used in the 1980s by Hezbollah in Lebanon and then by the Tamil Tigers, a Marxist-Leninist group in Sri Lanka. Analyzing suicide bombing as a rational strategy on the part of otherwise weak participants in violent conflicts, he makes an interesting point when he observes that since “suicide attacks are complex operations, requiring considerable skills and expertise, these organizations assign their most delicate and difficult missions to their most educated and expert members.” Though suicide bombers have tended to be poor and uneducated in some countries, including Afghanistan, in many others they have been more prosperous and better educated than most of the population. The upshot of Barbagli’s analysis is that voluntary death cannot be explained by any single theory. Some useful generalizations can be formulated. For example, “in all Western countries, prison has always been the place where suicide rates are highest”; in almost all Western countries, between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, “the suicide rate among men was almost three times that of women, and in many cases four times,” whereas in China “female suicides were very frequent and…much higher than among men until 2005,” while the suicide rate for Chinese men and women has fallen sharply as growing numbers of the rural population have migrated to the city; according to data collected in 1914, some 3 percent of gay men in Western countries took their own lives; all forms of cancer increase the likelihood of suicide, though to different degrees. But these observations do not add up to any kind of behavioral law. Suicide remains as complex as human life. For Krasin’s statement on resurrecting “great historical figures,” see John Gray, The Immortalization Commission: Science and the Strange Quest to Cheat Death (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011), p. 161. ↩ For a bold and intriguing attempt at understanding the part the dead play among the living, to which Laqueur’s book runs parallel in some ways, see Robert Pogue Harrison, The Dominion of the Dead (University of Chicago Press, 2003), who writes: “To be human means above all to bury” (p. xi). See also the review in these pages by W.S. Merwin, April 8, 2004. ↩ The Epistles of Seneca, with an English translation by Richard M. Grummere (Harvard University Press, 2006), Vol. 5, p. 173: “Reflect how long you have been doing the same thing: food, sleep, lust—this is one’s daily round. The desire to die may be felt, not only by the sensible man or the brave or unhappy man, but even by the man who is merely surfeited.” ↩

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From E.M. Bounds, The Weapon of Prayer “When the dragon-fly rends his husk and harnesses himself, in a clean plate of sapphire mail, his is a pilgrimage of one or two sunny days over the fields and pastures wet with dew, yet nothing can exceed the marvelous beauty in which he is decked. No flowers on earth have a richer blue than the pure colour of his cuirass. So is it in the high spiritual sphere. The most complete spiritual loveliness may be obtained in the shortest time, and the stripling may die a hundred years old, in character and grace.”—History Of David Brainerd God has not confined Himself to Bible days in showing what can be done through prayer. In modern times, also, He is seen to be the same prayer-hearing God as aforetime. Even in these latter days He has not left Himself without witness. Religious biography and Church history, alike, furnish us with many noble examples and striking illustrations of prayer, its necessity, its worth and its fruits, all tending to the encouragement of the faith of God’s saints and all urging them on to more and better praying. God has not confined Himself to Old and New Testament times in employing praying men as His agents in furthering His cause on earth, and He has placed Himself under obligation to answer their prayers just as much as He did the saints of old. A selection from these praying saints of modern times will show us how they valued prayer, what it meant to them, and what it meant to God. Take for example, the instance of Samuel Rutherford, the Scottish preacher, exiled to the north of Scotland, forbidden to preach, and banished from his home and pastoral charge. Rutherford lived between 1600 and 1661. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly, Principal of New College, and Rector of St. Andrews’ University. He is said to have been one of the most moving and affectionate preachers of his time, or, perhaps, in any age of the Church. Men said of him, “He is always praying,” and concerning his and his wife’s praying, one wrote: “He who had heard either pray or speak, might have learned to bemoan his ignorance. Oh, how many times have I been convinced by observing them of the evil of insincerity before God and unsavouriness in discourse! He so prayed for his people that he himself says, ‘There I wrestled with the Angel and prevailed.’” He was ordered to appear before Parliament to answer the charge of high treason, although a man of scholarly attainments and rare genius. At times he was depressed and gloomy; especially was this the case when he was first banished and silenced from preaching, for there were many murmurings and charges against him. But his losses and crosses were so sanctified that Christ became more and more to him. Marvelous are the statements of his estimate of Christ. This devoted man of prayer wrote many letters during his exile to preachers, to state officers, to lords temporal and spiritual, to honourable and holy men, to honourable and holy women, all breathing an intense devotion to Christ, and all born of a life of great devotion to prayer. Ardour and panting after God have been characteristics of great souls in all ages of the Church and Samuel Rutherford was a striking example of this fact. He was a living example of the truth that he who prays always, will be enveloped in devotion and joined to Christ in bonds of holy union. Then there was Henry Martyn, scholar, saint, missionary, and apostle to India. Martyn was born February 18, 1781, and sailed for India August 31, 1805. He died at Tokal, Persia, October 16, 1812. Here is part of what he said about himself while a missionary: “What a knowledge of man and acquaintance with the Scriptures, and what communion with God and study of my own heart ought to prepare me for the awful work of a messenger from God on business of the soul.” Said one of this consecrated missionary: “Oh, to be able to emulate his excellencies, his elevation of piety, his diligence, his superiority to the world, his love for souls, his anxiety to improve all occasions to do souls good, his insight into the mystery of Christ, and his heavenly temper! These are the secrets of the wonderful impression he made in India.” It is interesting and profitable to note some of the things which Martyn records in his diary. Here is an example: “The ways of wisdom appear more sweet and reasonable than ever,” he says, “and the world more insipid and vexatious. The chief thing I mourn over is my want of power, and lack of fervour in secret prayer, especially when attempting to plead for the heathen. Warmth does not increase within me in proportion to my light.” If Henry Martyn, so devoted, ardent and prayerful, lamented his lack of power and want of fervour in prayer, how ought our cold and feeble praying abase us in the very dust? Alas, how rare are such praying men in the Church of our own day! Again we quote a record from his diary. He had been quite ill, but had recovered and was filled with thankfulness because it had pleased God to restore him to life and health again. “Not that I have yet recovered my former strength,” he says, “but I consider myself sufficiently restored to prosecute my journey. My daily prayer is that my late chastisement may have its intended effect, and make me, all the rest of my days, more humble and less self-confident. “Self-confidence has often led me down fearful lengths, and would, without God’s gracious interference, prove my endless perdition. I seem to be made to feel this evil of my heart more than any other at this time. In prayer, or when I write or converse on the subject, Christ appears to me my life and my strength; but at other times I am thoughtless and bold, as if I had all life and strength in myself. Such neglects on our part are a diminution of our joys.” Among the last entries in this consecrated missionary’s journal we find the following: “I sat in the orchard and thought, with sweet comfort and peace, of my God, in solitude, my Company, my Friend, my Comforter. Oh, when shall time give place to eternity!” Note the words, “in solitude,”—away from the busy haunts of men, in a lonely place, like his Lord, he went out to meditate and pray. Brief as this summary is, it suffices to show how fully and faithfully Henry Martyn exercised his ministry of prayer. The following may well serve to end our portrayal of him: “By daily weighing the Scriptures, with prayer, he waxed riper and riper in his ministry. Prayer and the Holy Scriptures were those wells of salvation out of which he drew daily the living water for his thirsty immortal soul. Truly may it be said of him, he prayed always with all prayer and supplication, in the Spirit, and watched thereunto with all perseverance.” David Brainerd, the missionary to the Indians, is a remarkable example of a praying man of God. Robert Hale thus speaks of him: “Such invincible patience and self-denial; such profound humility, exquisite prudence, indefatigable industry; such devotedness to God, or rather such absorption of the whole soul in zeal for the divine glory and the salvation of men, is scarcely to be paralleled since the age of the Apostles. Such was the intense ardour of his mind that it seems to have diffused the spirit of a martyr over the common incidents of his life.” Dr. A. J. Gordon speaks thus of Brainerd: “In passing through Northampton, Mass., I went into the old cemetery, swept off the snow that lay on the top of the slab, and I read these simple words: “‘Sacred to the memory of David Brainerd, the faithful and devoted missionary to the Susquehanna, Delaware and Stockbridge Indians of America, who died in this town, October 8th, 1717.’ “That was all there was on the slab. Now that great man did his greatest work by prayer. He was in the depths of those forests alone, unable to speak the language of the Indians, but he spent whole days literally in prayer. What was he praying for? He knew he could not reach these savages, for he did not understand their language. If he wanted to speak at all, he must find somebody who could vaguely interpret his thought. Therefore he knew that anything he could do must be absolutely dependent upon God. So he spent whole days in praying, simply that the power of the Holy Ghost might come upon him so unmistakably that these people would not be able to stand before him. “What was his answer? Once he preached through a drunken interpreter, a man so intoxicated that he could hardly stand up. This was the best he could do. Yet scores were converted through that sermon. We can account for it only that it was the tremendous power of God behind him. “Now this man prayed in secret in the forest. A little while afterward, William Carey read his life, and by its impulse he went to India. Payson read it as a young man, over twenty years old, and he said that he had never been so impressed by anything in his life as by the story of Brainerd. Murray McCheyne read it, and he likewise was impressed by it. “But all I care is simply to enforce this thought, that the hidden life, a life whose days are spent in communion with God, in trying to reach the source of power, is the life that moves the world. Those living such lives may be soon forgotten. There may be no one to speak a eulogy over them when they are dead. The great world may take no account of them. But by and by, the great moving current of their lives will begin to tell, as in the case of this young man, who died at about thirty years of age. The missionary spirit of this nineteenth century is more due to the prayers and consecration of this one man than to any other one. “So I say. And yet that most remarkable thing is that Jonathan Edwards, who watched over him all those months while he was slowly dying of consumption, should also say: ‘I praise God that it was in His Providence that he should die in my house, that I might hear his prayers, and that I might witness his consecration, and that I might be inspired by his example.’ “When Jonathan Edwards wrote that great appeal to Christendom to unite in prayer for the conversion of the world, which has been the trumpet call of modern missions, undoubtedly it was inspired by this dying missionary.” To David Brainerd’s spirit, John Wesley bore this testimony: “I preached and afterward made a collection for the Indian schools in America. A large sum of money is now collected. But will money convert heathens? Find preachers of David Brainerd’s spirit, and nothing can stand before them. But without this, what will gold or silver do? No more than lead or iron.” Some selections from Brainerd’s diary will be of value as showing what manner of man he was: “My soul felt a pleasing yet painful concern,” he writes, “lest I should spend some moments without God. Oh, may I always live to God! In the evening I was visited by some friends, and spent the time in prayer, and such conversation as tended to edification. It was a comfortable season to my soul. I felt an ardent desire to spend every moment with God. God is unspeakably gracious to me continually. In time past, He has given me inexpressible sweetness in the performance of duty. Frequently my soul has enjoyed much of God, but has been ready to say, ‘Lord, it is good to be here;’ and so indulge sloth while I have lived on the sweetness of my feelings. But of late God has been pleased to keep my soul hungry almost continually, so that I have been filled with a kind of pleasing pain. When I really enjoy God, I feel my desires of Him the more insatiable, and my thirstings after holiness the more unquenchable. “Oh, that I may feel this continual hunger, and not be retarded, but rather animated by every duster from Canaan, to reach forward in the narrow way, for the full enjoyment and possession of the heavenly inheritance! Oh, may I never loiter in my heavenly journey! “It seems as if such an unholy wretch as I never could arrive at that blessedness, to be holy as God is holy. At noon I longed for sanctification and conformity to God. Oh, that is the one thing, the all! “Toward night enjoyed much sweetness in secret prayer, so that my soul longed for an arrival in the heavenly country, the blessed paradise of God.” If inquiry be made as to the secret of David Brainerd’s heavenly spirit, his deep consecration and exalted spiritual state, the answer will be found in the last sentence quoted above. He was given to much secret prayer, and was so close to God in his life and spirit that prayer brought forth much sweetness to his inner soul. We have cited the foregoing cases as illustrative of the great fundamental fact that God’s great servants are men devoted to the ministry of prayer; that they are God’s agents on earth who serve Him in this way, and who carry on His work by this holy means. Louis Harms was born in Hanover, in 1809, and then came a time when he was powerfully convicted of sin. Said he, “I have never known what fear was. But when I came to the knowledge of my sins, I quaked before the wrath of God, so that my limbs trembled.” He was mightily converted to God by reading the Bible. Rationalism, a dead orthodoxy, and worldliness, held the multitudes round Hermansburgh, his native town. His father, a Lutheran minister, dying, he became his successor. He began with all the energy of his soul to work for Christ, and to develop a church of a pure, strong type. The fruit was soon evident. There was a quickening on every hand, attendance at public services increased, reverence for the Bible grew, conversation on sacred things revived, while infidelity, worldliness and dead orthodoxy vanished like a passing cloud. Harms proclaimed a conscious and present Christ, the Comforter, in the full energy of His mission, the revival of apostolic piety and power. The entire neighbourhood became regular attendants at church, the Sabbath was restored to its sanctity, and hallowed with strict devotion, family altars were erected in the homes, and when the noon bell sounded, every head was bowed in prayer. In a very short time the whole aspect of the country was entirely changed. The revival in Hermansburgh was essentially a prayer revival, brought about by prayer and yielding fruits of prayer in a rich and an abundant ingathering. William Carvosso, an old-time Methodist class-leader, was one of the best examples which modern times has afforded of what was probably the religious life of Christians in the apostolic age. He was a prayer-leader, a class-leader, a steward and a trustee, but never aspired to be a preacher. Yet a preacher he was of the very first quality, and a master in the art and science of soul-saving. He was a singular instance of a man learning the simplest rudiments late in life. He had up to the age of sixty-five years never written a single sentence, yet he wrote letters which would make volumes, and a book which was regarded as a spiritual classic in the great world-wide Methodist Church. Not a page nor a letter, it is believed, was ever written by him on any other subject but religion. Here are some of his brief utterances which give us an insight into his religious character. “I want to be more like Jesus.” “My soul thirsteth for Thee, O God.” “I see nothing will do, O God, but being continually filled with Thy presence and glory.” This was the continual out-crying of his inner soul, and this was the strong inward impulse which moved the outward man. At one time we hear him exclaiming, “Glory to God! This is a morning without a cloud.” Cloudless days were native to his sunny religion and his gladsome spirit. Continual prayer and turning all conversation toward Christ in every company and in every home, was the inexorable law he followed, until he was gathered home. On the anniversary of his spiritual birth when he was born again, in great joyousness of spirit he calls it to mind, and breaks forth: “Blessed be Thy name, O God! The last has been the best of the whole. I may say with Bunyan, ‘I have got into that land where the sun shines night and day.’ I thank Thee, O my God, for this heaven, this element of love and joy, in which my soul now lives.” Here is a sample of Carvosso’s spiritual experiences, of which he had many: “I have sometimes had seasons of remarkable visitation from the presence of the Lord,” he says. “I well remember one night when in bed being so filled, so over-powered with the glory of God, that had there been a thousand suns shining at noonday, the brightness of that divine glory would have eclipsed the whole. I was constrained to shout aloud for joy. It was the overwhelming power of saving grace. Now it was that I again received the impress of the seal and the earnest of the Spirit in my heart. Beholding as in a glass the glory of the Lord I was changed into the same image from glory to glory by the Spirit of the Lord. Language fails in giving but a faint description of what I there experienced. I can never forget it in time nor to all eternity. “Man years before I was sealed by the Spirit in a somewhat similar manner. While walking out one day, I was drawn to turn aside on the public road, and under the canopy of the skies, I was moved to kneel down to pray. I had not long been praying with God before I was so visited from Him that I was overpowered by the divine glory, and I shouted till I could be heard at a distance. It was a weight of glory that I seemed incapable of bearing in the body, and therefore I cried out, perhaps unwisely, Lord, stay Thy hand. In this glorious baptism these words came to my heart with indescribable power: ‘I have sealed thee unto the day of redemption.’ “Oh, I long to be filled more with God! Lord, stir me up more in earnest. I want to be more like Jesus. I see that nothing will do but being continually filled with the divine presence and glory. I know all that Thou hast is mine, but I want to feel a close union. Lord, increase my faith.” Such was William Carvosso—a man whose life was impregnated with the spirit of prayer, who lived on his knees, so to speak, and who belonged to that company of praying saints which has blessed the earth. Jonathan Edwards must be placed among the praying saints—one whom God mightily used through the instrumentality of prayer. As in the instance of the great New Englander, purity of heart should be ingrained in the very foundation areas of every man who is a true leader of his fellows and a minister of the Gospel of Christ and a constant practicer in the holy office of prayer. A sample of the utterances of this mighty man of God is here given in the shape of a resolution which he formed, and wrote down: “Resolved,” he says, “to exercise myself in this all my life long, viz., with the greatest openness to declare my ways to God, and to lay my soul open to God—all my sins, temptations, difficulties, sorrows, fears, hopes, desires, and everything and every circumstance.” We are not surprised, therefore, that the result of such fervid and honest praying was to lead him to record in his diary: “It was my continual strife day and night, and my constant inquiry how I should be more holy, and live more holily. The heaven I desired was a heaven of holiness. I went on with my eager pursuit after more holiness and conformity to Christ.” The character and work of Jonathan Edwards were exemplifications of the great truth that the ministry of prayer is the efficient agency in every truly God-ordered work and life. He himself gives some particulars about his life when a boy. He might well be called the “Isaiah of the Christian dispensation.” There was united in him great mental powers, ardent piety, and devotion to study, unequaled save by his devotion to God. Here is what he says about himself: “When a boy I used to pray five times a day in secret, and to spend much time in religious conversation with other boys. I used to meet with them to pray together. So it is God’s will through His wonderful grace, that the prayers of His saints should be one great and principal means of carrying on the designs of Christ’s kingdom in the world. Pray much for the ministers and the Church of God.” The great powers of Edwards’ mind and heart were exercised to procure an agreed union in extraordinary prayer of God’s people everywhere. His life, efforts and his character are an exemplification of his statement. “The heaven I desire,” he says, “is a heaven spent with God; an eternity spent in the presence of divine love, and in holy communion with Christ.” At another time he said: “The soul of a true Christian appears like a little white flower in the spring of the year, low and humble on the ground, opening its bosom to receive the pleasant beams of the sun’s glory, rejoicing as it were in a calm rapture, diffusing around a sweet fragrance, standing peacefully and lovingly in the midst of other flowers.” Again he writes: “Once as I rode out in the woods for my health, having alighted from my horse in a retired place, as my manner has been to walk for divine contemplation and prayer, I had a view, that for me was extraordinary, of the glory of the Son of God as Mediator between God and man, and of His wonderful, great, full, pure, and sweet grace and love, and His meek and gentle condescension. This grace that seemed so calm and sweet, appeared also great above the heavens. The person of Christ appeared ineffably excellent with an excellency great enough to swallow up all thought and conception, which continued, as near as I can judge, about an hour. It kept me the greater part of the time in a flood of tears and weeping aloud. I felt an ardency of soul to be, what I know not otherwise how to express, emptied and annihilated, to lie in the dust; to be full of Christ alone, to love Him with my whole heart.” As it was with Jonathan Edwards, so it is with all great intercessors. They come into that holy and elect condition of mind and heart by a thorough self-dedication to God, by periods of God’s revelation to them, making distinct marked eras in their spiritual history, eras never to be forgotten, in which faith mounts up with wings as eagles, and has given it a new and fuller vision of God, a stronger grasp of faith, a sweeter, clearer vision of all things heavenly, and eternal, and a blessed intimacy with, and access to, God.

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Researchers are clarifying epigenetic intricacies such as missing heritability, disease markers, methylated proteins, and imprinted genes. Learn about the history of epigenetics in this timeline spanning 130 years. A team of 17 researchers at the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI) has created the largest man-made DNA structure by synthesizing and assembling the 582,970 base pair genome of a bacterium, Mycoplasma genitalium JCVI-1.0. This work, published online today in the journal Science by Dan Gibson, Ph.D., et al, is the second of three key steps toward the team’s goal of creating a fully synthetic organism. In the next step, which is ongoing at the JCVI, the team will attempt to create a living bacterial cell based entirely on the synthetically made genome. Continue reading “Scientists Create the First Synthetic Bacterial Genome” One of the nation’s pre-eminent genetic researchers, Eric Hoffman, PhD, of Children’s Research Institute at Children’s National Medical Center, predicts that in relatively short order, medicine’s next innovation–individualized molecular therapies–will have the unprecedented ability to treat muscular dystrophies, and other disorders. In 2007, researchers were dazzled by the degree to which genomes differ from one human to another and began to understand the role of these variations in disease and personal traits. Science and its publisher, AAAS, the nonprofit science society, recognize “Human Genetic Variation” as the Breakthrough of the Year, and identify nine other of the year’s most significant scientific accomplishments in the 21 December issue. The striking differences between humans and chimps aren’t so much in the genes we have, which are 99 percent the same, but in the way those genes are used, according to new research from a Duke University team. It’s rather like the same set of notes being played in very different ways. In two major traits that set humans apart from chimps and other primates – those involving brains and diet – gene regulation, the complex cross-talk that governs when genes are turned on and off, appears to be significantly different. In the past ten years, researchers in genome stability have observed that many kinds of cancer are associated with areas where human chromosomes break. They have hypothesized – but never proven – that slow or altered replication led to the chromosomes breaking. In a Tufts University study published in the Aug. 3 journal “Molecular Cell,” two molecular biologists have used yeast artificial chromosomes to prove the hypothesis. The Tufts researchers have found a highly flexible DNA sequence that increases fragility and stalls replication, which then causes the chromosome to break. A large-scale genomic study has uncovered new genetic variations associated with multiple sclerosis (MS), findings that suggest a possible link between MS and other autoimmune diseases. The study, led by an international consortium of clinical scientists and genomics experts, is the first comprehensive study investigating the genetic basis of MS. Findings appear in the July 29 online edition of the New England Journal of Medicine. Genes account for only 2.5 percent of DNA in the human genetic blueprint, yet diseases can result not only from mutant genes, but from mutations of other DNA that controls genes. University of Utah researchers report in the journal Nature Genetics that they have developed a faster, less expensive technique for mutating those large, non-gene stretches of DNA. Human resistance to a retrovirus that infected chimpanzees and other nonhuman primates 4 million years ago ironically may be at least partially responsible for the susceptibility of humans to HIV infection today. “This ancient virus is a battle that humans have already won. Humans are not susceptible to it and have probably been resistant throughout millennia,” said senior author Michael Emerman, Ph.D., a member of the Human Biology and Basic Sciences divisions at the Hutchinson Center. “However, we found that during primate evolution, this innate immunity to one virus may have made us more vulnerable to HIV.” A major advance in understanding the genetics behind several of the world’s most common diseases has been reported.The landmark Wellcome Trust study analysed DNA from the blood of 17,000 people to find genetic differences. They found new genetic variants for depression, Crohn’s disease, coronary heart disease, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 and 2 diabetes. The remarkable findings, published in Nature, have been hailed as a new chapter in medical science. Read rest of the article at BBC Newssite The $1 million, two-month project is a collaboration of 454 Life Sciences and the BCM Human Genome Sequencing Center (HGSC), said Dr. Richard Gibbs, director of the HGSC and a scientific advisor to the Connecticut-based company. The announcement, aside from its meaning to Watson, is significant because it demonstrates that it will be possible in the future to sequence anyone’s genome – a goal toward which many sequencing firms are working. The time and cost will decrease as the technology improves. Dr. Watson will receive a DVD with his genomic sequence. He will decide which of his data will be published. Continue reading “Nobel laureate James Watson receives his personal genome sequence” Over 30% of our genes are under the control of small molecules called microRNAs. They prevent specific genes from being turned into protein and regulate many crucial processes like cell division and development, but how they do so has remained unclear. Now researchers from the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) have developed a new method that uncovered the mode of action of microRNAs in a test tube. The study, which is published in the current online issue of Nature, reveals that microRNAs block the initiation of translation, the earliest step in the process that turns genetic information stored on messenger RNAs into proteins. Continue reading “Mechanism of microRNAs deciphered” In the most comprehensive look at genetic risk factors for type 2 diabetes to date, a U.S.-Finnish team, working in close collaboration with two other groups, has identified at least four new genetic variants associated with increased risk of diabetes and confirmed existence of another six. The findings of the three groups, published in the journal Science, boost to at least 10 the number of genetic variants confidently associated with increased susceptibility to type 2 diabetes — a disease that affects more than 200 million people worldwide. Continue reading “New Genetic Risk Factors For Type 2 Diabetes Identified” Scientists have identified the most clear genetic link yet to obesity in the general population as part of a major study of diseases funded by the Wellcome Trust, the UK’s largest medical research charity. People with two copies of a particular gene variant have a 70% higher risk of being obese than those with no copies. Continue reading “Major genetic study identifies clearest link yet to obesity risk” Using gene chips to profile tumors before treatment, researchers at Harvard and Yale Universities found markers that identified breast cancer subtypes resistant to Herceptin, the primary treatment for HER2-positive breast cancer. They say this advance could help further refine therapy for the 25 to 30 percent of breast cancer patients with this class of tumor. In the February 15 issue of Clinical Cancer Research, the researchers found that HER2-positive tumors that did not respond to Herceptin expressed certain basal markers, growth factors and growth factor receptors. One of these, insulin-growth factor receptor 1(IGF-1R), was associated with a Herceptin response rate that was half that of tumors that did not express IGF-1R. Continue reading “Gene profiling predicts resistance to breast cancer drug Herceptin” Pinpointing the genes involved in cancer will help chart a new course across the complex landscape of human malignancies. “If we wish to learn more about cancer, we must now concentrate on the cellular genome.” Nobel laureate Renato Dulbecco penned those words more than 20 years ago in one of the earliest public calls for what would become the Human Genome Project. “We are at a turning point,” Dulbecco, a pioneering cancer researcher, declared in 1986 in the journal Science. Discoveries in preceding years had made clear that much of the deranged behavior of cancer cells stemmed from damage to their genes and alterations in their functioning. “We have two options,” he wrote. “Either try to discover the genes important in malignancy by a piecemeal approach, or & sequence the whole genome.” Continue reading “Mapping the Cancer Genome” A decades-old cancer mystery has been solved by researchers at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL). “We not only found a critical tumor suppressor gene, but have revealed a master switch for a tumor suppressive network that means more targeted and effective cancer therapy in the future,” said CSHL Associate Professor Alea Mills, Ph.D. The study was published in the February issue of Cell. DNA testing is transforming health care and medicine, but current technologies only give a snapshot of an individual’s genetic makeup. Any patient wanting a complete picture of their inherited DNA, or genome, would drop their jaw at the sight of the bill — to the current tune of $10 million or more charged for every human or mammalian-sized genome sequenced. The NHGRI, part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), has set an ambitious target of $1,000 or less – a cost 10,000 times lower than current technology – to make genome sequencing a routine diagnostic tool in medical care. The reduced cost may allow doctors to tailor medical treatments to an individual’s genetic profile for diagnosing, treating, and ultimately preventing many common diseases such as cancer, heart disease, diabetes and obesity. Continue reading “Faster, low cost sequencing technologies needed to drive era of personalized medicine” The last few years have been very good to ribonucleic acid (RNA). Decades after DNA took biology by storm, RNA was considered little more than a link in a chain–no doubt a necessary link, but one that, by itself, had little to offer. But with the discoveries of RNA interference and microRNAs, this meager molecule has been catapulted to stardom as a major player in genomic activity. Now, a team of scientists led by David Bartel, a professor in MIT’s Department of Biology, has discovered an entirely new class of RNA molecules. Dana-Farber Cancer Institute researchers have developed a powerful method for charting the positions of key gene-regulating molecules called nucleosomes throughout the human genome. The mapping tool could help uncover important clues for understanding and diagnosing cancer and other diseases, the scientists say. Moreover, it may shed light on the role of nucleosomes in the process of “reprogramming” an adult cell to its original embryonic state, which is a critical operation in cloning. Continue reading “Scientists map key landmarks in human genome” Variations in a gene known as SORL1 may be a factor in the development of late onset Alzheimer’s disease, an international team of researchers has discovered. The genetic clue, which could lead to a better understanding of one cause of Alzheimer’s, is reported in Nature Genetics online, Jan. 14, 2007, and was supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The researchers suggest that faulty versions of the SORL1 gene contribute to formation of amyloid plaques, a hallmark sign of Alzheimer’s in the brains of people with the disease. They identified 29 variants that mark relatively short segments of DNA where disease-causing changes could lie. The study did not, however, identify specific genetic changes that result in Alzheimer’s. Continue reading “Scientists find new genetic clue to cause of Alzheimer’s disease” Scientists have finally deciphered the genome of the parasite causing trichomoniasis, a feat that is already providing new approaches to improve the diagnosis and treatment of this sexually transmitted disease. According to the World Health Organization trichomoniasis affects an estimated 170 million people a year and is an under-diagnosed global health problem. Led by Jane Carlton, Ph.D., an Associate Professor in the Department of Medical Parasitology at New York University School of Medicine, the team of scientists took four years to crack the surprisingly large genome of the single-celled parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. They published the draft sequence of the parasite’s genome in the Jan. 12, 2007, issue of the journal Science. An organelle called the nucleolus resides deep within the cell nucleus and performs one of the cell’s most critical functions: it manufactures ribosomes, the molecular machines that convert the genetic information carried by messenger RNA into proteins that do the work of life. Gary Karpen and Jamy Peng, researchers in the Life Sciences Division of the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, have now discovered two pathways that regulate the organization of the nucleolus and other features of nuclear architecture, maintaining genome stability in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Continue reading “Regulating the nuclear architecture of the cell” When you dial 911 you expect rescuers to pull up at your front door, unload and get busy—not park the truck down the street and eat donuts. It’s the same for a cell—just before it divides, it recruits protein complexes that repair breakage that may have occurred along the linear DNA chains making up your 46 chromosomes. Without repair, damage caused by smoking, chemical mutagens, or radiation might be passed on to the next generation. However, in 2005, investigators at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies observed that before cell division some of these cellular paramedics inexplicably idle at undamaged chromosome ends, known as telomeres. Apparently the telomeres’ disheveled appearance —resembling that of broken DNA strands—raises a red flag. Now, in a study published in the Nov. 17 issue of Cell, that same team led by Jan Karlseder, Ph.D, Hearst Endowment Assistant Professor in the Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, reveals why those repair crews are parked at the ends of chromosomes and in doing so answer fundamental questions about how chromosomal stability is maintained. Continue reading “DNA Repair Teams’ Motto: ‘To Protect and Serve’” French researchers have resurrected a retrovirus that became trapped in the human genome about five million years ago. Pieced together from existing sequences in human DNA, the reconstructed virus was able to infect mammalian cells weakly, suggesting that it works similarly to the extinct organism. The smallest collection of genes ever found for a cellular organism comes from tiny symbiotic bacteria that live inside special cells inside a small insect. The bacteria Carsonella ruddii has the fewest genes of any cell. The bacteria’s newly sequenced genome, the complete set of DNA for the organism, is only one-third the size of the previously reported “smallest” cellular genome. Continue reading “Researchers find smallest cellular genome” Scientists investigating an important DNA-repair enzyme now have a better picture of the final steps of a process that glues together, or ligates, the ends of DNA strands to restore the double helix. Researchers at the Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen) today announced the discovery of a gene that plays a significant role in memory performance in humans. The findings, reported by TGen and research colleagues at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, Banner Alzheimer’s Institute, and Mayo Clinic Scottsdale, appear in the October 20 issue of Science. The study details how researchers associated memory performance with a gene called Kibra in over 1,000 individuals –both young and old– from Switzerland and Arizona. This study is the first to describe scanning the human genetic blueprint at over 500,000 positions to identify cognitive differences between humans. Continue reading “Research team identifies human ‘memory gene’” A jumping gene first identified in a cabbage-eating moth may one day provide a safer, target-specific alternative to viruses for gene therapy, researchers say. They compared the ability of the four best-characterized jumping genes, or transposons, to insert themselves into a cell’s DNA and produce a desired change, such as making the cell resistant to damage from radiation therapy. They found the piggyBac transposon was five to 10 times better than the other circular pieces of DNA at making a home and a difference in several mammalian cell lines, including three human ones. Continue reading “Jumping gene could provide non-viral alternative for gene therapy” Scientists have completed the first draft of the genetic code for breast and colon cancers. Their report, published online in the September 7 issue of Science Express, identifies close to 200 mutated genes, now linked to these cancers, most of which were not previously recognized as associated with tumor initiation, growth, spread or control. A single gene plays a pivotal role launching two DNA damage detection and repair pathways in the human genome, suggesting that it functions as a previously unidentified tumor suppressor gene, researchers at The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center report in Cancer Cell. The advance online publication also reports that the gene – called BRIT1 – is under-expressed in human ovarian, breast and prostate cancer cell lines. Continue reading “Researchers identify gene as protector of DNA, enemy of tumors” Scientists have found that the DNA of human embryonic stem cells is chemically modified in a characteristic, predictable pattern. This pattern distinguishes human embryonic stem cells from normal adult cells and cell lines, including cancer cells. The study, which appears online today in Genome Research, should help researchers understand how epigenetic factors contribute to self-renewal and developmental pluripotence, unique characteristics of human embryonic stem cells that may one day allow them to be used to replace diseased or damaged cells with healthy ones in a process called therapeutic cloning. Continue reading “Human embryonic stem cells display a unique pattern of chemical modification to DNA” DNA – the long, thin molecule that carries our hereditary material – is compressed around protein scaffolding in the cell nucleus into tiny spheres called nucleosomes. The bead-like nucleosomes are strung along the entire chromosome, which is itself folded and packaged to fit into the nucleus. What determines how, when and where a nucleosome will be positioned along the DNA sequence? Dr. Eran Segal and research student Yair Field of the Computer Science and Applied Mathematics Department at the Weizmann Institute of Science have succeeded, together with colleagues from Northwestern University in Chicago, in cracking the genetic code that sets the rules for where on the DNA strand the nucleosomes will be situated. Their findings appeared today in Nature. Continue reading “Scientists Discover a Genetic Code for Organizing DNA” Two gene discoveries announced in separate reports in the June 30, 2006 issue of Cell highlight one way to speed through the human genome in search of those genes most important for spawning cancer. Both groups say that a critical element in the enterprise to efficiently characterize the “human cancer genome” –a comprehensive collection of the genetic alterations responsible for major cancers–is the strategic comparison of human tumors with those of mice. As a demonstration of the value of such strategic comparisons between species, the researchers report promising finds: one of the research teams identified two genes that can–in some circumstances–conspire to produce liver cancer, while the second uncovered a gene important to the spread of melanoma, the most serious form of skin cancer. Such functionally important genes, and the larger genetic pathways of which they are a part, are also those with the most promise as potential targets for cancer drugs, according to the researchers. Continue reading “Speeding discovery of the ‘human cancer genome’” Scientists eager to help develop a new generation of pharmaceuticals are studying cellular proteins called transcription factors, which bind to upstream sequences of genes to turn the expression of those genes on or off. Some pharmaceutical companies are also hoping to develop drugs that selectively block the binding of transcription factors as a way to short-circuit the harmful effects of diseases. Bioengineering researchers at UCSD and two research institutes in Germany report in the June 16 issue of PLoS Computational Biology that transcription factors act not only in isolation, but also in pairs, trios, and combinations of up to 13 to regulate distinct sets of genes. For the first time, scientists have defined the collective genome of the human gut, or colon. Up to 100 trillion microbes, representing more than 1,000 species, make up a motley "microbiome" that allows humans to digest much of what we eat, including some vitamins, sugars, and fiber, an accomplishment that has far-reaching implications for clinical diagnosis and treatment of many human diseases. In a study published in the June 2 issue of Science, scientists at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) and their colleagues describe and analyze the colon microbiome, which includes more than 60,000 genes–twice as many as found in the human genome. Some of these microbial genes code for enzymes that humans need to digest food, suggesting that bacteria in the colon co-evolved with their human host, to mutual benefit. Biologists in recent years have identified every individual gene in the genomes of several organisms. While this has been quite an accomplishment in itself, the further goal of figuring out how these genes interact is truly daunting. The difficulty lies in the fact that two genes can pair up in a gigantic number of ways. If an organism has a genome of 20,000 genes, for example, the total number of pairwise combinations is a staggering total of 200 million possible interactions. Researchers can indeed perform experiments to see what happens when the two genes interact, but 200 million is an enormous number of experiments, says Weiwei Zhong, a postdoctoral scholar at the California Institute of Technology. “The question is whether we can prioritize which experiments we should do in order to save a lot of time.” To get at this issue, Zhong and her supervising professor, Paul Sternberg, have derived a method of database-mining to make predictions about genetic interactions. In the current issue of the journal Science, they report on a procedure for computationally integrating several sources of data from several organisms to study the tiny worm C. elegans, or nematode, an animal commonly used in biological experiments. Continue reading “Researchers Create New ‘Matchmaking Service’ Computer System To Study Gene Interactions” Non-coding regions of the genome – those that don’t code for proteins – are now known to include important elements that regulate gene activity. Among those elements are microRNAs, tiny, recently discovered RNA molecules that suppress gene expression. Increasing evidence indicates a role for microRNAs in the developing nervous system, and researchers from Children’s Hospital Boston now demonstrate that one microRNA affects the development of synapses – the points of communication between brain cells that underlie learning and memory. Researchers at The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center say they have jumped a significant hurdle in the use of RNA interference (RNAi), believed by many to be the ultimate tool to both decode the function of individual genes in the human genome and to treat disease. Reporting in the journal Genes and Development, investigators have developed a simple way to use the RNAi approach to silence a selected gene in a specific tissue in a mouse to determine the function of that targeted gene. This is another major breakthrough related to RNA interferene that was the topic of my prior post. Continue reading “A method is developed to silence genes in specific tissues using RNAi” Synthetic Genomics, Inc., a company founded by the genome sequencing pioneer Dr. J. Craig Venter, is developing new scientific processes to enable industry to design and test desired genetic modifications. Using the genome as a bio-factory, a custom designed, modular “cassette” system will be developed so that the organism executes specific molecular functions. Synthetically produced organisms with reduced or reoriented metabolic needs will enable new, powerful, and more direct methods of bio-engineered industrial production. According to Dr. Venter: “Work in creating a synthetic chromosome/genome will give us a better understanding of basic cellular processes. Genome composition, regulatory circuits, signaling pathways and numerous other aspects of organism gene and protein function will be better understood through construction of a synthetic genome. Not only will this basic research lead to better understanding of these pathways and components in the particular organisms, but also better understanding of human biology. The ability to construct synthetic genomes may lead to extraordinary advances in our ability to engineer microorganisms for many vital energy and environmental purposes.” This is a very exciting new step towards biosingularity. Dr. Venter is a true visionary who has been relentlessly pushing the technology to decode the complex program of biological systems. Continue reading “First synthetic biology company is launched” An international consortium of researchers led by the University of Manchester has cracked the gene code behind a key family of fungi, which includes both the leading cause of death in leukaemia and bone marrow transplant patients and an essential ingredient of soy sauce. The ‘genome sequences’ or genetic maps for the fungi Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus oryzae are published on 22 December in Nature magazine. Despite being from the same fungal family, they have been found to be as genetically different as fish and man. Cleistothecium – sexual spore container, false coloured from Aspergillus nidulans. (Courtesy of Professor Rheinhard Fischer, Institut für Angewandte Biowissenschaften Abt. für Angewandte Mikrobiologie der Universität Karlsruh, with whom copyright remains) The ubiquitous and usually harmless E. coli bacterium, which has one-seventh the number of genes as a human, has more than 1,000 of them involved in metabolism and metabolic regulation. Activation of random combinations of these genes would theoretically be capable of generating a huge variety of internal states; however, researchers at UCSD will report in the Dec. 27 issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) that Escherichia coli doesn’t gamble with its metabolism. In a surprise about E. coli that may offer clues about how human cells operate, the PNAS paper reports that only a handful of dominant metabolic states are found in E. coli when it is “grown” in 15,580 different environments in computer simulations. Continue reading “How E. coli bacterium generates simplicity from complexity” Work on the world’s first human-made species is well under way at a research complex in Rockville, Md., and scientists in Canada have been quietly conducting experiments to help bring such a creature to life. Robert Holt, head of sequencing for the Genome Science Centre at the University of British Columbia, is leading efforts at his Vancouver lab to play a key role in the production of the first synthetic life form — a microbe made from scratch. The project is being spearheaded by U.S. scientist Craig Venter, who gained fame in his former job as head of Celera Genomics, which completed a privately-owned map of the human genome in 2000. Continue reading “Creating first synthetic life form” Scientists have finally managed to take an extensive look at the genetic makeup of one of the most famous beasts of the last ice age. This week, an international team of researchers reports using a new technology to sequence a staggering 13 million basepairs of both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA from a 27,000-year-old frozen Siberian mammoth. Also this week, another team reports using a souped-up version of more conventional methods to sequence a mammoth’s entire mitochondrial genome. Evolution has been the foundation and guiding theory of biology since Darwin gave the theory its proper scientific debut in 1859. But Darwin probably never dreamed that researchers in 2005 would still be uncovering new details about the nuts and bolts of his theory — how does evolution actually work in the world of influenza genes and chimpanzee genes and stickleback fish armor? Studies that follow evolution in action claim top honors as the Breakthrough of the Year, named by Science and its publisher AAAS, the nonprofit science society. Continue reading “Science’s Breakthrough of the Year: Watching evolution in action” Take a pot of scalding water, remove all the oxygen, mix in a bit of poisonous carbon monoxide, and add a pinch of hydrogen gas. It sounds like a recipe for a witch’s brew. It may be, but it is also the preferred environment for a microbe known as Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans. In a paper published in the November 27th issue of PLoS Genetics, a research team led by scientists at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) report the determination and analysis of the complete genome sequence of this organism. Isolated from a hot spring on the Russian volcanic island of Kunashir, this microbe lives almost entirely on carbon monoxide. While consuming this normally poisonous gas, the microbe mixes it with water, producing hydrogen gas as waste. Continue reading “Microbe produces H2 from water, carbon monoxide”

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1.the idea of a federal organization of more or less self-governing units FederalismFed"er*al*ism (?), n. [Cf. F. fédéralisme.] The principles of Federalists or of federal union. voir la définition de Wikipedia Anti-Federalism • Asymmetric federalism • Australian federalism • Autonomy Progress Federalism Aosta Valley • Balance of power (federalism) • Bill of Federalism • Canadian federalism • Co-operative Federalism • Cooperative federalism • Copernican federalism • Corporative federalism • Dual federalism • Executive federalism • Federalism (Canada) • Federalism in Australia • Federalism in Canada • Federalism in China • Federalism in Iraq • Federalism in Malaysia • Federalism in Nepal • Federalism in Nigeria • Federalism in Sri Lanka • Federalism in Syria • Federalism in the Philippines • Federalism in the United States • Fiscal Federalism Network • Fiscal federalism • Hourglass Federalism • Iberian Federalism • Layer cake federalism • Market-preserving federalism • New Federalism • Permissive Federalism • Permissive federalism • Symmetric federalism science humaine (fr)[Classe] partisan de parti politique (fr)[Classe] qualificatif d'un mode de gouvernement (fr)[DomaineDescription] |Part of a series on| Federalism is a political concept in which a group of members are bound together by covenant (Latin: foedus, covenant) with a governing representative head. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system of the government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces). Federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called a federation. Proponents are often called federalists. In Europe, "federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels. Most European federalists want this development to continue within the European Union. European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zurich in 1946. Federalism may encompass as few as two or three internal divisions, as is the case in Belgium or Bosnia and Herzegovina. In general, two extremes of federalism can be distinguished: at one extreme, the strong federal state is almost completely unitary, with few powers reserved for local governments; while at the other extreme, the national government may be a federal state in name only, being a confederation in actuality. In 1999, the Government of Canada established the Forum of Federations as an international network for exchange of best practices among federal and federalizing countries. Headquartered in Ottawa, the Forum of Federations partner governments include Australia, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Mexico, Nigeria and Switzerland. Some Christian denominations are organized on federalist principles; in these churches this is known as ecclesiastic or theological federalism. Several federal systems exist in Europe, such as in Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina and the European Union. Germany and the EU are the only examples in the world where members of the federal upper houses, (the Bundesrat and the Council), are neither elected nor appointed but are composed of the governments of their constituents. In Germany, federalism was abolished only during Nazism (1933–1945) and in East Germany during most of its existence (1952–1990). Adolf Hitler viewed federalism as an obstacle to his goals. As he wrote in Mein Kampf, "National Socialism must claim the right to impose its principles on the whole German nation, without regard to what were hitherto the confines of federal states."[page needed] Therefore the idea of a strong, centralized government has negative associations in German politics, although prior to 1919 or 1933, many social democrats and liberals favored centralization in principle. Since earlier in Britain, an Imperial Federation was once seen as a method of solving the Home Rule problem in Ireland, federalism has long been proposed as a solution to the "Irish Problem", and more lately, the "West Lothian question". Following the end of World War II, several movements began advocating a European federation, such as the Union of European Federalists or the European Movement, founded in 1948. Those organizations were influential in the European unification process, but never in a decisive way. Although federalism was mentioned both in the drafts of the Maastricht treaty and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, it was never adopted by the representatives of the member countries, all of whom would have to agree to the term. The strongest advocates of European federalism have been Germany, Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg while those historically most strongly opposed have been the United Kingdom and France; while other countries that have never campaigned specifically for a particular means of governance in Europe are considered as federalists. Some would consider this to be the case with states such as Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Hungary. It is also remarkable that in recent times the French government has become increasingly pro-European Union, while countries like the Czech Republic have taken on the roles of primary opponents to a stronger EU. Those uncomfortable using the “F” word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, for the purposes of the analysis here, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view the EU as a federal system (See for instance, Bednar, Filippov et al., McKay, Kelemen, Defigueido and Weingast). (R. Daniel Kelemen) On January 1, 1901 the Australian nation emerged as a federation. The Australian continent was colonized by the United Kingdom in 1788, who subsequently established six self-governing colonies there. In the 1890s the governments of these colonies all held referendums on becoming a unified, independent nation. When all the colonies voted in favour of federation, the Federation of Australia commenced, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. Whilst the Federation of Australia emerged in 1901, the States of Australia remained colonies of Britain until 1986 when the UK and Australia passed the Australia Acts. The model of Australian federalism adheres closely to the original model of the United States of America, though through a Westminster system. In Brazil, the fall of the monarchy in 1889 by a military coup d'état led to the rise of the presidential system, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca. Aided by well-known jurist Ruy Barbosa, Fonseca established federalism in Brazil by decree, but this system of government would be confirmed by every Brazilian constitution since 1891, although some of them would distort some of the federalist principles. The 1937 Constitution, for example, granted the federal government the authority to appoint State Governors (called interventors) at will, thus centralizing power in the hands of President Getúlio Vargas. Brazil also uses the Fonseca system to regulate interstate trade. The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 introduced a new component to the ideas of federalism, including municipalities as federal entities. Brazilian municipalities are now invested with some of the traditional powers usually granted to states in federalism, and although they are not allowed to have a Constitution, they are structured by an organic law. In Canada, the system of federalism is described by the division of powers between the federal parliament and the country's provincial governments. Under the Constitution Act (previously known as the British North America Act) of 1867, specific powers of legislation are allotted. Section 91 of the constitution gives rise to federal authority for legislation, whereas section 92 gives rise to provincial powers. For matters not directly dealt with in the constitution, the federal government retains residual powers; however, conflict between the two levels of government, relating to which level has legislative jurisdiction over various matters, has been a longstanding and evolving issue. Areas of contest include legislation with respect to regulation of the economy, taxation, and natural resources. The Federal War ended in 1863 with the signing of the Treaty of Coche by both the centralist government of the time and the Federal Forces. The United States of Venezuela were subsequently incorporated under a "Federation of Sovereign States" upon principles borrowed from the Articles of Confederation of the United States of America. In this Federation, each State had a "President" of its own that controlled almost every issue, even the creation of "State Armies," while the Federal Army was required to obtain presidential permission to enter any given state. However, more than 140 years later, the original system has gradually evolved into a quasi-centralist form of government. While the 1999 Constitution still defines Venezuela as a Federal Republic, it abolished the Senate, transferred competences of the States to the Federal Government and granted the President of the Republic vast powers to intervene in the States and Municipalities. The governance of India is based on a tiered system, where in the Constitution of India appropriates the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers. The Constitution uses the Seventh Schedule to delimit the subjects under three categories, namely the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. A distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism is that unlike many other forms of federalism, it is asymmetric. Article 370 makes special provisions for the state of Jammu and Kashmir as per its Instrument of Accession. Article 371 makes special provisions for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim as per their accession or state-hood deals. Also one more aspect of Indian federalism is system of President's Rule in which the central government (through its appointed Governor) takes control of state's administration for certain months when no party can form a government in the state or there is violent disturbance in the state. Although the Constitution does not say so, India is now a multilingual federation. India has a multi-party system,with political allegiances frequently based on linguistic, regional and caste identities, necessitating coalition politics, especially at the Union level.Coalition politics have created a balance in the legislatures. The post-Imperial nature of Russian subdivision of government changed towards a generally autonomous model which began with the establishment of the USSR (of which Russia was governed as part). It was liberalized in the aftermath of the Soviet Union, with the reforms under Boris Yeltsin preserving much of the Soviet structure while applying increasingly liberal reforms to the governance of the constituent republics and subjects (while also coming into conflict with Chechen secessionist rebels during the Chechen War). Some of the reforms under Yeltsin were scaled back by Vladimir Putin. All of Russia's subdivisional entities are known as subjects, with some smaller entities, such as the republics enjoying more autonomy than other subjects on account of having an extant presence of a culturally non-Russian ethnic minority. Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States. American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism. In "Federalist No. 46," James Madison asserted that the states and national government "are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers." Alexander Hamilton, writing in "Federalist No. 28," suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: "If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress." (1) Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section. However, it contains numerous mentions of the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials vis-à-vis the federal government. The federal government has certain express powers (also called enumerated powers) which are powers spelled out in the Constitution, including the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, the Necessary and Proper Clause gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper" for the execution of its express powers. Other powers—the reserved powers—are reserved to the people or the states. The power delegated to the federal government was significantly expanded by the Supreme Court decision in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), amendments to the Constitution following the Civil War, and by some later amendments—as well as the overall claim of the Civil War, that the states were legally subject to the final dictates of the federal government. a) The Legislative had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked. b) The Executive branch had too much power, and that there was no check on him. A dictator would arise. c) A bill of rights should be coupled with the constitution to prevent a dictator (then believed to eventually be the president) from exploiting citizens. The federalists, on the other hand, argued that it was impossible to list all the rights, and those that were not listed could be easily overlooked because they were not in the official bill of rights. Rather, rights in specific cases were to be decided by the judicial system of courts. Decades after the Civil War, the federal government increased greatly in size and influence, in terms of its influence on everyday life and its size relative to the state governments. Reasons included the need to regulate businesses and industries that span state borders, attempts to secure civil rights, and the provision of social services. The federal government acquired no substantial new powers until the acceptance by the Supreme Court of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Many people[who?] believe that the federal government has grown beyond the bounds permitted by the express powers. From 1938 until 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress' power under the Commerce Clause for over fifty years until United States v. Lopez overturned the power of the Federal government under the Commerce Clause (see also, challenging the Gun-Free School Zones Act). However, most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the Commerce Clause. The Commerce Clause is used by Congress to justify certain federal laws, but its applicability has been narrowed by the Supreme Court in recent years. For example, the Supreme Court rejected the Gun-Free School Zones Act in the aforementioned Lopez decision, and they also rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 in the United States v. Morrison decision. Recently, the Commerce Clause was interpreted to include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision. Dual federalism holds that the federal government and the state governments are co-equals, each sovereign. In this theory, parts of the Constitution are interpreted narrowly, such as the Tenth Amendment, the Supremacy Clause, the Necessary and Proper Clause, and the Commerce Clause. Under this narrow interpretation, the federal government has jurisdiction only if the Constitution clearly grants such. In this case, there is a large group of powers belonging to the states or the people, and the federal government is limited to only those powers explicitly listed in the Constitution. However, since the Civil War Era, the national courts often interpret the federal government as the final judge of its own powers under dual federalism. The establishment of Native American governments (which are separate and distinct from state and federal government) exercising limited powers of sovereignty, has given rise to the concept of "bi-federalism." ||This section contains information which may be of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter. Please help improve this article by clarifying or removing superfluous information. (September 2009)| Federalism in the Kingdom of Belgium is an evolving system. Belgian federalism reflects both the linguistic communities (French and Dutch, and to a lesser extent German) and the economic regions (Brussels, Flanders and Wallonia). These correspond to the language areas in Belgium. Although officially there are three language areas, for all practical purposes only two languages are relevant on the federal level, Dutch and French: On one hand, this means that the Belgian political landscape, generally speaking, consists of only two components: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels, represented by their French-speaking parties. The Brussels region emerges as a third component. This specific dual form of federalism, with the special position of Brussels, consequentially has a number of political issues—even minor ones—that are being fought out over the Dutch/French-language political division. With such issues, a final decision is possible only in the form of a compromise. This tendency gives this dual federalism model a number of traits that generally are ascribed to confederalism, and makes the future of Belgian federalism contentious. On the other hand, Belgian federalism is federated with three components. An affirmative resolution concerning Brussels' place in the federal system passed in the parliaments of Wallonia and Brussels. These resolutions passed against the desires of Dutch-speaking parties, who are generally in favour of a federal system with two components (i.e. the Dutch and French Communities of Belgium). However, the Flemish representatives in the Parliament of the Brussels Capital-Region voted in favour of the Brussels resolution, with the exception of one party. The chairman of the Walloon Parliament stated on July 17, 2008 that, "Brussels would take an attitude". Brussels' parliament passed the resolution on July 18, 2008: This aspect of Belgian federalism helps to explain the difficulties of partition; Brussels, with its importance, is linked to both Wallonia and Flanders and vice-versa. This situation, however, does not erase the traits of a confederation in the Belgian system. Current examples of two-sided federalism: Historical examples of two-sided federalism include: It has been proposed in several unitary states to establish a federal system, for various reasons. China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area. Although China has had long periods of central rule for centuries, it is often argued that the unitary structure of the Chinese government is far too unwieldy to effectively and equitably manage the country's affairs. On the other hand, Chinese nationalists are suspicious of decentralization as a form of secessionism and a backdoor for national disunity; still others argue that the degree of autonomy given to provincial-level officials in the People's Republic of China amounts to a de facto federalism. Shortly after the 2011 Libyan civil war, some in the eastern region of the country (Cyrenaica) began to call for the new regime to be federal, with the traditional three regions of Libya (Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan) being the constituent units. A group calling itself the Cyrenaican Transitional Council issued a declaration of autonomy on 6 March 2012; this move was rejected by the National Transitional Council in Tripoli. Anarchists are against the State but are not against political organization or "governance" -- so long as it is self-governance utilizing direct democracy. The mode of political organization preferred by anarchists, in general, is federalism or confederalism. However, the anarchist definition of federalism tends to differ from the definition of federalism assumed by pro-state political scientists. The following is a brief description of federalism from section I.5 of An Anarchist FAQ: Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism (a form of political federalism) to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in political federalism, in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty. Some Christians argue that the earliest source of political federalism (or federalism in human institutions; in contrast to theological federalism) is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible. They point to the structure of the early Christian Church as described (and to many, prescribed) in the New Testament. This is particularly demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem, described in Acts chapter 15, where the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church; the Apostles being representatives of the universal Church, and elders being such for the local church. To this day, elements of federalism can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others. In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution. It is in this way that the right to self-government of the component states is usually constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence. In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. Beyond this the precise division of power varies from one nation to another. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries like Canada and India, on the other hand, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial governments are retained by the federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of European competence or shared between EU and state are retained by the constituent states. Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions. In Spain, "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country have more powers than other autonomous communities, partly to deal with their distinctness and to appease nationalist leanings, partly out of respect of privileges granted earlier in history. It is common that during the historical evolution of a federation there is a gradual movement of power from the component states to the centre, as the federal government acquires additional powers, sometimes to deal with unforeseen circumstances. The acquisition of new powers by a federal government may occur through formal constitutional amendment or simply through a broadening of the interpretation of a government's existing constitutional powers given by the courts. Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions. Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states. However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly. Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves. For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..." This stems from the fact that states in a federation maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people. The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population. Alternatively, or in addition to this practice, the members of an upper house may be indirectly elected by the government or legislature of the component states, as occurred in the United States prior to 1913, or be actual members or delegates of the state governments, as, for example, is the case in the German Bundesrat and in the Council of the European Union. The lower house of a federal legislature is usually directly elected, with apportionment in proportion to population, although states may sometimes still be guaranteed a certain minimum number of seats. In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government. A First Ministers conference of the prime minister and the provincial premiers is the de facto highest political forum in the land, although it is not mentioned in the constitution. Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority. Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system. The meaning of federalism, as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context. Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can be either centralising or decentralising. For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known as 'federalists' in the United States and Australia were those who advocated the creation of strong central government. Similarly, in European Union politics, federalists are mostly those who seek greater EU integration. In contrast, in Spain and post-war Germany, federal movements have sought decentralisation: the transfer of power from central authorities to local units. In Canada, where Quebec separatism has been a political force for several decades, the 'federalist' force is dedicated to keeping Quebec inside Canada. |Look up federalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Federalism| Contenu de sensagent dictionnaire et traducteur pour sites web Une fenêtre (pop-into) d'information (contenu principal de Sensagent) est invoquée un double-clic sur n'importe quel mot de votre page web. LA fenêtre fournit des explications et des traductions contextuelles, c'est-à-dire sans obliger votre visiteur à quitter votre page web ! Solution commerce électronique Augmenter le contenu de votre site Ajouter de nouveaux contenus Add à votre site depuis Sensagent par XML. 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- Opinion poll An opinion poll, sometimes simply referred to as a poll is a survey of public opinion from a particular sample. Opinion polls are usually designed to represent the opinions of a population by conducting a series of questions and then extrapolating generalities in ratio or within confidence intervals. - 1 History - 2 Sample and polling methods - 3 Potential for inaccuracy - 4 Polling organizations - 5 Failures - 6 Influence - 7 Regulation - 8 See also - 9 Footnotes - 10 External references The first known example of an opinion poll was a local straw poll conducted by The Harrisburg Pennsylvanian in 1824, showing Andrew Jackson, who actually won the popular vote in the real election, leading John Quincy Adams by 335 votes to 169 in the contest for the United States Presidency. Such straw votes gradually became more popular, but they remained local, usually city-wide phenomena. In 1916, the Literary Digest embarked on a national survey (partly as a circulation-raising exercise) and correctly predicted Woodrow Wilson's election as president. Mailing out millions of postcards and simply counting the returns, the Digest correctly called the following four presidential elections. In 1936 however the Digest came unstuck. Its 2.3 million "voters" constituted a huge sample; however they were generally more affluent Americans who tended to have Republican sympathies. The Literary Digest was ignorant of this new bias. The week before election day, it reported that Alf Landon was far more popular than Franklin D. Roosevelt. At the same time, George Gallup conducted a far smaller, but more scientifically-based survey, in which he polled a demographically representative sample. Gallup correctly predicted Roosevelt's landslide victory. The Literary Digest soon went out of business, while polling started to take off. Elmo Roper was another American pioneer in political forecasting using scientific polls. He predicted the reelection of President Franklin D. Roosevelt three times, in 1936, 1940, and 1944. Louis Harris had been in the field of public opinion since 1947 when he joined the Elmo Roper firm, then later became partner. Gallup launched a subsidiary in the United Kingdom, where it correctly predicted Labour's victory in the 1945 general election, in contrast with virtually all other commentators, who expected a victory for the Conservative Party, led by Winston Churchill. By the 1950s, various types of polling had spread to most democracies. In (post Saddam Hussein era) Iraq, surveys conducted soon after the 2003 war aimed to measure the feelings of Iraqi citizens regarding Saddam Hussein, post-war conditions, and the presence of US forces. Sample and polling methods Opinion polls for many years were maintained through telecommunications or in person-to-person contact. Methods and techniques vary, though they are widely accepted in most areas. Verbal, ballot, and processed types can be conducted efficiently, contrasted with other types of surveys, systematics, and complicated matrices beyond previous orthodox procedures. Opinion polling developed into popular applications through popular thought, although response rates for some surveys declined. Also, the following has also led to differentiating results: Some polling organizations, such as Angus Reid Strategies, YouGov and Zogby use Internet surveys, where a sample is drawn from a large panel of volunteers, and the results are weighed to reflect the demographics of the population of interest. In contrast, popular web polls draw on whoever wishes to participate, rather than a scientific sample of the population, and are therefore not generally considered professional. A benchmark poll is generally the first poll taken in a campaign. It is often taken before a candidate announces their bid for office but sometimes it happens immediately following that announcement after they have had some opportunity to raise funds. This is generally a short and simple survey of likely voters. A benchmark poll serves a number of purposes for a campaign, whether it is a political campaign or some other type of campaign. First, it gives the candidate a picture of where they stand with the electorate before any campaigning takes place. If the poll is done prior to announcing for office the candidate may use the poll to decide whether or not they should even run for office. Secondly, it shows them where their weaknesses and strengths are in two main areas. The first is the electorate. A benchmark poll shows them what types of voters they are sure to win, those who they are sure to lose, and everyone in-between those two extremes. This lets the campaign know which voters are persuadable so they can spend their limited resources in the most effective manner. Second, it can give them an idea of what messages, ideas, or slogans are the strongest with the electorate. Brushfire Polls are polls taken during the period between the Benchmark Poll and Tracking Polls. The number of Brushfire Polls taken by a campaign is determined by how competitive the race is and how much money the campaign has to spend. These polls usually focus on likely voters and the length of the survey varies on the number of messages being tested. Brushfire polls are used for a number of purposes. First, it lets the candidate know if they have made any progress on the ballot, how much progress has been made, and in what demographics they have been making or losing ground. Secondly, it is a way for the campaign to test a variety of messages, both positive and negative, on themselves and their opponent(s). This lets the campaign know what messages work best with certain demographics and what messages should be avoided. Campaigns often use these polls to test possible attack messages that their opponent may use and potential responses to those attacks. The campaign can then spend some time preparing an effective response to any likely attacks. Thirdly, this kind of poll can be used by candidates or political parties to convince primary challengers to drop out of a race and support a stronger candidate. A tracking poll is a poll repeated at intervals generally averaged over a trailing window. For example, a weekly tracking poll uses the data from the past week and discards older data. A key benefit of tracking polls is that the trend of a tracking poll (the change over time) corrects for bias: regardless of whether a poll consistently over or underestimates opinion, the trend correctly reflects increases or decreases. A caution is that estimating the trend is more difficult and error-prone than estimating the level – intuitively, if one estimates the change, the difference between two numbers X and Y, then one has to contend with the error in both X and Y – it is not enough to simply take the difference, as the change may be random noise. For details, see t-test. A rough guide is that if the change in measurement falls outside the margin of error, it is worth attention. Potential for inaccuracy Polls based on samples of populations are subject to sampling error which reflects the effects of chance and uncertainty in the sampling process. The uncertainty is often expressed as a margin of error. The margin of error is usually defined as the radius of a confidence interval for a particular statistic from a survey. One example is the percent of people who prefer product A versus product B. When a single, global margin of error is reported for a survey, it refers to the maximum margin of error for all reported percentages using the full sample from the survey. If the statistic is a percentage, this maximum margin of error can be calculated as the radius of the confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50%. Others suggest that a poll with a random sample of 1,000 people has margin of sampling error of 3% for the estimated percentage of the whole population. A 3% margin of error means that if the same procedure is used a large number of times, 95% of the time the true population average will be within the 95% confidence interval of the sample estimate plus or minus 3%. The margin of error can be reduced by using a larger sample, however if a pollster wishes to reduce the margin of error to 1% they would need a sample of around 10,000 people. In practice, pollsters need to balance the cost of a large sample against the reduction in sampling error and a sample size of around 500–1,000 is a typical compromise for political polls. (Note that to get complete responses it may be necessary to include thousands of additional participators.) Another way to reduce the margin of error is to rely on poll averages. This makes the assumption that the procedure is similar enough between many different polls and uses the sample size of each poll to create a polling average. An example of a polling average can be found here: 2008 Presidential Election polling average. Another source of error stems from faulty demographic models by pollsters who weigh their samples by particular variables such as party identification in an election. For example, if you assume that the breakdown of the US population by party identification has not changed since the previous presidential election, you may underestimate a victory or a defeat of a particular party candidate that saw a surge or decline in its party registration relative to the previous presidential election cycle. Over time, a number of theories and mechanisms have been offered to explain erroneous polling results. Some of these reflect errors on the part of the pollsters; many of them are statistical in nature. Others blame the respondents for not giving candid answers (e.g., the Bradley effect, the Shy Tory Factor); these can be more controversial. Since some people do not answer calls from strangers, or refuse to answer the poll, poll samples may not be representative samples from a population due to a non-response bias. Because of this selection bias, the characteristics of those who agree to be interviewed may be markedly different from those who decline. That is, the actual sample is a biased version of the universe the pollster wants to analyze. In these cases, bias introduces new errors, one way or the other, that are in addition to errors caused by sample size. Error due to bias does not become smaller with larger sample sizes, because taking a larger sample size simply repeats the same mistake on a larger scale. If the people who refuse to answer, or are never reached, have the same characteristics as the people who do answer, then the final results should be unbiased. If the people who do not answer have different opinions then there is bias in the results. In terms of election polls, studies suggest that bias effects are small, but each polling firm has its own techniques for adjusting weights to minimize selection bias. Survey results may be affected by response bias, where the answers given by respondents do not reflect their true beliefs. This may be deliberately engineered by unscrupulous pollsters in order to generate a certain result or please their clients, but more often is a result of the detailed wording or ordering of questions (see below). Respondents may deliberately try to manipulate the outcome of a poll by e.g. advocating a more extreme position than they actually hold in order to boost their side of the argument or give rapid and ill-considered answers in order to hasten the end of their questioning. Respondents may also feel under social pressure not to give an unpopular answer. For example, respondents might be unwilling to admit to unpopular attitudes like racism or sexism, and thus polls might not reflect the true incidence of these attitudes in the population. In American political parlance, this phenomenon is often referred to as the Bradley Effect. If the results of surveys are widely publicized this effect may be magnified - a phenomenon commonly referred to as the spiral of silence. Wording of questions It is well established that the wording of the questions, the order in which they are asked and the number and form of alternative answers offered can influence results of polls. For instance, the public is more likely to indicate support for a person who is described by the operator as one of the "leading candidates". This support itself overrides subtle bias for one candidate, as does lumping some candidates in an "other" category or vice versa. Thus comparisons between polls often boil down to the wording of the question. On some issues, question wording can result in quite pronounced differences between surveys. This can also, however, be a result of legitimately conflicted feelings or evolving attitudes, rather than a poorly constructed survey. A common technique to control for this bias is to rotate the order in which questions are asked. Many pollsters also split-sample. This involves having two different versions of a question, with each version presented to half the respondents. The most effective controls, used by attitude researchers, are: - asking enough questions to allow all aspects of an issue to be covered and to control effects due to the form of the question (such as positive or negative wording), the adequacy of the number being established quantitatively with psychometric measures such as reliability coefficients, and - analyzing the results with psychometric techniques which synthesize the answers into a few reliable scores and detect ineffective questions. These controls are not widely used in the polling industry[why?]. Another source of error is the use of samples that are not representative of the population as a consequence of the methodology used, as was the experience of the Literary Digest in 1936. For example, telephone sampling has a built-in error because in many times and places, those with telephones have generally been richer than those without. In some places many people have only mobile telephones. Because pollsters cannot call mobile phones (it is unlawful in the United States to make unsolicited calls to phones where the phone's owner may be charged simply for taking a call), these individuals will never be included in the polling sample. If the subset of the population without cell phones differs markedly from the rest of the population, these differences can skew the results of the poll. Polling organizations have developed many weighting techniques to help overcome these deficiencies, to varying degrees of success. Studies of mobile phone users by the Pew Research Center in the US concluded that "cell-only respondents are different from landline respondents in important ways, (but) they were neither numerous enough nor different enough on the questions we examined to produce a significant change in overall general population survey estimates when included with the landline samples and weighted according to US Census parameters on basic demographic characteristics." This issue was first identified in 2004, but came to prominence only during the 2008 US presidential election. In previous elections, the proportion of the general population using cell phones was small, but as this proportion has increased, the worry is that polling only landlines is no longer representative of the general population. In 2003, a 2.9% of households were wireless (cellphones only) compared to 12.8 in 2006. This results in "coverage error". Many polling organisations select their sample by dialling random telephone numbers; however, there is a clear tendency for polls which included mobile phones in their sample to show a much larger lead for Obama than polls that did not. The potential sources of bias are: - Some households use cellphones only and have no landline. This tends to include minorities and younger voters; and occurs more frequently in metropolitan areas. Men are more likely to be cellphone-only compared to women. - Some people may not be contactable by landline from Monday to Friday and may be contactable only by cellphone. - Some people use their landlines only to access the Internet, and answer calls only to their cellphones. Some polling companies have attempted to get around that problem by including a "cellphone supplement". There are a number of problems with including cellphones in a telephone poll: - It is difficult to get co-operation from cellphone users, because in many parts of the US, users are charged for both outgoing and incoming calls. That means that pollsters have had to offer financial compensation to gain co-operation. - US federal law prohibits the use of automated dialling devices to call cellphones (Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991). Numbers therefore have to be dialled by hand, which is more time-consuming and expensive for pollsters. An oft-quoted example of opinion polls succumbing to errors was the UK General Election of 1992. Despite the polling organizations using different methodologies virtually all the polls in the lead up to the vote, and to a lesser extent exit polls taken on voting day, showed a lead for the opposition Labour party but the actual vote gave a clear victory to the ruling Conservative party. In their deliberations after this embarrassment the pollsters advanced several ideas to account for their errors, including: - Late swing - Voters who changed their minds shortly before voting tended to favour the Conservatives, so the error was not as great as it first appeared. - Nonresponse bias - Conservative voters were less likely to participate in surveys than in the past and were thus under-represented. - The Shy Tory Factor - The Conservatives had suffered a sustained period of unpopularity as a result of economic difficulties and a series of minor scandals, leading to a spiral of silence in which some Conservative supporters were reluctant to disclose their sincere intentions to pollsters. The relative importance of these factors was, and remains, a matter of controversy, but since then the polling organizations have adjusted their methodologies and have achieved more accurate results in subsequent elections. In Australia the most notable companies are: - Newspoll - published in News Limited's The Australian newspaper - Roy Morgan Research - published in the Crikey email reporting service - Galaxy Polling - published in News Limited's tabloid papers - AC Nielsen Polling - published in Fairfax newspapers - Ipsos and I-View In Brazil the most notable companies are: - IBOPE (Instituto Brasileiro de Opinião Pública) which acronym has become the Brazilian household word for TV audience rating and a slang word that indicates that a meeting or similar function had significant attendance. In Canada the most notable companies are: - Angus Reid Strategies - EKOS Research Associates - Environics Research Group - Léger Marketing - Nanos Research In Egypt, the most notable polling organization is - Opinion Poll Center In Germany, notable polling organizations are - Allensbach Institute - Forsa institute - Infratest dimap - TNS Emnid In Jordan the dominant organization is: - Knowledge World Center for Polls In Iran, some notable polling organisations include: In New Zealand, some notable polling organisations include: - Colmar Brunton - UMR Insight In Nigeria the most notable polling organisation is: In South Africa, some notable polling organisations include: - Ipsos Markinor who have conducted opinion polls since 1976. - Plus 94 Research - published in Sunday Times South Africa newspaper In Ukraine, the most notable pollsters are: - Research & Branding Group, widely published throughout Ukraine and Internationally. Works include exit polls and regular surveys of the public's political opinions - Razumkov Centre A policy think tank also widely published throughout Ukraine - SOCIS (Socis center for social and political studies) In the United Kingdom, the most notable pollsters are: - ComRes, retained pollster for the BBC and The Independent - Ipsos MORI (formerly MORI). - GfK NOP - Populus, official The Times pollster In the United States, some notable companies include: - Gallup poll run by The Gallup Organization - Harris Poll - National Opinion Research Center - Nielsen ratings - Pew Research Center - Rasmussen Reports - Research 2000 - Zogby International - Sigma 2 - TNS Demoscopia - Akra Delta - ESEQ, Estudios sociales, políticos y de mercado All the major television networks, alone or in conjunction with the largest newspapers or magazines, in virtually every country with elections, operate their own versions of polling operations, in collaboration or independently through various applications. One of the applications can be found on Facebook Several organizations try to monitor the behavior of polling firms and the use of polling and statistical data, including the Pew Research Center and, in Canada, the Laurier Institute for the Study of Public Opinion and Policy. The best-known failure of opinion polling to date in the United States was the prediction that Thomas Dewey would defeat Harry S. Truman in the 1948 US presidential election. Major polling organizations, including Gallup and Roper, indicated a landslide victory for Dewey. In the United Kingdom, most polls failed to predict the Conservative election victories of 1970 and 1992, and Labour's victory in 1974. However, their figures at other elections have been generally accurate. Effect on voters By providing information about voting intentions, opinion polls can sometimes influence the behavior of electors, and in his book The Broken Compass, Peter Hitchens asserts that opinion polls are actually a device for influencing public opinion. The various theories about how this happens can be split into two groups: bandwagon/underdog effects, and strategic ("tactical") voting. A bandwagon effect occurs when the poll prompts voters to back the candidate shown to be winning in the poll. The idea that voters are susceptible to such effects is old, stemming at least from 1884; William Safire reported that the term was first used in a political cartoon in the magazine Puck in that year. It has also remained persistent in spite of a lack of empirical corroboration until the late 20th century. George Gallup spent much effort in vain trying to discredit this theory in his time by presenting empirical research. A recent meta-study of scientific research on this topic indicates that from the 1980s onward the Bandwagon effect is found more often by researchers. The opposite of the bandwagon effect is the underdog effect. It is often mentioned in the media. This occurs when people vote, out of sympathy, for the party perceived to be "losing" the elections. There is less empirical evidence for the existence of this effect than there is for the existence of the bandwagon effect. The second category of theories on how polls directly affect voting is called strategic or tactical voting. This theory is based on the idea that voters view the act of voting as a means of selecting a government. Thus they will sometimes not choose the candidate they prefer on ground of ideology or sympathy, but another, less-preferred, candidate from strategic considerations. An example can be found in the United Kingdom general election, 1997. As he was then a Cabinet Minister, Michael Portillo's constituency of Enfield Southgate was believed to be a safe seat but opinion polls showed the Labour candidate Stephen Twigg steadily gaining support, which may have prompted undecided voters or supporters of other parties to support Twigg in order to remove Portillo. Another example is the boomerang effect where the likely supporters of the candidate shown to be winning feel that chances are slim and that their vote is not required, thus allowing another candidate to win. In addition, Mark Pickup in Cameron Anderson and Laura Stephenson's "Voting Behaviour in Canada" outlines three additional "behavioural" responses that voters may exhibit when faced with polling data. The first is known as a "cue taking" effect which holds that poll data is used as a "proxy" for information about the candidates or parties. Cue taking is "based on the psychological phenomenon of using heuristics to simplify a complex decision" (243) The second, first described by Petty and Cacioppo (1996) is known as "cognitive response" theory. This theory asserts that a voter's response to a poll may not line with their initial conception of the electoral reality. In response, the voter is likely to generate a "mental list" in which they create reasons for a party's loss or gain in the polls. This can reinforce or change their opinion of the candidate and thus affect voting behaviour. Third, the final possibility is a "behavioural response" which is similar to a cognitive response. The only salient difference is that a voter will go and seek new information to form their "mental list," thus becoming more informed of the election. This may then affect voting behaviour. These effects indicate how opinion polls can directly affect political choices of the electorate. But directly or indirectly, other effects can be surveyed and analyzed on all political parties. The form of media framing and party ideology shifts must also be taken under consideration. Opinion polling in some instances is a measure of cognitive bias, which is variably considered and handled appropriately in its various applications. Effect on politicians Starting in the 1980s, tracking polls and related technologies began having a notable impact on U.S. political leaders. According to Douglas Bailey, a Republican who had helped run Gerald Ford's 1976 presidential campaign, "It's no longer necessary for a political candidate to guess what an audience thinks. He can [find out] with a nightly tracking poll. So it's no longer likely that political leaders are going to lead. Instead, they're going to follow." Some jurisdictions over the world restrict the publication of the results of opinion polls in order to prevent the possibly erroneous results from affecting voters' decisions. For instance, in Canada, it is prohibited to publish the results of opinion surveys that would identify specific political parties or candidates in the final three days before a poll closes. However, most western democratic nations don't support the entire prohibition of the publication of pre-election opinion polls; most of them have no regulation and some only prohibit it in the final days or hours until the relevant poll closes. A survey by Canada's Royal Commission on Electoral Reform reported that the prohibition period of publication of the survey results largely differed in different countries. Out of the 20 countries examined, three prohibit the publication during the entire period of campaigns, while others prohibit it for a shorter term such as the polling period or the final 48 hours before a poll closes. - Deliberative opinion poll - Entrance poll - Exit poll - Open access poll - Push poll - Straw poll - Sample size determination - Electoral Calculus – United Kingdom election prediction website - ^ a b Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk (1951). Public Opinion, 1935-1946. Princeton University Press. p. vii. - ^ Kenneth F. Warren (1992). "in Defense of Public Opinion Polling." Westview Press. p. 200-1. - ^ About the Tracking Polls - ^ An estimate of the margin of error in percentage terms can be gained by the formula 100 ÷ square root of sample size - ^ publicagenda.org - ^ Lynch, Scott M. Introduction to Bayesian Statistics and Estimation for Social Scientists (2007). - ^ Langer, Gary (2003-05). "About Response Rates: Some Unresolved Questions". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/images/pdf/responserates.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-17. - ^ "Public Agenda Issue Guide: Higher Education - Public View - Red Flags". Public Agenda. - ^ "Public Agenda Issue Guide: Gay Rights - Public View - Red Flags". Public Agenda. - ^ "Public Agenda Issue Guide: Abortion - Public View - Red Flags". Public Agenda. - ^ "The Seven Stages of Public Opinion". Public Agenda. - ^ Keeter, Scott (2007-06-27). "How Serious Is Polling's Cell-Only Problem?". Pew Research Center Publications. http://pewresearch.org/pubs/515/polling-cell-only-problem. - ^ Blumenthal, Mark (2008-09-19). "More Pollsters Interviewing By Cell Phone". Pollster.com. http://www.pollster.com/blogs/more_pollsters_interviewing_by.php. Retrieved 2008-11-04. - ^ Blumenthal, Mark (2008-07-17). "New Pew data on cell phones". Pollster. http://www.pollster.com/blogs/new_pew_data_on_cell_phones.php. Retrieved 2008-11-04. - ^ Blumberg SJ, Luke JV (2007-05-14) (PDF). Wireless Substitution: Early Release of Estimates Based on Data from the National Health Interview Survey, July–December 2006. Centers for Disease Control. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/wireless200705.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-22. - ^ Silver, Nate (2008-11-02). "The Cellphone effect, continued". FiveThirtyEight.com. http://www.fivethirtyeight.com/2008/11/cellphone-effect-continued.html. Retrieved 2008-11-04. - ^ Blumenthal, Mark (2008-10-17). "More Cell Phone Data from Gallup". Pollster.com. http://www.pollster.com/blogs/more_cell_phone_data_from_gall.php. Retrieved 2008-11-04. - ^ Silver, Nate (2008-07-22). "The Cellphone Problem, Revisited". FiveThirtyEight.com. http://www.fivethirtyeight.com/2008/07/cellphone-problem-revisited.html. Retrieved 2008-11-04. - ^ The Public Opinion Poll Center - ^ Alert. Journalist Abdollah Nouri released but another journalist arrested - ^ "Research&Branding Group Poll: 26% Of Ukrainians Prepared To Support Yanukovych For President". The FINANCIAL website. August 19, 2009. http://www.finchannel.com/Main_News/Ukraine/45385_Research&Branding_Group_Poll:_26%25_Of_Ukrainians_Prepared_To_Support_Yanukovych_For_President/. Retrieved 2010-02-11. - ^ Poll: "CHANGE OF ELECTORAL SITUATION IN UKRAINE - June 2009", Research & Branding Group (June, 2009) - ^ (Ukrainian) Думка громадян України про підсумки 2008 р. (опитування), Razumkov Centre (December 26, 2008) - ^ Socis Poll: 25% Of Ukrainians Prepared To Support Yanukovych For President, 20.5% To Vote For Tymoshenko, Ukrainian News (August 17, 2009) - ^ Facebook | Poll - ^ Laurier Institute for the Study of Public Opinion and Policy - ^ Hitchens, Peter (2009). "Chapter 1, Guy Fawkes Gets a Blackberry". The Broken Compass: How British Politics Lost its Way. Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. ISBN 1847064051. - ^ Safire, William, Safire's Political Dictionary, page 42. Random House, 1993. - ^ a b Irwin, Galen A. and Joop J. M. Van Holsteyn. Bandwagons, Underdogs, the Titanic and the Red Cross: The Influence of Public Opinion Polls on Voters (2000). - ^ Anderson,, Cameron (2010). "10". Voting Behaviour in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press. pp. 243–278. - ^ a b Kaiser, Robert G. (March 9, 2011). "David S. Broder: The best political reporter of his time". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/09/AR2011030902885.html. Retrieved 2011-03-09. - ^ a b Claude Emery (January 1994), Public opinion polling in Canada, Library of Parliament, Canada, http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp371-e.htm - ^ Tim Bale (2002). "Restricting the broadcast and publication of pre-election and exit polls: some selected examples". Representation 39 (1): 15–22. doi:10.1080/00344890208523210. - Asher, Herbert: Polling and the Public. What Every Citizen Should Know, fourth edition. 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Berkopec, HyperQuick algorithm for discrete hypergeometric distribution, Journal of Discrete Algorithms, Elsevier, 2006. - "Poll Position - Issue 010 - GOOD", track record of pollsters for USA presidential elections in Good magazine, April 23, 2008. Social surveys Gathering data Analyzing data ApplicationsMarket research · Opinion poll Major surveys Professional associationsCategory · Projects (Business · Politics · Psychology · Sociology · Statistics) Statistics Descriptive statisticsSummary tables Data collectionDesigning studiesUncontrolled studies Statistical inferenceFrequentist inferenceSpecific tests Correlation and regression analysisNon-standard predictorsPartition of variance Categorical, multivariate, time-series, or survival analysis Applications Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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|Image Courtesy of Melissa on Flickr| If you or someone you love has COPD, you might be concerned about diet and nutrition. What kinds of foods should you eat to stay healthy, and what should you avoid? Eating right and sticking to a healthy diet is one of the best things anyone can do to feel good and keep their body healthy, with or without a chronic disease. In reality, however, eating well is difficult to do on a daily basis. Even though just about everybody knows how important good nutrition is, many people still don't practice a healthy diet. This is sometimes due to a lack of time and motivation, but can also be a result of simply not knowing what kinds of foods are actually good for you and not. If you have COPD, it's especially important to understand what a proper diet looks like and how to incorporate healthy foods into your everyday life. That's why, in this post, we're going to tell you about a wide variety of healthy foods you can eat to help you feel better and stay healthy with COPD. Why a Nutritious Diet is Important for COPD |Image courtesy of FoodFacts on Flickr| Living with a disease like COPD can make everyday tasks like eating more complicated. Many people with COPD even have to eat special, high-calorie diets to make up for the strain that the disease puts on their bodies. COPD forces you to pay extra attention to many aspects of your health, including diet and nutrition. If you don't get all the vitamins and nutrients you need, you can experience increased COPD symptoms and accelerate how quickly your disease gets worse. When you are struggling to manage a chronic disease like COPD, it's important to make every meal count by choosing foods that are wholesome and nutrient-dense. Eating healthy meals full of lots of fruits, veggies, whole grains, and healthy fats is key for maintaining a healthy weight and keeping your body strong. You should also know that that what's not in certain foods is sometimes just as important as what is. Unhealthy foods with empty calories don't do you any good, and in the worst cases can contribute to weight gain, heart disease, and other health problems. That's why you should avoid processed foods and anything packed with sugar, simple carbs, and unhealthy fats. Even among foods considered “healthy,” some are better than others at supplying your body with the nutrients it needs. There are many fruits, veggies, meats, and dairy products that are particularly rich in important vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, and other things your body needs to stay healthy with COPD. It's much easier to make healthy decisions when you know what's good for you and have a lot of options to choose from. That's why we're providing you with the following list of 21 healthy foods for COPD to help you get started. While you don't have to get every single item on this list, you should still eat a varied diet of healthy foods from different fruit, vegetable, dairy, and grain categories. This list will introduce you to the nutrient content and health benefits of a wide variety of foods so you can better understand how to meet all your nutritional needs. How the Food You Eat Affects Your COPD Before we get to the list, there are a few special factors you should take into consideration when planning a healthy diet for COPD. Certain foods, large meals, and weight gain can actually make your symptoms worse, so you have to pay extra special attention to what you eat. First of all, people with COPD should avoid eating foods that are known to cause inflammation. That's because inflammation puts strain on your body and takes energy away from your lungs, where it's most needed. Foods that can cause inflammation include high-sugar foods like soda and sweets as well as processed meats like sausage. Besides being inflammatory, these foods are hard on your body and don't contain the nutrients your body needs to effectively manage your COPD. Instead, you should eat healthy produce like leafy greens and fruits and veggies with lots of vitamin C and vitamin A. This helps your body get the nutrients it needs to prevent and manage inflammation and can improve how well your lungs function. Manage Weight Gain and Weight Loss Maintaining a healthy weight is also a top health priority if you have COPD. Both being underweight or being overweight can hurt your lung function and make it more difficult to breathe. If you are underweight, you're likely to have worsened symptoms like weakness, fatigue, and shortness of breath. Weight loss and malnutrition can also weaken your immune system, break down your muscles, and increase your chances for infection, exacerbations, and death. Excess weight is particularly dangerous for people with COPD, because it can quickly start a downward spiral of physical decline. Being overweight makes it more difficult to stay active, puts extra weight and strain on your chest that makes it difficult to breathe, and also increases the amount of oxygen your body needs to function. Pay Attention to Antioxidants Research shows that people who have COPD experienced increased oxidative stress in their lungs and elsewhere in their bodies. This means that they have an excess of inflammatory compounds, called oxidants, that can cause irritation, tissue damage, and other complications. Every person's body produces antioxidants, which are molecules that neutralize oxidants and prevent them from doing harm. Most healthy people are able to produce enough anti-oxidants to keep the oxidants in check, but people with COPD often don't. Research shows that people with COPD have an excess amount of oxidants that throws off their body's delicate oxidant/antioxidant balance. When this happens and the balance tips in favor of oxidants, it causes oxidative stress. That's why some doctors recommend that people with COPD counteract their elevated oxidant levels by increasing their dietary antioxidant intake. There are many fruits, vegetables, and other foods that are rich in antioxidants, and it's thought that eating more of these foods can help your body restore a proper oxidant/antioxidant balance. Some of the most common antioxidants include vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, selenium, and manganese, which are abundant in a variety of fruits and vegetables. However, research on antioxidants in foods is still ongoing, and researchers don't yet know if eating antioxidant-rich foods is a reliable way to combat oxidative stress. Eat Fewer Carbohydrates If you have COPD, you should avoid simple carbohydrates at all costs. Not only are simple carbs empty calories, but having too many carbohydrates in your diet can actually make your COPD symptoms worse. To understand how carbohydrates affect COPD, you have to first understand how your lungs process carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that is made from all kinds of metabolic processes in your body, including when you digest food. When foods are broken down, the carbon waste products go into your blood and are carried to your lungs. When you breathe, the carbon waste is expelled from your body via carbon dioxide in your breath when you exhale. Carbohydrates, in particular, tend to produce a lot of carbon waste compared to other nutrients, like fat and protein. This means that carbs increase the burden on your lungs to expel the carbon dioxide waste. which can lead to increased COPD symptoms like breathlessness and wheezing. This is why most doctors recommend that people with COPD eat a diet that's high in fats and low in carbohydrates. This reduces strain on the lungs, reduce COPD symptoms, and make it easier to breathe and exercise. Eat Small Meals Doctors often recommend that people with COPD forego traditional mealtimes and instead eat 4-5 smaller meals spaced throughout the day. That's because, when you eat larger meals, it can put pressure on your lungs and diaphragm and make it more difficult to breathe. Smaller meals are easier to digest and are less likely to cause bloating, indigestion, and breathing discomfort. It also helps you control your portion sizes and eat a wide variety of healthy foods every day. Eat Nutritious, High-Calorie Foods Many people with COPD have to eat extra calories every day to make up for the extra energy that their respiratory muscles use to breathe. If your doctor puts you on a high-calorie diet, it's important to fill in those extra calories with healthy, nutrient-packed foods. Many of the highest-calorie foods are also the least nutritious; think of ice cream, soda, potato chips, and other processed snacks, for example. Instead of eating junk foods with empty calories, choose nutrient-dense, high-calorie foods like nuts and dairy. That way you can get enough calories and maintain a healthy weight while also limiting the amount of salt, sugar, and simple carbs in your diet. A Final Consideration: Talk to Your Doctor Depending on your unique physiology and the severity of your disease, you might have special dietary needs and restrictions. That's why, as one final consideration before we get to the list of healthy foods you should eat for COPD, we want to emphasize the importance of talking to you doctor about diet and nutrition. Your regular doctor or a dietitian can often give you valuable, individualized advice that you can't get anywhere else. They can also help you put together a personalized nutrition plan to help set you on the right track. As long as you don't have special dietary restrictions, you can use all the foods on this list to make a wide variety of healthy meals. So, without further delay, here's 21 healthy foods you can eat as part of a healthy diet for COPD. 21 Healthy Foods You Can Eat to Stay Healthy with COPD Foods Packed with Healthy Carbohydrates Research shows that, when you have COPD, eating too many carbohydrates increases the strain on your respiratory system and makes it more difficult to breathe. While a certain amount of carbohydrates are necessary for a balanced diet, you should eat them in moderation and choose whole foods packed with complex carbohydrates like whole grains and wheat pastas. Researchers recommend that people with COPD get about 25% of their calories from carbohydrates. Ancient Grains (Including Quinoa, Barley, and Buckwheat) Quinoa, buckwheat, and barley, are among a group of whole grains often known as “ancient grains.” Ancient grains are different from modern grains in the sense that they have changed very little over the past several hundreds of years. Ancient whole-grains are especially rich in fiber, protein, and vitamins, and also tend to be more calorie-dense than modern whole grains. For example, one cup of spelt has about 7.5 grams of fiber and 10.7 grams of protein, while a cup of brown rice only has about 3.5 grams of fiber and 5 grams of protein. Quinoa, black rice, and other ancient grains are easy to prepare and great for digestion. They also contain high amounts of magnesium, which is extremely important for lung function and may even help prevent COPD exacerbations. What's more, quinoa and buckwheat are naturally gluten-free, which makes them a great option for people with Celiac disease or other gluten intolerances. If you're looking to add healthy carbohydrates to your diet, the ancient grains are a great place to start. Here are some examples of healthy ancient grains: - Black BarleyBlack Rice Whole-Grain Breads and Pastas Whole grains like wheat breads and wheat pastas are an important part of any healthy diet, but they can be particularly important for people with COPD. A diet rich in whole grain foods can reduce inflammation, improve digestion, help you maintain a healthy weight, and even reduce your risk of heart disease and diabetes. Breads, rolls, crackers, tortillas, and pastas can all be healthy sources of carbohydrates when eaten in moderation. However, you should always opt for nutritious, whole-grain versions of these foods instead of the less-healthy, processed white grains. White breads and pastas have been stripped of much of their nutritional value and are full of simple carbohydrates that can raise your blood sugar and leave you feeling less satisfied after meals. Whole-grain carbohydrates, on the other hand, fill you up and provide energy for much longer because they take more time to digest. Like other whole grains, oats are a great source of healthy carbohydrates and fiber for people with COPD. A diet that includes regular helpings of oats can reduce your risk for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and type 2 diabetes. One of the best things about oats is their high amounts of soluble fiber, which is known to lower cholesterol and prevent heart disease. It also contains a lot of short-chain fatty acids, which improve digestion and are known to have potent anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties. Foods Packed with Healthy Fats Healthy fats are perhaps the most important nutrients you should seek out if you have COPD. Most doctors recommend eating a low-carb, high-fat diet because it can improve COPD symptoms and reduce the amount of strain that eating puts on your respiratory system. A high-fat diet allows your body to get the extra sustenance it needs to breathe without upsetting your nutrient balance. However, it's till important to watch your fat intake so it doesn't become excessive, especially if you are at risk for heart disease. Most doctors recommend that people with COPD get about 55% of their calories from fat. While it's important to eat a lot of healthy fats when you have COPD, it's just as important to choose the right kinds. You should try to use unsaturated fats, like vegetable oils, which are considered much healthier than saturated animal fats like butter and lard. Plant-based fats like olive oil and vegetable oil have been associated with a variety of health benefits, including lowered cholesterol and a reduced risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes. When cooking on the stove or adding any fats to your meals, try to use plant-based, unsaturated fats as much as possible. But how do you tell saturated and unsaturated fats apart? A good rule of thumb is that unsaturated fats (like vegetable oils) are liquid at room temperature, while saturated fats (like butter) are not. Olive oil, in particular, tastes great on meats, breads, in marinades, and in dressings. Try mixing olive oil with your favorite vinegar and spices to make a delicious homemade salad dressing that's full of healthy, unsaturated fat. Here are some examples of healthy vegetable oils: - Olive Oil - Canola Oil - Peanut Oil - Soybean Oil - Sunflower Oil - Safflower Oil - (Avoid coconut oil and palm oil, because they contain a lot of saturated fat.) Cold Water Fish Cold water fish are a fantastic source of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3's are a particularly healthy type of fat which is known to improve lung function, prevent heart disease, and reduce your risk for infection and inflammation. Salmon, tuna, trout, cod, and anchovies are just a few examples of cold water fish that are high in omega-3. When picking out fresh fish at the store, you should opt for wild-caught varieties, which tend to be cleaner and higher in omega-3's. Farm-raised fish are often fattier, less nutritious, and sometimes grown in dirty environments. However, one thing you should watch out for when adding extra fish in your diet is eating too much mercury. Fish like tuna, mackerel, and salmon are known for having higher levels of mercury, and it's important to follow US guidelines and only eat high-mercury fish in moderation. Here are some examples of healthy cold water fish: - Atlantic Mackerel - Mahi Mahi Nuts are high in calories, but they are also chock full of healthy protein and unsaturated fats. Nuts also tend to be high in fiber, vitamin E, and plant sterols, which can reduce blood cholesterol levels. Nuts are known for containing heart-healthy nutrients that can help protect your arteries and reduce your risk for heart disease. This makes them a great option for people with COPD who are at a higher risk for cardiovascular complications. Nuts are also a great choice if you are underweight or want to prevent COPD-related weight and muscle loss. They are nutritious and delicious to eat raw and take little or no preparation, but they still contain enough calories and protein to help you stay strong and maintain a healthy BMI. Nuts are perfect for satisfying hunger in-between meals and they're exceptionally easy to pack up and take with you for an extra snack when you leave the house. They're also a great addition to meals; try adding some extra nuts to salads, rice, meat dishes, and baked goods for an extra dose of healthy fat and protein. Here are some examples of healthy nuts: - Brazil Nuts - Macadamia Nuts Foods Packed with Healthy Protein Lots of lean, healthy protein is important in any diet, but it should be a special priority for anyone with COPD. People who suffer from the disease often have difficulty getting enough protein, which can cause their bodies to break down their own muscles and become weak. Doctors recommend choosing lean sources of protein like fish, eggs, and dairy instead of red and processed meats like bacon and ground beef. Most people need about 1.5 grams of protein for every 2.2 pounds of body weight, and doctors recommend that people with COPD get about 20% of their calories from protein. Beans and Legumes Beans and legumes are great sources of protein because they are lean, nutritious, and absolutely packed with fiber. They are also a good source of complex carbohydrates and contain a lot of zinc, which research shows may improve COPD symptoms and increase levels of beneficial antioxidants. Beans and legumes are also one of the most inexpensive sources of healthy protein, especially if you buy dried beans and cook them yourself. However, canned varieties are also notoriously cheap and they're a great choice if you need to conserve time and energy. A single ½ cup serving of beans contains about 8 grams of protein, 8 grams of fiber, and at least 300 milligrams of potassium. Beans make a hearty and flavorful addition to just about any meal, and they're especially delicious in rice dishes, soups, and salads. Here are some examples of healthy legumes: - Red, green, and brown lentils - Kidney beans - Split Peas Chicken and Other Lean Meats Chicken is lean, inexpensive, and one of the best healthy sources of protein. Chicken is a great daily staple because it's nutritious, extremely versatile, and relatively easy to prepare. To keep your chicken lean and healthy, choose white meat instead of dark meat and remove the skin, which is the fattiest part. It's also best to cook your chicken by grilling it or baking it in the oven, that way you can avoid adding extra fats as you have to when preparing it by pan-frying or deep-frying. Try eating grilled or baked chicken along with rice, pastas, soups, and veggies. There are endless ways to prepare and flavor chicken, so get creative and try different dishes so you never get tired of this great protein source. Here are some examples of lean meats: - Chicken & Turkey: white meat, no skin - Pork: tenderloin, center loin - Beef: flank steak, rump roast, sirloin tip, top loin, extra lean ground beef - Lamb: leg roast, tenderloin shank, chops - Wild Game: rabbit, venison, duck, bison, elk, pheasant Nut butters like peanut butter and almond butter are full of healthy fat and protein. Nut butters are also calorie-dense and are a great, healthy way to fulfill your daily requirements if your doctor has you on a high calorie diet. Peanut and almond butters are perfect for people with COPD who have limited energy and mobility. Nut butters are pre-made, easy to prepare, easy to chew, and also wonderfully nutritious. Tofu isn't just for vegetarians and Asian dishes; it's a great source of protein and a versatile food that can be delicious in a wide variety of meals. One serving of tofu has ten grams of protein and more than ten percent of your daily magnesium. This makes tofu a great option for people with COPD, for whom getting enough protein and magnesium is particularly important. Magnesium might even help improve COPD symptoms by strengthening breathing muscles and preventing exacerbations. Tofu is a great alternative to other meats and proteins, and is relatively easy to prepare. It tastes great when seasoned with vinegar, soy, or citrus-based marinades, tossed in cornstarch, and then pan-seared on the stove. It's particularly important for people with COPD to get enough protein to keep their bodies strong and prevent their muscles from wasting. If you experience weakness, loss of muscle mass, or have difficulty getting enough protein in your everyday diet, you can make up the difference with protein powder. You can add protein powders to milk, yogurt, smoothies, and other liquids as an easy way to supplement your daily protein intake. You can even get flavored varieties, like chocolate and french vanilla, that can significantly improve their taste and make them more palatable. Nutrient-Dense Fruits and Veggies All balanced diets should include hearty helpings of fruits and veggies every day. They're rich in fiber, antioxidants, and a wide variety of other essential vitamins and nutrients. Both fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables have similar nutrient levels, so there's no reason (besides taste) to avoid buying frozen produce. Frozen fruits and veggies tend to be cheaper, they don't go bad nearly as quickly as fresh produce does, and you'll hardly be able to tell the difference when you add them to soups, sauces, and smoothies. Dark, Leafy Greens Dark green leafy vegetables are packed with antioxidants, carotenoids, and other nutrients that are great for your lungs and overall health. Adults with COPD should eat at least 1.5 to 2 cups of dark, leafy, green veggies every week as part of a healthy, balanced diet. Dark, leafy greens are also rich in magnesium, which is important for keeping your muscles strong. Research also shows that magnesium is important for your lungs and breathing muscles, which makes magnesium-rich foods a great choice for people with COPD. Examples of dark, leafy greens include: spinach, leaf lettuce, romaine, kale, swiss chard, and collard greens. In many cases, cooking leafy greens makes them easier to digest and allows your body to absorb even more of their beneficial nutrients. A diet rich in dark leafy greens can also reduce your risk for certain breast, skin, colorectal, and lung cancers. That's mainly due to their high levels of antioxidants, fiber, and carotenoids, which are known for their anti-cancer properties. Here are some examples of healthy dark leafy greens: - Collard Greens - Turnip Greens Cruciferous veggies include many dark, leafy greens, as well as broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, radishes, turnips, and watercress. These cruciferous vegetables are full of a variety of vitamins and nutrients that are known for improving lung health and preventing cancer. Cruciferous veggies contain a key group of nutrients called glucosinolates, which researchers believe might have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and even cancer-inhibiting effects. They are also high in folate, carotenoids, and vitamins C, E, and K. According to research done by the CDC, cruciferous vegetables are particularly packed with nutrients compared to other fruits and vegetables. In fact, watercress topped their list as the most nutrient-dense of all the fruits and veggies you can eat. Here are some examples of healthy cruciferous veggies: - Bok Choy - Brussels Sprouts Oranges, Lemons, and Limes Citrus fruits like lemons, limes, and oranges are great for your lungs because they have lots of vitamin C and vitamin B6. Vitamin C is a potent antioxidant and might help reduce respiratory symptoms like breathlessness and wheezing. Vitamin C may also act as a bronchodilator and make it easier for air to flow through your lungs and airways. Just 100 grams of oranges or lemons (which equals about one small orange or one and a half lemons) contains a whopping 53 milligrams of vitamin C; that's 88 percent of the daily recommended value! Both oranges and clementines are easy to peel and delicious on their own, or you can add them to yogurt, homemade smoothies, or fruit salads. Lemons and limes are great for cooking and are a delicious addition to marinades, soups, sauces, and dressings. Apples are a delicious, nutritious fruit that is particularly rich in fiber, flavanoids, and B-complex vitamins. They are also a great source of the antioxidants vitamin C and vitamin K, which may increase your resistance to infections and inflammation. Remember to eat whole, fresh apples, which contain lots of fiber and are relatively low in sugar compared to apple juices and concentrates. You shouldn't peel your apples, either; the majority of an apple's healthy nutrients are contained in the skin, so make sure you eat the peel as well as its sweet, crunchy flesh. Carrots are a nutritious veggie full of lots of flavenoids, carotenoids, and inflammation-fighting antioxidants. They are also a great source of vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B6. Carrots are healthy for your brain and eyes, and might even play a role in lowering blood pressure. Some studies show that diets high in carotenoid-containing foods like carrots may protect against heart disease and stroke. The great thing about carrots is that they're cheap, plentiful, and incredibly easy to prepare, so they won't tax your time or energy. Baby carrots are also inexpensive, and require literally no prep work at all! Garlic and Onions Garlic and onions are aromatic vegetables known for their anti-inflammatory properties. They are also packed with vitamin C, potassium, copper, and vitamins B1 and B6. Research shows that a diet that includes healthy helpings of garlic and onions can help stave off bacteria and fungi, largely due to a compound they contain called allicin which can reduce the risk of illness and infection. Allacin's disease-fighting properties along with their great nutritional value makes garlic and onions a great choice for people who have COPD. Onions and garlic are a staple in the kitchen and add a delicious, complex flavor to almost any dish. Try adding them to salads, sauces, sandwiches, stir fries, and meat and potato dishes. However, it's important to know that having too much garlic and onion in your diet can actually cause indigestion, especially if you have GERD. Make sure to eat onions and garlic (or any food, for that matter) in moderation, and keep an eye out for any ill effects. Dried Fruits and Vegetables Fresh, pre-chopped fruits from the supermarket can be expensive, and prepping your fruits and veggies can sap your energy and make you feel breathless. That's why dried fruits and veggies are a great option for people with COPD who don't have the time or energy to prepare fresh produce. Most supermarkets carry packaged dried fruits, but you can usually get them much cheaper in bulk. However, some dried fruits and veggies contain tons of added sugar and salt, so make sure to check the label before you buy and opt for low-salt and low-sugar varieties. Dried fruits and vegetables do have slightly lowered levels of nutrients compared to fresh ones, but they still give you just as much fiber. While not the ideal source of fruits and veggies, dried varieties still give you most of their nutritional benefits without requiring you to do any extra prep work. Other Healthy Foods for COPD You might have heard that chocolate is good for you, and that can be true if you eat low-sugar, dark chocolates in moderation. Dark chocolate is high in iron, copper, manganese, and magnesium, as well as beneficial antioxidants. A 100-gram bar of 70% cocoa chocolate has nearly 60 percent of your daily magnesium, which is very important for preserving lung function and preventing exacerbations. They also contain flavanols, which might reduce blood pressure and improve overall circulation in the lungs, heart, and other organs. Milk is a great source of calcium, protein, Vitamin D, and is also a healthy source of fat. Doctors recommend that people with COPD drink 2% milk instead of whole or skim, that way they can get the nutrient benefits of milk along with a good amount of nutritious fat (but not too much). If you are on a high-calorie diet, drinking a few servings of milk throughout the day can be a great way to meet your daily calorie and nutrient requirements. If you get tired of drinking milk on its own, try adding it to fruit smoothies or substitute full-fat yogurt instead. It's important if you have COPD to drink about 2-3 liters of water per day to prevent dehydration. If you let yourself get dehydrated, it can dry out and thicken the mucus in your lungs and airways. Thickened mucus obstructs your airways and makes it difficult to breathe, worsening COPD symptoms like shortness of breath and wheezing. Staying hydrated helps keep your mucus thin and flowing and keeps your airways clear. Water is also an important safeguard against heat exhaustion and fatigue during the summer. Not drinking enough water can sap your energy and leave you feeling weak and tired, and if you're outside in the heat it can be dangerous. What NOT to Eat if You Have COPD Almost as important as knowing what foods you should eat when you have COPD is knowing what foods you should avoid. Here is a short list of problematic foods that you should cut out of your diet if you have COPD: Sugars and Soda Sugary foods and drinks are full of empty carbs and calories and should always be avoided. They cause spikes in blood sugar, reduce your energy levels, and contribute to unwanted weight gain. Simple sugars are especially bad for people with COPD, who should always limit their intake of carbohydrates, especially simple carbs like sugar. If eaten in excess, simple carbs can exacerbate COPD symptoms and make it more difficult to breathe. Too much salt can cause your body to retain excess water, causing bloating that can make it difficult and uncomfortable to breathe. Excess salt can also contribute to high blood pressure and heart disease, for which many people who have COPD have an elevated risk. Alcohol is almost never good for you, but it can be especially harmful for people with COPD. Not only is it toxic and full of empty calories, but it can also narrow your airways and make it difficult to breathe, especially at night when you go to sleep. Acidic Foods (If you suffer from acid reflux) Onions, garlic, peppers, tomatoes, lemons, and other acidic foods can contribute to acid reflux, which is a common condition among people with COPD. If you have Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD), you should try to avoid these foods completely or at least eat them in moderation, otherwise they can worsen your symptoms and make it more difficult to breathe. Sulfites are a common food additive used to preserve a variety of foods and drinks, including wine, beer, and potatoes. You should avoid having too many sulfites in your diet, because they can constrict your airways and are linked with worsened symptoms of COPD. Similar to sulfites, having too many nitrates in your diet can cause worsened COPD symptoms and exacerbations. They are commonly found in cured and processed foods such as hot dogs, bacon, ham, and deli meats, and you should limit your intake of these foods as much as possible. Making A Healthy Eating Lifestyle Now that you have a huge list of healthy foods and meals for COPD, all that's left is to actually put your knowledge into practice. Knowing what to eat is the first step, but making good nutrition a part of your daily life is the biggest challenge. Taking the time to make whole, nutritious meals is essential for a healthy diet, but it can be difficult when you suffer from the symptoms of COPD. Many people with COPD struggle with breathlessness, fatigue, and have trouble finding the energy to prepare food every day. However, you can significantly cut down the amount of time and effort you have to spend on your meals if you plan ahead and work smart. If you plan out your meals every week and make large batches, you'll reap the benefits of a healthy diet while spending less time and energy on shopping, prepping, and cooking.

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History of graphic design The English used in this article or section may not be easy for everybody to understand. (January 2012) Graphics (from Greek γραφικός) are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone. It includes everything that relates to creation of signs, charts, logos, graphs, drawings, symbols, geometric designs and so on. Graphic design is the art or profession of combining text and pictures in art, advertisements, publications, or websites. The aim of graphics is to brand, inform, and have a specific effect on its audience. History of graphics[change | change source] Hundreds of graphic designs of animals were made by primitive people in Chauvet cave, in the south of France, about 30,000 BC. Also, similar art was done in the Lascaux cave, France, about 14,000 BC. The art of primitive hunters is found in the rocks of Bhimbetka in India, drawn earlier than 7000 BC. Aboriginal rock art in Kakadu National Park of Australia, show that graphics has a long history in many parts of the world. This history (with writing, which emerged in 3000–4000 BC) are the foundation of graphic art. Rock and cave art[change | change source] Writing[change | change source] The Lantingji Xu, Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion is the most famous work of Chinese calligrapher Wang Xizhi, created in the year 353. The Papyrus of Ani is a version of the Book of the Dead for the Scribe Ani. This small scene is about not letting Ani's heart create opposition against him in God's domain. Calligraphy & graphics in books[change | change source] Religious books have used graphics extensively. Among these books are Bibles that were created in the monasteries in Ireland, Scotland, and England. Spiralling and interlocking patterns, often including small figures, were part of the ancient graphic tradition of the British Isles. From the 6th century onwards these were applied to the decoration of illuminated gospels. A page from the Lindisfarne Bible, 7th or 8th century A graphic decoration from the Lichfield gospel, 8th century A graphic decoration in the Book of Kells, 6th–9th century In this German document the calligraphy suggests a message of importance. The art of calligraphy in China goes back to 2000 BC. Graphics in the Quran[change | change source] In Islamic countries the graphic designs can be found in their holy book, the Quran. The Quran was first wriiten an angled style called Kufi. This appeared in the 8th century, and reached its peak in the 10th century. Later on decoration of margin, page and other graphic techniques were added to beautify the book. In the 12th century the Naskh script was invented: it used curves instead of angled lines. Other styles were added later on. Graphics and miniatures[change | change source] This miniature painting of Mary and the baby Jesus is in the Parc Abbey Bible of the 12th century. In this Iranian miniature the beautiful mix of text and design have been used to communicate the message of the story in a clear way. This 18th-century miniature shows the influence of 16th century Iranian graphic designers of the Indian court. Graphic compositions in Asia[change | change source] 13th C. work of the Chinese painter Ma Lin. The person at the back, of greater importance, is larger. The trees in the form of an X adds to his significance. A Chinese wall painting in the tomb of Li Xian, 7th century. The parallel lines of soldiers' boots and hats are connected by the lines of their rifles. This Vietnamese wood print of the village of Dong Ho creates an aesthetically pleasing graphic design. Decorative graphic design in pottery[change | change source] From ancient times graphic design has been used for decoration of pottery and ceramics. In the period 6500–5500 BC, the farming society of Halaf in northern Mesopotamia and Syria produced pottery that is among the finest ever made in the Near East. Birth of modern graphic design[change | change source] William Morris had an influence on modern graphics. In the second half of 19th century his Kelmscott Press produced many graphic designs, and created a collector market for this kind of art. In Oxford he was associated with artists like Burne-Jones, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. They formed the Pre-Raphaelites group, whose ideas influenced modern graphic design considerably. Mondrian's minimalism revolution[change | change source] The Dutch painter Piet Mondrian in the years 1920–21 courageously introduced the style of minimalism in painting. His simple geometric compositions, together with the use of only three basic colors, blue, yellow, and red, in combination with black and white created a new venue for the graphic designers. He demonstrated that with simple relocation of these colors, and experimenting with the proportionality of various square surfaces, one can achieve extremely different ambiances and various feelings. For the graphic designers who intend to convey a message with a minimum interference from the extraneous elements his experiment in minimalism was a valuable gift. Communication with pictures[change | change source] This is the heraldic sign of the Bourbons of Spain. Heraldic signs were created under strict rules and traditions. Logos and trademarks[change | change source] A trademark, identified by the symbols ™ and ®, or mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, company or other entity to identify its products or services and to distinguish them from those of other producers. A trademark is a type of intellectual property, and typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. Google logo was created by Ruth Kedar. The design is simple. "The colors evoke memories of child play... The texture and shading of each letter [lifts] it from the page, giving it... weight and lightness". Signs of culture and peace[change | change source] This is the UNESCO flag. Using minimalist principles, this flag uses a simplified Greek design. This suggests education, science and culture. In this flag of Zuid-Holland the color composition and a minimalist approach have created a pleasing impact. Information signs: Isotype and the Viennese method[change | change source] In 1921, Otto Neurath, an Austrian social scientist, introduced graphic design to help the understanding of social and economical data. In 1925, the Museum of Economy and Society used such graphics for the public. This style of presentation at the time was called the Viennese method, but now it is known as Isotype charts. Typical Isotype chart showing social statistics. Pages from the book Basic by Isotype by Otto Neurath, 1937. The book showed graphics for Basic English words. Dynamic designs, and computer animation[change | change source] This animation was created from photos taken by Eadweard Muybridge in 1887. Archimedes' screw: computer graphics helps deelop images from simple line drawings to three-dimensional reconstructions of data. A cube is seen from various angles. This can be useful in study of objects. Placards and posters[change | change source] Placards and posters existed from ancient times. The Greek axons and the Roman Albums, with their decorative designs and announcements, were quite similar to today's posters. In ancient Greece the names of athletes and games schedules were written on columns that were slowly turning on an axis. Romans used whitewashed walls in their markets in which sellers, money lenders, and slave traders wrote their announcements and advertised for their products, and to attract the attention of customers they added an attractive design. With the invention of printing, in 1440, and particularly the development of the lithographic process, invented by a Czech named Alois Senefelder in 1798 in Austria, creation of posters became feasible. Although handmade posters existed before, they were mainly used for government announcements. William Caxton, who in 1477 started a printing company in England, produced the first printed poster. Art nouveau posters and the impact of graphics on painting[change | change source] Posters after World War II[change | change source] After the Second World War, with the emergence of new color printing technology and particularly appearance of computers, the art of posters underwent a new revolutionary phase. People can create color posters on their laptop computers and create color prints at a very low cost. Unfortunately, the high cost of sophisticated printing processes can only be afforded mostly by government entities and large corporations. With the emergence of the internet, the role of posters in conveying information has greatly diminished. However, some artists still use chromolithography in order to create works of art in the form of print. In this regard the difference between painting and print has been narrowed considerably. This political poster by Tiocfaidh Ár Lá, about Ulster, is a low-cost, effective poster with only a few basic ink colors. Graphic design in modern life[change | change source] Today graphic design has penetrated into all aspects of modern life. In particular modern architecture has been influenced by graphics. References[change | change source] - A history of graphic design - see: Oxford Dictionary , Merriam Webster Dictionary Graphic design - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary, and Random House Dictionary Graphic_design | Define Graphic_design at Dictionary.com - Chauvet, Jean-Marie; Eliette Brunel Deschamps, Christian Hillaire (1996). Dawn of Art: The Chauvet Cave. Paul G. Bahn (Foreword), Jean Clottes (Epilogue). New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3232-6 - The Cave of Lascaux, by Mario Ruspoli, Harry N. Abrams 1987. ISBN 978-0-8109-1267-0 - "Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka". World Heritage Site. Retrieved 2007-02-15. CS1 maint: discouraged parameter (link) - Encyclopædia Britannica : Aboriginal Rock Art, Ubirr Art Site, Kakadu National Park, Australia Kakadu National Park (national park, Northern Territory, Australia) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia - Richard Kurt Kraus 1991. Brushes with power. Berkeley: University of California Press. 27 - See: 1. R.O. Faulkner 1985. The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead (revised ed C.A.R. Andrews) British Museum, London. 2. R.B. Parkinson and S.Quirke 1995. Papyrus, Egyptian bookshelf. British Museum, London. 3. S. Quirke and A.J. Spencer1992. The British Museum Book of Anc. The British Museum Press. - 1. A History of Calligraphy، by Gaur, Albertine, and Guar, Cross River Press, 1994, ISBN 978-1-55859-870-6. 2. Ludwig Fort: Deutsches Wechselbuch, oder praktischer Unterricht über die Wechselbriefe. Haendel, Leipzig 1855. 3. Ernst Ludwig Jäger: Die ältesten Banken und der Ursprung des Wechsels. 1879 - See: /11/calligraphie - Drogin, Marc 1980. Medieval calligraphy: its history and technique. New York: Dover. - Miner, Dorothy E. et al 1972. 2000 years of calligraphy, an exhibition organized by the Baltimore Museum of Art. New Jersey: Rowman & Littlefield. - 1. Bomford, David, et al. Italian Painting before 1400. Exhibition catalogue. London: National Gallery Publications, 1989. 2. Robert S. Nelson 1981. A Thirteenth-Century Byzantine Miniature in the Vatican Library. Gesta, 20, #1. - 1. Norah M. Titley 1984. Persian Miniature Painting and its influence on the art of Turkey and India. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-76484-2. Arberry, A.J., Minovi M., and Blochet E. 1959. The Chester Beatty Library: a catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts and Miniatures. - 1. Beach, Milo Cleveland 1992. Mughal and Rajput Painting. In The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge, 1992. 2. Losty, Jeremiah P. The Art of the Book in India: London, 1982. - 1. Harold G. Henderson, Louis V. Ledoux, 1984. Sharaku's Japanese Theatre Prints: an illustrated guide to his complete work. Dover, New York. - 1. Richard Barnhart 2002. Three thousand years of Chinese painting. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09447-3 2. Anne Farrer 2007. The British Museum Book of Chinese Art,British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-2446-9 - Art in China (Oxford History of Art), by Craig Clunas, Oxford University Press (10 April 1997), ISBN 978-0-19-284244-2 - Dong Ho Folk Woodcuts: A Large Portfolio, 3 Woodcut Prints. Vietnamese Title: Tran Dan Gian Viet Nam, by Dong Ho Village, North Vietnam, Dong Ho n.d.ca. 1970, Vietnam. Asian Art. History, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Calligraphy, Publisher: MobileReference, ISBN 978-1-60501-187-5 - Campbell, Stuart. "The Halaf Period in Iraq: Old Sites and New." Biblical Archaeologist 55 (1992), pp. 182–87. Hijjara, Ismail. The Halaf Period in Northern Mesopotamia. London: Nabu Publications, 1997 - See: Encarta Archived 2009-11-01 at WebCite, and Larousse Archived 2009-11-01 at WebCite - See: Piet Modrian, Colour, Structure and Symbolism: An Essay, by Hans Locher CH-3006 Bern, Switzerland, Verlag Gachnang & Springer, Switzerland. 1994. 3906127443, Piet Mondrian, life and work, by Michel Seuphor, Harry N. Abrams (1955), ASIN: B0007EHNVI. Complete Mondrian, by Marty Bax, Lund Humphries Publishers (January 2002), ISBN 978-0-85331-803-3. Mondrian, The Transatlantic Paintings, Harry Cooper and Ron Spronk, ISBN 978-0-300-08928-8. Piet Mondrian: 1872-1944, by Yve-Alain Bois, Angelica Zander Rudenstine, Joop Joosten, Hans Janssen, Bulfinch Press; 1st edition (May 1995), ISBN 978-0-8212-2164-8 - "Encarta". Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2009-01-23. - See: the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2006. - There is no proof as to who designed it. Master penman Louis Madarasz (1859–1910) said the work was his. The writing style is similar to his. In An Elegant Hand by William E Henning, it states that Frank Mason Robinson, the bookkeeper of the firm, invented the name Coca-Cola, and said it should be written in Spencerian script. In a 1914 court case, Robinson testified that he was "practically the originator" and that "some engraver by the name of Frank Ridge was brought into it". - Minority Report: The Cola clash of civilisations, by Jerome Taylor, The Independent, Thursday, 10 July 2008 - Google Logo Design and History, Google Logo Design and History Archived 2006-10-28 at the Wayback Machine Read the Kedar interview here: The Brains Behind Google's Primary Logo | Underwire | Wired.com - Coubertin. The Olympic Flag - The official website of the BEIJING 2008 Olympic Games Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine - 4. Armorial bearings, flags, emblems and names of international organisations | Intellectual Property Office of New Zealand - "South Holland (Zuid-Holland, province in The Netherlands), flag". Archived from the original on 2008-10-09. Retrieved 2009-01-24. - Stroom Den Haag - "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2009-01-24.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - See: Isaac Victor Kerlow 2000. The Art of 3-D : Computer animation and imaging, 2nd ed, Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-36004-9 - "Encarta". Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2009-01-25. - In the 19th and 20th century artists like Jules Chéret, Daumier, Manet, Picasso, Ben Shahn, Norman Rockwell, Alexandre Steinlen, Alphonse Mucha, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec made compelling posters, advertising products, entertainment, and restaurants. Matt Morgan's circus advertisements (c. 1890) started the American poster, and this was followed by Edward Penfield, Will H. Bradley, Maxfield Parrish, Howard Chandler Christie, James Montgomery Flagg, Charles Dana Gibson, and Harrison Fisher. - See: M. Rickards 1971. The rise and fall of the poster; J. Barnicoat 1972. A concise history of posters: 1870–1970; D. Ades 1984. The twentieth century poster; J. Barnicoat 1985. Posters: a concise history. - See: Calloway, Stephen. 1998. Aubrey Beardsley. New York, N.Y.: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-4009-3. - See: Anna Dvorak. “Illustrations for books and periodicals.” in Alphonse Mucha: The Complete Graphic Works. Ed. Anne Bridges. NY: Harmony, 1980. - see: Pamela H. Simpson, Reviewed work(s): The Studios of Frances and Margaret Macdonald by Janice Helland, Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring–Summer, 1998), pp. 44–45. Charles Rennie Mackintosh, by: Pamela Robertson, Pavilion Books, 1997, ISBN 978-1-85793-912-5. - see: GUSTAV KLIMT: Art Nouveau Visionary, By Eva di Stefano, Sterling, 2008, ISBN 978-1-4027-5920-8 - See: Gustav Klimt: 1862-1918, by Gilles Neret, Taschen (August 1, 1999), ISBN 978-3-8228-5980-3 - See: A History of Modern Design: Graphics and Products Since the Industrial Revolution, by David Raizman, Laurence King Publishing (February 9, 2004), ISBN 978-1-85669-348-6

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Volume 2: No. 4, October 2005 A Diabetes Prevention Assessment Tool for American Indians Christopher A. Taylor, PhD, RD, Kathryn S. Keim, PhD, RD, Dale R. Fuqua, PhD, Christine A. Johnson, PhD Suggested citation for this article: Taylor CA, Keim KS, Fuqua DR, Johnson CA. A diabetes prevention assessment tool for American Indians. Prev Chronic Dis [serial online] 2005 Oct [date cited]. Available from: URL: American Indians have a disproportionately higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Few data are available about the perceptions of diabetes among American Indians, and no culturally appropriate tools are available for assessment of perceptions related to health A diabetes prevention assessment tool was developed to measure perceptions of health and diabetes among American Indians. Predominant themes from qualitative interviews were used to develop the items for the tool. Data were collected at two autumn powwows, or intertribal dances, in Oklahoma. Reliability testing was performed using 185 surveys from American Indian adults not living on reservations. Principal axis factor analysis was performed to identify possible relationships among the items. Five themes, or factors, were found to categorize the perceptions of health: 1) lifestyles, 2) barriers to healthy lifestyles, 3) personal responsibility, 4) self-care behaviors, and 5) culturally defined well-being. Two factors classified the perceptions of diabetes: 1) a cognitive factor, related to personal experience, and 2) an affective factor, related to emotions. Our diabetes assessment tool identified factors that should be considered when developing health promotion and diabetes prevention programs for American Indians. A valid assessment tool for the American Indian population could provide valuable, formative data that would increase understanding of the culturally related obstacles to health promotion and diabetes prevention. Back to top Diabetes has become one of the most prevalent chronic diseases in the United States; approximately 8.2% of the population has been diagnosed with the disease (1). Minority populations, especially American Indians, have a disproportionately higher rate of diabetes (2-5). Indian Health Service (IHS) data for the Oklahoma area (Oklahoma, Kansas, and a portion of Texas) — the IHS area with the most American Indians — have shown that the age-adjusted rate for diabetes is approximately 60 per 1000 individuals (4), indicating that American Indians are 2.43 times more likely to have diabetes than the general population (6). Despite the clear impact of culture on health beliefs and lifestyle behaviors (7-10), limited data are available on the culturally related perceptions of health and diabetes among American Indians. Various researchers have studied the American Indian perceptions of health and diabetes through the lens of Western medicine (8-13). Their reports indicate that American Indian views of health and diabetes differ considerably from the central dogma of Western medicine, which classifies health in terms of physiologic symptoms (10-12). In one study, researchers found that Diné (also known as Navajo) Indians placed little emphasis on the long-term effects of asthma, a chronic condition involving airway inflammation (10). Diné families who had children with asthma described asthma as a series of individual bouts of severe reactions requiring emergency medical attention (10). In other words, a child was thought to be cured of asthma if the child was not currently having reactions that required medical attention. Children often endured bouts of acute asthma with no medical treatment because families thought it would train the body to handle the condition. Similarly, our qualitative interviews of American Indian women (12) and men (C.A.T., unpublished data, 2002) in Oklahoma revealed that American Indians defined health by the presence or absence of physical symptoms of disease. In the absence of physical discomfort or limitations, they considered themselves to be healthy. Some researchers have reported finding a sense of hopelessness and resignation among American Indians living on reservations about the inevitability of developing diabetes (8,14-16). From 1981 through 1983, Lang interviewed Dakota Sioux Indians to research the impact of diabetes on American Indian culture (13). Themes of disease pervasiveness, concerns for quality of life, and feelings of inevitability were found. Interviews with Pima (14) and Seminole American Indians (15) showed that they, too, felt developing diabetes was inevitable. Overall, the feelings of inevitability are a barrier to health promotion and diabetes prevention, especially when the physical cues in the form of diabetes symptoms are absent (9,12). The impact of these cultural perceptions on health is important. In several studies, the differences between American Indian health perceptions and Western ideology were not addressed, so the health promotion and diabetes prevention efforts among American Indians were not extremely effective (8,10,14). Much of the research on health and diabetes perceptions among American Indians has been conducted in the reservation setting. Oklahoma does not have a reservation system and thus is a different research environment. A greater understanding of perceptions of health and diabetes among American Indians who do not live on reservations is paramount to the success of health promotion and diabetes prevention programs nationwide (7,17-20). Furthermore, the primary focus of existing tools for measuring diabetes perception is care of individuals who already have diabetes, not diabetes prevention. A culturally appropriate instrument that measures perceptions of health and diabetes would provide helpful data for defining the relationship between perceptions and behavior. Understanding the relationship is critical for the development of targeted health promotion and diabetes prevention programs (21). If the onset of diabetes could be prevented or delayed, the improvements in quality of life and health care costs would be considerable (22-25). Back to top Assessment tool development In a previous study, 79 American Indian women (12) and 20 American Indian men (C.A.T., unpublished data, 2002) were interviewed to identify cultural perceptions of health and diabetes. We used qualitative data from the interviews to create items, or statements, for our assessment tool, which increased its content validity because it included issues more germane to the respondents (26). Using dominant themes and text from the interviews, we created the Keeping the Balance Diabetes Assessment Tool, a four-part questionnaire measuring diabetes knowledge and perceptions of health, diabetes, and the social environment with a focus on diabetes prevention. We created an initial list of items, or statements, to address four major categories: 1) perceptions of health, 2) perceptions of diabetes, 3) knowledge about the etiology of diabetes, and 4) the role of social interactions in health maintenance. When creating the items for the questionnaire, we attempted to use the original wording of the respondents from the interviews (12) to increase content validity. Each item was a statement about health, diabetes, or the social environment and was measured using a 6-point Likert-type scale (with 1 indicating strongly agree and 6 indicating strongly disagree). Experts with experience in questionnaire development, American Indian research, or American Indian clinical practice were recruited by personal invitation and through a research and an American Indian health care e-mail Listserv. Eleven experts responded to our request and volunteered to provide online feedback and rewording suggestions so that the items would accurately measure a single concept. The panel of experts reviewed the items for cultural appropriateness, clarity, conciseness, and the ability to measure the intended concept. We used the panel's comments to create the final version of the instrument. Sample and data collection Men and women aged 18 to 65 years who were at least 25% American Indian according to a self-report were eligible to participate. Individuals were not excluded if they had diabetes or other chronic diseases. Key informants at two tribal health clinics identified two powwows in northeast Oklahoma where we could use the assessment tool. After receiving invitations to the powwows, a research team attended them in September 2003 and collected data. At the first powwow, 81 volunteers completed the assessment tool; 116 volunteers completed the assessment tool at the second powwow. Two participants were excluded because they did not meet study criteria. Ten participants were excluded after providing incomplete responses or abnormally patterned responses (e.g., choosing all A's for every answer). Using SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill), data analysis was performed using 185 (94%) of the 197 completed questionnaires. The Oklahoma State University Institutional Review Board approved the study protocol. Each volunteer provided signed informed consent before participating. The self-administered questionnaire was presented to eligible volunteers and followed by a brief demographic questionnaire. To increase participation, volunteers who completed both questionnaires received $10. Items from two scales (31 health perceptions items and 21 diabetes perceptions items) were analyzed using principal axis factor analysis. Factor analysis is used to assess item correlations and identify common relationships among similar items, allowing the items to be categorized into various themes, or factors (27). The resulting factors are named based on the overall theme of their corresponding items. Data were excluded pairwise for items with missing or multiple responses. Data from the social interaction scale are not discussed in this article. The principal factor analysis for each scale involved a standardized approach, and each scale (health and diabetes) was analyzed independently. The correlation matrix, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measures of sampling adequacy, and Bartlett’s tests of sphericity were evaluated for the factorability of the correlation matrix (i.e., to determine whether the items could indeed be classified into a few categories) (27). KMO values greater than 0.6 indicated that the correlation matrix had sufficient structure to result in a factorable solution. A significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity indicated that the correlation matrix was significantly different from an identity matrix (a correlation matrix in which items correlate perfectly with themselves and not at all with other To clarify the factor pattern, a rotation analysis of the factors was performed. The eigenvalues (measures of variance) greater than 1 in conjunction with the scree plot (a plot of the eigenvalues and the factors) were assessed to determine the number of factors to use in the rotation analysis (27). The analysis was performed with an oblique rotation (direct oblimin, Δ = 0), which allows the factors to correlate. The correlations between the linear factors were evaluated and if little correlation resulted, the analysis was repeated using an orthogonal (varimax) rotation. Items accounting for at least 16% of the variance on a factor (with loadings greater than an absolute value of 0.4) were considered to load, or be sufficiently correlated with, a particular factor (27). All items loading on a factor were then used as the basis for naming the factor. Cronbach a was computed for all items loading on each factor. Values higher than an absolute value of 0.7 were considered to have acceptable internal consistency (28). Back to top At the two powwows, 197 volunteers completed the assessment tool. Data analysis was performed on 185 questionnaires. Approximately two thirds of the volunteers were female, with a mean age of 37 years and a mean of 69% American Indian ancestry. Of the 185 participants, 48 (26%) reported having had a previous diagnosis of diabetes. Factor analysis: health perceptions Evaluation of the correlation matrix indicated relationships among the items. The KMO (0.71) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (P <.001) indicated a factorable correlation matrix. The initial factors extracted from the 31 items measuring the health perceptions indicated a potential for extracting three, four, or five overall factors using the scree plot (Figure) and the eigenvalues (Table 1). We found that five factors best categorized the perceptions of health, which accounted for 33.1% of the total variance. An oblique rotation resulted in little correlation among the factors, so a varimax rotation was performed and interpreted. Scree plots with results from factor analyses of health and diabetes Items with factor loadings greater than or equal to an absolute value of 0.4 further clarified the factor's theme. The factor loadings for each of the five factors are presented in Table 2. The five items classified by the first factor (lifestyles) were related to health maintenance behaviors, whereas the second factor (barriers) comprised five obstacles to maintaining good health. Culturally related personal responsibility for health and wellness characterized the third factor (personal responsibility). The fourth factor was characterized by self-care behaviors and their association with health, and the fifth factor (cultural wellness) included items related to the association between health and mental and physical well-being. a internal consistency coefficients (Table 1) were modest for the five factors of health perceptions. Factor analysis: diabetes perceptions Analysis of the correlation matrix, KMO (0.79), and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (P <.001) for the 21 items related to diabetes perceptions suggested that the correlation matrix was factorable. Examination of the initial eigenvalues (Table 1) and the scree plot (Figure) suggested that two factors would best categorize the 21 items. A varimax rotation was performed because the oblique rotation resulted in weak correlations between the two factors. Two factors explained 32% of the variance of the diabetes perceptions. Factor loadings for both factors are provided in Table 2. Nine items related to knowledge of and personal experience with diabetes loaded on the first factor (cognitive). The second factor (affective) comprised eight items related to concerns about and fear of diabetes and its complications. One item, the perception of diabetes as a death sentence, loaded on both factors: cognitive (0.45) and affective (0.44). Because this item related to personal experience but also caused an emotional response, it was allowed to load on both factors. Cronbach a internal consistency coefficients (Table 1) were desirable for the two factors of diabetes perceptions. Back to top Understanding culturally related health factors is critical for health promotion and diabetes prevention efforts among minority populations (8,9,29,30). The paucity of data on health perceptions of American Indians who do not live on reservations prompted our previous interviews (12); our technique of using responses from interviews to create an assessment tool has also been used in research on health perceptions about type 2 diabetes among African Americans Of the factors identified for the health perceptions items, we discovered that two factors (lifestyle behaviors and self-care) involved the impact of behavior on health, a theme found in previous research studies (15,29). In our previous qualitative interviews, we found that participants believed that overall good health was related to a healthy lifestyle, even though they also felt that developing diabetes was inevitable (12). Responses to the lifestyle questions accounted for the greatest amount of variance (9.5%) in the health perceptions items in the assessment tool, indicating that respondents believed healthy lifestyle behaviors were essential for maintaining good health. In addition, the self-care factor had items related to the importance of taking an active role in health maintenance. Hatton (11) reported similar themes among urban American Indians, who believed that health maintenance was directly related to performing certain self-care tasks. In our study, the barriers factor comprised perceived difficulty in changing lifestyle behaviors and the perceived financial and time investments required for health maintenance, which conflict with the beliefs that self-care behaviors Another dominant theme from our previous interviews was that the respondents relied on physical symptoms as indicators of their health status (12). Participants believed that their behaviors did not need to change if they had no physical symptoms of illness. The personal responsibility factor and self-care factor in this study included similar items, such as those measuring the cues to change lifestyle behaviors and variables used to define personal health status. The perception that a person is healthy if the person does not have a disease (a culturally defined definition of wellness) likely affects health promotion and diabetes prevention efforts. Racial and ethnic minorities are a medically underserved population in the United States (9,36). The differences in health status between American Indians and the general U.S. population are becoming more pronounced as rates of various chronic diseases, including diabetes, begin reaching epidemic levels in American Indians (37). In some southwestern American Indian tribes, as many as 50% of adults older than age 35 years are affected (22). The high diabetes rate and its long-term complications (38-41) likely shape the cognitive and affective factors in the assessment tool items measuring diabetes perceptions. Strong feelings of hopelessness and fear (affective factors) related to the effects of diabetes were evident during our previous interviews (12) and in research with other minority groups (14-16,42). In fact, Arizona Pima Indians have developed a cultural defense mechanism now known as surrender, which stems from the perceived futility of diabetes prevention (14) and hinders the initiation of diabetes prevention behaviors. The items that loaded on the cognitive factor likely reflect diabetes knowledge obtained from personal experience. In another study, personal experiences of individual Dakota Sioux Indians collectively shaped an entire tribe’s cultural perceptions of health and diabetes (13). Experience has also shaped the attitudes of Mexican Americans about health and illness and has affected their social functioning and physical and mental health (42). Our previous interviews revealed that the personal experiences of American Indians with diabetes shaped their perceptions of diabetes prevention, treatment, and etiology (12). Even though they recognized the relationship between healthy lifestyles and good health, participants in our study believed that their lifestyle behaviors did not have to change until their diabetes resulted in perceivable signs and symptoms. Likewise, in another study, researchers found that African American women did not consider diabetes to be a serious disease and thought medication alone was the cure (43). These findings were similar to findings from our study; participants believed that diabetes treatment involved only medication if they had no diabetes Items measuring the susceptibility of American Indians to developing diabetes and the fear of diabetes and its long-term complications characterized the affective factor. In a similar study involving Mexican Americans, researchers found that women judged the severity of diabetes by the extent of resulting physiologic damage (42). Diabetes was a frightening disease because of the extensive damage it could cause. Likewise, American Indian women thought of diabetes in terms of its complications, such as kidney failure and blindness (12). African American women thought that a lack of physical symptoms indicated they no longer had diabetes (43), but concerns about diabetes were strongly linked to emotional factors, including fears about diabetes, denial, and concerns about insulin therapy and required lifestyle changes (44). Our study has several limitations. The sample was derived through nonprobability methods and may have decreased the generalizability of the findings, but these sampling methods are often needed to identify individuals from an at-risk population (11). The smaller sample size could account for the lower internal consistencies for some of the health factors and the loading of the “death sentence” item on the cognitive and affective diabetes factors. In addition, in future versions of the assessment tool, the wording of the items may need to be changed. As mentioned, the internal consistency coefficients for three of the health perceptions factors (Cronbach a = 0.50–0.55) were lower than desired, possibly because of the partialing of variance — and the factoring of residualized variance — inherent in the factor analysis method or the smaller sample size. Furthermore, the sample size may not have been large enough to account for the variance associated with the health and diabetes perceptions. Methodologically, complications arose as we tried to determine the number of factors to rotate for health perceptions. Despite the lower Cronbach a values, the five factors provided a sound theoretical explanation of health perceptions. Additional testing of the assessment tool in larger samples is needed to determine the of the items and the stability of the factor structure. Implications for the future Previous studies have identified several health-related beliefs that seem to be common among various tribes: 1) the perception that health is the responsibility of the individual, 2) the perception that health and disease are natural parts of life, and 3) the understanding that spirituality plays a role in health (29). However, identifying differences among tribes and the extent to which individuals subscribe to their tribe’s cultural beliefs are important when developing health promotion activities (9,29,30,45). This assessment tool could help clinical and public health professionals obtain data about health and diabetes perceptions among individuals or groups. The resulting data from this study could provide important information for health professionals who are attempting to create culturally appropriate health care counseling and health education programs, which should be customized for specific groups and designed according to the variables that influence the group’s behavior (7,46-48). As mentioned, we found similarities between our research and the findings from other studies, all of which demonstrate relationships among the factors associated with health and diabetes perceptions. Future research must expand the exploration of health and diabetes perceptions so that health professionals can design successful health promotion and diabetes prevention programs. Back to top Special thanks to the Central Oklahoma Tribal Association and the Standing Bear Foundation for invitations to their powwows. In addition, thank you to the volunteers who provided invaluable feedback about the items in our tool. The project was supported by Kappa Omicron Nu’s Omicron Nu Research Fellowship. Research was conducted in the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla. Back to top Corresponding Author: Christopher A. Taylor, PhD, RD, Medical Dietetics Division, The Ohio State University, 453 West 10th Ave, 306A Atwell Hall, Columbus, OH 43210-1234. Telephone: 614-688-7972. E-mail: email@example.com. Author Affiliations: Kathryn S. Keim, PhD, RD, Department of Clinical Nutrition, Rush University, Chicago, Ill; Dale R. Fuqua, PhD, School of Educational Studies, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla; Christine A. Johnson, PhD, Bureau for Social Research, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla. Back to top - Gregg EW, Cadwell BL, Cheng YJ, Cowie CC, Williams DE, Geiss L, Trends in the prevalence and ratio of diagnosed to undiagnosed diabetes according to obesity levels in the US. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2806-12. - Gohdes D, Kaufman S, Valway S. Diabetes in American Indians. An overview. Diabetes Care 1993;16:239-43. - Jackson MY. Nutrition in American Indian health: past, present, and future. J Am Diet Assoc 1986;86(11):1561-5. - Shalala DE, Trujillo MH, Hartz GJ, Paisano EL. Trends in Indian health, 1998-1999. Rockville (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human - Smith CJ, Nelson RG, Hardy SA, Manahan EM, Bennett PH, Knowler WC. Survey of the diet of Pima Indians using quantitative food frequency assessment and 24-hour recall. Diabetic Renal Disease Study. 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Diabetes Care - Keyserling TC, Ammerman AS, Samuel-Hodge CD, Ingram AF, Skelly AH, Elasy TZ, et al. management program for African American women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Educ 2000;26(5):796-805. - Samuel-Hodge CD, Headen SW, Skelly AH, Ingram AF, Keyserling TC, Jackson EJ, et al. Influences on day-to-day self-management of type 2 diabetes among African-American women: spirituality, the multi-caregiver role, and other social context factors. Diabetes Care - Skelly AH, Samuel-Hodge C, Elasy T, Ammerman AS, Headen SW, Keyserling Development and testing of culturally sensitive instruments for African American women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Educ 2000;26:769-74,776-7. - Carter JS, Pugh JA, Monterrosa A. mellitus in minorities in the United States. Ann Intern Med - Roubideaux Y. Perspectives on American Indian health. 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Soc Sci Med [Med Anthropol] - Anderson RM, Funnell MM, Arnold MS, Barr PA, Edwards GJ, Fitzgerald Assessing the cultural relevance of an education program for urban African Americans with diabetes. Diabetes Educ 2000;26(2):280-9. - Parks CA, Hesselbrock MN, Hesselbrock VM, Segal B. Gender and reported health problems in treated alcohol dependent Alaska natives. J Stud - Contento IR, Michela JL, Goldberg CJ. Food choice among adolescents: population segmentation by motivations. J Nutr Educ - Murphy A. Doing the best evaluation possible. In: Doner L, editor. Charting the course for evaluation: how do we measure the success of nutrition education and promotion in food assistance programs? Washington (DC): U.S. Department of Agriculture; 1997. p. 28-30. - Devine CM, Wolfe WS, Bisogni CA, Frongillo EA Jr. Life-course events and experiences: associations with fruit and vegetable consumption in 3 ethnic groups. J Am Diet Assoc 1999;99:303-14. Back to top

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The Group of Experts on Renewable Energy focuses on activities that help significantly increase the uptake of renewable energy in the region and that help achieve the objective of access to energy for all in the UNECE region America's clean energy revolution is on the verge of a tipping point Renewable Energy Group operates a network of refineries in the US and Europe. The company's fuel emits at least 50% less greenhouse gas emissions compared with traditional diesel, according to its. .S. topped coal consumption in 2019, the first time this has occurred in more than 130 years. The last time renewable energy was more widely consumed than coal. 40 Ministers from around the world gather to address the world's energy and climate challenges. Ministers of world's biggest energy consumers - including China, US, EU and India - are among high-level participants in the IEA Clean Energy Transitions Summit. Learn mor Renewable Energy Projects. Duke Energy Renewables has completed more than 99 projects in 17 states, totaling more than 2,900 MW of renewable energy. Please read our case studies to learn more about how we were able to provide renewable energy solutions for large companies, schools and utilities across the country Recent amendments to the regulations. Amendments were made to the Renewable Energy (Electricity) Regulations 2001 on 8 December 2018 and 21 February 2019. These amendments clarify the eligibility of solar water heaters and solar (photovoltaic) small generation units and the audit requirements for applications to amend exemption certificates GE Renewable Energy losses widen. Company recorded $498m deficit in the first half of 2020, compared with $371m loss last year. 29 July 2020 Finance [Image: GE] Related Stories GE Renewable Energy makes $666m loss 29 January 2020 GE Renewable Energy Q3 orders grow 30% 30 October 2019 GE Renewable Energy sees red 31 July 2019 GE's renewables profit dips 22 July 2016 GE newbie hits 1GW in US. SOLAR 20/20: Renewable Energy Vision Calls us to Action News provided by. American Solar Energy Society Jul 16, 2020, 07:00 ET. Share this article. BOULDER, Colo., July 16, 2020 /PRNewswire. Renewable Energy Cost / Benefit Analysis for an in-depth review of a particular technology or application with economic and technical modeling; Renewable Energy Feasibility Study, which provides an engineering perspective and is often required by a lending institution for loans or financing opportunities; Please tell us about your project. We. Green-e™ Renewable Energy Standard for Chile Released by CRS. June 29, 2020 . Global winemaker Viña Concha y Toro certifies Sunrise brand with new Green-e™ Energy standard in Chile MEDIA CONTACT Jeff Swenerton +email@example.com. Full Article » Extension to Green-e RY2019 Verification Deadline. April 17, 2020. Dear Green-e® Energy and Green-e® Climate. Renewable energy comes from renewable resources. It is different from fossil fuels as it does not produce as many greenhouse gases and other pollutants as fossil fuel combustion.. People have used traditional wind power, hydropower, biofuel, and solar energy for many centuries, all around the world. The mass production of electricity using renewable energy sources is now becoming more common Aktuelle Magazine über Renewable lesen und zahlreiche weitere Magazine auf Yumpu.com entdecke Apple Park, Apple's new headquarters in Cupertino, is now the largest LEED Platinum-certified office building in North America. It is powered by 100 percent renewable energy from multiple sources, including a 17-megawatt onsite rooftop solar installation and four megawatts of biogas fuel cells, and controlled by a microgrid with battery storage US News is a recognized leader in college, grad school, hospital, mutual fund, and car rankings. Track elected officials, research health conditions, and find news you can use in politics. Stock analysis for Renewable Energy Group Inc (REGI:NASDAQ GS) including stock price, stock chart, company news, key statistics, fundamentals and company profile Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy is an interdisciplinary, peer-reviewed journal covering all areas of renewable and sustainable energy relevant to the physical science communities, including resource assessment, analysis, and forecasting Together, our renewable energy projects (either operating or under construction) have the capacity to generate 4,121 megawatts (MW) gross of zero-emission energy (1,991 MW net). Today, Enbridge is one of the largest renewable energy companies in Canada, and we have a diversified portfolio of renewable energy projects. To date, we've invested in Like many other renewable energy options, small wind turbines qualify for a federal tax credit of 30 percent in the United States. Other financial incentives might be available through your state or individual utilities, some of which you can find via the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency Das Renewable Energy Certificate System (englisch für ‚Zertifizierungssystem für Erneuerbare Energien'), kurz REC-System oder RECS, ist ein Zertifizierungssystem zum Herkunftsnachweis für Strom aus erneuerbaren Energien in 15 europäischen Ländern, welches im Jahr 2002 eingeführt wurde. Das REC-System wird bis 2016 eingestellt und durch das bereits heute in den meisten Ländern.

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Guest post By James D. Agresti Roughly two-thirds of U.S. residents don’t believe the CDC’s official tally for the number of Covid-19 deaths. This distrust, however, flows in opposing directions. A nationally representative survey conducted by Axios/Ipsos in late July 2020 found that 37% of adults think the real number of C-19 fatalities in the U.S. is lower than reported, while 31% think the true death toll is greater than reported. The facts show that neither side has an airtight case, but the evidence is more consistent with the theory that less people have died from C-19 than the official figures indicate. Nevertheless, the extent of the possible overcount is unknown, and even if it were as high as 50,000, it would not make a marked difference in key measures of the pandemic’s severity. Hence, debates over the accuracy of the death toll distract from other issues with much greater implications. The main argument of those who claim that the official C-19 death tally is an undercount is based on a factor called “excess deaths.” This is defined as the total number of deaths from all causes during the pandemic minus the number of deaths that would normally occur at this time of the year. In the words of the Government Accountability Office, “Examining higher-than-expected deaths from all causes helps to address limitations in the reporting of Covid-19 deaths because the number of total deaths is likely more accurate than the numbers of deaths from specific causes.” U.S. death certificate data shows that the rise in deaths during the pandemic has indeed been greater than the number of reported C-19 deaths. Some jump to the conclusion that these additional fatalities must be C-19 deaths that were not recorded as such, but a broad array of data indicates that the bulk or all of them are caused by societal reactions to C-19—instead of the disease itself. We are likely to see the 170,000 mark crossed today—confirmed deaths from Covid-19. But researchers have looked at the actual number of excess deaths in this country—estimated deaths above the norm—and they say it’s closer to 200,000 so far this year. So the real actual death toll from Covid-19 is around 200,000. We have to constantly remind viewers that it’s even worse than we know. It’s even worse than the data indicate. First, Stelter is wrong that this figure is for “confirmed” deaths. It is actually for “confirmed” plus “suspected” deaths. Those exact words come from the CDC’s official guidance for certifying C-19 deaths, which was published on April 3. On the same day Stelter made this claim, the CDC’s website stated that its C-19 “case counts and death counts” have included “both confirmed and probable cases and deaths” since April 14. In other words, Stelter misrepresented the essence of the data even though this accounting change was in effect for four full months. The impact of including probable deaths in the count is evidenced by how the CDC altered its website when it adopted this methodology. Two days after the new method of counting deaths was implemented, the CDC updated its website twice (instead of its usual once-per-day update) to incorporate this revision. The changes it made on that day (April 16) provide a rough sense of scale for how the new policy modified the death toll: - Before any updates, the CDC reported that 24,582 people had died from C-19 as of April 14. - On the first update, the CDC reported that 27,012 people had died from C-19 as of April 15, including 22,871 “confirmed” and 4,141 “probable.” - On the second update, the CDC reported that 31,071 people had died from C-19 as of April 15, including 26,930 “confirmed” and 4,141 “probable.” Taken at face value, the second update shows that CDC’s insertion of “probable” cases raised the death count from 26,930 to 31,071, or by 15%. From a more skeptical standpoint, the difference between the 22,871 “confirmed” deaths on the first update and the 31,071 “confirmed and probable” deaths on the second update amounts to a 36% rise caused by these bookkeeping modifications. More significantly, Stelter failed to reveal that scholars who conduct research on excess deaths have found that multitudes of them have been caused by lockdowns, panic, and other responses to the pandemic. In July 2020, the Journal of the American Medical Association published a paper regarding this matter by researchers from Virginia Commonwealth University and Yale University. An article about the study from Virginia Commonwealth University summarizes its findings and quotes the researchers as follows: - Some excess deaths “may reflect under-reporting” or “patients with Covid-19 who died from related complications,” “but a third possibility, the one we’re quite concerned about is” the “spillover effects of the pandemic, such as delayed medical care, economic hardship or emotional distress.” - In the five states that that had the most Covid-19 deaths in March and April: - stroke deaths were 35% above normal. - Alzheimer’s deaths were 64% above normal. - heart disease deaths were 89% above normal. - diabetes deaths were 96% above normal. - “New York City’s death rates alone rose a staggering 398% from heart disease and 356% from diabetes.” - “Still others may have struggled to deal with the consequences of job loss or social isolation.” - “A number of people struggling with depression, addiction and very difficult economic conditions caused by lockdowns may have become increasingly desperate, and some may have died by suicide. People addicted to opioids and other drugs may have overdosed.” - “The findings from” the “study confirm an alarming trend across the U.S., where community members experiencing a health emergency are staying home—a decision that can have long-term, and sometimes fatal, consequences.” Numerous other facts corroborate the ones above, a small sampling of which includes the following: - A scientific survey commissioned by the American College of Emergency Physicians in April 2020 found that 29% of adults have “actively delayed or avoided seeking medical care due to concerns about contracting” C-19. - A California-based ABC News station reported in May: - “Doctors at John Muir Medical Center in Walnut Creek say they have seen more deaths by suicide during this quarantine period than deaths from the Covid-19 virus.” - Mike deBoisblanc, head of the trauma unit at the hospital stated that he’s “seen a year’s worth of suicide attempts in the last four weeks,” and “mental health is suffering so much” that he says “it is time to end the shelter-in-place order.” - A scientific survey conducted by the CDC in July 2020 found that about 32% of U.S. adults had “symptoms of anxiety disorder” as compared to 8% around the same time last year. The perils of this are underscored by a 2015 meta-analysis in the Journal of the American Medical Association Psychiatry, which found that the overall risk of death among people with anxiety is 43% higher than the general population. - A study published by the American Medical Association in September 2020 found that 27.8% of U.S. adults had symptoms of depression during the C-19 pandemic as compared to 8.5% before the pandemic. The same 2015 meta-analysis found that depression is associated with a 71% higher risk of death. - An article published by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco estimated that “more than 20 million jobs” were “swept away” in the early months of the C-19 pandemic. A 2011 meta-analysis in the journal Social Science & Medicine about mortality, “psychosocial stress,” and job losses found that “unemployment is associated with a 63% higher risk of mortality in studies controlling for covariates.” - A study published by Just Facts in May 2020 found that anxiety related to C-19 will ultimately destroy at least seven times more years of life than can possibly be saved by lockdowns. With regard to this study, the accomplished psychiatrist Joseph P. Damore, Jr. wrote that it “thoroughly answers the question about the cure being worse than the disease.” Thus, many or all of the excess deaths that Stelter and others attribute to C-19 are caused by the actions of governments and media outlets. These include but are not limited to stay-at-home orders, business shutdowns, and pervasive misinformation that fuels ill-informed decisions, panic, and depression. Evidence of Overcounting Several lines of evidence prove that some deaths included in the official C-19 tally were, in fact, not caused by C-19. However, the combined weight of this evidence is not enough to prove that the reported death toll is significantly greater than the actual one. Four weeks after the World Health Organization declared C-19 a pandemic, Dr. Deborah Birx, the coordinator of the White House Covid-19 task force, stated that the U.S. is taking a “a very liberal approach” to counting C-19 deaths compared to “some countries.” She then explained that “if someone dies with Covid-19, we are counting that as a Covid-19 death.” Notably, that standard does not distinguish between dying from Covid-19 and dying with Covid-19. In the wake of Birx’s statement, various government officials revealed exactly how they were implementing this “very liberal approach”: - A Michigan news article reported in April: - “In Macomb County, Chief Medical Examiner Daniel Spitz had a recent case in which an individual died by suicide. Because they had a family member in the hospital suffering from Covid-19, Spitz had a postmortem test done and found that the individual who died at home was positive for Covid-19. The virus wasn’t their cause of death, but the individual is counted as a Covid-19 death.” - In Oakland County, “every individual who has died while infected with Covid-19 has counted as a coronavirus death, according to Dr. Ljubisa J. Dragovic, the county’s chief medical examiner.” - Ngozi Ezike, director of Illinois Department of Public Health stated during a April press conference: - If “you were in hospice and had already been given a few weeks to live, and then you were also found to have Covid, that would be counted as a Covid death. It means that technically, even if you died of a clear alternate cause, but you still had Covid at the time, it’s still listed as a Covid death.” - “So everyone who’s listed as a Covid death doesn’t mean that was the cause of the death, but they had Covid at the time of death.” - A month later, Ezike said that the Department of Public Health was partly unwinding its previous policy but some of it would remain in place: - We are “trying to remove those obvious cases” from the C-19 death tally “where the Covid diagnosis was not the reason for the death. If there was a gunshot wound, if there was a motor vehicle accident, we know that that was not related to the Covid positive status.” - If “someone has another illness, like heart disease, and then had a stroke or other event, it’s not as easy to separate that and say Covid didn’t exacerbate that existing illness. That would not be removed from the count.” - “Even if somebody was very elderly and they were maybe in hospice, we still can’t say that their Covid infection didn’t hasten the death, and so it’s relevant that Covid-19 maybe had a chance to accelerate that process.” - A Colorado-based CBS news station reported in April: - The “Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment has reclassified three deaths at a Centennial nursing home as Covid-19 deaths, despite the fact attending physicians ruled all three were not related to coronavirus.” - A spokesman for the state explained that it “follows the CDC’s case definition of Covid-19 cases and deaths,” and “when a person with a lab-confirmed case of Covid-19 dies, their death is automatically counted as a Covid-19 death unless there is another cause that completely rules out Covid-19, such as a fatal physical injury.” - The same CBS news station reported in May about a death in Colorado where C-19 was completely ruled out, but the state counted it anyway: - A man was found dead with blood alcohol content about twice the level that is potentially fatal, and Montezuma County Coroner George Deavers ruled that he died of alcohol poisoning. - Colorado’s Department of Public Health and Environment classified the case as a C-19 fatality because the man tested positive for C-19 after his death. - The coroner stated: “Yes, he did have Covid, but that is not what took his life.” - In Florida during July: - A local Fox news station asked Dr. Raul Pino, the health officer of Orange County, if two people in their twenties who had allegedly died of Covid-19 had any preexisting conditions. Pino replied: “The first one didn’t have any. He died in a motorcycle accident.” - Two days after the news station published this story, Pino’s office said the case “was reviewed,” and the person “was taken off the list for Covid fatalities.” - Officials of the Maricopa County, Arizona Public Health Department stated in August: - “Even if it’s not listed on their death certificate, anyone who has a Covid-19 positive test within a certain period of when they died, is also counted as a Covid-19 positive death.” - If a person dies in a car crash and tested positive for C-19 in the prior 60 days, “Yes, the death would be added” to the C-19 death tally because “it is important to understand who died WITH the disease even if the disease was not the CAUSE of death. Obviously, fatal accidents are a small subset of the total.” Short of scrutinizing every alleged C-19 death or a truly representative sample of them, there is no way to tell how many cases like those above are part of the official tally. However, certain evidence suggests they are not a large portion of the total: - Contrary to Birx’s statement in March, the CDC issued guidance in early April that states: “Not all conditions present at the time of death have to be reported—only those conditions that actually contributed to death.” - The CDC posted that guidance on April 3 when the official C-19 death count was 5,443 people, or less than one-thirtieth of the current tally. Thus, whatever happened prior to then can’t have a major impact on the total. - Some states instruct people who fill out death certificates to exclude C-19 if it didn’t play an active role in the fatality. Mississippi, for instance, says: “If Covid-19 was unrelated to the cause of death and not a contributing factor, it should not be included” on the death certificate. On the other hand, the CDC’s guidance and other government policies still incentivize or stack the deck in favor of including C-19 on death certificates. For example: - The state of Alaska instructs medical professionals to report C-19 deaths according to this standard: “Whether Covid-19 shortened a life by 15 years or 15 minutes; whether Covid-19 is an underlying or contributing condition, the virus was in circulation, infected an Alaskan, and hastened their death. This must be reported.” Given the impossibility of determining if C-19 shortened a life by 15 minutes, these instructions favor placing C-19 on the death certificates of people who died with or after C-19 but not necessarily from C-19. - The CDC’s guidance for certifying C-19 deaths provides three examples of how to record them on death certificates, one of which involves an 86-year-old female who was never tested for C-19, had a debilitating stroke three years prior to her death, and passed on with “a high fever and severe cough after being exposed to an ill family member who subsequently was diagnosed with Covid-19.” The guidance states the “underlying cause of death,” or the pivotal factor that led to her death, should be listed as “Probable Covid-19.” However, many other diseases can cause a fever and cough, and a recent CDC study shows it is not uncommon for people to display symptoms of C-19 but test negative for it. - The federal CARES Act, which became law in late March, pays hospitals a 20% premium for treating Medicare patients who are diagnosed with C-19. Until recently, a positive lab test for C-19 was not needed to obtain this money, but the federal government added this requirement in September “to address potential Medicare program integrity risks….” Note that C-19 need not appear on a death certificate for hospitals to receive these payments, so it may not influence decisions to include it. - The Mississippi Department of Health states: “If the patient was a confirmed Covid-19 case, but Covid-19 contributed to but did not cause the death, such as stroke,” C-19 should be listed in Part II of the death certificate. This again favors placing C-19 on death certificates, for as the director of Illinois Department of Public Health said: If “someone has another illness, like heart disease, and then had a stroke or other event, it’s not as easy to separate that and say Covid didn’t exacerbate that existing illness.” Note that the CDC includes in its C-19 death tally all death certificates that mention C-19, regardless of whether it appears in Part I or Part II. A breakdown of how many C-19 deaths appear in Part I versus Part II might shed considerable light on the issue of C-19’s lethality. This is because Part I of a death certificate “is for reporting the sequence of conditions that led directly to death,” while Part II is for “other significant conditions that contributed to the death, but are not a part of the sequence of conditions directly leading to the death.” Thus, Just Facts requested such data from the CDC on September 11 and is awaiting a reply. Media outlets have persistently reported on the number of C-19 deaths while ignoring vital facts that place them in context. A simple example of this is that 2.8 million people die in the U.S. every year, including about 170,000 from accidents. Also of great import, accidents rob an average of 30.6 years of life from each of its victims, as compared to roughly 10.8 years for C-19. Yet in contrast, media outlets don’t continually publicize the running death tally from accidents. This focus on the raw number of C-19 fatalities—combined with the fact that the very nature of the disease makes these figures uncertain—has spurred controversy over the accuracy of the CDC’s death count. Adding fuel to the fire, the statements and actions of some public officials show clear evidence of overcounting. Consider, for example, the infection fatality rate, which is the portion of people who die after catching the disease. In early March, the World Health Organization announced that “about 3.4% of reported Covid-19 cases have died” and that “by comparison, seasonal flu generally kills far fewer than 1% of those infected.” This 3.4% figure was widely reported, and many media outlets criticized President Trump for saying, “I think the 3.4% is really a false number,” and “I would say the number is way under 1%.” As it turned out, Trump was correct, and the Center for Evidence-Based Medicine at the University of Oxford now estimates that the infection fatality rate for C-19 is “somewhere between 0.1% and 0.41%.” This is well below 1%, just as Trump stated, and within range of the flu’s infection fatality rate of 0.15%. So even if C-19 deaths are overcounted by 25%, and this exaggerates the fatality rates by the same amount, they would still be 0.1% to 0.3%—or practically unchanged. Likewise, the CDC’s current best estimates for the infection fatality rate range from 0.003% for people aged 0–19 to 5.4% for people aged 70 and above. Again, a 25% change in these figures would leave them in the same ballpark. Thus, debates over the death count are a distraction from more informative measures like the odds of dying from C-19 for those who catch it. In this case, the highly publicized figure of 3.4% proved to be off by about a factor of 10. That is a major factor that truly informs the big picture. From an even broader perspective, the most comprehensive available measure of the threat posed by Covid-19 is the total years of life that it will rob from all people who were alive at the outset of 2020. This crucial measure accounts for the facts that: - there is a material difference between a malady that kills a 20 year-old in the prime of her life and one that kills a 90-year-old who would have otherwise died a month later. - Covid-19 is unlikely to have an ongoing high death toll because the virus that causes it mutates much less substantially than that of the flu and other contagious diseases. Thus, it is far less likely to keep taking lives in the face of acquired immunity and vaccines. In the context of this broad measure, debates over the actual death toll amount to rounding errors in the relative threats posed by Covid-19 and other common scourges that take masses of lives every year: In conclusion, the facts of this matter accord with a Government Accountability Office technology assessment published in July that found: “The extent of any net undercounting or overcounting of Covid-19 deaths is unknown.” More importantly, debates over the accuracy of this figure divert attention from other issues that have much greater implications for understanding the pandemic and how it should be addressed.

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In addition to the weekly Sabbath, and the many festivals of Judaism (e.g., Passover, Tabernacles, etc.) there were Jewish institutions that consecrated entire years (i.e., the Sabbatical Year and the Jubilee Year). The Hebrew and Gregorian Calendars The calendar typically used in the world today is called the Gregorian calendar, after Pope Gregory XIII, who instituted it in 1582, and is based on the earth revolving around the sun, thus making it a “solar calendar.” Each day begins at midnight and is 24 hours long. As the Earth revolves around the sun, the earth changes its position resulting in creating the four seasons. It takes approximately 365 and one-quarter days for the earth to make one complete revolution around the sun with our calendar year defined as 365 days. Consequently, we add an extra day every four years, called a leap year, to account for this extra quarter of a day. The Gregorian calendar contains twelve months of 28 to 31 days duration. The Hebrew calendar, juxtaposed with the Gregorian calendar, is based on the earth rotating around the sun and the moon revolving around the earth, thus making it a “lunisolar calendar.” Hebrew days begin at sundown (approximately 6:00 P.M.) and also last for 24 hours. It takes about 29 and one-half days for the moon to make one complete revolution around the earth, thus defining a lunar month. The Hebrew calendar contains twelve lunar months setting a 354 day year. The four stages of the moon are important to raising crops: new moon, second quarter, full moon, and fourth quarter. - The new moon gravitationally pulls water up through the soil and causes seeds to swell and burst. This makes it the best time to plant grain crops and other plants that are grown for above-ground produce. The increasing moonlight also causes a good balance between root development and leaf growth. - The second quarter produces less gravitational pull, but provides vibrant moonlight. This is very beneficial to leaf growth. - After the full moon, the moonlight is waning, but the gravitational pull is strong again. This combination makes it best for planting root crops. - The fourth quarter provides less gravitational pull and moonlight. This is more of a resting period, which makes it an opportune time for cultivating and harvesting. (11) The harvesting times in Israel occur primarily during the fourth quarter of the moon. Since the feasts of God in Leviticus synchronize with the harvests, they also synchronize with the stages of the moon. For every harvest in Israel, there are three phases: firstfruits, general harvest, and gleanings. The phase of firstfruits also has three phases of activity: marking, gathering, and presenting. (11) The difference between the two calendars means that the solar year is 11 and one-quarter days longer than the lunar year. To mostly compensate for this yearly difference in the Civil calendar, an extra 29 and one half-day month is added at the end of every three regular years, called a leap year, to account for this additional 11 and one-quarter days. There are two concurrent Hebrew calendar years with one a Biblical calendar that God established when He delivered the nation of Israel out of Egypt. The Lord said to Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt,“This month is to be your beginning of months; it will be your first month of the year. (Exodus 12:1,2 NET) The month of Nisan, originally called Abib (Aviv) but was changed during the Babylonian captivity, is the first month of the year on the Hebrew (Biblical) calendar. Nisan corresponds to the months of March-April on the Gregorian calendar. Note that each month on the Biblical calendar may come in one or two Gregorian months due to the eleven and one quarter days difference between the two calendars. (3) The civil calendar begins with the Hebrew month of Tishri, which corresponds to the Gregorian months of September and October. This is the beginning of the agricultural season. That is, the civil calendar is aligned with the agricultural season beginning with the early rains that softened the ground for plowing, which was done in October and November. This was followed by the sowing of wheat and barley seed in November and December. Then the winter rains would come in December and January to maintain the ground moist. This was followed by the blossoming of the almond trees in January and February, and the citrus harvest in February and March. (3) The spring or latter rains fell in March-April (Nisan), concurrent with the beginning of the barley harvest. The dry season was from April-May (Iyyar) to September-October (Tishri). The barley harvest lasted through the spring months and was followed by the wheat harvest in May-June (Sivan). The grape harvest came next during the months of June-July (Tammuz). The months of July-August (Ab) were the time of the olive harvest. The season ended with the harvest of dates and figs in August-September (Elul). Biblical Calendar Leap Years The Biblical Calendar year begins with the first New Moon after the barley in Israel reaches the stage in its ripeness called Abib. The period between one year and the next is either 12 or 13 lunar months. Because of this, it is important to check the state of the Barley crops at the end of the 12th month. If the barley is Abib at this time, then the following New Moon is the “New Moon of the Abib” (Hodesh Ha-Abib). If the barley is still immature, then the barley is checked again at the end of the 13th month. Consequently, it can only be determined whether a year is a Leap Year a few days before the end of the 12th Month. The month of the Nisan (Abib) is the month which commences after the barley has reached the stage of Abib. (6) Sound the ram’s horn on the day of the new moon, and on the day of the full moon when our festival begins. For observing the festival is a requirement for Israel; it is an ordinance given by the God of Jacob. He decreed it as a regulation in Joseph, when he attacked the land of Egypt. I heard a voice I did not recognize. It said: “I removed the burden from his shoulder; his hands were released from holding the basket. In your distress you called out and I rescued you. I answered you from a dark thundercloud. I tested you at the waters of Meribah. (Selah) (Psalm 81:3–7 NET) God set fixed times and seasons when the Jews were to keep their feasts (Leviticus 23:4). Consequently, this Biblical Calendar Leap Year adjustment that sets the Feast of Passover (1) in the correct season also sets the other feasts in their correct seasons. Thereby enabling the Jewish people to keep their feast days in the seasons prescribed by God. What is Aviv/Abib? Aviv indicates a stage in the development of the barley crops. When Moses extended his staff toward the sky, the Lord sent thunder and hail, and fire fell to the earth; so the Lord caused hail to rain down on the land of Egypt. Hail fell and fire mingled with the hail; the hail was so severe that there had not been any like it in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation. The hail struck everything in the open fields, both people and animals, throughout all the land of Egypt. The hail struck everything that grows in the field, and it broke all the trees of the field to pieces. Only in the land of Goshen, where the Israelites lived, was there no hail. (Exodus 9:23-26 NET) (Now the flax and the barley were struck [down] by the hail, for the barley had ripened [Hebrew: abib] and the flax was in bud. But the wheat and the spelt were not struck [down], for they are later crops.) (Exodus 9:31,32 NET) The barley crops were struck down or destroyed by the hail while the wheat and spelt were not damaged. When grains are early in their development they are flexible and have a dark green color. However, as they become ripe they take on a light yellowish hue and become more brittle. The reason that the barley was destroyed and the wheat was not is that the barley had reached the stage in its development called Aviv/Abib and as a result had become brittle enough to be damaged by the hail. However, the wheat and spelt were at a stage when they were flexible and not susceptible to being damaged by hail. (5) The month of Nisan (1) is the month that only commences after the barley has reached the stage of Aviv/Abib. This means the month of Nisan cannot begin unless the barley has reached a stage where it will be harvest-ready 15-21 days later (i.e., by the Sunday during the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which is the day of the Feast of Firstfruits). If the barley is not developed enough to be ready for the sickle 15-21 days later, then the month of Nisan cannot begin until the next month. (5) We know from several passages that barley which is in the state of Aviv has not completely ripened, but has ripened enough so that its seeds can be eaten parched in a fire. However, this early in its development, when the “head” has just come out of the shaft, the seeds are not substantial enough to produce any food. At a later stage, the seeds have grown in size and have filled with a milky liquid and at this point, the seeds will shrivel up when parched and will only produce empty skins. Over time the liquid is replaced with dry material, called dough, and when enough dough has amassed the seeds will be mature and able to yield “barley parched in fire”. Two to three weeks after the beginning of the month, the barley has moved beyond the stage of Aviv, with the liquid in the seeds having been replaced with dry material which will be able to yield “barley parched in the fire.” The barley is now ready to be brought as the “wave-sheaf offering” (Hanafat HaOmer). (5) In summation, barley which is in the state of Aviv has three characteristics: - It is brittle enough to be destroyed by hail and has begun to lighten in color (i.e., it is not “dark”). - The seeds have produced enough dry material called dough so it can be eaten parched. However, not enough to provide a substantial source of food. - It has developed enough so that it will be harvest-ready 2-3 weeks later (5). The Sabbath Year Just as God instituted a weekly rest of the Sabbath Day (Exodus 23:12), He also instituted a Sabbath Year to be celebrated every seventh year (Leviticus 25:1-4. Exodus 23:10,11). This was a sabbatical year of rest consecrated to God, in which His providence was depended upon for survival and His Lordship recognized in all areas of life. God promised to perform a miracle by granting abundant crops in the sixth year of the cycle so that the bounty would be sufficient until a new crop could be harvested two or three years later. This would be a continuing witness of God’s power as a Provider similar to the manna in the wilderness (Leviticus 25:20-22). During the Sabbath Year: - Slaves were set free (Exodus 21:2-6) - Debts owed to/from fellow Israelites, but not Gentiles, were canceled (Deuteronomy 15:1-6) - The land was not plowed or harvested; however, the farmer, the poor and animals could eat of anything that grew without being re-planted (Exodus 23:10,11. Leviticus 25:1-7). The Jubilee Year In addition to the Sabbath Year, God instituted the Jubilee Year to be celebrated every 50th year (Leviticus 25:8-13). It represented a perfection of the Sabbath Year legislation and provided for a double portion of rest. That is, each 49th year (i.e., after 7 occurrences of the 7 year Sabbath; 7 x 7 = 49) would be a Sabbath Year, followed by a Jubilee Year in the 50th so that for two consecutive years the people would be bound to restore the land, personal and economic freedom and to depend on God. The Jubilee was announced by the blowing of a shofar on the tenth day of the seventh month, on the Day of Passover, throughout the land. The shofar (i.e., ram’s horn) was often used as an instrument of spiritual warfare (Numbers 10:9). The blowing of the shofar declares that the Lord God is King of the universe (Psalms 98:6) Hearing the shofar is meant to encourage us to return to the Lord and listen to His voice (Deuteronomy 30:2). Consequentially, the Sabbath and Jubilee Years provided for what we today call “Sustainability” in: - Culture – by the restoration of freedom for those who in their need had sold themselves in servitude to their fellow Israelites. - Economics – by the relaxation of debts for fellow Israelites. - Ecology – by allowing the rest of the land for a year. - Politics – by the remembrance of the people that God is their Sovereign King, the great provider of all things, full of grace, mercy, and compassion and that they are called to be the imitators of Him by demonstrating this in their relationships with fellow Israelites and the land. However, the Sabbath Year and the Jubilee Year were not practiced faithfully by the Israelites as evidenced by God’s admonishment recorded in the scriptures (Leviticus 26:1,2;26:14-16;26:34,35. Jeremiah 34:14). Nevertheless, the Jewish failure to keep the festivals, Sabbaths and Jubilees called down the mercy of God upon mankind (Romans 5:20), who promised in their place a messianic year of the Lord’s favor (Isaiah 42:1-9. Isaiah 61:1,2). Then Jesus, in the power of the Spirit, returned to Galilee, and news about him spread throughout the surrounding countryside. He began to teach in their synagogues and was praised by all. Now Jesus came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day, as was his custom. He stood up to read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was given to him. He unrolled the scroll and found the place where it was written, "The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and the regaining of sight to the blind, to set free those who are oppressed, to proclaim the year of the Lord's favor." (70) (Luke 4:14-19 NET) ” The year of the Lord’s favor [Grk “the acceptable year of the Lord”] is a description of the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:10). The year of the total forgiveness of debt is now turned into a metaphor for salvation. Jesus had come to proclaim that God was ready to forgive sin totally.” (7) Part of the observance of Shemittah or the Sabbatical Year includes the forgiving of loans. Interestingly, more than 2,000 years ago, Hillel the Elder saw that people were avoiding giving loans as the Shemittah or Sabbatical Year approached. So, in order to encourage people to continue lending money, he instituted the pruzbul system. The Torah states that while all private debts are forgiven, public debts are exempt. The act of pruzbul makes private debts public, and therefore redeemable. (3) Interestingly, this loophole for the scriptural requirement to forgive debts is similar to the one Jesus admonished the Scribes and Pharisees when they created a loophole for not caring for their aging parents. He said to them, “Isaiah prophesied correctly about you hypocrites, as it is written: ‘This people honors me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. They worship me in vain, teaching as doctrine the commandments of men.’ Having no regard for the command of God, you hold fast to human tradition.”He also said to them, “You neatly reject the commandment of God in order to set up your tradition. For Moses said, ‘Honor your father and your mother,’ and, ‘Whoever insults his father or mother must be put to death.’But you say that if anyone tells his father or mother, ‘Whatever help you would have received from me is corban’ (that is, a gift for God), then you no longer permit him to do anything for his father or mother. Thus you nullify the word of God by your tradition that you have handed down. And you do many things like this.” (Mark 7:6–13 NET) Some Jews believe last year on the Jewish calendar, 5775 (counting from Creation) was a Shemittah or Sabbatical Year. They believe It started on the Day of Passover on September 24, 2014, and ended September 13, 2015. This is based on the year following the destruction of the second Holy Temple (3829 from creation, equivalent to 68–69 AD) which they consider the first year of the seven-year Sabbatical cycle. (2) However, many Jews today do not observe the Jubilee Year since they believe it should only be done when all twelve tribes of the Jewish nation are living in Israel based on their interpretation of the following verse: So you must consecrate the fiftieth year, and you must proclaim a release in the land for all its inhabitants. That year will be your jubilee; each one of you must return to his property and each one of you must return to his clan. (Leviticus 25:10 NET) Consequently, the Jews have chosen not to observe the Jubilee Year until the entire nation is back to their homeland of Israel – including the ten “lost” tribes. However, there are others that believe that the Jubilee Years can be determined based on restoration events of the people of Israel. Important Jubilee Years of the Modern Age based on Restoration Events of the Nation of Israel 1867 – In the Jubilee of 1867 Charles Warren begins the mapping out of the parameters of biblical Jerusalem and in the process accidentally uncovers the ancient city. The Ottoman Empire enacts the law that begins the release of the land on June 10, 1867. (8) 1917 – In the midst of the First World War, the British Empire issued the Balfour Declaration to give the land of Israel to the original owners the Jewish people. (5) “The Balfour Declaration was the single most important document in the establishment of the state of Israel. David Lloyd George (1863–1945), prime minister of England, and Arthur Balfour (1848–1930), his foreign secretary, issued the Balfour Declaration on November 2, 1917. It promised that England would support and help facilitate the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), an influential Jewish chemistry professor and Zionist, had greatly influenced Lloyd George and Balfour, winning them over to the Zionist cause. In 1949, Weizmann became Israel’s first president.” (10) General Edmund Allenby liberates Jerusalem and to wage his campaign, he uses the maps of the land that were drawn up as the result of Warren’s mission in the previous Jubilee. The Ottomans are released from the land and the land is released to the Jewish people. (8) However, still missing was the restoration of the Holy City, Jerusalem. (5) 1967 – Egypt and Syria, falsely claiming that Israel was preparing war, sent troops to the Sinai Peninsula and forced the United Nations Emergency Forces based there to leave. On June 5, 1967, Israel responded with a preemptive strike, demolishing the Egyptian air force in just three hours. Israeli forces captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai, then conquered the Old City of Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights. The conquest took six days. Israelis celebrated their rescue of the holy sites in Jerusalem, planning to exchange the captured Arab territories for recognition of the state of Israel and a peace treaty with their Arab neighbors. The Arab nations, however, continued to reject Israel’s existence, and as a result the captured territories were not relinquished. (10) The Six-Day War came to an end on June 10, 1967. The Holy City, Jerusalem, was restored to the Jewish people, to its original owners. (5) “But in the return of Israel to Jerusalem in 1967 the world refused to recognize that return or Jerusalem as Israel’s capital. And in the Jubilee, if the original owner returns to his possession and the authorities refuse to recognize that return, then the return will not be complete and there will be conflict. And so it was with Israel’s return to its ancient capital. Not only did the world refuse to recognize the return but the nations gathered together, over and over again, to condemn that return and to declare it illegal.” (8) 2017 – This was the fiftieth year after the return of Jerusalem in the Six-Day War, the Jubilean year. The world’s preeminent power was the United States of America. The highest legal or legislative body of the world’s preeminent power was the United States Senate. “In the mid-1990s the United States Congress passed a law calling for America’s recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. But the president at that time signed a waiver delaying its implementation. That waiver was renewed every six months by every successive president. It looked unlikely that it would ever become a reality. “(8) “But in 2017 America had a new president, Donald Trump—and it was the year of Jubilee. The waiver expired in late spring. The new president had promised a change in America’s policy concerning Jerusalem, but then, as did the presidents before him, he signed the waiver. “Still, it was the year of Jubilee. And the waiver just happened to be set to expire in June, the month that marked fifty years from the last Jubilean event. In fact it was set to expire during the fifty year anniversary week of that event.” However, a resolution was introduced by the US Senate that concerned Jerusalem and the granting of legal recognition to what had taken place fifty years, one Jubilee, earlier, the return to Jerusalem.” (8) The resolution on December 6, 2017, stated the following: Whereas June 2017 marks the 50th anniversary of the Six Day War and the reunification of the city of Jerusalem. . . Whereas, in 1967, Jerusalem was reunited by Israel during the conflict known as the Six Day War. . . Whereas this year marks the 50th year that Jerusalem has been administered as a united city. Resolved, That the Senate . . . recognizes the 50th Anniversary of the reunification of Jerusalem. . . reaffirms the Jerusalem Embassy Act . . . as United States law, and calls upon the President and all United States officials to abide by its provisions. (8) Resultingly, the Senate resolution called for the president and every American official to recognize the restoration of Jerusalem as Israel’s capital, to grant the legal recognition to Israel’s sovereignty over its Holy City that had been missing for the past fifty years. (8) You see, God is the God of restoration. And to those who are His, He will restore all things . . . all that was lost will be found again . . . in their Jerusalem . . . and in their appointed time of Jubilee.” (5) Jubilee Year Promises A Jubilee Year it is the time to more earnestly expect to receive your harvest from God. It is a time to trust God like never before!. For everything there is an appointed time, and an appropriate time for every activity on earth: A time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to uproot what was planted; (Ecclesiastes 3:1–2 NET) Seek the LORD while he makes himself available; call to him while he is nearby! (Isaiah 55:6 NET) Consequently during a Jubilee Year believe God to do the following: - If you are in slavery (emotionally, physically, addiction to some sin, your children enslaved to the world, unsaved loved ones, etc.) then believe all will be set free during the Jubilee Year. - If Satan has stolen anything, then believe it will be returned during the Jubilee Year. - If you are in debt, then believe for the cancellation of all debts during the Jubilee Year. - If you have previously sown seeds (i.e., money, time, talents, etc.) into the work of the Lord, then believe for a supernatural harvest during the Jubilee Year. As always, you must believe in order to receive these promises. so that you may not be sluggish, but imitators of those who through faith and perseverance inherit the promises. (Hebrews 6:12 NET) In addition, realize a key to receiving the blessings of the Jubilee Year is acting towards others in the spirit of the Jubilee and not simply the letter (i.e., acting in grace, mercy, and compassion towards others) (Matthew 5:39-48. Galatians 5:6). That is, ask God to bring to your mind anyone that you have: - Failed to forgive (1) (including yourself by His grace) and then ask for His grace, mercy, and compassion to forgive (1) in order to release them and yourself (1) from the captivity of unforgiveness. - Stolen (1) from and then ask for His wisdom to make restitution. - Owed a personal or private debt and then ask for His wisdom to make reparation (1). Lastly, do not be surprised if whatever that has held you captive for years and even decades is suddenly removed by the Lord Jesus Christ during His Jubilee Year! A Jubilee Year is the season for reaping where you have not sown in all areas of your life and ministries! Again, during a Jubilee Year four important things occur: - All slaves are set free. - All things stolen are returned. - All debts are canceled. - All previously sown seeds yield a supernatural harvest. Maranatha! (i.e., Come Lord Jesus!) (1 Corinthians 16:22) Let anyone who has no love for the Lord be accursed. Our Lord, come! The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you. (1 Corinthians 16:22–23 NET) Feasts, Festivals, and Important Occasions of the Old Covenant Series - The Seven Feasts of Israel – Introduction - The Seven Feasts of Israel – Hebrew Calendars, Sabbath Year, and the Jubilee Year - The Seven Feasts of Israel – Passover Sacrifices and Offerings of the Old Covenant - The Five Fire Sacrifices and Offerings of Israel – Introduction - The Five Fire Sacrifices and Offerings of Israel – The Burnt Offering - The Five Fire Sacrifices and Offerings of Israel – The Meal Offering - The Five Fire Sacrifices and Offerings of Israel – The Peace Offering - The Five Fire Sacrifices and Offerings of Israel – The Sin Offering - The Five Fire Sacrifices and Offerings of Israel – The Trespass Offering (1) Left-click on the underlined phrase to open another article in a different tab with more explanation. (5) Cahn, J. (2016). The book of mysteries. Lake Mary, FL: Frontline. (7) NET Note (70) for Luke 4:19 (8) Cahn, J. (2019). The oracle: the jubilean mysteries unveiled. Lake Mary, FL: Frontline. (9) Arab-Israeli Wars. (2015). In Compton’s Encyclopedia. Chicago, IL: Compton’s Encyclopedia. (10) Rusten, S. with E. Michael. (2005). The complete book of when & where in the Bible and throughout history (p. 415). Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. (11) Norten, M. (2015). Unlocking the secrets of the feasts. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

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by Lynn Koiner, PMAFA This article was written many years ago but it is very relevant. The examples are older but I have tried to add some updates. DEFINITION OF MARS RETROGRADE: All of the planets, except for the Sun and Moon, which are not actual planets, have a period of retrogradation when they “appear” to move backward in the sky. Mercury turns retrograde when it is about 14 degrees ahead of the Sun and it is retrograde for 3 weeks 3 times each year. The other planets turn retrograde when they are on the opposite side of the zodiac from the Sun. Often, a planet forming a trine to the Sun will also be retrograde. Mars is retrograde for slightly less than 2 2 months every 2 years. When a planet is retrograde, it does not work in its normal manner. One frequently needs to make changes or to work on an inner, psychological level before the planet can express itself outwardly. From APRIL 17 through JUNE 29 2016, the planet Mars will be in retrograde motion. This period is inappropriate for activities requiring the normal flow of Mars initiative. Using the constructive aspects of this transit, it is an excellent time to reinforce some aspect of our lives. This will be shown by the House position of the transit. - In the 1st House, it is a time to work on one’s self-image with courses or activities that bestow confidence and courage. - In the 2nd House, it is a time to make corrections or repairs in your financial situation. It should be a time of paying off debts and not a time for spending. - In the 3rd House, it is a good time to end those subscriptions for magazines that you do not read. It is a good time for catching up on reading and studies— like those astrology books that you bought two years ago but never read. This house rules transportation so it might be a good time to have those squeaky brakes fixed on your car… or, at least, have an annual tune-up. - In the 4th House, it is a good time to make repairs around the house and to reinforce its safety by replacing your smoke detector batteries. Activities may go on in your personal environment of which you are not readily aware. - In the 5th House, it is a good time to be a spectator— take the kids to an amusement park (vent their pent up energy), give yourself some relaxation time at the movies or with some home videos, watch someone else get killed on the football field. - In the 6th House, reinforce your diet. Add nutrients that benefit the kidney-adrenal (adrenal supplement or Chinese energy herbs) and the iron content of the blood. - In the 7th House, work on repressed anger and resentment issues in your relationships. Do not get into a fight— talk it out! - In the 8th House, reinforce 8th House issues. If your house is insured for its 1970 value, bring it up-to-date. Pay off those credit cards. Curb any tendencies toward obsessive-compulsive behavior or action. It will only get you into trouble1. I had surgery during the 1988 Mars retrograde in which my foot was RE-ATTACHED. The doctor felt it was the best surgery of his career! - In the 9th House, it is a good time to study comparative philosophies. This would include history— studying the past to understand the present. - In the 10th House, this is a good time to find out why activities in your business are not working and then reinforce the structures. If and where you are losing business, assess the problem. I traveled to Eastern Europe to visit astrologers. - In the 11th House, it might be a better time to do things alone and not drain yourself through the energy of groups. Psychologically, it is a good time to assess if your current goals are really contributing to your happiness index! - In the 12th House, solitude is beneficial. Meditation puts you in touch with your inner self. HOW TO HANDLE MARS RETROGRADE: When Mars is retrograde, it depletes the vitality so that it is never a time to initiate. Whoever initiates loses— a new project, a great love, an argument, a lawsuit, or an international war. With a new project, it will fizzle out and never really go anywhere. With a hot romance, it too fizzles and it rarely gets to the altar. With an argument, the hostility will come back to haunt you later. In legal matters, stoke your opponent into initiating the lawsuit first. It will be etched in granite that they will lose. In an international war, whoever fires first will automatically lose or ultimately withdraw. Matters commenced while Mars is retrograde will be frustrated and plagued with disruptions until they finally fizzle out. At this time, people become irritated when activities do not run smoothly. The anger may disrupt indirectly and inappropriately— like getting a traffic ticket when you feel annoyed with your job. During this cycle, never buy anything mechanical unless it is heavily insured! Office machinery and computers easily break down. A friend who owned a word processing service found this period to be a disaster. During one retrograde cycle, the printer, the back-up printer and the rented printer all failed to work. When they finally got one that worked, the mailing labels printed— but there was no ink! I often notice that the world needs a brake job when Mars is retrograde. In 1995, I discovered a water leak in my new car. Fortunately, this was covered by the warranty. Anything mechanical that is hanging on by a thread will likely break down during this cycle. Get those unstable devices repaired in advance— don’t wait until you have a breakdown disaster! My mother even ordered a small treadmill for exercise. We realized as soon as she got it out of the box that she would never be able to use it. Since we could not get it back in the box, we just trashed it. Those who have Aries or Scorpio strong in their horoscopes are dramatically affected by this shift in direction of their ruler. For Arians, they find themselves being less aggressive, less pushy and less impatient to have THEIR WAY in a situation. For Scorpios, they find that they are less concerned about being in control, controlling an immediate situation and, of course, running matters THEIR WAY. Both Mars-ruled types find themselves more inclined to sit back and review matters in a more detached or impersonal way. They feel more patient to wait on circumstances to unfold before they take action. These individuals, however, may not recognize the anger they feel inside. They may express an unusual passiveness while under fire because they need too much processing time before they can retaliate. Only when Mars turns direct can they move the Mars energy forward. For those who are NOT ruled by Mars, it may feel quite differently. They may feel more impatient to force matters to a conclusion, to get a project going or to take immediate action. This would be an unwise course of action! Look to the House-position of your natal Mars to see where you might become impatient and act pre-maturely. Remember, initiating or impulsively taking action will not work to your favor. In GOOD DAYS ACTION PLANNING GUIDE, Mary Shea describes an ideal way to handle Mars retrograde. She states that, “there is a tendency to be more reserved (when Mars is retrograde). Your hesitation causes you to review your behavior in the past and look for new way of responding in the future.” She feels that this is the way we learn to perfect our responses. “You go back over situations (either in your mind or in reality), doing things again and again while making corrections in the way you handle events. While Mars is retrograde, you will be reviewing the way you handle anger, self-defense, self-motivation and sexual relationships, outward anger or conflicts may not be appropriate.” She rightfully feels that using passive-aggressive techniques, manipulation, arbitration or subtle power plays may be more appropriate at this time. “If you are normally non-assertive, you have be forced to defend yourself. Whatever your tactics, you must give thought to what you are doing. If your tactics do not work or they are inappropriate to the situation, your anger will continue to build while Mars is retrograde. You can expect the anger to manifest full-blown by the time Mars turns direct. If you have seriously wronged or angered another with…acts of aggression, you can expect the backlash as Mars turns direct.” When writing on Mars in 1995, my first observation was its effect upon men in general. There masculinity seemed more easily threatened, manifesting mood displays and they often needed reassurance. I personally felt “organizationally impaired.” As hard as I tried to organize my work, the more disorganized I became. I was overwhelmed by all of the data that has been submitted for the political articles and I seemed to be doing a lot of wheel spinning. This is unusual and it began when Mars turned retrograde. This seemed worse while Mars was in Virgo— for the male ego and my disorganization. I felt some improvement when Mars retrograded back into Leo, at least for my disorganization. As the 1997 Retrograde got underway (Libra/Virgo), I noticed that non-aggressive types seemed to be intolerant of lazy people who waste their time. They were not willing to take action and eliminate the non-essential personnel. It seemed to be the reverse of the 1995 influence. Delphine Jay, in CROSSROADS IN DELINEATION, states that, when Mars retrogrades through a House, something there needs a renewed effort, a renewal of activity, to be revitalized or, at least, strengthened through reinforcement. It is a time to direct your efforts toward reinforcing matters or a relationship in order to keep it vital or active. It is a time to lend strength to something or someone that you believe in. Work activities supported when Mars is retrograde are those associated with trouble-shooting, re-evaluating previously commenced projects and shoring up the weak areas, making hard-nosed cuts with the ineffective B eliminating parts of the projects with little cost-benefit, personnel cut-backs and possibly re-hiring individuals who may know how to make the project succeed. Never start anything new! Work with what has been previously commenced and make necessary improvements. Mars Retrograde is similar to Mercury Retrograde in many respects but Mars is associated with action, projects and the energy required to make something succeed. Mars is back-door politics rather than direct confrontations. MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCES with MARS RETROGRADE: Renovations on my home began while Mars was retrograde in early 1993. This work proceeded so slowly and it was so stressful. The work stopped after only the kitchen and bathroom were completed. It was not until September of 1994 that the work was finally finished! In 1997, there was a lot of craziness going on trying to organize my spring trip to Europe. A friend and I wanted to travel to Ireland but I was invited to lecture in Prague in May. It was all so expensive and, when Mars turned direct, I finally made the decision to cancel the Ireland trip. I cannot tell you how stressful this decision-making was for me. I paid $40 on my Upton’s bill and they recorded 40 cents. It took 3 months to straighten it out with both my bank and the store. My mother found a young cat, insisted that I keep it (along with its medical expenses) and, within a year, it died of an auto-immune disease. At tax time, I had a software crisis. It was horrible!! Then, my copier broke, I had it fixed and I broke it again! It was worse than Mercury retrograde. On February 14, there was a transiting Mars-Saturn opposition in Libra-Aries. I agreed to give mini-readings for a St. Valentine’s Day dance— 2 hours for $200. However, when I got there, the owner wanted me to give mini-readings for over 50 people. With Mars retrograde, people were rude, obnoxious and demanding, even when I lost my voice and could not continue. I was furious at how badly I was treated! The best Mars Retrograde story concerned a friend who met Mr. Wonderful… who could not get it up (ED). I learned from this story that, if a man is a Perfect Gentleman for too long, there is a big problem. Men often mask these physical disabilities by taking the moral high road in relationships. There was a lot of passive-aggressive behavior in that relationship. It was painful but she cut him loose! Another friend found a long-running work crisis abated during the Mars retrograde period. With Mars in Virgo, it was suddenly decided that a long-term backlog of work (a backlog that had gone on for 10 years) had to be brought up-to-date. It was arbitrarily decided that there would be mandatory overtime, including weekends, and no vacations until this was done…and this decision occurred one month before Christmas! She found herself fighting against this arbitrary crisis and the arbitrary rules in order to get her after-Christmas vacation and March vacation to London. By the time that Mars retrograded back into Virgo, the work was caught up, the backlog grew again, she took off for London and the crisis disappeared. In 2001, with Mars in Sagittarius, it was intercepted in my 4th House. There was much going on in my personal life of which I was totally unaware. It exploded to the surface after Mars turned directed and opposed my natal Uranus. I also put energy into a movement that totally fizzled out when Mars turned direct. I got new eyeglasses— the worst that I have ever had and it started out with the prescription being reversed. On the positive side, I talked myself out of 3 traffic tickets. 2009 UPDATE: After living through many Retrograde Cycles, I have learned not to put my life on hold. Mars Retrograde is generally not as disruptive as Mercury retrograde. During the 2007-08 Mars Retrograde period, it was transiting the sign of Gemini. For the Sign Influences, see Mars Signs on this website. The sign that Mars transits is always very important, especially for medical influences. From November 2007 through early 2008, Mars was in Gemini while Retrograde. Despite the Retrograde motion, it was a highly stimulating period and I did re-connect with many old friends in Europe. I did experience many health issues ruled by Gemini— Allergies, Bronchitis and Swollen Glands, all connected with inflammation and the lymphatic system (ruled by Mutable signs). Even my Gemini aunt contracted pneumonia, a condition which later took her life (she was 93 years old). I had a mammogram scare but the condition was observed as a tiny cyst with small ducts. In December 2007, during a very bad wind storm, a huge branch of our Tulip Poplar tree fell on the top of my father’s beloved red truck. To be honest, my dad really wanted a new truck and I think he mentally attracted this accident. He gave it to his mechanic, Mike Beahm, who completely repaired it and now used it on his farm in upstate Maryland. I was very lucky because, on that day, I parked my car in a different location and the branches of the tree completely missed my car. And, speaking of automobile crises, years ago a client needed to purchase a truck while Mars was retrograde. It was something that just had to be done for his plumbing business. I told him to buy when the aspects were favorable (I have him a date) but to insure it heavily for one year. After the year, he could drop the expensive insurance, if nothing happened. Before the year was over, his truck caught on fire but it cost him nothing since the truck had maximum insurance. Another friend asked astrologer, Gil Navarro, to pick a good day for her to purchase a car so that she would not be affected by Mars Retrograde. Her old car died and she just had to purchase a new one. The time that he recommended insured that, if anything happened to her car, it would not cost her anything. While her car was in the garage for minor repairs, the garage was vandalized and her car was damaged. Because it was in the garage, the mechanic’s insurance company paid for all of the repairs. She had this car for many years afterwards. - I had terrible problems with a tooth that was not treated corrected by 2 new dentists. Eventually, I found a great dentist, Bill DeLong in Ellicott City MD - Friend dealt with a highly irrational client. This behavior was unusual for this person but she just went “crazy” about a reading. - 2 friends had successful surgeries but they were NOT elective surgeries. I feel that non-elective surgeries are successful with Mars R but I would never elect to have surgery at this time. If you HAVE to have surgery at this time, DO IT! - A friend, fearing astrological predictions by financial astrologers, sold stocks — and then had to pay over $20,000 in taxes! This was a decision that she regretted. - A very Neptunian young person lost connection with reality and had a breakdown. - The Twilight series movie, NEW MOON, came out, glamorizing depression and dysfunctional relationships. - A friend tried to hours to get a router to work. When Mars turned Direct, he discovered that it was just a bad router! - I lectured at the Cambridge NCGR conference. Because I chose a perfect time to start the trip, all went well - A friend and I were looking forward to a workshop in Virginia Beach, which we signed up for while Mars was R — then the big snow hit the east coast and all was canceled. HISTORICALLY, MARS RETROGRADE: Probably more than you ever wanted to know! The election of 1988: Michael Dukakis, a Scorpio, was unable to defend himself against the verbal assaults of Vice President Bush as soon as Mars turned retrograde. It was not until Mars turned direct on October 28— 4 days before the election— that he began to assert himself. His meek approach was confusing to both his staff of advisors and campaign commentators— but not to astrologers who knew that Mars was transiting retrograde. Mars Retrograde Administration: The 1993 presidency commenced under a Mars retrograde influence. Many local astrologers predicted that this would not be a constructive administration. Mars retrograde in the 2nd House of the U.S. Gemini rising chart focused upon financial and economic issues. With Mars retrograde, nothing was accomplished! Clinton commanded changes in the attitude of homosexuals in the military. Such direct action was not appropriate for Mars retrograde and the matter met success only through the indirect approach of the Sam Nunn compromise. Yet, nothing really changed with the military. It was actually worse. And, don’t forget the sex scandals and cover-ups! NOTE: I use 3 charts for the United States. The Gemini rising chart influences Americans as a people, national issues and relations with Canada and Mexico. The Sagittarius rising chart is always active with crises and actions involving other countries. The Articles of Confederation chart affects the government itself and it is always active with government scandals (spy scandals show up in this chart). When Mars is Retrograde, Whoever Fires First Loses: It is common to see battles igniting during the retrograde period but whoever fires the first shot loses. Little Argentina never really had a chance against Great Britain but, when they fired the first shot in the Falklands, they were condemned to lose in a big way. The Russians fired the first shot in Afghanistan and, after spending billions, they were ultimately forced to withdraw. The Israeli wars have always occurred when Mars was retrograde so, in that country, there is always a fear of war and dire predictions of such by that country’s astrologers when Mars turns retrograde. Physical Energy Impaired: The 1980 Winter Olympics occurred when Mars was retrograde in Virgo. Mishaps plagued this event, especially for the United States. If using the Gemini rising chart, Mars was retrograde in the 5th House ruling sporting activities and competitive games! WORLD EVENTS DURING THE 1997 MARS RETROGRADE IN VIRGO–LIBRA: Around the first 10 days of February 1997, Mars was station in Libra. The station period, when a planet appears to stand still and change direction, is a very potent time when the planet’s energies are intensified. At the Station, - A civil jury found OJ Simpson liable, in the amount of $8.5 million for wrongful death in the 1994 slaying (February 4). - The Army’s top enlisted man was accused of sexual harassment. Sgt. Major Gene McKinney, on February 3, was forced to resign from the committee to investigate sexual harassment in the military. - On February 3, the U.S., Britain and France agreed to freeze distribution of $68 million in gold bars that had been looted by Nazi Germany in World War II. During the period from February through April 1997 when Mars was retrograde, there were many recorded dismissals, failed votes, blocked plans, revisions, acquittals, dropped changes, failed amendments and expulsions. A list of some of the major events of that Mars Retrograde period are: - The Ecuador Congress ousts its president and an interim leader is named. - Ken Star announces on February 17, that he will resign as independent counsel in order to take an academic post at Pepperdine University. On February 21, he changes his mind! - In Britain, the House of Commons defeated a motion to censure the government for its handling of the Amad cow@ disease crisis, giving a Avote of confidence@ to Agriculture Minister, Douglas Hogg. - Furor over the Democratic Party fund-raising intensified with disclosures of the Clinton memo, endorsing plans to reward big contributors with White House visits. - On February 19, an Internet pornography scam was uncovered. - On February 23, scientists clone an adult sheep, sparking a cloning controversy. In 1938, Hans Spemann of Germany first theorized this possibility. Incredibly, in 1938 and 1997, Mars was in Virgo-Libra, Jupiter was in Aquarius and Saturn was in Aries! - On March 14, while very likely drinking with golf pro Greg Norman (who is a known heavy drinker), President Clinton fell and seriously injured his knee. When this occurred, the transiting Mars Retrograde in Virgo was opposing the transiting Mercury. This lined up exactly on his progressed 5th-11th House axis and the transiting Uranus in Aquarius was exactly in opposition to his natal Mercury at 7 Leo and the progressed Saturn at 7 Leo! Saturn was opposing the progressed Neptune; Jupiter was opposing the progressed Pluto. - On February 26, Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, approved development of a large Jewish neighborhood in East Jerusalem despite Palestinian warnings that such construction in the traditionally Arab sector of the city would seriously affect the peace process. The Mars retrograde period was colored by terrorism and boycotts. Later, Netanyahu was caught in a scandal surrounding the appointment of an attorney general but, by April 20, there was insufficient evidence and the matter was dropped. - Near the second station, on April 16, a financial crisis began in the Czech Republic. Czech Premier, Vaclav Klaus, announced a new budget of austerity measures aimed at restoring the country’s economic health. Several cases of security fraud were uncovered, the country’s economy went into crisis and Klaus was forced to resign. - On March 26, 39 members of Heaven’s Gate committed ritual suicide. WORLD EVENTS DURING THE 1999 MARS RETROGRADE IN SCORPIO–LIBRA: During the station period, when Mars was sitting at 12º, - The Serbian army began preparing for a major offensive and, while the Ethnic Albanians signed a peace accord to end the year-old conflict, the Serbian delegation rejected this agreement because it would allow 28,000 NATO troops to police Kosovo. On the evening of March 24, NATO launched its air attack. - The entire EU Commission resigned amid corruption allegations - The Medicare Reform Panel hit a deadlock and disbanded - On March 18, when Mars changed direction and the Moon changed latitude, a train crash in Illinois killed 11 people - On the last day at 12º and when Mercury changed latitudes, a deadly fire broke out in a vehicular tunnel that connects France with Italy, killing 40 people, and a train derailment in Kenya killed 32 people. During the Scorpio phase - The Dow surpassed the 10,000 mark (March 29) - The Paraguayan President resigned after violent street protests - Libya delivered the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing suspects for trial - A New Jersey man was arrested for the Melissa computer virus - A Nazi War Criminal was arrived in England - Susan McDougal was acquitted - The coalition government in India failed - Both India and Pakistan test a nuclear capable missile - Harris and Klebold kill 13 students in Colorado high school - A deadly tornado struck 5 US states - The Chernobyl computer virus unleashed. During the Libra phase - In Belgrade, the US “accidentally” bombed the Chinese Embassy— this was no accident - The US jobless rate dipped lower in May - Barak unseats Netanyahu, beginning his ineffective term - British spies were listed on an internet site - A 15-year old opens fire in a Georgia high school - American Airlines accused of violating anti-trust laws with price fixing - After a 3 month recess, the Microsoft anti-trust case was resumed - India launched an air strike at Islamic militants in Kashmir - Pakistan shot down 2 Indian jet fighters. WORLD EVENTS DURING THE 2001 MARS RETROGRADE STATION IN SAGITTARIUS: At this writing, as Mars turns retrograde, the late breaking news is: - The FBI discovers 3000 pages of documents not given to McVeigh’s defense team, postponing his execution until June 11. Incompetent and controversial FBI director, Louis Freeh, finally resigns - A wall collapses in western China killing 12 people - US spy satellites detect evidence that China is preparing for an underground nuclear weapon test - Israel fires missiles at car of Palestinian intelligence officer - Most significant, Senator James Jeffords quit the GOP, shifting the power in the Senate to the Democrats. 2003 & MARS IN PISCES: In 2003, Mars retrograde: At Station, there was an unsuccessful coup in the Philippines. There were many terrorist bombings, including the bombing of the UN headquarters in Baghdad. There were several oustings, referendums and resignations of political leaders during this cycle. 2010 & MARS IN LEO HISTORICALLY: In December 1915/January 1916, Einstein developed a new theory of relativity, an extension of his Special Theory of Relativity developed in 1905, which altered the view of gravity proposed by Sir Isaac Newton. It would not be until after World War II that scientists would be able to test this theory. In the war in Europe (WWI), England and France were retreating after great losses and the Serbians were driven to the Adriatic by the German, Austrian and Bulgarian armies. It was not until the Sun-Mars conjunction in 1917 that the Americans voted to enter the war in Europe. During the 1994-95 alignment, Russia attacked secessionist Republic of Chechnya and, in May 1996, when Mars moved behind the Sun, the Chechnya Peace Treaty was signed. There is an obvious pattern of aggressive action with Mars Retrograde will be corrected when Mars moves behind the Sun. The Republicans also took control of the Congress and they did nothing, never keeping their Promise to America. In 2010, Mars Retrograde in Leo can be very frustrating for our Leo president, especially beginning at the end of January 2010. Mars Retrograde brings discoveries and breakthroughs in technology. This will be helped by the Jupiter-Uranus conjunction in 2010. THE ENERGIES OF MARS IN LEO and the HEALTH ISSUES: From OCTOBER 16-17 through JUNE 6 2010, Mars will transit the sign of Leo. Since the Mars sign shows how people respond when they are angry and how they react to the anger in others, Mars in Leo causes people to become angered and highly uncooperative due to pride and respect (the lack of) issues. It is important to keep this in mind when interacting with others and cooperation is required. Of course, we ourselves will be equally sensitive to pride and (dis)respect issues but, if we want to accomplish our objectives, we need to treat others with the same respect that we demand for ourselves. Leo appreciates the dramatic! This is a great time to do something sensational and, with the fiery drive of Mars in this sign, it favors initiating new activities just for yourself. The need for attention can make people take risks, initiate action and go for the “big time.” This can be a very exciting time. In my research on depression, I found that people with Mars in Leo natally never get depressed— or rather they were too proud to every admit such a condition. So, this is not a cycle when you are prone to feeling despondent. It is a remarkably happy, upbeat cycle. In past Mars in Leo cycles, I purchased tacky earrings and boot jewelry. I got my first tattoo and, 2 years later, my 2nd tattoo. I began renovations in my home and purchasing new furniture. Being good to yourself is essential with this Mars cycle. In my journals, I found my energies more extroverted. My need for love and appreciation was strong. I seemed to get despondent when I was ignored or felt a lack of affection in my life. HEALTH ISSUES: When angered or provoked, Mars in Leo will manifest as a disturbance in the biochemical cell salt of Magnesium Phosphate. This cell salt acts upon the motor nerves and these respond to any pain felt in the sensory nerves. Magnesium Phosphate is found inside the cells of muscles, nerves, bones, the brain and spine. Deficiency affects muscle fibers and nerve endings. This is known as the anti-pain cell salt. It helps us to let go and relax. Magnesium Phosphate calms agitated nerves for pain relief of headache, writer’s cramp, sciatica, neuralgia. Spasmodic is a key symptom and Magnesium Phosphate calms spasmodic coughs, menstrual cramps and leg cramps. This Cell Salt improves the body’s ability to absorb Magnesium. If lacking in Magnesium Phosphate, nerves are on edge with the inability to relax emotional (showing as anxiety, nervous disorders, depression) and physically (showing as muscle problems, fibromyalgia even worse with a light touch, nerve sensitivity-even the skin may feel overly sensitive). When I experienced stress, my back ached. Leo rules the back and, in shouldering burdensome responsibilities, the back will suffer. Sometimes this type of back ache is due to adrenal stress. When I take two capsules of Adrenal caps, the pain is gone within 30 minutes. Sometimes it can be due to electrolyte imbalance and a good potassium-magnesium supplement can be very helpful. The only difficult transit will be Mars opposition Neptune during the LAST WEEK OF MAY 2010. One can easily “march into the lion’s den” for others but one can become very discouraged, having one’s energies sabotaged by negativity. Because this is an opposition, you may find that others do not support you now. You may be enthusiastic but, when you look behind you, they will be gone! A TECHNICAL VIEW OF MARS RETROGRADE…from a message to Astrological Conference on Techniques (ACT) mailing list dated January 9 2000 When Mars is transiting retrograde, it will be closer to the Earth than at any other time. Planetary distances, according to Juan Revilla (astrologer from Costa Rica and author of the freeware calculation program, Riyal), from the Sun (perihelion/aphelion) or the Earth (perigee/apogee) are a rarely-considered dimension in astrology. A…although we gave some attention to the perihelion of Pluto in 1989 because the differences are very large with respect to Pluto’s distance when farthest (aphelion) from the Sun. In the case of very eccentric orbits, such as Pluto and the Centaurs, the differences between aphelion and perihelion are more significant, more dramatic, more telling…The main difference with Mars is caused, not by its eccentricity, but whether it is in front of the Sun or behind the Sun. This is the same with the inner planets B Venus at superior (direct) conjunction is behind the Sun and farthest from the Earth (about 1.7 AU) whereas, at inferior (retrograde) conjunction it is nearly 7 times closer to the Earth (0.25 AU).@ Juan quoted an excellent example from WWII by Jane Axtell. When Mars was behind the Sun during the summer of 1941, Hitler was pushing his way through Europe without much resistance. When Mars was on the Earth’s side, the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and the action was fast and furious.@ Juan continues in his explanation: Checking Mars= geocentric distances from 1900 to 2005, one finds the maximum distance about 2.7 astronomical units with a minimum about 0.37AU, during the time of opposition, 7.3 times as much…or less. The average distance at opposition with the Sun, when closest to earth, is 0.52, and the cycle of closest approaches (nearing the minimum of 0.37AU) is 15 or 17 years, as follows: 1909, 1924, 1939, 1956, 1971, 1986, 2001 and 2003. MAXIMUM CLOSENESS TO EARTH: While Mars has a 15 to 17 cycle in which it is both close to the Sun and close to the Earth (perihelion and perigee), the apparition (appearance in the sky) is not always the same. There are rare occurrences when the Earth and Mars are within 35 million miles of each other. The last time that this occurred was September 1988, earlier in August 1924, and it will happen again in August 2003! This event occurs when the Earth lined up between Mars and the Sun, reaching its closeness to the Sun and to the Earth at the same time with Mars appearing at its maximum brightness! For those with a scientific and historical interest, the most remote of the Mars perihelion occurred in 1969 and in 1937. In 2001, Mars will reach its opposition to the Sun on June 13, make its closest approach to the Earth on June 21, and reach its perihelion or closest approach to the Sun on October 12. For excellent graphics and descriptions, the Sky Over Berlin website is a good resource: www.surveyor.in-berlin.de/himmel/indexe.html The June 2001 perigee was the second closest in this current decade (0.45 AU), the maximum closeness occurred in August 2003 (0.372 AU— in Pisces) and the next closest will be in July 2018 (0.385 AU— in Aquarius-Capricorn). Historically, these specific dates do not figure prominently in world events— but the year itself is highly significant. In 1909, when Mars was Retrograde in Pisces-Aries, the pioneering spirit of Aries brought the discovery of the North Pole but, with Mars Retrograde, there was a great controversy: Who reached it first, Cook or Perry? In summer, a French aviator was the first to fly across the English Channel. With the idealistic zeal of Pisces, the ladies were protesting as suffragettes and prohibitionists. Steel strikes in Pittsburgh become violent and trigger deaths. A new introspective thought in America was fueled as Freud went on tour explaining “psychoanalysis.” In 1924, Lenin died and Stalin took control of the USSR, King Tut’s coffin opened after 3300 years, the Teapot Dome Scandal, Greece became a republic, Hitler spends this Mars Retrograde in prison for the Beer Hall Putsch, the Leopold and Loeb Athrill murder@ trial…but none occurred in August. The year 1988 was significant for terrorist activities. I find, however, the sign of Leo and alignments with fixed stars to be more significant. When a planet aligns with or occults a fixed star, it has a very special influence in world events. With regard to Mars’ retrograde cycles, there is a 79-year cycle of the retrograde/direct loops of Mars in the vicinity of the fixed star, Regulus. This occurred in December 1915, January 1916 (Direct, May 1916) and in December 1994-January 1995 (Direct, May 1995). These Leo cycles are far more dramatic than any of the other Mars apparitions. The Leo Fixed Stars can be found at www.astrologycom.com/fixedstars.html#Leo

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Final Report for LNC04-251 To fulfill the lack of information available on sustainable weed management the extension bulletin “Integrated Weed Management ‘One Year’s Seeding…’” (IWM) was released in February 2005 as the result of a collaborative effort of researchers, extension educators, and producers. Since then, over 2,000 copies have been sold, several workshops have been held to present the information to North Central Region farmers, and fifteen on-farm trials have been conducted to test some of the weed management methods published. Thus far, information we have collected from growers indicates that these activities have increased their knowledge of the diversity of weed management techniques. An exclusive focus on killing seedlings is a major obstacle to sustainable weed management in the North Central Region (NCR), and is reflected in adoption rates of Roundup Ready™ crops as high as 80% in the NCR (Owen and Zelaya, 2002). Dependence on herbicide-resistant crops threatens sustainability through weed species shifts, herbicide resistance, loss of weed management knowledge, chemical dependence, technology fees, and restricted grain markets. Over-use of physical control of weed seedlings in alternative farming systems drives up fuel consumption, destroys soil tilth, and neglects the weed seedbank, which controls long-term weed management success (Liebman and Davis, 2000). Models of cropping system effects on annual weed populations (Jordan et al., 1995; Davis et al., 2003) show that reducing weed seed numbers in the soil, especially through decreased seed survival, is the key to keeping weed populations small and manageable. For example, underseeding small grains with forage legumes can increase insect consumption of weed seeds and reduce weed populations, compared to sole crops of small grains (Davis et al., 2003). To help farmers implement a seedbank approach to weed management, decision aids are needed. Michigan State University has made a commitment to providing high-quality, user-friendly agroecology information to producers in Michigan and throughout the North Central Region (Cavigelli et al., 1998; Cavigelli et al., 2000). Through an EPA Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program grant (June 2003), our team assembled a diverse working group (the Ecological Seedbank Management Working Group) to produce a draft of an easy to use weed seedbank management guide and train MI farmers in its use. In this project we proposed to 1) create a finished version of the manual for publication, 2) train farmers throughout the NCR to use the manual, 3) field test the manual throughout the NCR, and 4) conduct and evaluate on-farm trials to explore new seedbank management methods. The rationale for this project is that producers looking for alternatives to conventional production practices tend to look to other producers as their first source of information (Walz, 1998), yet this information is not always shared widely, nor does it affect the research agendas of most land-grant weed scientists. We aimed to make public the decision making process of outstanding producers who are already trying to manage the whole weed life cycle, and then extend this information to other producers and to researchers. In doing so, we increased adoption of existing ecological weed management practices and identified gaps in existing weed management knowledge to direct future research. A key assumption in this project was that lack of relevant, reliable information was holding back adoption of ecological weed management practices. The high priority placed on non-chemical approaches to weed management by farmers in the 3rd biennial national survey of organic farmers (Walz, 1998) suggests that this assumption was well-founded. Annual weeds spend most of their lives as seeds in the soil seedbank (Cousens and Mortimer, 1995). Simulation models of management effects on the population dynamics of annual weeds show that management practices that kill seeds when they are in the seedbank, or prevent new seeds from entering the seedbank, will have a much larger proportional effect on weed population growth and size than management practices aimed solely at killing weed seedlings (Jordan et al., 1995; Davis et al., 2003). Most weed control in the U.S. is targeted at killing weed seedlings, either with herbicides or with cultivation. Ninety percent of all corn and soybean acres in the U.S. are treated with herbicides, totaling more than 90.6 million tons of active ingredients applied annually (Pike et al., 1995). The literature is likewise focused on ways of controlling the weed seedling stage. A search of the agricultural database AGRICOLA in October, 2003, returned 19,490 entries for the search term “herbicides”, 704 entries for the search term “cultivation & weeds”, and 284 entries for the search term “weed seed”, and 32 entries for the search term “weed seedbank.” Techniques for eliminating weed seedlings are more common than those aimed at weed seeds for an obvious reason: seedlings are much easier to find and destroy than seeds are, especially seeds that are already in the soil seedbank. We are not suggesting that weed seedling control be abandoned; after all, it is a very effective way of reducing potential inputs to the weed seedbank. Rather, seedling control should be complemented with methods that target other stages in the weed life cycle (Mohler, 1996), with the overall goal of reducing weed seedbank density. Inevitably, some seedlings are going to escape early-season control efforts and survive to produce seeds. Can farmers reduce the damage done by these weeds? Can this be done without increasing herbicide applications? And if the weed seedbank is reduced, can this aid future weed control efforts? We believe that the answer to each of these questions is “yes.” Although most research has focused on weed seedling control, there have been significant findings over the years that suggest good opportunities for seedbank management (Renner, 2000; Buhler, 2002; Elstein and Suszkiw, 2003). Crop competition with weeds is one of the strongest factors affecting the number of seeds that each weed produces, and can be manipulated to minimize weed seed inputs to the soil seedbank (Perera and Hartwig, 1980; Jordan, 1993; Mohler, 2001). Pathogenic fungi and bacteria are important causes of seed death in the soil seedbank (Kremer, 1993; Kennedy and Kremer, 1996), yet little is known about the factors controlling pathogenic attack of weed seeds. Stale seedbed techniques are regularly practiced in low-external-input cropping systems in Europe, greatly aiding other weed management practices (Hatcher and Melander, 2003). Weed seed destruction by insects, rodents and birds can be very important in reducing the weed seed rain (Marino et al., 1997; Menalled et al., 2002), and rates of predation may be manipulated by cropping system characteristics (Davis and Liebman, 2003). Mechanical destruction of weed seeds by harvesting equipment, once a common practice, has also been gaining in popularity (Gossen et al., 1998), and is now commercially available for small grain production in Canada. Interest in weed seedbank management does appear to be growing among weed scientists. A recent international conference on weed seedbank biology and management in Reading, UK, was attended by over 40 delegates from 18 countries (Bakker et al., 2003). A number of projects in the SARE database were particularly relevant to the extension and research activities that we propose to conduct. The project “Controlling cheat and annual ryegrass in small grains using novel crop harvesting technologies” (Peeper, AS96-025) showed that roller or hammer mills added as aftermarket attachments to combine grain harvesters could dramatically reduce survival of cheat grass seed in small grains. Other projects, including “Cover Cropping and Residue Management for Weed Suppression, Soil Fertility and Organic Crop Production” (LS02-132, Baldwin), and “Diversity & Intensity of Cover Crop Systems: Managing Weed Seed Bank & Soil Health” (LNE01-141, Gallandt) have examined the relationship between cropping system diversification with cover crops and weed seedbank dynamics. One recently funded proposal, “Microbial processes underlying the natural weed suppressiveness of soils” (LNC03-225, Hallett) represents an important advance in seedbank management research—mechanistic as well as descriptive studies of seedbank processes. Our proposal was complementary with the above proposals, but is also unique. The above projects were primarily driven by the research team, with some on-farm sites and extension of results. Our project was based on the premise that farmer involvement in the question asking stage (e.g. LNC97-112, Mutch: “Enhancing farmer adoption of sustainable agriculture practices via farmer-driven research”) is critical to generating knowledge that farmers want to use. Our work synthesized current farmer and researcher insights into seedbank management strategies, presented this information to producers throughout the NCR, obtained feedback from these farmers on areas that need more work, initiated on-farm research to fill some of these knowledge gaps, and lead to the creation of a sequel to the decision guide. By involving farmers at each stage of the process, our intent was to keep the information relevant and useful to them. This project addressed the lack of practical information on sustainable weed management by engaging farmers and land-grant professionals in a continuous improvement process. A decision support manual for ecological weed management (Integrated Weed Management: One year’s seeding… E-2931 Michigan State University Extension bulletin) was presented to farmers, farmers were asked to use and evaluate the manual, and it was determined that a sequel to the original decision guide was needed. In the short-term, over 400 producers and extension agents learned to use a practical manual for sustainable weed seedbank management at workshops in MI, IL, and WI. The manual is helping farmers manage the whole weed life cycle, rather than focus on the seedling stage only. In the intermediate-term, over 100 producer-evaluators (PEs) in five states will use the manual to help them manage weeds on their farms and record impacts on their operations. The PEs will diversify their approach to weed management as a result of using the manual. Eleven on-farm trials explored management options for reducing weed seedbanks through sustainable practices. Feedback from producer workshops and PE’s who used the manual on their own farms, in addition to results of on-farm trials, are currently being included in the sequel bulletin to the Integrated Weed Management Guide. In the long term, this project is giving farmers practical alternatives to over-reliance on herbicide resistant crops and chemically intensive post emergence weed control. The rapid loss of hard-won farmer knowledge of integrated weed management is being slowed, or even reversed, as farmers are engaging in the process of making practical knowledge available for their neighbors and for future farmers. Stronger partnerships between farmers and university personnel have been and are continuing to be formed, with better correspondence between farmer needs and researcher activities, resulting in a sustainable agriculture that gains its strength from both human relationships and scientific understanding. This project leveraged SARE funds by building upon the work done in our EPA PESP project to create a working group and draft of the weed seedbank manual. The Farmer Seedbank Management Advisory group met during the winter of 2003/2004 to develop the content for the manual. The manual, “One year’s seeding…”, is not a set of prescriptions. Instead it describes the factors that farmers weigh when making weed management decisions at different stages of the production cycle/weed life cycle. Scenarios are included for various NCR field crops with weed species that the advisory group considered to be most important in each crop. The manual also contains supporting technical information and directs users to additional sources of information on specific aspects of ecological weed management. Our EPA-funded activities will meshed with this SARE project beginning in September of 2004. The overall approach was to take the draft prepared by the working group and to solicit farmer feedback at three levels for improving and revising the manual for publication: 1) response forms at regional workshops, 2) producer-evaluators who are paid to evaluate the manual on their own farms, and 3) on-farm trials to address knowledge gaps identified at the first two levels. Workshops: In the winter of 2004/2005, four EPA-funded workshops were held around MI. Additional workshops, led by Dr. Davis, were conducted in IA, IN, MN, OH and WI. The purpose of these workshops was to train producers and extension agents in the use of the manual. Producer evaluation: From workshop participants, over 100 producer evaluators (PE’s) were selected to evaluate the manual, each evaluator was paid $200 for a complete evaluation. These evaluations were originally going to be used to revise the manual; however, with the amount of additional information requested it was determined that a second complementary bulletin was necessary. On-farm experiments: Eleven grower-designed on-farm trials were conducted to address knowledge gaps identified in the manual. Farmer participants were selected from the working group and from regional volunteers. Seven of the eleven trials took place outside MI. All participants were paid $200/day devoted to the project, for up to 7 days per year. Local university personnel helped growers with data collection. Field Days: The on-farm trials offered the opportunity for field days for local growers to attend and discuss the pros and cons of the management approaches being tested. Field days were held at a point during the field season when maximum treatment differences were expected, with specific timing depending upon the objectives of a particular experiment. In 2005, the extension bulletin “Integrated Weed Mangement ‘One Year’s Seeding…’” was published. Between 2005 and 2007 the bulletin’s 2,000 copies sold out, reaching beyond the North Central Region, spanning from Wyoming to Delaware and into three provinces in Canada. Between late 2004 and early 2006 several workshops were held in Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin covering the topics presented in the extension bulletin. Listed below are the meeting locations, dates, and attendance. Meeting Location, Meeting Dates, and Attendance Dane and Columbia Co., WI 03.09.06 17 Dunn Co., WI 03.10.06 26 Branch Co., MI 02.21.05 60 Clinton Co., MI 03.03.05 28 Gratiot Co., MI 02.01.05 13 Kalamazoo Co., MI 01.28.05 170 Lapeer Co., MI 03.16.05 35 Monmouth, IL 08.17.05 65 Ottawa Co., MI 03.02.05 5 Sanilac Co., MI 03.03.05 25 Tuscola Co., MI 12.20.04 125 With attendance of 569 people to our workshops we exceeded our original short term goal of reaching 400 farmers and extension agents. Evaluations, filled out at the end of 4 of the workshops in 2005, revealed that overall attendees rated their increase in overall knowledge and understanding of weeds at ~3.7 on a scale of 1 to 5 (1= none, 5= a lot). When asked about the likelihood that the information they learned would change the way they managed weeds the average rating was a ~3.6 on a scale of 1 to 5 (1=none, 5= a lot). Based on this feedback and the verbal communications of the farmers at the other workshops, the meetings are proving effective. Currently, we are holding further meetings to introduce the guide to more farmers in MI, IL, MN, and WI. To meet our intermediate project goal, we sent out 110 evaluations to producer-evaluators (PEs) who both attended a workshop and purchased the bulletin. Through these extensive, 21 page evaluations we collected information on improvements that could be made to the IWM bulletin to create an improved second edition. Forty-seven of the evaluations were returned. Comments from growers in regard to the IWM bulletin: – “Over the years I have acquired several books and pamphlets on weeds and the control of weeds. I have ranked your IWM as one of my BEST. Please continue to expand our knowledge on this subject.” (Dennis Kellogg, Carson City, MI). – “I learned a lot of things that will help me in my weed control. I feel more confident knowing more about some problem weeds on my farm. I now know when to spray them so that I can control them.” (Paul Swartzendruber, Pigeon, MI) – “This manual provides a very good start for the complex journey of learning to manage weed populations in a biologically based system.” (John Simmons, North Branch, MI) – “Has a lot of good points in controlling weeds. It will be useful in the years to come. Already use some of the practices and maybe use some of the other ideas that I have not thought of or known about. ” (Anonymous) – “I have been an agronomist for almost 20 years and a CCA for over 15. I sincerely appreciate having a reference that is useful to both the experienced and novice. I learned things reading this book, which was an unexpected and wonderful surprise. I am glad that it goes beyond introductory.” (Anonymous) – “I have seen some good resources on weed control in my 30 plus years of organic farming although nothing compares to the quality of this book. Not only is this a good reference book, it is a book that should be mandatory reading for every organic/sustainable farmer during the winter months when time usually allows for more detailed reading.” (Dave Campbell, Maple Park, IL) A brief survey of the North Central Weed Science Society listserv, that includes weed extension educators and university faculty, showed that the IWM bulletin has been a valuable resource. Comments from extension personnel and university faculty: – “I have used this bulletin quite a bit for extension presentations. The bulletin is extremely helpful.” (Mark VanGessel, University of Delaware) – “I have used the IWM bulletin for extension talks. I also taught Weed Management in the off-campus graduate program, and required the students to buy it for class.” (George F. Czapar, University of Illinois) – “What a great resource. I distribute copies to interested ag producers in the county and the bulletin is well received by those who are actually questioning their farming practice. I have referred the bulletin to the University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension where there was great interest.” (John L. (Lars) Baker, Fremont County Weed and Pest, WY) Overall, the evaluation of the IWM bulletin has shown it is an excellent resource; however, there are still several areas where survey participants thought it could be expanded. Evaluators suggested a ‘Part II’ or ‘Supplement’ to the IWM bulletin, to complement what they currently are using as a reference. In 2007 we obtained funding though the Integrated Organic Program to produce a complementary bulletin. In this sequel titled “Integrated Weed Management: Fine Tuning the Systems” we will address the following areas. – Complex crop rotations for organic growers – Cover crops: positive and negative attributes on weed management, cost/benefit analysis, positive and negative attributes of various covers, seeding rates, planting dates, potential options for no-till production, nitrogen availability for crops and weeds, and implementation into various crop rotations – Manure/compost: effects on weed seed fate, the potential spread of new weeds, weed species shifts, and the potential for increased weed competitiveness – Flaming for weed control: how and when, cost effectiveness, what weeds are controlled at what stages, best conditions, plastic mulches – Biological controls with a focus on grazing – Economic thresholds for individual weeds and weed complexes – Organic farmer profiles: in-depth look at how various organic growers approach successful weed management – On-farm trials from across the North Central Region – Weed profiles: beyond the “Dirty Dozen from the original IWM bulletin Another intermediate goal of this project was to hold on-farm, grower-designed trials to test some of the weed management strategies mentioned in the bulletin. In 2006 and 2007, we funded eleven successful on-farm trials. Four of these trials were in Michigan, 3 in Illinois, 3 in Iowa, and 1 in WI. Projects titles included: – Effects of Corn Planting Time on Weeds (Good Hope, IL) – Intercropping for Weed Control in Corn (Alma, MI) – Intercropping with Buckwheat and Oat in Corn (North Branch, MI) – Cover Crops for Canada Thistle Suppression (Maple Park, IL) – Mulches for Common Purslane Control in Tomato (Urbana, IL) – Ridge-till vs. Conventional-till in Soybean (Harlan, IA) – Cultivator Comparisons for Weed Management (Schoolcraft, MI) – Flaming and Rotary Hoeing in Corn (Creston, IA and Panora, IA) – Flaming and Rotary Hoeing in Soybean (Alma, MI) – Non-synthetic Herbicide for Weed Control in Soybean (West Bend, WI) The results of the 2006 trials from Michigan were presented at the Great Lakes Vegetable and Farm Market Expo in Grand Rapids, MI and a panel of the participating Michigan growers was available for audience questions. The results of all of the 2006 trials were presented at the 2006 North Central Weed Science Society annual meeting in Milwaukee, WI. All flaming trial results were presented at the 2007 North Central Weed Science Society annual meeting in St. Louis, MO. With funds secured from Project GREEEN, the 2007 trial results have been made available at www.MSUweeds.com/publications and advertised through the New Agriculture Network. All of the on-farm trials from 2006 and 2007 will be published in “IWM: Fine Tuning the System” in late 2008 and also will be made available on the web through the New Agriculture Network and MSUweeds.com. The workshops, on-farm trials, and the distribution of the bulletin across the continent continue to help us meet our long term objective of increasing farmer awareness of alternative methods of weed control. We have and are continuing to create bonds between growers and researchers. These bonds have also helped us meet the long term goal of focusing research on farmers needs. The feedback we received from the workshops, IWM bulletin evaluations, on-farm trials, and meeting presentations have indicated an increase in awareness and implementation of sustainable weed control options in the North Central Region. This trend will continue with the publication of “IWM: Fine Tuning the System” in 2008. The increase in knowledge, and thus efficiency, of weed control options in sustainable systems has unquestionably led to a reduction in weed control costs to growers. This project reached over 2,000 growers, educators, researchers, and university students through the bulletin, on-farm trials, web posted trial results, workshops, and meetings. We recommend that farmers look beyond the seedling stage to manage weeds on their farms. Specifically targeting the production and establishment of weed seeds through decreased survival to reproduction, increased predation, increased decay, etc. will help control weeds over the long term. Educational & Outreach Activities Davis, A., K. Renner, C. Sprague, L. Dyer, and D. Mutch. 2005. “Integrated Weed Management ‘One Year’s Seeding…’”. MSUE bulletin E-2931. Areas needing additional study Research still remains to be done on in many areas of sustainable weed management, including: – Resistant weed management – Cultivation based on environmental factors – No-till organic production and weed management – Strategies for increasing weed seed decay and fatal germination – Management of winter annual weeds that act as alternate hosts for pathogens

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The Atlanta Journal and Constitution newspaper estimates that only half of the Jewish “Holocaust survivors” around the world in 1985 had received restitution under the BEG. If this 50% estimate is accurate, it would mean that approximately 5.8 million European Jews survived German persecution during World War II. Such a large number of surviving Jews is not consistent with a German program of genocide against European Jewry. The majority of stories of a Holocaust before WW II appeared in the NYT. And we know now what Walter Duranty (correspondent of the NYT in Soviet Russia and a very good friend of Josef Stalin) did with the Holodomor in the 1930s: He wrote at that time one after another glorious story about Stalin and wonderful Russia and denied that such a thing as the Holodomor took place! And the board of the NYT, true to its so-called independence, printed all those stories proudly in its paper! It was only somewhere in 2004/2005 that the board admitted that all these stories of Duranty were just lying pro-Soviet-propaganda. So, they decided to revoke posthumously the Pulitzer Prize which Duranty had received for his “independent report’ about the circumstances in Russia at that time … The allegation that 6 million Jews died in World War II is today widely considered to be an established historical fact. For example, the Encyclopedia Judaica states, “There can be no doubt as to the estimated figure of some 6 million victims.” The U.S. Holocaust Museum in Washington, D.C. is described in its information sheet as a “living memorial to the 6 million Jews and millions of other victims of Nazi fanaticism who perished in the Holocaust.” However, an analysis of the 6 million Jewish wartime deaths shows that this figure is not the result of any careful investigation, research or calculation. History of the 6 Million Jewish Deaths Figure The 6 million figure of Jewish deaths had been used and predicted long before the end of World War II. An ancient Jewish prophecy had promised the Jews their return to the Promised Land after a loss of 6 million of their people. According to the book Breaking the Spell by Nicholas Kollerstrom, publications and speakers had referred to the death or persecution of 6 million Jews on at least 166 occasions before the end of World War II. For example, the 10th edition, vol. 25 of the Encyclopedia Britannica published in 1902 states: “While there are in Russia and Rumania 6 millions of Jews who are being systematically degraded…” An article in the March 25, 1906 edition of the New York Times worried about the “condition and future of Russia’s 6 million Jews…” The article further states “…the Russian Government’s studied policy for the ‘solution’ of the Jewish question is systematic and murderous extermination.” Max Nordau, cofounder of the World Zionist Organization, warned in 1911 of the “annihilation of 6 million people” at the Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. The New York Times on December 2, 1914, made an appeal for aid for Jews. The paper stated: “The American Jewish Relief Committee, called into being at a conference of more than 100 national Jewish organizations which was held at Temple Emanu-El on October 25 to consider the plight of more than 6 million Jews who live within the war zone…” The figure of 6 million Jewish deaths was used by Martin H. Glynn, the Governor of New York. Glynn wrote an article entitled “The Crucifixion of Jews Must Stop!” that was printed in The American Hebrew magazine published by the American Jewish Committee. In this article Glynn states: “Six million men and women are dying from lack of the necessaries of life; eight hundred thousand children cry for bread. And this fate is upon them through no fault of their own, through no transgression of the laws of God or man; but through the awful tyranny of war and a bigoted lust for Jewish blood.” Glynn’s article was printed on October 31, 1919. The allegation was the “threatened holocaust of human life” was occurring after the Great War. The Chicago Tribune on July 20, 1921 published an article headlined: “Begs America Save 6,000,000 in Russia.” This article claimed that “Russia’s 6 million Jews are facing extermination by massacre. As the famine is spreading, the counter-revolutionary movement is gaining and the Soviet’s control is waning.” The United Jewish Campaign of New York in 1926 set a fundraising goal of $6,000,000 to help the “dying” Jews of Europe. On December 29, 1931 a Montreal newspaper ran a baseless claim from Rabbi Stephen Wise that 6 million Jews faced starvation in southeastern Europe. The New York Times on May 31, 1936, published an article headlined “Americans Appeal for Jewish Refuge.” This article appealed to Great Britain to “…throw open the gates of Palestine and let in the victimized and persecuted Jews escaping from the European holocaust.” Also in 1936, Chaim Weizmann is reported to have said to the Peel Commission: “It is no exaggeration to say that 6 million Jews are sentenced to be imprisoned in this part of the world, where they are unwanted, and for whom the countries are divided into those, where they are unwanted, and those, where they are not admitted.” On January 9, 1938, the New York Times reported another false claim of 6 million Jewish victims of persecution. In an article appearing in the June 25, 1940 issue of the Palm Beach Post, Dr. Nahum Goldmann, who was the administrative committee chairman of the World Jewish Congress, said “if the Nazis should achieve final victory 6 million Jews in Europe are doomed to destruction.” Not a single Jew had been interned and Hitler was still pleading for peace. Yet the so-called Holocaust and the 6 million Jews doomed to destruction was already established. The number of 6 million appeared again on January 4, 1945, when the Jewish chief of Soviet atrocity propaganda, Ilya Ehrenburg, stated that this is the number of Jews that had died in World War II. On January 8, 1945, the New York Timespublished an article in which Jacob Lestchinsky, a Communist correspondent for the New York Jewish Daily Forward, estimated that the Jewish population in Europe had been reduced from 9,500,000 in 1939 to 3,500,000. Lestchinsky stated: “Of the 6 million European Jews who have died, 5 million had lived in the countries under Hitler’s occupation.” How Ehrenburg and Lestchinsky came up with their numbers fully four months before the end of the war is anyone’s guess. Immediately after the end of the war in Europe, an article in the Pittsburg Press on May 13, 1945, headlined “Nazis Destroy 6 Million Jews.” In June 1945, some Zionist leaders were also able to state that 6 million Jews had died during the war. These Zionist leaders made this statement even though the chaos in Europe at the time made any definitive demographic studies impossible. The figure of 6 million Jews who died in World War II reappeared at the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg. The number of 6 million used at the IMT is based primarily on the hearsay evidence given by the written deposition of German SS-bureaucrat Wilhelm Höttl. The verbal but never cross-examined testimony of Dieter Wisliceny, who said that 5 million Jews had died during the war, is also used to substantiate the figure of 6 million. These two men claimed that they heard these statements from Adolf Eichmann, but Eichmann later disputed that he ever made these statements. Thus, the prosecution’s claim at the IMT that 6 million Jews died in World War II is based solely on hearsay evidence from two German SS-bureaucrats seeking exemption from punishment whose only source later said that he never made the statement. The 6 million figure of Jews murdered by Nazi Germany was regarded as a proven fact by the end of the IMT. Sir Hartley Shawcross stated in his closing address that “more than 6 million” Jews were killed by the Germans, and that “…murder [was] conducted like some mass production industry in the gas chambers and the ovens of Auschwitz, Dachau, Treblinka, Buchenwald, Mauthausen, Majdanek and Oranienburg.” Why 6 Million Is an Overstated Number Stephen F. Pinter, who was a U.S. War department attorney stationed in Germany after the war, disputed the claim that millions of Jews were murdered by Germany. In a statement made in 1959, he wrote: “From what I was able to determine during six postwar years in Germany and Austria, there were a number of Jews killed, but the figure of a million was certainly never reached. I interviewed thousands of Jews, former inmates of concentration camps in Germany and Austria, and consider myself as well qualified as any man on this subject.” The eyewitness testimony of Jewish survivors of the German concentration camps is often cited to establish the genocide of 6 million European Jews by Germany. However, the New York Jewish publication Aufbau documents in 1965 that 3,375,000 inmates, the vast majority of whom were Jewish, had survived the German camps and were receiving reparations from Germany. How could there be 3,375,000 survivors of the German concentration camps receiving reparations from Germany 20 years after the war was over if Germany had mass murdered 6 million Jews? Norman Finkelstein, the author of The Holocaust Industry, quotes his mother as asking, “If everyone who claims to be a Holocaust survivor actually is one, who did Hitler kill?” As of January 1984, there were 4.39 million successful individual restitution claims under the terms of the German Federal Compensation Law (BEG) of 1953 and 1956. This law provides monetary compensation to individuals who were “persecuted for political, racial, religious or ideological reasons” by the wartime German government. The great majority of these successful restitution claims were from Jews. Raul Hilberg estimates that about two thirds of the allowed claims had been from Jews. Using Hilberg’s conservative estimate would mean that over 2.9 million Jews had received BEG restitution claims by January 1984. The number of 2.9 million Jewish claimants understates the number of Jews who survived World War II because as of 1985 Jews in Poland, the Soviet Union, Hungary, Romania and Czechoslovakia were not eligible for BEG restitution. Also, some European Jews who survived World War II died before the German BEG restitution law was enacted in 1953. The Atlanta Journal and Constitution newspaper estimates that only half of the Jewish “Holocaust survivors” around the world in 1985 had received restitution under the BEG. If this 50% estimate is accurate, it would mean that approximately 5.8 million European Jews survived German persecution during World War II. Such a large number of surviving Jews is not consistent with a German program of genocide against European Jewry. The Holocaust story also originally claimed that about 4 million Jews died at Auschwitz-Birkenau. As late as 1988, on page 19 of the official Auschwitz State Museum Guidebook, the official figure of 4 million Jews killed at Auschwitz-Birkenau is affirmed. The 4 million Jews who perished at Auschwitz-Birkenau had also been used by the Soviet State Extraordinary Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes, the Supreme National Tribunal in Poland, and the IMT in Nuremberg. The estimate of 4 million Jews who died at Auschwitz-Birkenau was based on the evidence of hundreds of surviving prisoners and the opinion of experts. Scholars such as Israeli Holocaust expert Yehuda Bauer and Dr. Franciszek Piper decided around 1989 to lower the Auschwitz-Birkenau death count. Dr. Piper states in his book Auschwitz: How Many Perished, “Altogether, a total of about 1,100,000 Jews ended up in Auschwitz-Birkenau in the years 1940-1945.” The number of approximately 1 million Jews who died at Auschwitz-Birkenau is most often used as the official figure today, although some researchers such as Jean-Claude Pressac use much lower estimates. By dramatically lowering the figures, the camp curators were in effect admitting that the Communists and other officials had fabricated numbers that were too inflated to be believable. The 4 million Jewish deaths at Auschwitz-Birkenau had to be lowered to approximately 1 million in order to maintain the credibility of the Holocaust story. Since the figure of 6 million Jews who died in German camps is based on the 4 million Jews who died at Auschwitz-Birkenau, one would think that the 6 million Jewish deaths in the German camps should be lowered to about 3 million.However, the official number of Jews dying in German concentration camps remains at 6 million even though this is now obviously an overstated number. Another factor making impossible the official number of 6 million Jews dying in German camps is the fact that thousands of corpses could not possibly have been cremated every day at Auschwitz-Birkenau as is commonly claimed. Ivan Lagacé, manager of a large crematory in Calgary, Canada, testified at the 1988 Ernst Zündel trial that based on his experience it would have only been possible to cremate a maximum of 184 bodies a day at Birkenau. Lagacé stated that the claim that the 46 retorts at Birkenau could cremate over 4,400 bodies in a day was “ludicrous,” “preposterous” and “beyond the realm of reality.” The book The Dissolution of Eastern European Jewry by Walter Sanning is probably the most scholarly study ever written of 20th century Jewish demography, especially in its analysis of World War II related Jewish population changes. Sanning bases his study almost exclusively on Allied, Zionist, and pro-Zionist West German sources. His analysis includes evidence given by the wartime U.S. Assistant Secretary of State, the Institute of Jewish Affairs, the American Jewish Year Book, official census publications, and the pro-Zionist Institute for Contemporary History in Munich. Sanning keeps his book as free of emotion as possible in order to contribute to a genuine discussion underlying the charge of German genocide. While it would be impossible for anyone to give an exact number of Jews who died in the German camps during World War II, The Dissolution of Eastern European Jewryproves that not anywhere close to 6 million Jews died during the war. Sanning calculates that the worldwide losses suffered by Jews during the Second World War are in the neighborhood of 1¼ million. He estimates that 15,967,000 Jews were alive in 1941 before the German invasion of the Soviet Union, and that the Jewish population was reduced to approximately 14,730,000 after the war. Importantly, Sanning shows that many of these Jewish losses were caused not by the direct impact of the war or by a program of German genocide, but by Soviet barbarism. Sanning states that hundreds of thousands of Jews lost their lives during the Soviet deportation to the east or in the Siberian labor and concentration camps. Sanning concludes that the food supply, shelter, and clothing provided to the Jewish inmates in the Soviet camps was woefully inadequate, and that medical attention was almost completely lacking. Sanning’s conclusion is supported by Jewish historian Gerald Reitlinger, who states: “In Southern Siberia the death-rate was very high for…Jews….” According to Sanning’s analysis, more Jews died in Soviet camps than died in German camps during the Second World War. Encyclopedia Judaica, 1971 edition, s.v. “Holocaust.” Blech, Benjamin, The Secret of Hebrew Words, Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1991, p. 214. Kollerstrom, Nicholas, Breaking the Spell: The Holocaust, Myth and Reality, Uckfield, UK, Castle Hill Publishers, 2014, pp. 158-174. Bradberry, Benton L., The Myth of German Villainy, Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2012, p. 198. King, M. S., The Bad War: The Truth Never Taught About World War 2, 2015, p. 42. “The Crucifixion of the Jews Must Stop,” The American Hebrew, Vol. 105, No. 22, New York, Oct. 31, 1919, p. 582. King, M. S., The Bad War: The Truth Never Taught About World War 2, 2015, pp. 69, 83, 203. Bradberry, Benton L., The Myth of German Villainy, Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2012, p. 199. Rudolf, Germar, “Holocaust Victims: A Statistical Analysis,” in Gauss, Ernst (ed.), Dissecting the Holocaust: The Growing Critique of Truth and Memory, Capshaw, AL: Thesis and Dissertations Press, 2000, p. 184. King, M. S., The Bad War: The Truth Never Taught About World War 2, 2015, p. 112. Ibid., p. 149. Hoffmann, Joachim, Stalins Vernichtungskrieg 1941-1945, Munich: Herbig, 1999, pp. 390-393, and in Hoffman, Joachim, Stalin’s War of Extermination 1941-1945, Capshaw, AL: Thesis and Dissertations Press, 2001, pp. 189-190, 402-405. King, M. S., The Bad War: The Truth Never Taught About World War 2, 2015, p. 202. Bradberry, Benton L., The Myth of German Villainy, Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2012, p. 199. Irving, David, Nuremberg: The Last Battle, London: Focal Point, 1996, pp. 61-62. Rudolf, Germar, “Holocaust Victims: A Statistical Analysis W. Benz and W. N. Sanning—A Comparison,” in Gauss, Ernst (ed.), Dissecting the Holocaust: The Growing Critique of Truth and Memory, Capshaw, AL: Thesis and Dissertations Press, 2000, p. 183. Turly, Mark, Inconvenient History, Vol. 1, No. 3, Winter 2009; see also Taylor, Telford, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992, p. 248. Aschenauer, Rudolf (ed.), Ich, Adolf Eichmann, Leoni, Bavaria: Druffel, 1980, pp. 460-461, 473-474, 494. International Military Tribunal, Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, 42 Vols. Nuremberg: 1947-1949. (The “blue series”) / IMT, Vol. 19, p. 434. Stephen Pinter letter in the national Catholic weekly, Our Sunday Visitor, June 14, 1959, p. 15. Stäglich, Wilhelm, Auschwitz: A Judge Looks at the Evidence, Institute for Historical Review, 1990, p. 31. Interview with Norman Finkelstein, by Viktor Frölke, in Salon.com, “Shoah business,” Aug. 30, 2000. See also Finkelstein, Norman, The Holocaust Industry, New York: Verso, 2000, p. 81. Hilberg testimony in Zündel case, Toronto District Court, Jan. 18, 1985. Transcript p. 1229. Atlanta Journal and Constitution, Sunday, March 31, 1985, p. 15A. See also Weber, Mark, “Wilhelm Höttl and the Elusive ‘Six Million’,” The Journal of Historical Review, Vol. 20, No. 5/6, Sept./Dec. 2001, pp. 29-30. Piper, Franciszek, Auschwitz: How Many Perished, Krakow, 1994, p. 37. Duke, David, Jewish Supremacism: My Awakening to the Jewish Question, 2nd edition, Mandeville, LA: Free Speech Press, 2007, p. 287. Canadian Jewish News, Toronto, Feb. 12, 1985, p. M3. See also Kulaszka, Barbara, (ed.), Did Six Million Really Die: Report of Evidence in the Canadian “False News” Trial of Ernst Zündel, Toronto: Samisdat Publishers Ltd., 1992, p. 270. Sanning, Walter N., The Dissolution of Eastern European Jewry, Costa Mesa, CA: Institute for Historical Review, 1990, p. 198. Ibid., p. 199. Ibid., pp. 106-109. Reitlinger, Gerald, The Final Solution, New York: A. S. Barnes & Company, Inc., 1961, p. 499.

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An old town, or historic district, is a town, district, or neighborhood with a significant number of preserved buildings from a bygone era. They often have a nostalgic feel and are considered to be one of the best ways to get a feel for what life was like long ago. The oldest towns have existed since before the beginning of the common era. Several old towns are recognized on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Urban legend: A guided tour in a European city The tour guide: The old towns that exist today are not necessarily the first settlements built at the location. Many of them have been destroyed by fire, war or disasters, and rebuilt several times. Some old towns, such as Düsseldorf, have been restored to their former appearance in recent times. Foreign-language terms for old town: - Arabic: Medina (المدينة - not to be confused with the Saudi Arabian city of the same name). - Catalan: Ciutat vella - Chinese: gǔ zhèn (古镇/古鎮) - Czech: Staré město - Dutch: Oude stad or historische binnenstad - French: Vieille ville, Vieux-(name of town) or Centre historique - German: Altstadt - Indonesian: Kota tua or kota lama - Italian: Città Vecchia or Centro Storico - Japanese: Machinami (街並み or 町並み) - Portuguese: Cidade Antiga, Cidade Velha, Centro Histórico, Centro Antigo - Serbo-Croatian: Stari Grad - Spanish: Ciudad Vieja, Casco Viejo, Centro Histórico or Intramuros - Welsh: Hen dref Old towns usually have narrow streets and even narrower alleys, where pedestrians move more easily than automobiles. Distances are rarely very great, since the town was invariably constructed in an era when most people had to walk everywhere and wasting space by having houses be far apart from another would thus have seemed supremely pointless to the people who built those towns. Pre-modern cities typically had less than 100,000 inhabitants (with a few exceptions, such as Rome, Constantinople, Tenochtitlan and Beijing) and were densely populated, so they are usually less than 1 km across. Due to grade separation, staircases and cobblestone, travellers with disabilities might have difficulties to get through some points. Wheeled suitcases, strollers and bicycles can also be hard to get through. Riding a bike is further complicated by the often dense pedestrian traffic and getting off and pushing it is often the smarter choice if you have to get your bike from one end of the old town to the other. Entering an old town by automobile can be physically impossible, illegal, or at least very difficult. Even if the road is wide enough for a motorcar, some old towns (particularly Quebec City) are built on steep slopes as a cliff-top or hillside location made the city historically easier to defend against a ground or sea attack. Parking a car outside but near an old town can also be difficult and/or expensive. Citizens who have a car at all, usually have a compact model. Some old towns have gotten some connections to public transport, though in many cases they are rather radial lines bypassing the (narrow) historic core and even long distance transport infrastructure such as train stations have often been constructed outside the old town. Where stations were constructed inside the city walls, it was often the determining factor in (at least partially) tearing them down to make room for the rails. The Napoleonic wars as well as the railway boom shortly thereafter are one of the main reasons so many European old towns have no walls any more. Those city walls that survived this double blow were often razed by bombing in the second world war or torn down to make room for cars. In the latter case the former city wall may still be evident in name and orientation of some city streets. Old towns can have architecture not found anywhere else in the world; from the time before internationalized modern styles. Many old towns are dominated by city walls, castles or other fortifications, together with palaces and religious buildings (churches, mosques, temples, synagogues etc.). Non-government profane buildings can be prominent in merchant cities, such as Venice or old Hanseatic towns. In some of the old towns, a building is converted to an art, science, historical or biographical museum. A house where a famous person was born or had lived may become a museum about that person's life and work, giving visitors a chance to see the inside of the building as well as the exhibits themselves. Often, several buildings close to one another are converted to different individual museums. Religious buildings are often still in use for religious functions (though some religious buildings have been "rededicated" from church to mosque or from temple to church or vice versa) but can be open for viewing like a museum when the building is not in use for religious functions which take precedent. Many historically important religious buildings in old towns don't have their "own" congregation assigned to them and if you are of a compatible religious orientation you may very well join a service. Rules for indoor photography vary and can be sensitive or even prohibited as in religious settings (such as the Mayan churches in southern Mexico & Guatemala). Some are free to enter while others charge an admission at varying rates or you decide on a donation basis. Other buildings can be converted into government offices, hotels, retail spaces and for other private uses that offer limited or no public access. Guided tours are offered in many old towns, usually on foot. These give a chance to get a sense of orientation, and a presentation of the town's history and architectures. Several old towns are served by horse-carriage rides, in old-style carriages. These are often costly, far from genuine, and should primarily be considered if a guided tour is included. Several old towns have traditional festivals, connecting to their past heritage. Whether carried on since old times (such as Sechseläuten in Zürich), or made up by posterity (such as the Medieval Week in Visby), they can provide an experience beyond the usual, as well as overcrowded venues. Particularly in (formerly) German-speaking areas Christmas markets are often held in old towns, with some having a tradition of half a millennium or more. Old towns usually contain different kinds of shopping: traditional arts and crafts, antiques, as well as mass-produced souvenirs and mundane shopping. These might be overpriced or less genuine than they seem; if you look for something expensive, take time to compare different shops. As old towns are frequented by travellers, meals can be overpriced and only so-so quality wise. Due to lack of modern utilities, hygiene might be deficient. However, good restaurants can also be found. The best places to eat are places popular with locals. Besides a more authentic dining experience, the restaurant owners have greater incentive to keep people coming back, who might even bring a guest, and to maintain a positive reputation among the locals. Avoid restaurants that are devoid of people as there is a reason why business is lousy there. Be wary of restaurants no local goes to. The accommodation inside the old towns can be limited in size and comfort, compared to the Grand Old Hotels of the late-19th century. The available accommodations can be anything from zero star flop houses to five star boutique hotels or anything in between. Some may even be international chains that fit into the old style architecture. Therefore, rooms are rarely standardized, you should have a look at the room or better yet at several rooms as one may be in better condition in a quieter location than the other, or at least have a description, before you make the deal. As old towns can be packed with people, be aware of common scams as well as pickpockets. Street lighting might be deficient in old towns. As some old towns still have cobblestones, walk carefully when they are wet or you are wearing high heels or pumps (better yet, wear footwear that provides you with good traction). Though some places have extremely safe old towns where you can walk around at any hour of the day or night without concern, there are some cities whose old towns are high-crime neighborhoods or oases surrounded by bad neighborhoods (such as Casco Viejo in Panama or La Candelaria in Bogota, Colombia), where muggings or assaults can happen. In such cases, take care if you are going out, especially if you go clubbing and get drunk at night. Stay on busy, well-lit streets where there are people walking about and don't wander onto deserted side streets. Use taxis to get around if necessary. There are also old towns in conflict zones hit by civil unrest, terrorism, warfare and/or lawlessness where kidnapping is rife or bullets can be flying overhead in every direction (such as those in Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Egypt, etc.). Many of the restaurants, hotels, stores and sights mentioned in those articles (written before the conflict) may be closed or destroyed in the conflict, so inquire locally as to what is still available, or better yet, if you can avoid travel to conflict zones, do not go there in the first place. In peaceful areas that were formerly conflict zones (such as those in the Balkans), there may still be landmines in the surrounding countryside. See the War zone safety article and your country's foreign ministry website on travel safety for further information. Police, paramedics and firefighters might not be able to get their vehicles into these neighborhoods. While the inhabitants of old towns might be used to visitors, they deserve privacy in their usually compact homes. Don't trespass or take intrusive photos. Avoid making noise, in particular at night. Famous old towns This incomplete list includes inhabited urban districts of decent size and population, open to the public, that have remained largely intact since around 1850 (or 1900 in the New World), or have been faithfully restored to that state. Europe & the Caucasus - See also: European history While a few South European cities date back to Ancient Greece or the Roman Empire, most were founded during the Middle Ages (AD 500-1500). Some of these cities were visited by the young elite on their Grand Tour. Some of them bear scars from warfare, especially World War II, when some cities lost as much as 90% of their pre-war buildings. Due to the wars as well as overzealous city planners from the 19th to the first half of the 20th century, some towns that have long lost their former importance actually have better preserved old towns than more notable cities. Several old towns (not least in Germany and Italy) were once independent or de facto independent city-states. Today, just a few of them fly their own flag (e.g., Monaco, San Marino). Others were part of empires, such as the Austrian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, or the Russian Empire. - Albania: Berat, Gjirokastër - Andorra: Andorra la Vella - Austria: Innsbruck, Salzburg, Vienna/Innere Stadt - Azerbaijan: Baku - Belgium: Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, Kortrijk, Leuven, Mechelen - Bosnia and Herzegovina: Mostar - Bulgaria: Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna - Croatia: Dubrovnik, Trogir, Pula, Split - Cyprus: Nicosia, Famagusta, Kyrenia, Limassol - Czech Republic: Prague, Cesky Krumlov, Telc - Denmark: Aarhus, Copenhagen/Indre By, Copenhagen/Christianshavn, Helsingor, Odense, Roskilde, Ribe - Estonia: Pärnu, Tallinn - Finland: Rauma, Porvoo - France: Autun, Avignon, Bordeaux, Carcassonne, Honfleur, Lyon, Limoges, Mont Saint-Michel, Mulhouse, Nantes, Nice, Provins, Strasbourg, Tours, Toulouse, Vézelay, Paris/4e (Medieval Paris, Ile de la Cité, Notre Dame on right side of River Seine); Paris/5e (le quartier Latin/Latin Quarter on left of River Seine); the small medieval towns along the Alsatian Vineyard Route; The Most Beautiful Villages of France - Georgia: Tbilisi, Mtskheta - Germany (see also Hanseatic League) - Bamberg castle and churches galore seat of a formerly powerful archbishop popular with Americans as it is close to a former US barracks, - Cologne with the famous cathedral ("Kölner Dom"), - Düsseldorf Cologne's old rival, rebuilt after the war - Dresden The "Florence of the Elbe" much of it destroyed in the second world war (but rebuilt much like it was before) - Lübeck formerly the heart of the Hanse severely destroyed in the second world war now mostly restored to her former beauty, - Munich/City Center, - Nuremberg a medieval and early modern gem, complete with castle and half timbered houses, even though much of it was destroyed and rebuilt because of World War II. - Quedlinburg old imperial town of the Ottonian dynasty of the 10th and 11th century AD, - Rothenburg ob der Tauber virtually untouched by war since the thirty years war in the 17th century one of the few cities to still have an intact city wall, - Stralsund old hanseatic city, - Trier oldest city in Germany, famous for its Roman Porta Nigra (Latin for black gate), - Wismar another former member of the Hanse - Greece: Athens/Plaka, Corfu, Rhodes - Hungary: Budapest/Castle Hill, Eger, Győr - Italy: See also Medieval and Renaissance Italy. - Kosovo: Prizren - Latvia: Riga - Lithuania: Kaunas, Klaipeda, Trakai, Vilnius - Luxembourg: Luxembourg, Echternach - Macedonia: Ohrid, Skopje/Stara Čaršija - Monaco: Monaco-Ville - Montenegro: Budva, Herceg Novi, Kotor - Netherlands: Amsterdam (Centrum and Canal District), Den Bosch, Delft, Gouda, The Hague, Heerlen, Leiden, Maastricht, Nijmegen, Utrecht, Voorburg, Zutphen. - Norway: Bergen, Trondheim - Poland: Gdańsk, Gniezno, Krakow, Lublin, Poznań, Toruń, Warsaw, Wrocław - Portugal: Aveiro, Braga, Bragança, Coimbra, Évora, Guimarães, Lisbon, Óbidos, Porto - Romania: Iași, Sibiu, Sighisoara - Russia: Derbent, Kostroma, Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov Veliky, Staraya Russa, Saint Petersburg, Suzdal, Vladimir, Vyborg, Yaroslavl - Serbia: Belgrade, Niš, Novi Sad - San Marino - Spain: Avila, Barcelona/Ciutat Vella, Burgos, Cadiz, Córdoba, Cuenca, León, Granada, Madrid/Centro, Salamanca, San Sebastian, Santiago de Compostela, Segovia, Tarragona, Toledo, Ubeda - Sweden: Stockholm/Gamla Stan, Stockholm/Södermalm, Lund, Visby, Uppsala, Sigtuna, Gävle, Karlskrona, Söderköping, Ystad - Switzerland: Basel, Berne, Geneva, Lugano, Saint Gallen, Thun, Zürich - Ukraine: Chernivtsi, Lviv, Odessa - United Kingdom: Bath, Canterbury, Hastings, Gloucester,Southampton, Stratford upon Avon, Edinburgh/Old Town, Oxford, York. Sir Alec Clifton Taylor also noted Berwick-upon-Tweed, Beverley, Bradford on Avon, Bury St Edmunds, Chichester, Cirencester, Devizes,Durham, Lewes, Ludlow, Richmond, Saffron Walden, Sandwich, Stamford, Tewkesbury, Totnes, Warwick and Whitby of specific interest, in a series of BBC documentaries. - Vatican City - Lebanon: Tyre - Iran: Isfahan, Mashhad, Qom, Shiraz - Iraq: Baghdad, Mosul - Israel/Palestine: Akko, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jerusalem/Old City, Jaffa, Jericho, Tiberias - Jordan: Amman - Saudi Arabia: Jeddah, Diriyah, Mecca, Medina - Syria: Aleppo, Bosra, Damascus - Turkey: Adana, Amasya, Antakya, Antalya, Ayvalık, Beypazarı, Bursa, Edirne, Eskişehir (Odunpazarı), Istanbul/Sultanahmet-Old City, Kayseri, Konya, Mardin, Safranbolu, Sinop, Sivas, Tarsus, Trabzon, Urfa - Yemen: Sana'a, Aden, Shibam, Zabid - Bangladesh: Dhaka/Old Dhaka - China: Dali, Dengfeng, Kashgar, Hongcun, Kaiping, Lhasa, Lijiang, Macao, Nanjing, Pingyao, Qufu, Shanghai/Bund, Shanghai/Old City, Suzhou, Turpan, Xian, Xidi, Yinxu, Zhouzhuang - Several parts of China also have "water towns" with many canals and picturesque older buildings; some are within modern cities and some not. One list is here. - India : Allahabad, Ayodhya, Old Delhi, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Mathura, Mumbai/South, Old Goa, Rajgir, Sanchi, Udaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi - Indonesia: Jakarta/West (old Batavia & Chinatown), Jakarta/North (part of old Batavia), Semarang, Solo, Yogyakarta - Japan: Hagi, Kakunodate, Kameyama, Kanazawa, Katori, Kawagoe, Kurashiki, Kurayoshi, Kyoto, Nichinan, Omihachiman, Shimogo (Ouchi-juku) Shiojiri, Shirakawa-go, Fukiya, Takayama, Taketomi, Toyooka (Izushi), Uchiko, Yame, Yanai - Laos: Luang Prabang, Vientiane - Malaysia: Georgetown (historic buildings are mostly from the 19th and early 20th centuries, but that's old for surviving buildings in Malaysia), Ipoh (ditto to remarks on Georgetown's historic buildings), Kuching (again, some 19th-century buildings), Malacca (the small Heritage Area has truly old buildings, dating back as far as the 16th century) - Myanmar: Yangon - North Korea: Kaesong - Pakistan: Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar - Iloilo City - Manila/Intramuros - Capital of the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era, with a collection of Spanish-era buildings and fortifications. Houses the San Agustin Church, inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List - Santa Maria - Its old church is listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. - Sariaya - 19th and 20th-century architecture, most notably Art Deco buildings - Taal - Rural town with a well-preserved Spanish-era town center. - Vigan - UNESCO World Heritage Site - South Korea: Jongno and Jung in Seoul, Hahoe, Yangdong - Taiwan: Jiufen, Tainan - Uzbekistan: Bukhara, Samarkand, Shakhrizabz - Vietnam: Hanoi, Hue, Hoi An - Algeria: Casbah of Algiers, Ghardaïa - Cape Verde: Cidade Velha; Founded in 1462, this is one of the oldest European colonial cities - Egypt: Cairo/Old Cairo, Alexandria, Luxor, Aswan - Ethiopia: Axum (Aksum), Harar - Kenya: Lamu, Mombasa - Libya: Tripoli - Malawi: Zomba - Mali: Djenné, Timbuktu - Morocco: Chefchaouen, El Jadida, Meknes, Rabat, Essaouira, Fez, Marrakech, Tangier, Tetouan, and the Ksar of Ait-Benhaddou - South Africa: Cape Town - Tanzania: Stone Town - Tunisia: Tunis The Americas have some colonial old towns from the time between the European arrival in 1492 and the independence movements of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Most of these are in the Caribbean (current and former English, Dutch, French and Spanish territories), New Spain (modern-day Mexico, Southwestern U.S., Cuba & Puerto Rico) or in the coastal areas of the rest of Latin America. Some colonial cities were actually built in or close to indigenous settlements but hardly any traces of the pre-1492 cities remain today while many were built as centers of trade in the interior such as those in Mexico, Peru and Bolivia as a trade hub for the surrounding silver mines. Many colonial cities in the Americas were planned in a rectangular grid, with a central plaza, and a main street. The rectangular planning continued into the early 20th century, when suburban planning for automobile commuting became dominant. - Barbados: Bridgetown - Bermuda: Saint George - Bolivia: Potosí, Sucre - Brazil: Corumbá de Goiás, Diamantina, Goiás city, Lençóis, Mariana, Natal, Ouro Preto, Olinda, Paraty, Pirenópolis, Recife, Salvador, São Cristóvão, São Luís, Tiradentes - Canada: Lunenburg (dates back to the 18th century, with other buildings from the 19th century), Montreal/Old Montreal (includes 17th-19th-century buildings), Quebec City (the most famous old town in Canada, very reminiscent of European old towns). Ottawa also has some claim to being an old town by Canadian standards, as much of its historical center is composed of old low-rise buildings from the early to mid 19th century, plus other later ones built in a compatible style. - Chile: Valparaíso - Colombia: Bogotá/La Candelaria, Barichara, Cartagena, Jardín, Santa Cruz de Mompox, Santa Fe de Antioquia, Tunja, Villa de Leyva, Zipaquirá - Cuba: Cienfuegos, Havana, Trinidad - Curaçao: Willemstad - Dominican Republic: Santo Domingo - Ecuador: Quito, Cuenca - Guatemala: Antigua Guatemala - Mexico: Alamos, Campeche, Guanajuato, Mexico City/Centro, Xochimilco, Merida, Morelia, Oaxaca, Patzcuaro, Puebla, Real de Catorce, San Cristobal de las Casas, San Luis Potosi, San Miguel de Allende, Taxco, Zacatecas - Nicaragua: Leon and its old arch-rival Granada - Peru: Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cuzco, Lima/Central, Ollantaytambo, Trujillo - Puerto Rico: San Juan/Old San Juan, San German - United States: Baltimore/Fells Point, Boston/Downtown; Charleston SC; Charles Town WV; Eureka Springs, AK; Franklin PA; Frederick MD; Galena, IL; Gloucester MA; Harpers Ferry WV; Leesburg VA; New Orleans/French Quarter; Financial District, New York City, Old Market, Omaha, Philadelphia/Old City, Port Townsend WA; Portland ME/Old Port; Old Sacramento, Salem MA; St Augustine FL; San Antonio TX; San Diego/Old Town-Mission Valley; Savannah GA; Santa Fe NM; Taos NM; Washington, D.C./Georgetown; Williamsburg VA; Virginia City, NV. - See the Old West article for a list of additional cities and towns in the old west. - Uruguay: Montevideo, Colonia del Sacramento - Venezuela: Coro Oceania's old towns are relatively young: the indigenous cultures were not urban, and European colonists arrived in the last few centuries. For instance, Sydney, Australia's oldest city, was only established in 1788.

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Parents and family members advocate for their children and play a leading role in the early enlightenment. They take part in community decision-making and policy-making. Then, organizing activities to improve the safety, health, development, and learning experience of children. Ultimately, parents and families may assume leadership and advocacy roles in the future school environment and the entire community. Family Advocacy Program (FAP) is a unique program for parents who make powerful families for victim children. They are a method between parents and children that provides a safe space for families to explore the five protective factors. These factors help keep the family safe, balanced, and healthy. These programs also help parents and family members have rich and healthy discussions. They provide parents with opportunities to develop friendships outside of school. Staff and parent leaders will choose various themes for the cafe. Family participation activities take place on the site at least once a month. These activities are an excellent way for parents and family members to connect, learn, and take part in school activities. By helping these events from planning to execution to review, parents and families can build their leadership skills besides providing valuable resources to other families. Table of Contents What is Domestic Violence? According to the WHO (World Health Organization), domestic violence is a widespread phenomenon that concerns all forms of psychological, physical, sexual abuse and the various forms of coercive behaviors exercised to control a person who is part of the family unit. It can have consequences in the psychic life of women, men, and children who suffer it. From a physical point of view, domestic violence can cause permanent damage. It leads to sleep or breathing difficulties. The consequences of prolonged domestic violence also leave marks on the relational level because the victims who suffer it lose their jobs, homes, friends, and financial resources. The phenomenon of domestic violence appears to be widespread in all countries and all social groups. The attackers belong to all classes and all economic strata, regardless of age, race, ethnicity. The victims are men, women, and children who rarely report the fact out of fear or shame. Reflections on ISTAT Data In an ISTAT survey (2006) conducted on a sample of 25,000 women, alarming data emerged. Over 6 million women aged 16 to 70 have experienced physical or sexual abuse in their lifetime. 2 million women have suffered domestic violence from their current partner or a former partner, while 5 million women have suffered violence outside the home. The perpetrators of the violence are unknown (15.3%) or superficially known people (6.3%). Sometimes, it is seemingly unsuspected as friends (3%), work colleagues (2.6%), relatives (2.1%), partner (7.2%), or former partner (17.4%). In reality, it is not possible to know the exact number of women who have suffered these terrible experiences because these data relate only to the small number of women who reported the fact to the authorities. We estimate that over 90% of the victims cannot report the fact; precisely it has been estimated that 96% of women who have suffered violence from a non-partner without reporting the fact were, while 93% is the percentage of women who did not report the violence suffered by the partner. A 2005 EURES-ANSA report revealed another consequence of domestic violence. We have discovered that one in 4 homicides in Italy takes place in the family. At home, 70% of the victims are women. And in 8 cases out of 10, the perpetrator is a man. Learning To Recognize The Abuser To defend from domestic abuse, it is first necessary to learn to recognize the typical behaviors of the abuser. We should know that the research conducted on the problem has shown that, contrary to common thought, domestic violence is not always linked to diseases or the chronic consumption of alcohol and drugs. The data confirm that among the cases investigated, only 10% of the abusers were affected by pathological disorders and normally abused toxic substances. People who repeatedly commit violent acts at home usually have only one goal. He wishes to place his victim in a state of subjection because he wants to feel powerful. Exercising command-and-control actions on a family member makes him feel satisfied and confident. His behaviors always have the sole purpose of controlling the entire experience of the partner to strengthen his personal feeling of power. To achieve this goal, he feels he must eliminate everything that could hinder the strengthening of this sense of security. Abusers are usually extremely insecure subjects in social life. They do not have great opportunities for release and fulfilling social relationships. They find it easier to hit family members, especially if family members need them for sustenance. To escape from responsibility for one’s actions, favor oblivion and secrecy because it wants to prevent reassuring social relationships from being created around the victim. In the stories told by the victims of domestic violence, we learn that the victim over time learns to endure horrible events. Thus, they suffer from mental problems that lead to closure and a drastic reduction of his self-esteem to have an attitude overly critical of herself and constantly feeling dissatisfied with her qualities. It is possible to get out of this problem. First, the victim must realize that what is happening at home is a crime. To reach this awareness, she must observe and analyze what is happening around her, learn to be aimed and judgmental towards the abuser. Analyzing the experiences through the stories of those who lived this drama, here are the warning signs - Controls the victim’s movements, projects, and activities, generating social isolation. The victim thus distances himself from the world. It becomes more introverted and begins to no longer love contact with others; - To generate fear often destroys things and objects to which the victim particularly cares. If there are animals in the house, he will also target them; - In social situations, such as in public places or open spaces frequented by other people, the abuser tries in every way to humiliate the victim. One phrase that is easy to pronounce in these areas and that has often been reported by the victims is “You are a madman”. This expression, precisely because of the strength it contains, psychologically increases the victim’s perception of weakness and immediately places him in a condition of passivity; - It often accompanies physical violence with verbal threats, words that have a strong derogatory meaning aimed at making the victim feel invisible and lead to a reduction in self-esteem. Typical phrases can be: “You are stupid”, or “You understand nothing”, “You are not intelligent” or “You do nothing right!”; - Fears the autonomy of the victim. Faced with behaviors that manifest the partner’s desire for autonomy, he resorts to psychological stratagems aimed at nullifying his will. If the victim works and enjoys a certain autonomy, he tries in every way to hinder his serenity in working relationships. The victim can thus develop negative attitudes towards work colleagues, feel difficulty when faced with recent activities, and have problems concentrating. With the lack of family support, he works in constant tension and with a sense of oppression; - Reinforces in the victim servile behavior by repeating to her he/she is the person who commands in the nucleus and that for this reason, we must always respect; - The abuser uses his children to achieve his goals by threatening to take them away if the victim expresses the will to leave the home; - If during a dispute, the victim is injured and tries to put the abuser in front of the evidence of the violence inflicted. He denies the facts of violence; Faced with the victim’s attempts to want to talk to others about the facts that take place at home, the attacker tells her that he is exaggerating and minimizing what happened. He states that “it was just a trivial dispute” and that “such disputes are normal in every couple relationship.” Why is it important to report Domestic Violence? According to the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) survey on violence against women, most women victims of violence do not report their experiences to the police or victim support organizations. Not only that, most of the women victims of violence do not come into contact with the justice system or with other services. According to ISTAT, the reporting rates concern 12.2% of partner violence and 6% of non-partner violence. Reading these data, a question arises. Why don’t women report? The answer is incredibly complex. But above all, the question is wrong, especially when it is asked to the parties concerned. Let’s see why. When we ask a victim for explanations about the violence suffered, instead of providing help, we are practicing victim-blaming. We are making the victim bear the responsibility, even if only partially, for the violence that this has suffered instead of looking at the real responsibility. It is a sensitive issue with sexual violence and domestic violence, where the many flaws in the legal system, but also the lack of awareness and empathy in context. The victim after files a complaint, often leading to the phenomenon known as “secondary victimization”. The victim, perhaps when he finds the strength to report, is subjected to a series of questions. He requests explanations or superfluous details that often lead the person to relive the violence suffered. It is a process that is compared to new violence, leading precisely to this new victimization, called secondary. It happens because we start, often even unconsciously, from the assumption of having to find some inconsistency in the narrative that leads the complaint to lose its foundation, thus undermining the victim’s credibility. It is vital not to underestimate the need for a legal investigation to clarify the case and the complaint. The problem often lies in how these processes are structured and in the sexist prejudices of professionals who risk further torturing the victim. The sentences often include details or observations that have little to do with the case itself even when on the side of the victim they cast doubts on its credibility and divert attention from the problem of gender-based violence as a phenomenon. Another crucial point is precisely the training of professionals who play any role in the path of exit from women’s violence from the police that often has the first contact with health professionals. We must train all parties involved on gender issues to provide maximum help, recognize the signs of violence and act even with the right words. To date, unfortunately, it is not the case. For example, asking a woman who finds the strength to report violence after a long time why she did not do it before creates a dynamic of victim-blaming that shifts the responsibility from the aggressor to the victim. Many testimonies under the #The MeToo hashtag, for example, especially those concerning violence committed several years earlier, have been publicly debunked and criticized by those who commented on that. We can never rule dangerous attacks out in violent relationships. But there are a few things you can do yourself to increase safety for yourself and your children. Not all suggestions for safety planning fit every situation in life. Play through situations in your imagination and find workable solutions for your specific situation. Think about what might be right for you. Always take your intuition and your first feelings seriously. If you feel fear in a situation, do not suppress it, but consider it a warning signal and increase your awareness. It is better to call the police once too often than once too little. The police would rather find you healthy than mistreated and injured. Depending on whether you decide to leave the perpetrator or continue to live with him, different security aspects can be important. - As long as you still live with the abuser - When you prepare to leave your partner - After leaving a violent relationship - If you live in a new apartment - When you have enforced eviction and protection orders and you stay in your old apartment If you live in a violent relationship, it makes sense to create a personal safety plan for yourself. It means that you are better prepared for future crises and have more security and more control over your situation. Trust your instincts. If you see a violent confrontation coming, try to use your security plan to escape the situation. You determine which measures are important to you. We intend the points listed to serve as guidelines and suggestions. If you live with the abuser, you can do the following in an emergency. Then, escape with your children or get outside help. The women’s rights organization drew attention to the lack of women’s shelters in front of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. We need enough places of refuge and uniform and comprehensive funding for women’s shelters, emphasized Maja Wegener, Head of Terre Des Femmes. November 25th has been recognized by the United Nations since 1999 as the International Day of Remembrance against violence against women. This year the motto of the day of action was “Open the door – shelters for all women affected by violence”. According to Terre Des Femmes, domestic violence affects one in four women nationwide. Besides, 82 percent of victims of intimate partner violence are women. Domestic violence is the most common human rights violation in Germany. If those affected wanted to flee to women’s shelters or refuges, they would often have to be turned away due to lack of space. Around 30,000 women and children find shelter in women’s shelters or refugees every year. There has recently been no refuge for at least 9,000 women per year. According to the information, there are currently 6,800 places available in almost 400 women’s shelters and refuge apartments in Germany for women and their children affected by violence. The women’s rights organization spoke of an intolerable situation. Every woman seeking protection must find a place of refuge in Germany, regardless of age, origin, disability, psychological problems, income, residence status, or language skills, demanded Terre Des Femmes. By the time they call the police, women usually have had a long, excruciating path of suffering. By the time they finally get out of a violent relationship, as studies show, they have tried on average seven times to break up with their partner. But getting expert help through a place in a women’s shelter is becoming more and more difficult. Women in need receive this information more and more frequently. Often a referral to other houses that are further away failing. On some days, there is no free women’s shelter available for mothers with children, even across several federal states. Studies also show that they do not admit many women to shelters promptly because they have too few places and are under-funded. About half of the rejected women who seek protection are in an acute and life-threatening situation, head of the research center Gender, Violence, Human Rights at the universities. She calls this failure to provide help. More and more women affected have to stay in the women’s refuge for a year or more, much longer than planned, because they cannot find affordable housing. In its report tabled today, the Committee of Experts on Support for Victims of Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence makes 190 recommendations to improve the handling of complaints, including the creation of a specialized tribunal in this area. According to the authors of the report, it is a priority to improve the psychological and social support of victims and to review the way their complaints are received by the police and judicial authorities. The aim is to better adapt the judicial and extrajudicial system to the treatment of complaints of sexual and domestic violence to restore the public’s confidence in its justice system. The 21 experts who contributed to the drafting of this report also support the initiative of the representatives of the four parties represented in the National Assembly. It proposed almost a year ago to create a tribunal specializing in the treatment of sexual crimes in Quebec. This tribunal would have the particularity of being composed of members specially trained in matters of sexual and conjugal violence. The specialized court would also offer various accommodations to victims to help them testify and shorter processing times to facilitate their often difficult passage through the legal process. To better support the women and men who decide to go to the police station to denounce a sexual assault, the experts recommend that the victims be supported by various interveners, available at all times, not only during the denunciation of sexual aggression but also before and after. Victims should also be entitled to these resources even if they ultimately choose not to file a complaint, argues the Committee. Experts also recommend that people who wish to file a complaint should first have the right to a meeting with police officers and stakeholders responsible for explaining to them the next steps. Then talk about how things will unfold if they decide to go from there. The report also calls for every victim who files a complaint to benefit from a free legal advice session and the services of a lawyer for the filing of evidence or access to specific cases. If prevention has failed and the state has not been able to protect its citizens effectively against crime, it must be ensured that crime victims are effectively helped. Federal, state and a variety of victim services dedicated to this objective with great commitment . The federal states provide general victim assistance within the framework of the federal organization. They are involved in numerous different measures to improve the situation of crime victims and to be able to offer them appropriate help. For example, we can implement through special training for police officers and the appointment of victim protection officers at the police stations, through the establishment of witness care centers, accommodation options for abused women and girls, the provision of information material for crime victims and financial support. Special state foundations and victim offices have been set up in several countries. In addition, there are a large number of non-governmental victim support institutions that are professionally or voluntarily dedicated to looking after and advising people who have become victims of a crime. Taking the victims’ interests into account and ensuring that they have more rights was and is an important legal and political goal. Numerous legislative projects in recent years have further improved the situation of victims and have resulted in victim protection becoming an integral part of the code of criminal procedure. Victims are no longer seen as evidence than they used to be. Victims are people who are often exposed to great emotional stress and who must be treated with a lot of empathy. Victim Advocate Command Assignment Listing Indeed, if the law places certain obligations on insurers. In particular, contact the victim to organize expertise and propose a provision, we must keep it in mind that the regulator inspector can never be the advisor of the victim at all stages. The first role of the lawyer for victims of bodily injury is to explain to the victim all the stages of the procedure for repairing their bodily injury (compensation), with complete impartiality and independence. So, they will have a clear vision of the objectives to reach, and especially when to reach them, precipitation is not recommended. The second role of the lawyer for victims of bodily injury is to support victims at all stages of the compensation procedure, and not only in the event of litigation or litigation. Indeed, contrary to popular belief, the lawyer for victims of bodily injury will intervene both in administrative and judicial matters, but above all, in an amicable or contentious phase, and this, from the start, sometimes even when the victim of the road is still to the hospital. It is the lawyer who will classify a case, presenting the useful medical documents to the experts, accompanying the victim in medical expertise, negotiating each position of damage, financially assessing then the damages, and seize in the event of litigation or failure of negotiations, the judge or the court to make condemn the person in charge to the full compensation of each position of damage. Precisely, we insist on this point because an insurance company will accept some concessions when there are several pressure points. It is an amicable pending negotiation with a risk of referral to a judge in the event of a discrepancy, a criminal hearing in progress. The postponement of the establishment of a medical expertise time to see if we reached an agreement in the civil. So yes indeed this will mobilize several lawyers but in no case unnecessarily, especially if the firm also practices road law. Thus, throughout the amicable phase, the lawyer for victims of bodily injury will not fail to: - request, classify, get all the documents necessary for the constitution of the file, - permanently guide the victim of the accident or his family, - follow the parallel criminal proceedings, attend the hearing and request the postponement of requests pending the outcome of amicable negotiations, - appoint the office of the victim’s medical adviser who will assist the victim during the expert’s report amicable contradictory, - prepare the amicable contradictory medical expertise with the victim (preparation guide), - assess the damage items set in the medical expert report; - negotiate damaged items with the insurance adjuster inspector; - assist the victim in the signing of the transaction Military and Community Resources When a third party asks for compensation for his damage caused by the agent during performing the mission. When the applicant is the victim of a willful criminal offense, by his status as an agent of the State or that of his spouse, ascendant, or descendant; NB. The victim of an accident cannot in principle claim the benefit of legal protection. When the applicant is implicated in a criminal case if it relates to the offense committed to performing the service if the agent has committed no personal fault. Path of a request for legal protection. Each request must be written, dated, signed, and motivated by the person requesting the benefit of legal protection. Hierarchical means to the local litigation service (SLC) on which the person concerned depends must transmit the request and the supporting documents. The SLC acknowledges receipt of the request. If from that date, no decision is notified within two months, this implies an implicit rejection decision. The competent SLC checks the merits of the request. If an agreement is envisaged, if the SLC or the legal protection unit (CPJ) of the legal affairs department (DAJ) considers the request for legal protection justified, it may decide to grant it, which may take several forms: - Direct compensation for the damage caused or suffered; - The delivery of legal advice by the SLC or the CPJ (explanation given on the procedure to be followed, the assessment of the prejudice and damages to be requested during the hearing); - Payment of legal fees and expenses. Once we have granted legal protection, the agent appoints the lawyer they have represented, and the SLC or CPJ then contacts them to establish a fee agreement. - If we consider a refusal When an SLC considers that a request must be rejected or has doubts about the merits of it, it transmits the file to the legal protection unit of the sub-directorate of litigation of the DAJ, which is the only competent to issue rejection decisions. This in turn studies the appropriateness of the request and, after requesting an opinion from the authority on which the requesting agent depends (DGGN, EMAT, EMAA, EMM, DHRMD, etc.), it can take a rejection decision that must be signed by the Director of Legal Affairs or his deputy. Once it has been signed, the CPJ sends the original of the decision to the person concerned by a registered letter with acknowledgment of receipt. The agent will have two months from the notification of the decision to appeal against it.

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A balanced scorecard refers to a “strategic planning and management system” which is used extensively in industry and business, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and even in governments across the world in order to align business activities of such entities to their strategy and vision (Ahmadi & Bagheri, 2016). A Balanced Scorecard is also used in enhancing both the external and internal communications and in the monitoring of organizational performance against the strategic goals. It is important to note that the use of a strategic scorecard evolved during the early use when it was just used as “simple performance measurement” tool to the current total “strategic planning and management” system. 1.1 Background of the Study During the last decade, most researchers and academics have devoted some of their time to increase attention to not only the measurements of organizational performance, but also towards the influence or impact of the “Balanced Scorecard” or BSC on it as well as on the strategic planning (Akhtar & Mittal, 2015). Since it was developed by Kaplan Norton in the year 1992, the use of the Balanced Score Card has been adopted widely by various organizations across the world. In fact, it has greatly evolved from a tool that is used in measuring performance to an instrument used in the implementation of strategy (Lundberg et al, 2016). The use of the Balanced Score Cards has a significant impact on most of the decision makers in both the oil and gas industry. This is attributed to the fact that BSC are used in respect to the achievement of target strategic goals of operation and development by decision makers in the oil and gas industry. The use of BSC helps in the promotion of an organization’s strategy realization and also helps organizations to select the most preferred strategies that can effectively be applied in their specific organizations (Busco & Quattrone, 2015). It can truly be asserted that for the sustainable development of any contemporary enterprise in any business field, then there is need to design not only long-term strategies, but also assure the strategic partnership with associated production units. In the most recent past, the significance associated to the strategic vision of most corporate entities across the world allows has greatly surged (Badiru & Osisanya, 2016). In the modern world, world practice presents a broad range of instruments which make it possible for the harmonization of economic interests for the organizational units. The use of the Balanced Scorecard is an example of such one instrument that is used by decision makers in both the oil and gas industry (Tsaur, 2015). It is important to note that the current balanced scorecard is capable of transforming the strategic plan of organizations in the oil and gas industry from an attractive and passive document to provision of marching orders for such organizations. This is because it provides an effective framework for the performance measurements and also helps decision makers in the Oil and Gas industry to identify what needs to be done as well as what needs to be measured (Subramanian & Gunasekaran, 2015). It also enables executives in the Oil and Gas industry to genuinely execute their set strategies. - Offering the best assignment writing help - Delivering the orders as fast as possible - Providing maximum satisfaction at affordable rates 1.2 Problem Statement The improper application in the use of balanced scorecards has actually emerged as one of the most critical issues facing most of the contemporary organizations across the world (Grant, 2016). Despite the fact that most of the organizations across the world have adopted the use of BSC, the improper use of this vital influential idea has made some of such organizations lose on the benefits attributed to its constant use (Heinzelmann, 2015). Despite the fact that the BSC was established with the aim of helping executives and managers to have an additional strategic “non-financial measures” to the traditional financial metrics, it is quite unfortunate that most of these leaders have failed to use it in order to have a clear view of their organizational performances (Rahdari, 2016). Even though the major aim of the BSC is to help executives and decision makers of management in the Oil and Gas Industry effectively execute their duties and strategies, it is quite unfortunate that some of the managers have not fully embraced its use (Kirwan, 2015). Even though the most recent study that was carried out by “Bain &Co” actually named the balanced scorecard as being the fifth on the top ten management tools that were widely applied across the world (White et al, 2016). It is quite unfortunate that some of the organizations have not yet realized the importance of a BSC (Tsagarakis et al, 2015). Indeed, BSC was also selected by a team of editors working at Harvard Business Review as being one of the most “influential business ideas” that have ever occurred for the past seventy five (75) years (Chiarini, 2016). The improper use or application of BSC by organizations across the world have made some of the decision makers of management in the Oil and Gas industry to fail to recognize some of the vagueness and weaknesses of the previous management’s approaches (Prince & de la Harpe, 2015). It is quite apparent that some of the decision makers working in the oil and gas industry to fail in having a clear and comprehensive prescription regarding what ought to be measured so as to have a financial perspective of their respective organizations in a balanced manner (Kumar, 2016). Failure to effectively apply balanced scorecards by decision makers in the oil and gas industry has had a negative impact on the affected organizations (Bellamy, 2015). This is because it has made such decision makers to become unable to effectively clarify both the strategy and mission of their industries (Hossan et al, 2016) .This ensures that they are ultimately transformed into desired action by relevant stakeholders (Wibisono et al, 2016). 1.3 Research Objectives The aim of carrying out this research study is to: • To ascertain the improper application and use of balanced score sheet on decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry. • To ascertain why the improper application of balanced scorecards by decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry can have a negative impact on the organizations. • To ascertain the importance and positive effects of using balanced scorecards by decision makers in the oil and gas industry. 1.4 Research Questions • What are the effects associated with the improper application and use of balanced score sheet on decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry (Agarwal et al, 2016)? • How can the improper application of balanced scorecards by decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry have a negative impact on the organizations affected? • What are the importance and positive effects of using balanced scorecards by decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry? 1.5 Significance of the Study This study is quite important because it will help in providing information to stakeholders in the oil and gas industry regarding the negative effects that are linked with the improper application as well as use of the BSC by decision makers and thus help them to take corrective actions that will help in enhancing their operations (Baumworcel et al, 2016). This study is quite essential in the contemporary society because it will aid in the provision of important information on why it is good to decision makers in the oil and gas industry to apply the used of Balanced Scorecards (Gibbons & Kaplan, 2015). This is because it will provide information regarding the different types of balanced scorecards and help them in ascertaining which one may work the best in their respective organizations. The study is also quite important because it will assist stakeholders in the oil and gas industry to have a greater understanding of both the positive and negative impacts of using the Balanced Scorecard. 1.6 Scope of the Study This research study will be limited to the top management of companies and organizations in both the gas and oil industries because they are the ones who are responsible with the developing and implementation of policies and strategies that are ultimately used by their respective organizations. In addition to that, the study will also be limited to only the gas and oil industries because it was ascertained that they are the ones which have not effectively embraced the use of BSC in their organizations. 1.7 Operational Definition of Key terms Effect- An Effect refers to Balanced Score Card - This refers to a strategic planning as well as management system used in organizations to align their business activities with their strategy and vision. Scorecard- This refers to a statistical record that is used in the measurement of progress or achievement towards a specific goal (Crutzen, N., 2016). Decision maker - This refers to an individual who is tasked with the responsibility of deciding things or issues especially at high organizational levels within a specific organization. It can also imply to a person who faces extreme pressure and long hours in a position as being an organization’s “top decision-maker”( Haleem, 2016). A decision maker can also be defined as an individual who is tasked with the responsibility of administering a specific organization or business entity. Management : Management refers to a process of controlling or dealing with people or things. Management can also be defined as a composition of interlocking functions of developing corporate policy, planning, directing, controlling, and organization organizational resources so as to achieve the policies of a set objective. 1.8 Organization of Chapters This research paper is composed of five major chapters. Chapter one of the research paper deals with the introduction in which the definition of the Balanced Score Card is given. Chapter one also deals with the background of the study, problem statement, research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, scope of the study, operational definition of the major terms which have been used, and finally, it presents a summary of the whole chapter. The second chapter of the research paper is the literature review and it presents previous information regarding the issue of Balanced Scorecards and offers a discussion on why there is need for organizations to have balanced scorecards. In addition to that, the second chapter of the research paper also offers a discussion on the various types of the balanced scorecards and also offers a discussion on the perspectives of the balanced scorecards. The steps that are involved in the developing and implementation of the balanced scorecards in organizations as well as the types of decisions, decision making process in organizations, among other aspects have also been discussed in the second chapter. This chapter has effectively discussed the meaning of the terms “balanced scorecards” and offered a general overview regarding the other chapters of this research paper. The reason as to why this study has been carried out has also been well discussed in the chapter thus giving readers a background knowledge regarding what the research paper is all about through research objectives. Buy Assignments 2.0 Literature Review This chapter is indeed a detailed review of literature which is related or associated with the subject of the effects of balanced scorecards on the Decision makers of Management in the oil and gas industry. It is based on previous studies, decision making processes, and the effect of BSC on decision making. 2.1 Previous Studies In order to effectively manage as well as deploy various organizational resources to both deliver and achieve organizational objectives or goals as was required by management and finance professionals, different tools were evolved (Lachmayer et al, 2016). Such tools, frameworks, and techniques were evolved in order to help managers included among others total quality management, performance prisms, values based management, and the balanced scorecard (Ward & Peppard, 2016). The balanced scorecard was developed with an aim of enhancing the corporate performance of organizations. The BSC was initially developed as a “performance measurement tool” but as of now, it is increasingly associated or linked with the implementation of strategy (Thekdi & Aven, 2016). This is because it highly acts as a framework of management that has the potential of both identifying and exploiting their major value drivers of organizations to their own “best strategic advantages” (Murthy, 2016). It has been ascertained that the using of traditional or conventional structures of Balanced Scorecards for both the national oil as well as gas companies across the world is rarely reasonable (Idemudia, 2016). This is attributed to the fact that their exterior and interior communication formalizations and businesses are marked with peculiarities and complicacies (Joshi & Li, 2016). The use of BSC by management in the oil and gas industry is very vital because it is through it that translation of strategy into specific measures and objectives which are effectively linked in a “causal chain” of lagging and leading indicators that cover four major scorecard perspectives are achieved (Pacheco, 2016). The oil and gas sector has actually emerged as one of the most important players in the economy of some countries such as South Africa and Russia. It is therefore important to come up with a sustainable “balanced scorecard” that is capable of addressing the needs of oil and gas industries in the affected countries. According to previous studies (Sadiq et al, 2016), it was ascertained that some of the oil and gas companies across the world actually incorporated issues to do with sustainability in their integrated reports with specific attention on their social aspects (Gray & Alles, 2015). It was thus recommended that there is need to incorporate “traditional balanced scorecard measurements” so as to make sure that sustainability is effectively linked towards not only the financial objectives, but also to the general objectives of the oil and gas companies. The oil and gas industry was faced with numbers numerous challenges which made researchers to come up with a “significant amount” of literature regarding the issue of balanced scorecards (Wanderley et al, 2016). However, it was quite unfortunate that such studies actually differed from one specific country to another one thus making them to become deficient due numerous methodological shortcomings like bias in relation to the chosen samples of organizations, unreliable estimates, and low response rates. This research paper considers some of the most recent and updated developments in the thinking of scorecards especially in the major role of “strategy mapping” (Abdalla et al, 2016.). It is important for all and sundry to note that the use of balanced scorecards has indeed developed from time immemorial in order to support the various organizational missions such as the maximization of profits to optimization of resources. Many organizations in the gas and oil industry have now realized the importance that strategic values lies not only in their personnel, but also in their processes, systems, as well as their abilities to innovate. It is important to note that the balanced scorecard usually retains the traditional or conventional financial measures which tell the story regarding past events (Akhtar & Mittal, 2015). Unlike before when it was thought that investment in the long term customer relationships and capabilities were not essential for the success of organizations; this is not the case in the contemporary modern society (Lundberg et al, 2016). This is because despite the fact that the financial measures may be inadequate, they are capable for both guiding and even evaluating journeys which companies, those in the oil and gas industry included must made so as to develop future innovations, technology, and processes (Ahmadi & Bagheri, 2016). 2.2 Balanced Scorecards Balanced scorecards are performance measurement system that helps organizations or companies to effectively translate their strategies and visions into action thus providing a comprehensive and integrated overview of the organizational performance (Badiru & Osisanya, 2016). Balanced scorecards are an essential part and parcel of a business enterprise because they provide systems that are capable of measuring the current performance of organizations as well as the “drivers” for an organization’s future performance (Tsaur et al, 2015). The use of Balanced Score Models by decision makers in the oil and gas industries is important because they help in the enhancement of performance (Busco & Quattrone, 2015). The use of BSC by decision makers of management in the gas and oil industries is critical in helping managers pin together just some few sets of critically and strategically developed measures in a single report (Gardas et al, 2017). This is indeed quite important because it not only helped in making the “cause and effect” relationships become transparent, but it also helps managers to avoid placing too much attention on the enhancement of one specific measure at the expense of the other ones (Nenonen et al, 2015). This process is indeed a good method for the application of both financial and non-financial measures (Muruvan et al, 2016). This is because it helps decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry to communicate several and linked organizational goals (Rashidi & Mohammadi, 2015). Such goals must be reached in order to achieve the targeted long-term objectives (Subramanian & Gunasekaran, 2015). Getting Top Grades is No Longer a Dream for You. 2.2.1 The Need for Balanced Scorecards Balanced scorecards are quite important because they help managers in the oil and gas industries have a closer analysis of their business entities or organizations from four major and important perspectives. These perspectives are financial perspectives, internal business perspectives, customer perspective, and the learning and innovation perspectives. The combination of both financial as well as non financial measures by business managers in the oil and gas industries helps them to make vital decisions that can help in the enhancement of business operations (Baki, 2016). It is prudent for all and sundry to note that the combination of customer, financial, organizational learning perspective, internal processes, and balanced scorecards aid managers to comprehend many relationships. There is high need for having balanced scorecards for decision makers working in the oil and gas industry because it helps them to transcend conventional notions regarding any functional barriers thus resulting in enhancing problem solving and decision making in their organizations. 2.2.2 Types of Balanced Scorecards/Balanced Scorecards Perspectives The four major BSC perspectives are: Financial Perspective-This effectively helps in identifying how a business entity wishes to be regarded or viewed by its different stakeholders. Financial measures are actually the oldest and most commonly used tools of measurement in management (Nachtmann et al, 2015). Customer Perspectives - This represents the association or relationship between customers and an organization. This is because the core of “any business strategy” lies in its customers. “Internal Business Process Perspective”- this mainly focuses or places major attention on internal processes of an organization that will not only have a great impact on the satisfaction of customers, but also on an organization’s financial objectives (Haas & Yorio, 2016). There are seven major steps that are used when implementing balanced scorecards and these include: The learning and Growth Perspective-this emanates from 3 principle sources namely systems, organizational procedures, and the people. 2.2.3 The Steps of Implementing Balanced Scorecards A balanced scorecard is quite essential because it offers an effective platform for deployment of strategy through the alignment of both people and processes. Step one-Training and Executive Commitment It is important to note that for any BSC concept to be successfully implemented, then a clear comprehension of such concepts by the top management of companies in the oil and gas industries is required (Tong et al, 2015). Lack of effective understanding of such a concept implies that the concept will be implemented wrongly. Step Two: Finalization of the Strategy Map It is important to note that there is always a fixed structure that is used in the presentation of the balance sheet or financial structure but however, there is no specific structure that can be used in presenting strategy. Every methodology used in developing strategy by the oil and gas companies must always be validated. Step Three: The Preparation of the Balanced Score card Most of the strategies are usually stated in statements or words and so there is need to ensure they are translated into “operational language”. This is helpful in helping meet the organization’s targets and identification of initiatives. Step Four: Departmental BSC preparation It is important to ensure that each and every department is well aligned to its specific processes or strategies Step 5: Preparation of Individual Score Cards Individual score cards or ISCs should be prepared based on the activities or resposbilities of individuals (Stenström et al, 2015). Step Six: Gap Analysis/ Stretching Targets The individual score cards as well as the BSCs targets should be fixed in a systematic or logical manner. Step 7: The Review Process Actual benefit or effectiveness of the BSC can only be achieved or attained using an effective review process. 2.3 Decision Making At organizational level, minor decisions that are embraced today are capable of having disproportionately and unforeseen major consequences on an organization. That is why it is important to ensure that viable decisions are made in order to avoid the organization in trouble in future (Grant, 2016). One major way through which executives are capable theoretically making life simple is through having a look at the process of decision making using a financial prism (Darvill & Lindo, 2016). 2.3.2 The Decision Making Process Making decisions using a balanced scorecard is very important and beneficial for an organization (Crutzen et al, 2016. It is therefore important to ensure that decision makers of management in the oil and gas industry makes wise decisions regarding important issues that are prone to affect the company not only during the present periods but also in future to increase productivity and profitability. 2.3.3 Types of Decisions There are various types of decisions that can be made in an organization and these include the non-programmed and programmed decisions, strategic and routine decisions, operational and tactical decisions, group and individual decisions, minor and major decisions, and personal and organizational decisions (Duncan & Natarajarathinam, 2016). It is important that decision makers opt for best decisions. 2.4 Balanced scorecards and its Effects on Decision Making Balanced scorecards play a vital role on decision making in the oil and gas industry because it helps decision makers to have a tangible structure that can be used in guiding them during the measure selection process (Rahdari, 2016). It also helps decision makers in the gas and oil industry to be in a better position of indentifying and systematically considering the criteria that can be used as alternatives such as measures. Balanced scorecards have a significant impact or effect on the decision making process because they provide a support through which the use of “multi-criteria tools” can be applied thus leading to better quality decisions in the oil and gas industry (Heinzelmann, 2015). The use of balanced scorecards should never be underscored in the decision making processes of the gas and oil industries because it will help decision makers to have a better comprehension of various issues that are associated with organizational problems at hands. 2.5 Theory of the Study The Balanced scorecards were based on the Early Metric Driven Incentives or MDIs which were heavily focused on an organization’s financial aspects through either claimed to increase their profits margins or minimize the costs (Harpe et al, 2015). However, they were not always successful since they could drive the costs down at the expense of quality. Two very eminent doctors known as David Norton and Robert Kaplan evolved the “Balanced Scorecard system” from the early metric driven incentives and thus jointly led to the production of a groundbreaking book during the year 1996 (Idemudia, 2016). It is quite crucial to note that other notable gurus have also jumped on the band wagon of the issue of the Balanced Scorecards and thus produced various books that are purported to be definitive books regarding the issue of balanced scorecards (Kumar, 2016). 2.6 Studied Companies’ Profile Exxon Mobil is one of the largest publicly traded companies in the world that deals with both oil and gas. The company provides energy which is fundamental in underpinning the growing economies and enhancing the living standards of people around the world. By revenue, ExxonMobil is actually the largest company and largest corporation based on its capitalization market. The major aim of the company was to ensure that it increased its return on the capital and through market research, the company realized that the price sensitive consumers indeed represented about only 20 percent of the gasoline purchases while the consumer segments were represented by approximately 60% of the total market (Valmohammadi & Sofiyabadi, 2015). Having got such information, the company realized that it had to embrace a differentiated value proposition in order to succeed. As a result, it executed a new strategy which was aimed reconstructing the company from a “centrally controlled manufacture’ of goods products towards a customer driven and decentralized organization. “The Gachsaran Oil and Gas Exploitation Company” The balanced scorecard was used in measuring the performance of this company through ascertaining the attitudes of the shareholders and also through measuring the internal perspectives of the company. It was also used in measuring the extent at which the customers saw the company and how best they can continue enhancing and creating their values through innovation and learning. This was done through the use of financial measures and indicators such as the dividends, market value, debts, the average credit sales that were made daily, and the stock price of the company’s shareholders. If your dream is to get top grades, get a rewarding assignment service from us.Brilliant Assignment Services Toll Free: +61 879 057 email@example.com Based on the above information, it is quite apparent that the issue of balanced scorecards started a long time ago and that it has been undergoing tremendous changes to what it is today. It is quite apparent that any organization which exists in the contemporary society cannot underestimate the importance associated with the implementation of balanced scorecards in ensuring organizational success (Antarkar, 2015). Based on this chapter, it can also be truly asserted that decision making is a critical process in any organizational because it affects how the organization will be in present and in its future form. It is therefore important that decision makers in the oil and gas industry embrace the best balanced scorecards that will help them achieve their set objectives. It is an obvious fact that balanced scorecards play a vital role in ensuring organizational success and therefore it is important for all decision makers and relevant people to ensure that they embrace the best tools that can be used in decision making processes. - Ahmadi, S. and Bagheri, M., 2016. Identifying and Giving Priority to safety, Health and Environment Indexes: In the framework of balanced Scorecards and indicating their relations in Zagros Oil Company. Journal of Current Research in Science - Akhtar, M. and Mittal, R.K., 2015. Implementation issues and their impact on strategic performance management system effectiveness–an empirical study of Indian oil industry. - Al Sahi AL Zaabi, M.S., Ahmad, K.Z. and Hossan, C., 2016. Authentic leadership, work engagement and organizational citizenship behaviors in petroleum company. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management - Arthur, D., Schoenmaker, R., Hodkiewicz, M. and Muruvan, S., 2016. Asset Planning Performance Measurement. In Proceedings of the 10th World Congress on Engineering Asset Management (WCEAM 2015) - Badiru, A.B. and Osisanya, S.O., 2016. Project management for the oil and gas industry: a world system approach. CRC Press.

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This document was prepared by Martha Lyon for the Ipswich Historical Commission as part of the Old North Burying Ground Preservation Plan. Download as PDF Beginnings – 1634–1798 The Old North Burying Ground dates to the early 1600s, and the founding of the Town of Ipswich. Puritans had come from England in the summer of 1630 aboard a fleet of eleven ships led by John Winthrop. They settled in sites along the coast, including the area between Cape Ann and the Merrimack River. In 1634 a portion of this area was incorporated as the Town of Ipswich. One of the first orders of business for the settlers was the establishment of a place to inter the dead, a task they accomplished in 1634. Waters, in Ipswich in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, noted, “Our fathers selected a goodly spot, the old ground at the foot of the sunny-hill slope on High Street.”1 The “burying place” stood at the westward limit of the settlement, and although its precise size is unknown, it likely occupied approximately 1.325 acres. The first known interment was that of Martha Winthrop, the first wife of John Winthrop, Jr., who passed away in 1634. In 1707, the town bought 0.375 acre on the east side from Mr. Shoreborne Wilson, bringing the acreage to approximately 1.7. According to Waters, several encroachments were made on the burying ground by adjacent property owners after its establishment, resulting in an irregularly–shaped lot. Local tradition holds that the paved walkway leading through the center of the burying ground stood at the western edge at this time and that underneath this path is a common grave, used for the first cold winters. Bush, in The Olde Burying Ground – 1634 – Ipswich, stated that, “In the fall while the soil was still soft enough to dig, a large grave was dug with the capacity to hold the remains of all those who pass away during the winter months when the ground was too hard to dig. In a shed to the east the soil from the grave was stored with the means to warm it up enough to cover the dead. Gravestones were later erected in the location where the body should have been buried but was not. The deceased remained in the mass grave unmoved.” Embellishment – 1799–1858 Between 1799 and 1858, several amendments appeared to change the physical appearance of the burying ground. In 1799, Jeremiah Day sold the town three acres located on the west and north sides, enlarging the property to approximately 4.7 acres. In the same year, the town voted to allow calves and sheep to be pastured in the burying ground, with the rights awarded to the highest bidder. Also at this time, the town set up a committee to explore construction of a fence around the property. Beginning in 1802, families added private tombs along the slope running east to west through the center of the property, turning the slope into a retaining wall-type structure. Daniel Noyes constructed the first tomb in 1802 near the far eastern end of the slope, and the others followed between 1836 (Haskell tomb) and 1848 (Brown/Worcester) tomb). Historical records suggest that the terraces, constructed on the slope rising to the north above the tombs, appeared at this time. During this period, the church remained in control of the burying ground, overseeing burials and managing care. Beginning in the 1830s, citizens publicly raised concern about the condition of the burying ground. In 1839, an appeal was made through the local paper for better care. The writer noted, “hardly a tree or shrub has been planted since my boyhood. Sheep bleat mournfully among the tombs and hoofs of cattle tramp down the graves. The monuments have been wantonly broken down and scattered into fragments.” The 1856 Walling map of Ipswich showed commercial operations including a shop and a store, along High Street abutting the burying ground’s east and west corners. Today, the Old North Burying Ground extends across exactly 4.731 acres. On May 2, 1859, the parish transferred the 4.7- acre burying ground, including the terraces, to the Town of Ipswich. According to Waters, the town “proceeded at once to improve the grounds, rebuild walls and repair fences.”In 1861 the town erected the iron fence at the “ancient High Street yard,” and for the next several decades made many improvements to the landscape. In the 1870s, the town planted maple trees and made repairs to the tombs in the 1880s. The steps leading from the lower portion of the burying ground through the terraces may have existed as early as the 1870s, the first sets being constructed of wood. By 1900, the town had invested in granite for the steps, as noted in the Town of Ipswich Annual Report.In 1919, the Annual Report included a tabulation of the cemetery trust funds, which totaled $19,350.00.13 In the 1930s as part of a Works Progress Administration (WPA) project, Ipswich engaged unemployed workers to perform maintenance tasks and to document the burying ground. Crews removed dead wood and trimmed trees, and repaired broken headstones. In 1934, the Annual Report noted that workers had straightened and cemented old stones, and put the old tombs in first class sanitary condition.It also reported that a wall was constructed along one of the terraces to control erosion. Momento Mori, published in 1935, reported: “during the summer of 1934, as a project to supply work for the horde of local unemployed, an ambitious project was started to “restore” the Old North Burial Yard. The work was begun and some 300 ancient stones were uprooted from the dust which they marked and hallowed, sorted according to size, and replaced in straight rows, orderly to be sure, neat without a doubt, but quite at odds with all historical and sentimental precedent. “When we learned of this project, eminently worthy in intent through disastrous in its results, we…protested against this unusual procedure. The result was that the stones were replaced on the graves where they had been first erected. In this work the local administrators of the project gave the most whole-hearted co-operation, received suggestions in the most kindly spirit, and on the whole, despite the unfortunate beginnings, the work was reorganized, the stones handled under our supervision, weak ones repaired, cement foundations placed under those where it was deemed necessary and prudent, several ancient tombs in danger of collapse rebuilt and permanently sealed, as task which, in the ordinary course of town expenditures, could never have been provided for by funds received from ordinary taxation. “Had it not been that we had completed our preliminary work, viz, charting and copying every stone, the project would have resulted in disaster for it would have been impossible to replace the stones on the graves to which, in the course of nature, they belonged.” The W. P. A. workers compiled two detailed maps of the burying ground, one containing the veterans’ graves, and a second showing every grave. They also compiled plot cards for each individual grave. Modernization and Decline – 1941-2014 Between 1941 and 2014 the town added contemporary features to the burying ground. Beginning in the 1940s, crews resurfaced roads in all of the town-owned cemeteries with “bituminous products.” Tarring of roads continued into the 1950s, and the 1960 Annual Report noted that “two tons of hot-top were applied to the center walk in Old North.” This material introduced a modern element into the historic landscape. Other measures taken by the town complemented the historic landscape. In attempt to control erosion on the terrace slopes, the town introduced plantings of Hall’s Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) as slope stabilizers in the early 1940s. In 1948, the town planted tulips within the burying ground. In 1957, two of the brick crypts were rebuilt. The retaining wall along the top terrace was rebuilt to protect the roadbed that runs parallel to it in 1979. The Old North Burying Ground today. Many stones are tilted or have fallen, and the central pathway is in poor condition. In 1980, the historic properties along High Street, including the Old North Burying Ground, were added to the National Register of Historic Places. Beginning in 2013, the town, acting through its Historical Commission and an informed and concerned citizen, began to recognize the need to step up efforts to preserve the burying ground. The commission applied to and was awarded an Essex National Heritage Area grant to assess and make conservation treatment recommendations for several headstones in the oldest section. And in 2014, the commission received a grant through the Massachusetts Preservation Projects Fund of the Massachusetts Historical Commission to compile the foregoing Preservation Master Plan. With this plan, the town aims to take a phased approach to preserving Old North, one of the oldest intact resources in Ipswich. Historic Landscape Styles As summarized above, the Old North Burying Ground landscape evolved slowly over the course of nearly 400 years, and with this evolution came a change in its physical character. Americans’ approaches to commemorating the dead shifted during the time, and subtle variations in the burying ground landscape reflect these shifts, as follows: Colonial Burial – Approximately 1.3 acres – Sections C, D, and E. The earliest burial areas, located to the east of the central pathway and south of the first terrace, exhibit characteristics of 17th and 18th century American burial. Single graves dominated, marked with portal-shaped tablets made from native slate and intricately carved by local or regional artisans. Graves were arranged in rows and often, unrelated individuals were interred adjacent to one another (the burying ground was not pre-plotted and graves were not pre-sold). Typically, Colonial burial grounds did not contain roads or paths, and trees consisted of native species. Fences and/or stone walls often enclosed the site. Victorian Burial – Approximately 3.4 acres – Sections A, B, F, G, and H. With additions of land in the 18th century to the west and north sides of the burying ground, the landscape 22 The High Street National Register District, established in 1980, includes 73 properties extending from North Main Street (at the east end) to the High Street Bridge (on the west end). Colonial style burial featured portal-shaped tablets marking individual graves, shaded by native trees. Victorian burial featured family plots, marked by central obelisks and outlined by walls, copings, or curbing began to assume the look of a more modern cemetery. Some of the land, and especially that on the terraces, was planned and plotted, and the plots sold to families. Owners outlined their plots with fencing, curbing, or coping, and placed a prominent monument at the center (often surrounded by smaller gravestones for individuals). Material shifted away from slate and towards marble and granite, and carvings displayed Victorian imagery. Roads and paths were introduced to provide carriage ways, and typically followed the contour of the land. New species of trees appeared, many originating in Europe and/or Asia, reflecting the impact of the growing American nursery industry and large import of plants from overseas. Period of Significance The period of significance for the Old North Burying Ground spans the years 1634 through 1940. During this time, the property was established, grew to its present-day size of approximately 4.375 acres, and acquired its character-defining features including the iron fence, private tombs, earthen terraces, granite steps, and hundreds of locally-carved gravestones. After 1940, the bituminous pathway appeared and the landscape entered a phase of general decline. Efforts to preserve the burying ground should adhere, as closely as possible to this 1634 through 1940 period of significance. Chronological History of the Old North Burying Ground 1634. Ipswich, named for the merchants of Ipswich, England, was incorporated and the first meeting house was built. (350th) Note: this meeting house was re-built several times – 1646?, 1702 (on the North Green), 1749 (also on the North Green) “Our fathers ‘selected a goodly spot, the old ground at the foot of the sunny-hill slope on High Street and the year, 1634, saw a very sorrowful company gathered about a new grave somewhere there, for Martha, the young wife of John Winthrop, Jr., lived but a year after the settlement was begun, — the very first, perhaps, to be laid to rest there.’” (Waters, pp. 13-14) “The burying place” was agreed upon as the westward limit of the settlement. (Waters, 374) (It is likely that this site consisted of approximately 1 acre although record of its precise size has not been found.) 1635. High Street was laid out, and a foot-bridge spanning the river was constructed. Houses were built within one-half mile of the meeting house. (350th) Town records indicated that land was set aside for the purposes of burying the dead. (Felt, 194) 1641. A map of Ipswich Village in 1641 showed the cemetery abutted on the west by George Smith and the east by John Cross. 1700. Ipswich’s population totaled approximately 1,800. (350th) 1707. The town bought another (3/8 acre) ¼ and 1/8 acre to enlarge the burying place from Mr. Shoreboure Wilson on May 8th for 30 pounds. (Waters, 374 and Bush, 2) 1764. The Choate Bridge was constructed across the Ipswich River, and is the oldest extant stone-arch bridge in English-speaking America. (350th) In the 1760s, the leading Ipswich industries were fishing, trading, cabinet and hat-making, lace-making, farming and distilling. (350th) 1773. The First and South Churches jointly purchased [land for] a burial ground in the south part of town. 1790. The Federal census recorded the population as 4,562. (350th) 1793. Hamilton (known up until then as the “Hamlet”) separated from Ipswich. (350th) 1795. Three acres of land, located to the west and north sides of the burying ground, were purchased on January 25th from Jeremiah Day. The burying ground remained this size (approximately 4 3/8 acres) until the late 19th century. The burying ground remained this size (approximately 4 3/8 acres) until the late 19th century. The paved “central” pathway leading through the burying ground stood at the western edge in 1795. Tradition holds that underneath this walkway is a common grave, used for the first cold winters. “In the fall while the soil was still soft enough to dig, a large grave was dug with the capacity to hold the remains of all those who pass away during the winter months when the ground was too hard to dig. In a shed to the east the soil from the grave was stored with the means to warm it up enough to cover the dead. Gravestones were later erected in the location where the body should have been buried by was not. The deceased remained in the mass grave unmoved. (Bush, 2) Beginning this year, the town voted to allow calves and sheep to be pastured in the burying ground, and rights were awarded to the highest bidder. This continued until 1840. “Voted that the herbage of the Burying Ground be now let to the highest bidder and that no stock be pastured in said ground but calves and sheep, and it was struck off to Capt. Eben Lord for 38/.” (Waters, Vol, II, 444) Town Meeting then appointed a committee to see that they burying ground was fenced. (Waters, Vol II, p. 444) 1800. The Federal census recorded the population as 3,305. (350th) 1802. The first tomb was constructed for Daniel Noyes. 1803. Both the Ipswich Turnpike (Route 1A) and Newburyport Turnpike (Route 1) are incorporated. (350th) 1810 The Treadwell tomb was constructed. The population reached 3,369. (350th) 1819. Essex (known up until then as “Chebacco”) separates from Ipswich. (350th) 1820. The population was 2,250. (350th) 1832. A Plan of Ipswich Village was prepared (Philander Andersen), and the ”North Burial Ground” appeared near the western edge of the village, abutted by a Mr. Gould on the west and Paul Caldwell on the east. 1833. The Unitarian Church was built on South Main Street. By 1843, the town had voted to purchase the church for use as a town hall. (350th) 1836. The Haskell tomb was constructed. The Baker tomb was constructed and would hold 15 interments. 1839. An appeal was made, to the local paper, that better care be taken of the burying ground. “Hardly a tree or shrub has been planted since my boyhood. Sheep bleat mournfully among the tombs and the hoofs of cattle tramp down the graves. The monuments have been wantonly broken down and scattered into fragments. (Waters, Vol II, 593-594) 1846. Boxford is formed from a section of the western part of town, (350th) 1848. The Brown/Worcester tomb was constructed. 1856. Walling’s map of Ipswich showed the “North Cemetery” abutted on the west by Mr. T. Gould (and a Union Store) and on the east by W. W. Rust (with a shop). 1859. The Parish transferred the cemetery to the town (May 2), and the transfer included the old burial ground as well as the terraces. The terraces were named after Presidents of the United States (omitting Democratic presidents, as the dead would not have approved) but the naming tradition has been lost. (MM, 6-7) “Until the year 1859, the various burying grounds were owned by the several Parishes, and their condition was often one of deplorable neglect. In that year, the town took over ownership, the Parishes relinquishing their claims, and proceeded at once to improve the grounds, rebuild walls and repair fences. The iron fence at the Ancient High Street yard was erected in 1861. (Waters, Vol. II, 759) 1860. Expenses were recorded in the TAR for labor on the burying ground, including “iron fence.” (TAR, 4-5) Ipswich’s population is 3,300. (350th) 1869. Expenses were recorded for “painting fence.” (TAR, 6) 1870/75. Ipswich’s population is 3,674. (350th) 1872. The TAR included expenses for “clearing tomb.” (11) Beers’ Atlas of Essex County, published in this year, showed the cemetery abutted on the west by Mr. A. Lord, and the east by Mr. Ross and Mr. Rust. 1873. The TAR included expenses for labor on steps, planting of maple trees, and work on the bier. (7) 1874. The TAR included expenses for planting maple trees and work on the fence. (11) 1875. The TAR included expenses for labor on the tomb and steps. (7) 1876. The TAR included money spent on lumber for the fence. (6) 1878. The TAR included money spent on posts/lumber for steps. (8) 1879. The TAR included money spent on lumber for the steps and for painting the fence. (5) 1880. Article 14 of the Town Meeting warrant read, “to see what action the town will take in regard to building a receiving tomb in the High Street Burying Yard.” (26) Ipswich’s population was 3,699. (350th) 1881. The TAR noted that cash had been received for “grass” at the North Cemetery. (22) 1884. The TAR noted that significant expenses were incurred for the “new cemetery.” Note: this is likely Highland Cemetery. (6) Walker’s Essex County Atlas, published in this year, showed the cemetery abutted as it was in 1872. 1887. The TAR listed an expenditure for bricks for repairing the tomb. (6) 1888. The TAR listed expenditures for repairing the tomb, and repairing and repainting fences and posts. (6-7) 1889. The George Haskell tomb was constructed. 1891. The TAR listed a purchase of land for “a way” to Highland Cemetery. It also included a $15 expenditure for a plan for the cemetery at Highland Avenue. 1893. The TAR included an expenditure for “rebuilding old tomb.” (8) The Norris bird’s eye view of Ipswich, published in this year, shows the burying ground complete with the terraces and granite steps. 1894. The TAR listed additional expenditures for “repairs to tombs.” (11) 1898. The TAR indicated that the cemetery “pasture” was being rented, and that the town received $12 in rent. (44) This rental continued for several years. 1900. Ipswich’s population is 4,658. (350th) Around this time, immigrants from France, Greece and Poland settled in Ipswich and constructed their own houses of worship. A Jewish synagogue is also constructed. The Report of the Cemetery Committee (in the TAR) for this year noted, “we have expended for granite steps, painting fence upper end of cemetery. Negatives were made of the oldest stones for preservation and general care of grounds, $409.91. 1902. Beginning in this year, the TAR began listing an annual appropriation for care of the cemeteries. In 1902, this amount was $1200. It grew yearly (through 1915). 1910. Beginning in this year, the TAR recorded balances in the Cemetery Trust Funds (for all cemeteries, combined). 1919. The perpetual care fund balance totaled $ 19,350.00. In this year, the TAR referred to a “cemetery department” for the first time (67). The Town Meeting warrant included an article, “to see if the town will set apart a plot of land in Highland Cemetery for the burial of soldiers, marines, and sailors of the U.S. Army and Navy. (224) 1924. The TAR reported that “the new road to ‘Town Hill’ and the cemetery has been partially completed, and although there has been some comment upon the grade, it was the only possible method unless a very exorbitant expenditure of money was made. (95) The trust funds totaled $28,197.16. 1932. In the TAR, the “Unemployment Committee” reported that expenditures were made for labor on Highland Cemetery. (142) 1933. The TAR included a “Report of the Cemetery Commissioners.” “In the Old North Cemetery, the decaying dead wood has been removed and the trees trimmed, which has added not a little to the tidy appearance of the place. The tool houses require shingling and the broken headstones and tombs in Old North Cemetery should be repaired. In many places, the grass needs re-seeding. (91-92) 1934. The TAR reported that the C.W.A. and E.R.A. paid $3012.50 for work in the cemeteries, matched by $860.21 from the town. (67) The Report of the Cemetery Commissioners stated that the town and E.R.A. administrator cooperated in an effort to “straighten and cement” the old stones, and repair others. The old tombs were repaired and put in first class sanitary condition. On one of the terraces, because of erosion, it was deemed necessary to build a wall. The trees throughout were trimmed and thinned. They also noted that “a section of fence in the Old North Cemetery reeds repairing and the tool house requires re-shingling. ( 192) A 1972 article in Ipswich Today quoted Johnson and Ladd from Momento Mori, “[d]uring the summer of 1934, as a project to supply work for the horde of local unemployed, an ambitious project was started to “restore” the Old North Burial Yard. The work was begun and some 300 ancient stones were uprooted from the dust which they marked and hallowed, sorted according to size, and replaced in straight rows, orderly to be sure, neat without a doubt, but quite at odds with all historical and sentimental precedent.” “When we learned of this project, eminently worthy in intent through disastrous in its results, we…protested against this unusual procedure. The result was that the stones were replaced on the graves where they had been first erected. In this work the local administrators of the project gave the most whole-hearted co-operation, received suggestions in the most kindly spirit, and on the whole, despite the unfortunate beginnings, the work was reorganized, the stones handles under our supervision, weak ones repaired, cement foundations placed under those where it was deemed necessary and prudent, several ancient tombs in danger of collapse rebuilt and permanently sealed, as task which, in the ordinary course of town expenditures, could never have been provided for by funds received from ordinary taxation.” “Had it not been that we had completed our preliminary work, viz, charting and copying every stone, the project would have resulted in disaster for it would have been impossible to replace the stones on the graves to which, in the course of nature, they belonged.” (Momento Mori, 4-5) 1936. The TAR included the report of the tree warden, “an elm, beside the old cemetery on High Street, had died during the summer from natural causes; the town removed it.” (200) 1938. As part of the WPA report, the TAR mentioned that “at present survey is being made of all town-owned cemeteries, and maps provided. (107) 1939. A zoning by-law was proposed for Ipswich. The cemetery survey project was completed by the W.P.A. (TAR, 66-67) 1940. The TAR included the first report of the “Superintendent of Cemeteries.” The report noted that the wooden fence in the Old North Cemetery was beyond repair and in need of replacing. (75) 1941. The TAR listed expenses incurred for all cemeteries that included road re-surfacing with bituminous products. (54) 1942. Road resurfacing continued. 1943. The TAR listed $54,438.92 as the trust fund balance. (97) 1944. The TAR noted that the Town had purchased equipment so that winter burials would be possible. (249) 1945. The TAR included a report of the Cemetery Commissioners that stated, “the terraces at Highland Cemetery are being badly ‘inroaded’ and we hope to plant at least one of them with Hall’s Honeysuckle, to try to stop it if we can.1 If successful, this should save considerable money in the near future. 1947. The TAR reported that the Henry Augustine Cowles Cemetery opened in June. It also noted that “the terraces in the Old North Cemetery are in need of attention. In 1946, honeysuckle was planted to hold the soil, and to improve appearance. We hope to plant more this year.” (186) 1948. In the TAR, the Cemetery Commissioners reported that they had planted tulip bulbs in the cemeteries. (212) The Commissioners enacted a new regulation requiring that all graves be lined in a material to prevent sinking or caving. (213) 1950. The TAR reported that a pressure tank was installed in the Old North Cemetery with a booster pump, and this was tested in the latter part of October with good results. It also noted that new galvanized pipes had been laid in the “Old Highland.” “There is a two-inch pipe used as a main that runs through the center of the hill, and several oneinch pipes branching off to various sections of the hill. Several new stand pipes have been installed.” (150) The TAR also reported on misuse of the cemetery: “[t]he department has been and is now receiving complaints about children playing in the cemeteries. This usually happens when men have left for the day and on Sundays. They not only play on the stones, leave faucets open, but pull up and destroy markers. One very old marker was found not long ago in a back yard in the center of town…” (152) 1951. According to the TAR, cemetery trust funds totaled $73,001.16. 1952. The TAR reported that a new grave section was laid out in Highland Cemetery on the west side of the hill. (13) 1953. Tarring of cemetery roadways continued. 1954. The TAR reported that six large trees in Old North were uprooted (Hurricane Carol had struck on August 31st). “All through our cemeteries trees were broken and limbs hanging. Several monuments were tipped over. (31) The cemetery trust fund balance reached $81,000. 1955. The TAR noted that an old wooden fence at Old North was replaced by a chain link fence at a cost of $230. (26) 1957. The TAR reported that two of the old brick crypts in the Old North were rebuilt. (24) 1 Hall’s Honeysuckle is the common name for Lonicera japonica. 1958. The cemetery trust fund balance reached $95,182.28. 1959. The TAR reported that the lawns at Old North were fertilized and limed. (26) 1960. The TAR noted that two tons of hot-top were applied to the center walk in Old North, and three tons of limestone were spread on the terraces. (12) 1961. The cemetery trust fund balance reached $107,068.24. 1966. The TAR reported that “all cemetery records have been microfilmed to protect the (cemetery) department of loss by fire, nuclear war damage, deterioration and vandalism. They are covered by a blanket insurance that will pay up to ten thousand dollars towards the cost of replacing the original records if destroyed. The work of microfilming was completed by the New England Archives Center. (33) 1969. The TAR reported that the iron fence at Old North was painted, a job begun in 1968, at the instigation of the 17th century committee. The Cemetery Department did the painting. (54) 1970. A turf building program was instituted throughout the cemeteries. 1972. In an article published in Ipswich Today, the cemetery superintendent, Walter H. Hulbert, claimed that over the past five years, 50 to 75 stones had been lost beyond recognition. Old North had suffered the most vandalism. The stone of Elizabeth G. Lord (d. 1830) had been chipped gradually over the years. 1975. The TAR reported that the town was continuing the microfilm records to protect against loss. 1976-1977. The TAR reported that the town was raising settled graves in the older cemeteries. (42) 1979. The TAR noted that “the retaining wall along the top terrace was rebuilt to protect the road bed that runs parallel to it.” (44) 1980. High Street was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, and the Old North Burying Ground was included in the district nomination. 1981. The cemeteries, parks and buildings departments were combined and a new board was created to oversee parks and cemeteries. The cemetery trust funds reached $ 160,000. 1996. The cemetery trust funds balance equaled $257,089.65 (116) 2000. Ipswich’s population reached 13,602. (350th) 2014. The town applied for and was awarded an Essex National Heritage Area grant to assess and conserve some of Old North’s older gravestones. Fannin-Lehner Preservation Consultants completed the work. The town applied for and was awarded a Massachusetts Historic Preservation Projects Fund grant from the Massachusetts Historical Commission to prepare a preservation plan for Old North Cemetery.

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Mayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich Mayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich(vlədyē`mĭr vlədyē`mĭrəvĭch mī'əkôf`skē), 1893–1930, Russian poet and dramatist. Mayakovsky was a leader of the futurist school in 1912, and he was later the chief poet of the revolution. His lyrics are highly original in rhythm, rhyme, and imagery. The Cloud in Trousers (1915), a poem written almost entirely in metaphors, describes the agony of unrequited love. His early play, Mystery Bouffe (1918, tr. 1933), is an allegory prophesying the victory of the revolution. After the revolution he devoted almost all his energies to propaganda verse, and during most of the 1920s he was arguably the most important figure in Soviet art. His later plays, such as the satires The Bedbug (1928, tr. 1960) and The Bathhouse (1930), were more critical, however, of the new order. Mayakovsky grew increasingly disillusioned with Soviet life and committed suicide in 1930. His Complete Plays were published in English in 1971. See M. Almereyda, Night Wraps the Sky: Writings by and about Mayakovsky (2008); biography by W. Woroszylski (tr. 1971); study by E. J. Brown (1973); V. Shklovsky, Mayakovsky and his Circle (tr. 1972). Mayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich Born July 7(19), 1893, in the village of Bagdadi, present-day settlement of Maiakovskii, Georgian SSR; died Apr. 14, 1930, in Moscow. Soviet Russian poet. Mayakovsky was the son of a forest ranger. After his father’s death, his family moved to Moscow (1906). Mayakovsky studied at a Moscow Gymnasium. He associated with Bolshevik university students, joined the party, and in 1908 was coopted into the Moscow committee of the RSDLP(B). He was arrested on three occasions, and in 1909 he was placed in solitary confinement in Butyrka Prison in Moscow. Upon leaving prison, where he had begun to write verse, Mayakovsky decided to “make socialist art”: “I’ve interrupted party work. I’ve sat down to study” (Poln sobr. soch., vol. 1, 1955, p. 18). In 1911, Mayakovsky entered the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture. The year 1912 saw his first poetical experiments connected with the theory and practice of the cubo-futurists, a group that attracted him by its protest against the foundations of bourgeois society. But while the antiaestheticism of the futurists manifested itself chiefly in the area of “pure form,” Mayakovsky interpreted it in his own way, as an approach to the solution to the problem of creating a new democratic language of poetry. He would speak of this in his long revolutionary poem, A Cloud in Pants (1915): “the tongueless street writhes for lack of a means of conversing and shouting” (ibid, vol. 1, p. 181). Owing to its concern with social issues, Mayakovsky’s poetry did not fit into the framework of futurism; this became especially clear in his tragedy Vladimir Mayakovsky (staged 1913). The tragedy is an emotion-filled protest against the conventions of bourgeois society and the power of “soulless things.” Ultimately, the tragedy reflects the mood of the masses, who are filled with indignation at the injustice of the world but are not yet conscious of their own strength. The forceful rejection of bourgeois life can also be felt in the poet’s early verse, such as “The City Inferno” and “Here You Are!” (both published in 1913). In 1914, Mayakovsky was expelled from school for taking part in the public readings given by the futurists. The beginning of World War I was reflected in his work in different ways. In his article “Civilian Shrapnel” (November 1914), he wrote: “today we need hymns” (ibid, vol. 1, p. 303). But the poems “War Has Been Declared” (July 1914) and “Mama and the Evening That Was Murdered by the Germans” (November 1914) reveal his revulsion to war and its bloody senselessness. In poems printed in the journal Novyi satirikon (New Satyricon), namely, “Hymn to the Judge,” “Hymn to the Scholar,” and “Hymn to the Bribe” (all published in 1915), Mayakovsky sarcastically praises the vileness of life, where honest labor, a clear conscience, and high art become objects of derision. The long poem A Cloud in Pants represented a new stage in Mayakovsky’s poetry. “’Down with your love,’ ’down with your art,’ ’down with your social order,’ and ’down with your religion’: those are the four cries of the four sectors”—that was the way the poet himself characterized the basic social and aesthetic orientation of A Cloud (Preface, 2nd ed., 1918, ibid. vol. 12, 1959, p. 7). The poem reflected the growing strength of the millions, spontaneously rising up against capitalism and conscious of their path in the struggle. The basic spirit of Mayakovsky’s pre-October poems, The Spinal Flute (1916), War and Universe (separate edition, 1917), and Man (1916-17, published 1918), was a protest against bourgeois relationships that had crippled the true nature of man. These works attracted the attention of M. Gorky, who singled Mayakovsky out from the milieu of the futurists and drafted him to work on the journal Letopis’ (The Chronicle). Joyously greeting the October Revolution of 1917, Mayakovsky defined his position thus: “This is my revolution. I went to Smol’nyi. Worked. Doing any kind of work” (ibid, vol. 1, p. 25). The poet strove to give an aesthetic interpretation of the “staggering facts” of the new socialist reality. Until October, Mayakovsky had had no clear social outlook. Certain dogmas of the futurist group left their imprint on his idiosyncratic verse forms and on his social and aesthetic views. After October, Mayakovsky’s social and aesthetic ideas changed, determined by his struggle for the ideals of communism (on a positive and as well as a satirical level). This could already be felt in the play Mystery-Bouffe (1918; second version, 1921)—“a heroic, epic, and satirical representation of our epoch” (ibid. vol. 2, 1956, p. 167)—the first Soviet play on a contemporary subject. While asserting the greatness and heroism of the common people, Mayakovsky exposed the creative impotence of the bourgeoisie. Only the “unclean,” with their moral purity and class solidarity, were equal to the task of building the “ark” of the new world. In “Left March” (1918), a unique hymn to proletariat strength and determination, the poet called for a struggle against the enemies of the Revolution. But Mayakovsky’s aesthetic palette was many-colored; his poem “A Good Attitude Toward Horses” (1918) speaks out in favor of the wealth of emotions in the new man, who should be capable of sympathy for everything living and everything defenseless. The humanistic orientation of Mayakovsky’s poetry acquired a new social quality. The poem 150,000,000 (1919-20; 1st ed., anonymous, 1921) affirmed the leading role of the Russian people as the prophet of the socialist revolution. V. I. Lenin reacted negatively to the poem, seeing in it the influence of futurism, of which he disapproved. During those years, Mayakovsky was beginning to carve out a path to a genuinely democratic art that reflected the mood of the masses. After moving to Moscow in 1919 he worked for Okna ROSTA (Windows of the Russian Telegraph Agency), drawing posters with rhyming captions of an agitational nature; in three years he created about 1,100 “windows.” These posters and Mayakovsky’s industrial and book graphics of the 1920’s revealed with especial vividness his talent and experience and his vivid, laconic style. (Mayakovsky had turned to graphic art during this period; many of his portrait drawings, sketches for popular prints, and theatrical designs have been preserved.) This activity as a “poet-worker” who lends his pen and brush to the needs of the Revolution was highly essential for Mayakovsky; it corresponded to his aesthetic concept of art’s invasion into everyday life. In his poetry of the 1920’s, Mayakovsky created a new type of lyric hero; this hero, who makes his appearance in “I Love” (1922), “About This” (1923), and “Letter to Tatiana lakovleva” (1928), does not separate his own personal world from the great world of social turmoil and does not think of the personal apart from the social. Mayakovsky’s visits to the capitalist countries (the USA, Germany, France, and Cuba) resulted in the poetry cycles Paris (1924-25) and Lines About America (1925-26). Mayakovsky spoke as a plenipotentiary of the young socialist state, hurling a challenge at the bourgeois order. The passion for anonymity (“I Sing of Millions”) in the poet’s work gave way to a more harmonious conception of the individual. Like Gorky, Mayakovsky stands at the source of Soviet Leniniana. In the poem Vladimir Il’ich Lenin (1924), the life and work of the leader of the proletarian revolution are artistically recreated against a broad historical background. Mayakovsky recognized the enormous importance of Lenin’s personality, “the most human human being” and “organizer of the victory” of the proletariat. The poem was a hymn to the “attacking class” —the proletariat and its party. Feeling himself “a soldier in a rank a billion strong” (ibid., vol. 7, 1958, p. 166), Mayakovsky viewed an orientation toward a communist future as the criterion for all creative work, including poetry. “The great feeling that goes by the name of’class’ “(ibid., vol. 6, 1957, p. 304) was the main driving force in Mayakovsky’s work during the Soviet era. A. V. Lunacharskii called the poem “It’s Good!” (1927) “the October Revolution cast in bronze.” In it, Mayakovsky sang of “the springtime of humanity”—his socialist fatherland. Together with Gorky, Mayakovsky became a founder of socialist realism in Soviet literature. During these years, Mayakovsky wrote such lyrical masterpieces as “To Comrade Nette, the Steamship and the Man” (1926), “To Sergei Esenin” (1926), and “Lines About a Soviet Passport” (1929). Mayakovsky’s lyricism is all-embracing; it expresses the unprecedented spiritual growth of man in the new society. Mayakovsky was a lyricist, poet-orator, and a satirist, a poet with a huge, “all-enveloping heart.” His verse combines faith in the triumph of communist ideals with an irreconcilable hostility toward everything that hinders “rushing forward into tomorrow.” Mayakovsky’s criticism of bureaucracy and useless committee meetings in the poem “Lost in Conference” (1922) greatly pleased Lenin (see V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 45, p. 13). Inspired by the approval of the leader of the Revolution, Mayakovsky subsequently fulminated against all sorts of “Pompadours,” people who latched onto the party and covered their egotistical petit bourgeois identity with a party card; his poems “Pompadour” (1928) and “A Conversation With Comrade Lenin” (1929) were written in this vein. Mayakovsky’s poetry of the late 1920’s and his plays The Bedbug (1928, staged 1929) and The Bathhouse (1929, staged 1930) presented a whole gallery of characters whose capacity for protective camouflage and vain demagoguery make them dangerous. Mayakovsky’s satirical plays, innovative in both content and form, played a large role in the development of Soviet drama. Mayakovsky created an innovative poetical system which in many ways affected the development of both Soviet and world poetry. His influence was felt by Nazim Hikmet Ran, Louis Aragon, Pablo Neruda, and Johannes Becher. Proceeding from his own ideological and artistic dilemma, Mayakovsky substantially reformed Russian verse. His new type of lyric hero with a revolutionary attitude toward reality promoted the formation of a new poetics of maximum expressiveness: all of the poet’s artistic means are directed toward an extremely dramatized, speechlike expression of the lyric hero’s thoughts and feelings. The novelty of Mayakovsky’s poetry is also reflected in the way his poems are typeset; heightened expressiveness is conveyed by means of changes in traditional orthography and punctuation and new techniques of printing the text—the short column (stolbik)and from 1923 the staircase (lesenka), which reflects the placement of pauses. The drive toward maximum expressiveness in verse proceeds along the various lines of vocabulary and phraseology, rhythmics, intonation, and rhyme. Mayakovsky headed the literary groups LEF (Left Front of the Arts) and later REF (Revolutionary Front of the Arts). He also edited the journals LEF (1923-25) and Novyi LEF (New LEF, 1927-28); but he came to the conclusion that closed groups hinder normal creative communication among Soviet writers, and in February 1930 he joined RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), which he viewed as a mass literary organization. The complex situation of the last years of his personal life and literary struggle led Mayakovsky to depression and suicide. The long poem At the Top of My Voice (1930) is taken as the poet’s literary testament; it is full of a profound faith in the victory of communism. Mayakovsky’s works are widely studied both in the USSR and abroad; in the USSR, a whole series of important research monographs have been written. However, his poetry has been the object of subjectivist interpretation by so-called Sovietologists, who seek to distort Mayakovsky’s image as a poet and empty his poetry of revolutionary content. Mayakovsky’s works have been translated into all the principal languages of the peoples of the Soviet Union and the world. In 1937 the Library-Museum of Mayakovsky was opened in Moscow (on former Gendrikov Lane, now Mayakovsky Lane). In January 1974 the State Museum of Mayakovsky was opened in Moscow (No. 3 Serov Passage). In 1941 a Mayakovsky Museum was opened in the settlement of Maiakovskii (formerly Bagdadi) in the Georgian SSR. WORKSPoln. sobr. soch., vols. 1-12. Moscow, 1934-38. Poln. sobr. soch., vols. 1-12. Moscow, 1939-49. Poln. sobr. soch., vols. 1-13. Moscow, 1955-61. Maiakovskii-khudozhnik. Album written and compiled by V. A. Katanian. Introductory article by B. Slutskii. Moscow, 1963. REFERENCESVinokur, G. Maiakovskii—novator iazyka. Moscow, 1943. Feigel’man, L. Maiakovskii v stranakh narodnoi demokratii—Chekhoslovakii, Bolgarii, Pol’she. Moscow, 1952. Papernyi, Z. O masterstve Maiakovskogo, 2nd enlarged ed. Moscow, 1957. Papernyi, Z. Poeticheskii obraz u Maiakovskogo. Moscow, 1961. Shtokmar, M. Rifma Maiakovskogo. Moscow, 1958. Katanian, V. Maiakovskii: Literaturnaia khronika, 4th enlarged ed. Moscow, 1961. Timofeeva, V. lazyk poeta i vremia: Poeticheskii iazyk Maiakovskogo. Moscow-Leningrad, 1962. Naumov, E. V. V. Maikovskii: Seminarii, 4th ed., Leningrad, 1963. Duvakin, V. Radost’ masterom kovannaia: Ocherki tvorchestva V. V. Maiakovskogo. Moscow, 1964. Lunacharskii, A. “VI. Maiakovskii—novator.” Sobr. soch., vol. 2. Moscow, 1964. Lunacharskii, A. Maiakovskii i sovetskaia literatura. Moscow, 1964. Metchenko, A. Maiakovskii: Ocherk tvorchestva. Moscow, 1964. Timofeev, L. Sovetskaia literatura: Metod, Stil’ Poetika. Moscow, 1964. Timofeev, L. Maiakovskii i problemy novatorstva. Moscow, 1965. Goncharov, B. “Maiakovskii v krivom zerkale ’sovetologii’.” Voprosy literatury, 1970, no. 3. Pertsov, V. Maiakovskii: Zhizn’ i tvorchestvo: 1893-1917. Moscow, 1969. Pertsov, V. Maiakovskii: Zhizn’ i tvorchestvo: 1918-1924. Moscow, 1971. Pertsov, V. Maiakovskii: Zhizn’ i tvorchestvo 1925-1930. Moscow, 1972. Khardzhiev, N., and V. Trenin. Poeticheskaia kul’tura Maiakovskogo. Moscow, 1970. Khardzhiev, N., and V. Trenin. Poet i sotsializm: K estetike V. V. Maiakovskogo. Moscow, 1971. Aragon, L. Literatures soviétiques. Paris, 1955. Stern, A. Poezja zbuntowana. Warsaw, 1964. Huppert, H. Wladimir Majakowski in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. Hamburg, 1965. Duwakin, W. Rostafenster: Majakowski als Dichter und bildender Künstler. Dresden, 1967. B. P. GONCHAROV

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When Doctor Hartmann Schedel of Nuremberg had his experiment in writing a world history printed under the title of Liber Chronicarum, the year was 1493. Among the two thousand woodcuts in Schedel's remarkable folio, made in the workshop of Durer's teacher Michael Wolgemut, there is to be found the first known panorama of Prague. In comparison with other pictures in Schedel's book it makes a schematic and uncomely impression, as if the engraver had vainly struggled to give to a realistic depiction of Prague the typical features of Renaissance landscape painting and had stopped half way. In one respect, however, the stylized depiction from Wolgemut's workshop remained remarkably truthful: In the great importance it attached to Prague Castle, to the river with the bridge, the dense settlement in the hollow below the Castle, and the predominance of church towers this very first view of Prague already stressed the dominating features towards which engravers, painters and photographers have turned in all subsequent attempts at depicting the town, right down to our own days, even though modern development has enlarged the town far out of sight, and the density of housing construction has outbalanced the supremacy of towers even in the historic centre. In the not quite five centuries that have passed since Wolgemut illustrated Schedel's World Chronicle Prague has undergone many changes, but, from an artistic point of view, its dominating features have remained almost unchanged, and their lasting value recalls more than anything else the close links between the town and its one thousand year old past; the town, which never waived its claim to the proud title of caput regni, first pronounced by the self-confident burghers of Prague in the post-Hussite period, and proudly upheld to this day. At the beginning of the town there was the Castle, the Hrad. It was built by the Pfemyslids some time after the middle of the ninth century and assumed a key position in their endeavour to unify the Czech state; nor did they abandon it later when they had reached this aim, because it lay in the very heart of Bohemia, in the middle of a densely populated countryside and at the crossroad of important routes. With the growing importance of the Castle the number of inhabitants in the settlement below the Castle increased, and when this settlement reached a certain size the Castle - the Hrad - gave its name to the whole district which became known as Hradcany. This occurred around the middle of the 12th century, by which time Prague Castle had become one of the most important places in the Pfe-myslid and Bohemian tradition of state. In the subsequent decades the settlement below the Castle began to turn into a town. Nothing could stop the development of town life, neither the menace of the river that would unrelentingly flood roads and human dwellings nor the threat of wars which the princely seat of the Pfemyslids seemed to attract. After the year 1230 the settlement on the right bank was walled in and granted a royal charter; it became a true medieval town; at a slightly later date settlers called by King Pfemysl II founded the Lesser Town of Prague on the left bank. The previous chaotic development of the settlement became subjected to the rules of town life; building activity followed certain stricter regulations. The inhabitants took advantage of the security of the town for all economic undertakings, but Prague never turned its back to the Castle and its life-giving stimulus. Since the Pfemyslids had made Prague Castle their residence, the town derived benefit from all phenomena concomitant upon the development of Bohemia in the thirteenth century: the last Pfemyslids' lust for power, the renowned chivalry of their court, the arrival of new settlers and Czech silver. This wealth soon became visible in the external appearance of the town, which adopted the last phases of the Romanesque and the beginning of the Gothic style for its new buildings. Most monuments from this first great period in the history of the town were buried under later buildings, but the groundplans of the oldest parts of the Old Town and of the core of the Little Quarter have to this day remained a heritage of the Romanesque and Early Gothic changes the town underwent. While in the Little Quarter and the Havel Quarter it was the new settlers who determined the layout of streets and the size of building lots, in the older parts of the Old Town the inhabitants fought for every foot of land against the menacing river which during floods would interfere with the layout of the irregular and crowded streets and open spaces. On account of the river the whole terrain had to be raised, an undertaking which left the luxurious groundfloor halls of the Romanesque palaces and farmsteads sunk deep below street level. The threat of floods was not entirely overcome by this, but the settlers ceased to live in eternal fear of the River Vltava and gradually began to gain control over the river waters. The growth of the town did not stop during the early fourteenth century when with the extinction of the Pfemyslid dynasty (1306) the Czech state found itself in a profound political crisis. It continued growing under the Luxemburgs and reached its culmination under the second king of that dynasty Charles IV (1346-1378), who came to sit on the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. The key role of the Castle remained unchanged, and the wave of prosperity and the general intense building activity which this Emperor stimulated was directly connected with the importance of the royal residence. Prague became a European city, the seat of an archbishop and a university, where several dozen craftsmen's guilds were active; it had hundreds of little shops and workshops, imposing buildings and brimmed over with stimulating intellectual life. The imperial court attracted a great number of foreigners to the city on a temporary or permanent basis and imprinted Prague upon the consciousness of European scholars as an important cultural centre. With the foundation of the New Town and the extension of the Little Quarter walls Prague greatly gained in scope, and the gigantic project of the New Town unit was admired both for its grandeur of size and for its modern conception. The layout of the streets has, in fact, remained unchanged to this day, and from the fourteenth century on it gave the New Town a character different from that of all the other "towns" of Prague. For the first time town planning principles were applied in its history which were far advanced of the theory of location held by the 13th century settlers. The building of the New Town, which proceeded at an incredibly fast rate, was not, however, the only building enterprise. New buildings in High Gothic style were erected in the Old Town, in the Little Quarter and in the Hradcany district. The simple and small Romanesque churches were replaced by mighty church edifices, many of which could not be completed on the planned scale; town houses began to grow up on suitable building lots, a new stone bridge spanned the River Vltava. The crown of all this work was the Castle where the first stage of the cathedral was under construction as well as a new palace and strengthened fortifications. A silhouette began to take shape which in conformity with the grandiose scope of building construction in Prague conveyed an imposing impression of the might of the Luxemburg dynasty and added splendour to the royal crown of Bohemia. Numerous buildings were not finished during the lifetime of Emperor Charles IV, but the picture of the Gothic reconstruction of the town was complete and determined the further development for centuries to come. The size of Prague had adverse aspects, the darker and more dangerous the greater the intensity of life in the metropolis. The aspirations of the town, be they dictated by the Emperor's will or the ambitions of the burghers, greatly exceeded its strength and gave a false illusion of an eternal boom. The fall from glory inevitably was almost as fast as its rise on the Emperor's credit. In the town's external appearance the drop in prosperity was foretold by the torsos of unfinished churches, and in its internal life there was an increase in social tension. As Prague's retreat from glory continued in proportion to the decline of King Wenceslas IV's authority, it turned into a town that represented a danger to feudal society as a whole. The learned reform movement for the revival of the Church began to spread quickly from the intellectual spheres of university disputations to church sermons and helped lay the theoretical basis for the first widespread anti-feudal movement in Europe. After the death of John Hus at the stake in Constance the social tension gave way to a number of encounters which reached their climax in the defenestration of the Councillors in the New Town of Prague in the year 1419. In this way Prague became the cradle of the Hussite Revolution, and although the people of Prague soon abandoned the basic revolutionary ideals, they maintained the initiative in the development of revolutionary struggles until their end in the year 1434. The Hussite Revolution raised Prague almost to the head of the kingdom. It gave the people of Prague exceptional political power, gave them authority among the other towns in the kingdom and offered them perspectives of a further political rise. For a long time the town ceased to depend on the Castle in a good and a bad sense. The town was no longer afraid of the harsh hand of the ruler but had to accept the decline in the boom encouraged by the royal residence. The Castle did not cease to be the dominant feature in the panorama of the town, although witness to the decline of its significance were certain unfinished and neglected buildings of the pre-Hussite period that formed a sharp contrast to the great care the burghers lavished upon their own houses and upon the town halls. Even in their most passionate exasperation at all opponents of the revolution the people of Prague did not dare consider the destruction of the Castle, as they did in the case of Vysehrad - another castle on the right bank of the river high above the town - because in general consciousness Prague Castle was not even then a mere fortification but remained a link between the town and the ruler and a guarantee of the town's own greatness. At the time when Hartmann Schedel issued his Chronicle of the World with the view of Prague seen from the ruins of Vysehrad Castle, Prague Castle itself rang with new building activity, even though King Vladislav had moved his residence to Buda in the year 1490. And while the castle at Budapest had been adapted in Renaissance style under King Matthias Corvin, this style left only isolated marks on Prague Castle where Late Gothic reached some of its culminating forms. Even in the town of Prague the encounter of Late Gothic and the Early Renaissance marked the decline of the self-confident and conservative world of its burghers. The political power of Prague came to an end through its significant participation in the unsuccessful uprising of the Estates against King Ferdinand in the year 1547. The people of Prague surrendered the betrayed noblemen at the King's discretion. The punishment he imposed sealed the signs of decline which had appeared in Prague some decades before and prepared the ground for the social and cultural disintegration of the town. After the middle of the 16th century the Renaissance style appeared much more frequently in the town architecture, largely due to the nobility erecting town palaces and mansions, while the wealthy burgess adopt -ed the new style rather hesitatingly and with a considerable delay. Even without being a royal residence Prague became again a centre of political and social life, and when, in the year 1583, King Rudolph II transferred his residence back to Prague, the town enjoyed a new boom thanks to having a major royal residence in its midst. The Rudolphinian period earned Prague widespread fame, but neither the high level of intellectual and artistic endeavours at the Court nor the economic growth and active social life could exonerate the burghers from the marks of depression that showed themselves even in building development. Palaces with arcaded courtyards appeared in the town, adorned with attic gables and choice interior furnishings, but it was the aristocracy that remained the most important builders until the end of the period; as a consequence the new style left its mark primarily on the Little Quarter and on Hradcany while in the Old and the New Town the Renaissance waged a ceaseless battle against older traditions. The end of the Renaissance coincided almost exactly with the end of the Rudolphinian boom. And to crown all evil, Prague became the centre of the critical conflict between the Hapsburg rulers and the Czech Estates. In the year 1611 there was fighting in the town; in 1618 the defenestration of the Imperial Governors began the uprising of the Czech Estates, which, in the year 1620. was defeated in a battle outside the city walls. The events that followed formed a chain of catastrophes. The plundering of the town after the Battle of the White Mountain, the persecution of the participants of the uprising and later of all non-catholics, the confiscation of property, emigration and the hardships of war lasted a full thirty years and brought the town to the brink of ruin. When it began to rouse itself to a new life, barely a shadow was left of its former glory as a residential town, and it had to resign itself to the fate of a provincial centre. And while Prague had to cope with the general economic decline, the Baroque style penetrated into the town. Its dramatic entry took place thanks to the Emperor, the Church and the nobility to the silent surprise of the burghers who, in the first few decades after the war, could but look on and watch alien forces ruthlessly penetrating into their town and calling the tune of its life. The Court in Vienna saw to it that Prague was given completely new Baroque walls which would protect it from the enemies of the monarchy, longing as they were for the Crown of Bohemia. The Church stimulated the grandiose construction of churches and monasteries; the nobility outrivalled one another in building town mansions, although they had greater faith in the future of Vienna than Prague. Since the time of Charles IV no building enterprise had changed the towns of Prague so profoundly as at this period, marked by the complete impotence of the burghers against the feudal intruders. The churches, monasteries and palaces of the aristocracy swallowed up dozens of Gothic building lots, interfered in the original layout of the town and with their individual monumentality outdid the one-time modesty and restraint of the town buildings. The Baroque style admittedly gave the town outstanding architecture bearing the signature of leading artists and architects, with an entirely novel regard for the artistic proportions of the buildings, but the town had to redeem these gifts against its own will by the loss of its medieval character. This, in the first place, affected the Little Quarter and the Hradcany district where the aristocracy and the Church left the most striking marks. The attack on traditions did not manage to break down the awareness of Prague's key position in the kingdom nor did it in any bad way affect its dominant features expressing the symbiosis of Castle and Town. On the contrary: the background of Baroque buildings raised the artistic effect of the Castle and underlined its relationship to the town. The supremacy of Baroque and subsequent Rococo lasted almost until the end of the 18th century when the town began to rouse itself from its medieval lethargy. Inside the Old and the New Town numerous busy manufactures were established, the walls from the period of Charles IV became to tight for town life, the silence of the aristocratic palaces and the dissolved monasteries sharply contrasted with the tension to which the town became exposed with the onset of capitalism and the spread of the movement for national independence. Capitalist production began to make inexorable and unheard-of demands. It needed, first of all, new space for its factories and as residential quarters and a revolutionary improvement of the network of communications both in the town itself and leading to it. New suburbs began to spread outside the city walls where so far vineyards and gardens had flourished; the first enlightened projects made an impact upon the town centre, forerunners of the modernization of the town. The perspectives of this new development of Prague were inseparably linked with the intense movement for national revival. The wave of bourgeois revolutions which swept Europe in the year 1848 also involved the Czech Lands and opened the door wide to capitalist development. In the half century that preceded the First World War Prague acquired whole new quarters, its population trebled, the number of factories grew so much that it became one of the most highly industrialized towns in the monarchy, but the dynamic growth and its accompanying factors in all spheres of life also involved more questionable aspects. In the chase after profit there was no place for advanced town planning projects, aesthetic or historical regards, and the bourgeoisie's excessive longing to strengthen its own prestige often turned against undeniable cultural values. Part of the historic town centre disappeared in slum clearance operations without it being possible to find a more generous solution to the problems of growth of a big city. Prague paid for a number of monumental buildings that represented the nation as a whole by acquiring a mass of unattractive tenement houses. Compared with other European capitals Prague grew into a big city at a comparatively late date, and the struggle of contradictory interests marked the whole of this period until the end of the World War I. In the year 1918 Prague became the capital of Czechoslovakia. It was the biggest and the most highly industrialized town of the new state facing bold expectations and, at the same time, bearing upon it the burden of the heritage of the rapid growth at the end of the 19th century. In its further development lack of plan now gave way to purposeful endeavours on the part of the local authorities which had to take into account the variety of the new city unit, Greater Prague, and its representative function, but proved unable to prevent a further intensification of the contrasts in the town's external appearance. On the eve of the Second World War Prague came within reach of having one million inhabitants. It could pride itself on certain splendid buildings of contemporary architecture, the first modern town planning experiments and the care paid to its ancient monuments, but the final step towards a big modern city had not yet been taken. The May Uprising in the year 1945 opened a new, immensely dramatic chapter in the history of the town. Some years were needed before Prague made up for the worst consequences of the war, more years were required before the process of socialization was complete and town life adapted itself to the new social and political conditions. The path towards attaining the conception of a socialist city, which Prague set out along with final validity in the year 1948, was indelibly marked by the struggle to overcome the many difficulties that, at first sight, seemed almost incapable of solution. The burden of the ancient and more recent past bound the hands of the town planners, while technical progress increasingly required radical inroads into the organism of the town. The city needed more space for its inhabitants, for business and industrial premises and acquired these along the outskirts. Conditions of existence turned upon communications needed for modern means of transport, and these gradually penetrated through housing developments along the edge of the historical centre. The town found itself forced to spend Vast sums on the care of the long neglected historical building and monuments, and this was done to the last coin. Thirty years after the liberation Prague can pride itself upon an underground, the bold construction of the Klement Gottwald bridge, new main roads, a motorway under construction, new housing developments, on which the whole impact of housing construction has been placed, exemplary restoration of its historical buildings and its new public edifices that stress the significance of the capital city of the Republic. The celebration of the thirtieth anniversary of the liberation was an occasion to balance up the success attained, but in no case did it represent the final accounting in the gigantic struggle to reconstruct the entire city. The dominant points which the veduta from the year 1493 stressed have not vanished from the face of Prague, and the oldest part of the town, now in the care of the State Board for the Care of Ancient Monuments, has adapted itself to the requirements of modern life without losing its authenticity. New dominant features have and will continue to appear, harmoniously blending with the spreading area of the capital and with the artistic value of new housing development. For without such features the testimony to the greatness, the glory and the beauty of the city of Prague would remain incomplete. https://programmi-dlya-android.ru/category/sistemnye/batareya ñêà÷àòü áåñïëàòíî ïî ññûëêå © Çëûãîñòåâ À.Ñ., 2001-2019 Ïðè èñïîëüçîâàíèè ìàòåðèàëîâ ñàéòà àêòèâíàÿ ññûëêà îáÿçàòåëüíà:

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‘Leaky legs’: strategies for the treatment and management of lower-limb lymphorrhoea Lower-limb lymphorrhoea poses medical and practical challenges for patients and nurses, but can be avoided if lower-limb oedema is treated early. This article comes with a self-assessment enabling you to test your knowledge after reading it The management of lower-limb lymphovenous disease and lymphorrhoea (‘leaky legs’) is challenging. The root cause of the disease must be addressed and the risk of infection minimised while symptoms are treated with compression, dressings, topical agents and barrier products. Lymphorrhoea causes significant medical and practical issues for patients and nurses, but can be avoided if lower-limb oedema is treated early. This article describes the pathophysiology, management strategies, and clinical and practical issues associated with the condition; it updates an article published in 2003. Citation: Anderson I (2016) ‘Leaky legs’: strategies for the treatment and management of lower-limb lymphorrhoea. Nursing Times; 113: 1, 50-53. Author: Irene Anderson is national teaching fellow and principal lecturer (tissue viability), and reader in learning and teaching in healthcare practice at the School of Health and Social Work, University of Hertfordshire. The management of lymphorrhoea (grossly oedematous legs) poses major challenges because the condition is often accompanied by the leakage of considerable volumes of fluid – indeed the condition is commonly known as ‘leaky legs’ (Lymphoedema Framework, 2006). This article describes the pathophysiology of lymphovenous disease, strategies to help prevent or treat complications, and clinical and practical issues for patients and health professionals; it updates a previous Nursing Times article (Anderson, 2003a). Lymphorrhoea can affect any limb (Renshaw, 2007), but this article focuses on the leg. Lower-limb oedema first manifests as swelling at the ankle; if this is not controlled, swelling quickly extends to the foot and leg. Swelling is initially soft and ‘pitting’ but, as the problem becomes chronic, the tissues harden and it becomes increasingly difficult to reduce the oedema. In the early stages, simply sleeping and sitting with the ankles elevated above hip level and applying mild compression will reverse the oedema, but if its cause is not addressed, these measures will not prevent the condition from becoming chronic. The prevalence of diagnosed chronic oedema is around four per 1,000 of the UK population, but this figure is widely thought to be an underestimate (Todd, 2014). Oedema occurs when capillary pressure exceeds the pressure of fluid in the tissues, causing fluid to leak from the circulatory system and accumulate in the tissues (Lawrance, 2009). The lymphatic system is responsible for fluid drainage, but if filtration from the capillaries (Fig 1) and venules exceeds drainage capacity for too long, limb swelling occurs (Mortimer and Rockson, 2014). The blood circulation and lymphatic systems belong to a network (Fig 2), so extra congestion and pressure in the circulatory system leads to extra volume and pressure in the lymphatic system, increasing the leakage of fluid into tissues. Lymphoedema occurs when a problem in the lymphatic drainage system causes fluid to accumulate in the tissues; it can be primary (whereby a genetic trigger causes the system to fail) or secondary (whereby trauma causes the failure). Sometimes the drainage vessels can be damaged by infection such as cellulitis (Lymphoedema Support Network, 2015). Chronic oedema is caused by problems with venous return. This usually happens because the valves in the veins fail to close properly, resulting in a backflow of venous blood leading to higher than normal pressures in the veins (venous hypertension). The additional blood causes the venous walls to stretch and plasma to leak into the tissues; the veins are unable to drain the fluid back from the tissues because they are already congested. Lower-limb oedema tends to be a mix of all the above, and is known as lymphovenous disease (Rockson, 2010). Understanding of the fluid drainage mechanism has evolved in recent years. There is now more emphasis on the role of the lymphatic system to drain interstitial fluid (fluid in the tissues), rather than on venules in the circulatory system reabsorbing interstitial fluid (Jacob and Chappell, 2013). There is still much that we do not understand (Levick and Michel, 2010), but we know that improving lymphatic drainage as much as possible is a priority. As lymphovenous disease progresses, especially if it is not well managed, legs can become grossly oedematous; swelling causes the skin to stretch and small blisters appear. Fluid then leaks out and has nowhere to go because both drainage systems (circulatory and lymphatic) are too congested (Elwell and Craven, 2015). The leg appears shiny with moisture or, more commonly, fluid is seen running down the leg (Elwell and Craven, 2015). The fluid leaking from the leg is transudate (fluid that has passed through a membrane); it has high fluidity and low protein content (as opposed to wound exudate). Implications for patients Patients with lymphorrhoea report intense pain (Lymphoedema Framework, 2006) due to swelling, as well as irritation, maceration (whitening and ‘bogginess’) and excoriation (redness and rawness) of the skin due to wetness. Eventually the skin breaks down into at least one ulcerated area, and the risk of infection increases (Quéré and Sneddon, 2012). Patients also experience high levels of discomfort, embarrassment and inconvenience, not to mention expenses. They have to live with a leg that is extremely swollen and heavier than normal – imagine trying to walk up or down stairs with a limb so heavy you can barely lift it, or to walk without being able to flex your ankles because they are so swollen. Patients will also be constantly wet and have permanently wet footwear, clothes and bedding (Morgan et al, 2011). Risk of infection If fluid accumulates in the tissues and is not drained, there is a risk of infection. The lymphatic system is a key element of the immune system, so if it is compromised, the risk of infection from seemingly minor factors, such as scratches or insect bites, increases and can quickly become serious (Mortimer and Rockson, 2014). In lymphorrhoea, the skin is broken and very wet, which increases the risk of infection; the risk of sepsis is also high (Elwell and Craven, 2015). Acute infection itself results in tissue oedema, and will therefore add to the existing oedema. Cellulitis is a potentially life-threatening subdermal and subcutaneous tissue infection commonly caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (two-thirds of cases) and Staphylococcus aureus. It is treated with oral antibiotics in milder cases, or intravenous antibiotics warranting hospital admission in more severe cases (Opoku, 2015). Erysipelas is an infection affecting the superficial layers of the skin and is often caused by group A beta-haemolytic streptococci. Cellulitis and erysipelas, which are often indistinguishable but almost always unilateral (Opoku, 2015), occur in patients with lymphovenous disease and lymphorrhoea. Treatment of lymphovenous disease hinges on the use of compression, leg elevation and exercises that increase movement in the ankle and calf muscles (O’Meara et al, 2012). Oedema must be managed to reduce congestion and swelling but treating infection, if present, is a priority. In the presence of infection, the skin will be particularly vulnerable to breakdown and the patient may experience intense pain, so compression and limb management will need to be conducted more frequently, and compression can be applied at lower pressures than normal. Once the infection is under control, management can focus on reducing swelling and leakage. Managing lymphorrhoea can be extremely difficult. There are many reports of patients resorting to placing their leg in plastic bags or using nappies, sanitary towels or incontinence pads in an effort to manage the volume of fluid. Nurses may use multiple dressings, which will need to be changed frequently; this is both costly and time-consuming. Compression comes in many shapes and forms, including bandages, hosiery, wrap systems and pneumatic compression. The key is to select a technique that applies pressure firm enough to counteract the tissue pressure, thereby squeezing the veins and valves to stop the backwards flow of venous blood. This will reduce pressure in the veins and lymphatic vessels, allowing more fluid to flow back into the drainage system (O’Meara et al, 2012). Sustained compression will reduce swelling; the correct compression will result in a fairly rapid reduction of oedema, so it must be frequently readjusted to ensure a tight enough squeeze on the leg. When bandages are used, they must be reapplied as soon as they feel loose. When large volumes of fluid are leaking it may be necessary to apply more sub-bandage padding than usual, but this can be reduced once the leakage diminishes (Renshaw, 2007). Renshaw (2007) suggests that short-stretch bandaging can be more comfortable than medium- or long-stretch, as it applies a low pressure when the patient is resting. Hosiery is not normally used when the leg is leaking, because applying and removing it when the skin is so fragile increases the risk of trauma, while constant contact with wet material can also damage the skin. However, once lymphorrhoea is under control, hosiery can help reduce swelling (Lymphoedema Framework, 2006). If compression hosiery is to be used, the leg will need to be re-measured to ensure the correct size is used. The newer wrap systems can be adjusted in situ, but if there has been a significant reduction in limb size, they will need to be re-measured and cut. Patients may be able to make adjustments themselves, but re-measuring and cutting or replacing the wrap system must be done by a health professional. Whatever system is chosen, it must be acceptable and tolerable for the patient. In the acute treatment phase, materials that have become wet will need to be frequently changed – cost-effective materials should, therefore, be used. Dressing technology has steadily improved in the past decade. Modern materials such as alginate, hydrofibres and absorbent granules increase the capacity of dressings to absorb fluid. While most dressings are absorbent to some degree, some are particularly absorbent and are often called ‘super absorbents’. Other innovations include gelling fibres – complex fibre structures and/or silicone – and products that control the direction of fluid flow to protect the skin (Cowan, 2016). Despite these advances, many challenges remain. The quantity of fluid can quickly exceed dressing capacity, while it can be difficult to find dressings that are large enough if the whole leg is leaking. As dressings are absorbent, they accumulate a lot of fluid, becoming heavy and prone to slippage; this may pull and tear skin that is already vulnerable. Some dressings are absorbent because they are bulky, so they make an already-swollen limb even bigger. One of the principles of compression is that higher pressures are applied on smaller circumferences so that a larger circumference results in lower sub-bandage pressure (Thomas, 2014); this means that, when there is a lot of extra padding adding to limb circumference, there is a risk that not enough pressure is being exerted on the leg. When super-absorbent dressings are swollen with fluid, they may exert additional localised pressure, leading to changes in the pressure profile and possibly to pressure damage. Nurses should refer to local dressing formularies and discuss any challenges with a tissue viability nurse or other professional with responsibility for the formulary. Whichever dressing is selected, it should be a comfortable fit, and should not cause discomfort when it has reached its absorbency capacity, or hold exudate against periwound skin. Some astringent and mildly antiseptic substances are used on very wet skin, but their efficacy is debated. Treating very wet skin with topical substances is a challenge; decisions must sometimes be based on clinical experience rather than evidence, as there is little evidence on the subject. The key objective is to manage the underlying problem and not use topical agents for prolonged periods. For example, potassium permanganate solutions can help in acute episodes of lymphorrhoea but should not be used for more than 10 days (Elwell and Craven, 2015). They must be used and disposed of according to the manufacturer’s instructions, so skin, nails, clothing and household items are protected from staining (Nazarko, 2013). Although the evidence base is weak, potassium permanganate is reported to be useful in wet, weeping legs. Its use should be discontinued when the leg dries (Anderson, 2003b). Antimicrobial agents such as silver, iodine and honey can be applied, especially in the presence of wounds, when there is an infection or when the risk of infection is high. Current practice is not to use them for more than two weeks at a time, so their use must be judiciously timed (Beldon, 2014). Dressings containing antimicrobials should be selected to provide maximum absorbency and comfort. In lymphorrhoea, skin integrity is compromised not only by the swelling and fluid, but also the enzymes contained in the fluid, which can destroy healthy tissue (Adderley, 2010). The skin therefore needs to be protected with products that isolate it from the fluid. So-called barrier products come in various forms, including creams, sprays and sticks. Silicone plays a key role: it forms a coating that the fluid sits on, rather than resting directly on the skin. Manufacturers’ instructions must be followed carefully so the quantity of product applied is sufficient to create a barrier but does not hinder normal vapour loss through the skin (Draelos, 2012). Both Al-Niaimi and Cox (2009) and Mortimer and Levick (2004) state that diuretics are not generally helpful in the management of lymphovenous disease. Keast et al (2015) add that there is no, or only minimal, response to diuretics in chronic oedema caused by lymphovenous disease. However, lower-limb swelling and fluid leakage can have various causes, including renal disease, cancer, drug therapy and heart failure (Keeley, 2008), and diuretics may help reduce lower-limb oedema caused by heart failure (Khatib, 2011). If heart failure is the underlying problem and beyond appropriate medical management, compression therapy may be contraindicated; it should only be used under specialist supervision until arterial flow to the extremities is determined (Top et al, 2009). In their study of complex lymphoedema, Morgan et al (2011) highlighted a link between obesity and lymphoedema and the increased incidence of lymphorrhoea. They also explored issues around patients’ beliefs and motivation to participate in their treatment plans. This study focused on lymphoedema, but the management of chronic oedema involves many of the same issues, especially in patients with heavy and already-vulnerable limbs. Specialist equipment such as therapy couches may be required to manage heavy patients. Sometimes two health professionals are needed to wash the patient, apply topical treatments and/or barrier products, bandage limbs and treat lymphorrhoea (Morgan et al, 2011). Nurses must be prepared to deliver ‘intensive care’ for the leg in the early stages, which will help avoid complications and ultimately be less costly and risky than having to manage wet and swollen legs over long periods. From a nursing perspective, patient management consists mostly of pain control (Lymphoedema Framework, 2006) and local management of the fluid. If diuretics are used, patients will need additional support to manage increased urine output, both in terms of extra visits to the toilet and skin integrity; this may make some patients reluctant to take diuretics. Practicalities and implications must be discussed with patients when treatment is being planned; recording the progress of therapy can be useful to motivate them (Box 1). Box 1. Documenting progress Documenting assessments, treatments and outcomes is a requirement of good professional practice (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2015), but it is also part of good management and can be motivating for patients and nurses alike. Regularly measuring limb circumference at the ankle and calf allows nurses to evaluate the effect of treatment. Sketches or, better still, good-quality photographs, will also help gauge progress and detect any deterioration or breakdown of the skin, thereby enabling complications to be treated early. Measurements and sketches/photographs also support good communication between health professionals, such as when a general practice nurse needs specialist advice. When taking pictures of patients, nurses must follow local policies regarding consent and data management (Institute of Medical Illustrators, 2012). Managing oedematous and leaking legs is a clinical challenge for health professionals and for patients. Nurses need to recognise what is happening and seek to address the root cause, while using absorbent materials and, where possible, compression therapy to reduce the accumulation of fluid. Cellulitis can be prevented by good oedema and skin management, but if it does occur it must be treated as a priority. An ‘intensive treatment’ approach to lower-limb oedema in the early stages will avoid many complications, including lymphorrhoea, that arise if the condition is not well managed. Box 2 lists online resources that can be used to support management plans. Box 2. Online resources - Information on dressings can be found at: woundcarehandbook.com - Information on erysipelas and cellulitis can be found here - The British Lymphology Society has produced a consensus document on managing cellulitis in lymphoedema - Grossly oedematous and leaking legs present management challenges for both nurses and patients - Patients with lymphorrhoea experience enormous medical and practical issues - The nurse’s role is to address the cause of lymphovenous disease while reducing fluid accumulation, leg swelling and risk of infection - If cellulitis occurs it must be treated as a priority - Proactive management of lower-limb oedema as soon as it presents helps to avoid complications such as lymphorrhoea - After reading this article, test your knowledge with NT Self-assessment. If you score 80% or more, you can download a personalised certificate and store in your NT Portfolio as evidence of CPD for revalidation - Take the NT Self-assessment for this article Al-Niaimi F, Cox N (2009) Cellulitis and lymphoedema: a vicious cycle. Journal of Lymphoedema; 4: 2, 38-42. Anderson I (2003a) The management of fluid leakage in grossly oedematous legs. Nursing Times; 99: 21, 54-56. Anderson I (2003b) Should potassium permanganate be used in wound care? Nursing Times; 99: 31, 61. Beldon P (2014) The judicious use of antimicrobial dressings. Nurse Prescribing; 12:2, 74-79. Cowan T (ed) (2016) Wound Care Handbook 2016-2017. London: MA Healthcare. Draelos ZD (2012) New treatments for restoring impaired epidermal barrier permeability: skin barrier repair creams. Clinics in Dermatology; 30: 3, 345-348. Elwell R, Craven N (2015) A glossary of terms to assist the recognition and diagnosis of skin conditions associated with lower-limb chronic oedema. Chronic oedema supplement. British Journal of Community Nursing; April, S14-S24. Institute of Medical Illustrators (2012) IMI National Guidelines: Guide to Good Practice. Wound Management. London: IMI. Jacob M, Chappell D (2013) Reappraising Starling: the physiology of the microcirculation. Current Opinion in Critical Care; 19: 4, 282-289. Keast DH et al (2015) Chronic oedema/lymphoedema: under-recognised and under-treated. International Wound Journal; 12: 3, 328-333. Keeley V (2008) Pharmacological treatment for chronic oedema. British Journal of Community Nursing; 13: 4, S4, S6, S8-10. Khatib R (2011) Prescribing diuretics in the management of heart failure. Nurse Prescribing; 9: 9, 435-441. Lawrance S (2009) Innovations in the management of chronic oedema. Wound care supplement. British Journal of Community Nursing; S14-S21. Levick JR, Michel CC (2010) Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle. Cardiovascular Research; 87: 2, 198-210. Lymphoedema Framework (2006) International Consensus: Best Practice in the Management of Lymphoedema. London: Medical Education Partnership. Lymphoedema Support Network (2015) How to Recognise Lymphoedema. Morgan PA et al (2011) The challenges of managing complex lymphoedema/chronic oedema in the UK and Canada. International Wound Journal; 9: 1, 54-69. Mortimer PS, Levick JR (2004) Chronic peripheral oedema: the critical role of the lymphatic system. Clinical Medicine (London, England); 4: 5, 448-453. Mortimer PS, Rockson SG (2014) New developments in clinical aspect of lymphatic disease. Journal of Clinical Investigation; 124: 3, 915-921. Nazarko L (2013) Diagnosis and treatment of venous eczema. British Journal of Community Nursing; 14: 5, 188-194. Nursing and Midwifery Council (2015) The Code: Professional Standards of Practice and Behaviour for Nurses and Midwives. O’Meara S et al (2012) Compression for venous leg ulcers. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11: CD000265. Opoku F (2015) Ten top tips: improving the diagnosis of cellulitis in the lower limb. Wounds International; 6: 1, 4-9. Quéré I, Sneddon M (2012) Adapting compression bandaging for different patient groups. In: Compression Therapy: A Position Document on Compression Bandaging – Best Practice for the Management of Lymphoedema. Renshaw M (2007) Lymphorrhoea: ‘leaky legs’ are not just the nurse’s problem. British Journal of Community Nursing; 12: 4, S18-S21. Rockson SG (2010) Current concepts and future directions in the diagnosis and management of lymphatic vascular disease. Vascular Medicine; 15: 3: 223-231. Thomas S (2014) The production and measurement of sub-bandage pressure: Laplace’s Law revisited. Journal of Wound Care; 23: 5, 234-236. Todd M (2014) Self-management of chronic oedema in the community. British Journal of Community Nursing; Suppl: S30, S32, S34 passim. Top S et al (2009) Do short-stretch bandages affect distal blood pressure in patients with mixed aetiology leg ulcers? Journal of Wound Care; 18: 10, 439-442.

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AFSHARIDS, a dynasty (1148-1210/1736-96) founded by Nāder Shah Afšār (q.v.) upon the abolition of the Safavid dynasty in 1148/1736. What follows is an outline history of the state founded by Nāder Shah until 1210, when it was annexed by the Qajars. Nominally a continuation of the Iranian empire as reestablished by Nāder, after his death the Afsharid state was in practice confined to Iranian Khorasan. Moreover, actual power was exercised for most of this sixty years not by the nominal ruler but by military leaders or other court factions, and for a brief time by Solaymān II, whose reign was an attempted Safavid restoration. The remaining parts of Nāder’s empire were now the sphere of the Zand dynasty (q.v.) in western Iran, and the Dorrānī dynasty (q.v.) of Afghanistan. Afsharid is thus a convenient term for the history of Khorasan between the death of Nāder Shah and the accession of Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qāǰār, but has none of the wider political or cultural connotations of, say, Safavid or Timurid. Nāder Shah (1148-1160/1736-1747). For most of the period of Nāder’s rise to power and his subsequent reign, interest centers on his campaigns in western Iran, Afghanistan, India, and Central Asia rather than on the metropolitan province of Khorasan. Like Tīmūr, Nāder was a restless conqueror who neglected to lay firm administrative foundations for his far-flung ambitions. However, he did much to enhance the resources and prestige of Mašhad and its dependencies, which became obvious upon the spectacular disintegration of his empire. Nāder was born in 1100/1688 of the Qirqlū branch of the Afšārs (q.v.) in the Darra-gaz region seventy-five miles north of Mašhad. He gained his early successes in the same area, raiding and pillaging with a varied band of local tribesmen. In 1135/1723 Malek Maḥmūd Sīstānī seized control of Mašhad and came into collision with Nāder’s band. Meanwhile the Safavid claimant Ṭahmāsb, unable to oust the Afghan usurpers from Isfahan, turned instead to Khorasan and, having heard of Nāder’s prowess, recruited him to his cause. Together they captured Mašhad in 1139/1726, and Nāder vigorously subdued the Kurds of Ḵabūšān and other local rebels. Just before his coronation on the Moḡān steppe, Nāder appointed his eldest son, Reżā-qolī Mīrzā, wālī of Khorasan; during Nāder’s subsequent Indian campaign, he was the shah’s viceroy in Iran, with his seat of government at Mašhad (Astarābādī, Jahāngošā, p. 273). On his initial capture of Mašhad Nāder had ordered the shrine of the eighth Imam ʿAlī al-Reżā, repaired and had a second minaret erected (see Āstān-e Qods). During a brief stay in 1153/1741, despite his generally anti-Shiʿite policy, he further embellished the shrine. He also had a second tomb built for himself in the city (the first was at his fortress of Kalāt) and initially intended to place here Tīmūr’s tombstone, which he had brought from Samarqand. Other indications that he wished consciously to emulate the great Tamerlane are the name of his grandson, Šāhroḵ, and the similar strategy of his conquests. Mašhad was centrally located to be the capital of an Irano-Indo-Central Asian empire, and was freer of Safavid associations than Isfahan (Lockhart, Nadir Shah, p. 197). Nāder further populated the metropolis by concentrating here and elsewhere in Khorasan the hundreds of thousands of prisoners and exiles he took from his campaigns, mainly in western Iran; but since these went chiefly into his standing army, they became a strain on local resources rather than an asset (Perry, “Forced Migration,” pp. 202-03, 209-10, 212). During his last year, when Nāder toured Iran savagely punishing those in revolt (or allegedly so), at least 100 of the officials and notables of Mašhad were executed. While on his way to punish the Kurds of Ḵabūšān, he was assassinated by his Iranian officers on 11 Jomādā II 1160/20 June 1747 (Astarābādī, Jahāngošā, pp. 420-24). ʿĀdel Shah (1160-61/1747-48) and Ebrāhīm Shah (1161-62/1748-49). Nāder’s assassins offered allegiance to his nephew ʿAlī-qolī Khan, who was already marching from Sīstān at the head of an army of rebels he had been sent to subjugate. At Mašhad the civil governor and superintendent of the shrine, Mīr Sayyed Moḥammad, secured the capital for ʿAlī-qolī Khan. The latter reduced the Kalāt fortress and massacred all Nāder’s issue, with the exception of Šāhroḵ, his fourteen-year-old grandson by a daughter of the last Safavid monarch. ʿAlī-qolī Khan ascended the throne on 27 Jomādā II 1160/6 July 1747 under the regnal name ʿĀdel Shah (Golestāna, Moǰmal, pp. 1620; Maṛʿašī, Maǰmaʿ, pp. 96-97). Though urged to march immediately on Isfahan, the new monarch preferred to carouse in Mašhad, appointing his younger brother Ebrāhīm as sardār of the old Safavid center. Despite his generosity and personal popularity, ʿĀdel Shah’s state began to collapse: Alleged conspiracy at court was followed by the disintegration of his army as the various tribal contingents brought to Khorasan by Nāder began to head homeward. Ebrāhīm was meanwhile consolidating his hold over western Iran. ʿĀdel Shah was finally persuaded to advance against him. The Mašhad army met Ebrāhīm’s forces between Solṭānīya and Zanǰān in Jomādā II, 1161/June, 1748; many of ʿĀdel Shah’s officers changed sides at the first onslaught, and Ebrāhīm gained a complete victory. After a reign of less than a year, ʿĀdel Shah was handed over to his brother and blinded. Ebrāhīm occupied Tabrīz and on 17 Ḏu’l-ḥeǰǰa/8 December was proclaimed shah. Nine weeks previously, however, on 8 Šawwāl/1 October, Šāhroḵ Mīrzā had been elevated to the throne by a junta of Kurdish and Bayāt tribal leaders at Mašhad. The following spring, Ebrāhīm marched against this new rival, but his motley army disintegrated even before battle was joined. Ebrāhīm was captured and blinded, and joined his own victim ʿĀdel Shah to march in chains to Mašhad and execution (Golestāna, Moǰmal, pp. 28-32, 65; Maṛʿašī, Maǰmaʿ, pp. 98-103). Šāhroḵ Shah (1161-1210/1748-96) and Shah Solaymān II (1163/1750). As a scion of the Safavid house, Šāhroḵ was more acceptable to the populace than a mere descendent of Nāder; as a youth of seventeen, he was also a convenient front behind which the amirs of Khorasan could appropriate Nāder’s treasure. Accordingly they resisted popular pressure to set out for the old imperial capital of Isfahan (Bazin, Nāmahā, p. 64), and invited Mīr Sayyed Moḥammad, who had survived the downfall of both ʿĀdel Shah and Ebrāhīm, to bring the baggage-train and prisoners from Qom to Mašhad. The Sayyed himself, like Šāhroḵ a grandson of Shah Solṭān Ḥosayn and an influential figure in both holy cities, was also a danger to their regime. Soon after his arrival, Šāhroḵ instigated two clumsy attempts on his life; these in turn ignited a mutiny among the amirs who had supported him and who perhaps feared that such rash actions would encompass their downfall. Led by Mīr ʿAlam Khan ʿArab-e Ḵozayma, they gathered an enthusiastic crowd and bore the protesting Sayyed in triumph from the shrine to the palace. Šāhroḵ fled into the harem (andarūn), where he killed the surviving younger brothers of ʿĀdel and Ebrāhīm before he was deposed and imprisoned. Two weeks later, on 5 Ṣafar 1163/13 January 1750, the Sayyed was crowned Shah Solaymān II Ṣafawī (Bazin, Nāmahā, pp. 65-66; Maṛʿašī, Maǰmaʿ, pp. 103-05; Eʿtemād-al-salṭana, Maṭlaʿ al-šams II, pp. 341-50). An influx of Safavid relatives and retainers swelled the ranks of parasitical courtiers, and the now customary proclamation of a three years’ tax amnesty depleted the treasury further. Herat had been annexed to Qandahār by Aḥmad Shah Dorrānī; Shah Solaymān now demanded its return, and enforced his claim by occupying the city after a short siege. While the new shah was away hunting, his viceroy Mīr ʿAlam Khan sought to insure himself against an Afsharid countercoup by blinding Šāhroḵ. The cracks in the façade had widened, and a rival faction of amirs, led by Yūsof ʿAlī Khan Jalāyer, resolved to seize the dwindling wealth for themselves. They were encouraged by Šāhroḵ’s wife, who convinced them that her husband had not really been blinded. On the eve of Nowrūz 1163/1750, the conspirators rushed into the shah’s chamber and gouged out his eyes. Having rescued Šāhroḵ, they found that he was indeed blind; but, unable to go back, they installed him on the throne for a second term. ʿAlam Khan fled the city, and others of his supporters made terms with the new regime (Maṛʿašī, Maǰmaʿ, pp. 88-90, 119-38; Golestāna, Moǰmal, pp. 47-70). Afghan incursions and rival regents. Yūsof ʿAlī Khan and his henchmen soon decided to cut their losses and abscond with the remaining jewels to Kalāt. However, they were intercepted and killed by ʿAlam Khan, who resumed control of Mašhad through an uneasy alliance with the local Kurdish tribes. By this time Aḥmad Shah Dorrānī had recovered Herat and determined to invade the chaotic province to his west. That winter he briefly besieged Mašhad and, when the defense proved too strong, continued on to Nīšāpūr; but a stout defense and severe weather forced his withdrawal to Herat. In the spring of 1167/1754 Aḥmad Shah again besieged Nīšāpūr in vain; however, he won over ʿAlam Khan’s dissident Kurdish troops and had ʿAlam Khan captured and put to death. In July he again laid siege to Mašhad, which was starved into surrender five months later. All were treated with diplomatic generosity, and when the Afghan monarch set out against Nīšāpūr next spring, he formally reinvested Šāhroḵ as ruler of Khorasan, leaving an Afghan viceroy and garrison. But a succession of reverses, including a defeat by a Qajar force at Masīnān, prompted Aḥmad to withdraw via Herat in the autumn of 1169/1755. He left Amīr Khan Qarāʾī of the Barlās tribe as military governor of Mašhad (Ḥosaynī, Tārīḵ, fols. 22b-46a). He was soon expelled by Fereydūn Khan, a Georgian, tutor (lala) to Šāhroḵ’s sons; he in turn was assassinated and his followers expelled by Naṣrallāh Mīrzā, Šāhroḵ’s eldest son. Šāhroḵ favored his younger son, Nāder Mīrzā, but had to acquiesce. In 1181/1768, however, the blind king persuaded Naṣrallāh to leave on a mission to Karīm Khan at Shiraz, ostensibly to solicit aid against the Afghan menace, but in reality to keep him out of the way while his brother was installed in his stead (Golestāna, pp. 95-97). On his return six months later, Nāder Mīrzā fled from Mašhad to Čenārān, and Naṣrallāh resumed his rule. Soon afterwards, Naṣrallāh laid siege to Nīšāpūr, which under ʿAbbās-qolī Khan Bayāt had refused to submit to Mašhad. Again Nāder Mīrzā took advantage of his absence to seize power, and again, when his brother broke off the siege and raced back, he was forced to flee the city. In 1188/1775 Naṣrallāh Mīrzā was once more ousted from power and resorted to Shiraz, probably in a vain attempt to gain support against his father and younger brother; he stayed some seven years, leaving Mašhad in the hands of Nāder Mīrzā. After his return and reconquest of Mašhad, he grew increasingly addicted to opium and died a near-recluse in 1200/1786. The shortsighted ambition and rivalry of the brothers throughout this period drove the city and province further into ruin. Both of them exhausted their father’s treasury and confiscated precious ornaments and fittings from the shrine to melt down into coin in order to pay their troops; the motawallī was unable to stop them, and the fickle citizenry and provincial amirs merely supported one against the other. Naṣrallāh’s courage and energy twice saved the city from external enemies: once when he restored Mašhad’s water supply which had been diverted at Čenārān by Jaʿfar Khan Kord, and again during Aḥmad Shah’s third and last invasion of 1183-84/1770. Deserted by his Kurdish allies, Naṣrallāh nevertheless led his personal bodyguard of 200 men on a daring raid inside the Afghan camp; Aḥmad withdrew on terms which included the marriage of Šāhroḵ’s daughter to his son. After his brother’s death, Nāder Mīrzā ruled as viceroy for a decade and fled to Herat on the approach of Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qāǰār in 1210/1796. Šāhroḵ capitulated before the new ruler of Iran; he was tortured to reveal the whereabouts of his remaining jewels and sent with his younger children to Māzandarān, where he shortly died. Upon Āḡā Moḥammad’s death the following year, Nāder Mīrzā recaptured Mašhad, and was tolerated by Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah until he could mount a personal campaign in 1216/1802. As the Qajars stormed the city, Nāder murdered the motawallī, whom he suspected of collusion with the besiegers; he was captured and executed in Tehran, and Khorasan finally came under Qajar control. Bibliography : Mīrzā Mahdī Khan Astarābādī, Jahāngošā-ye Nāderī, ed. ʿA. Anwār, Tehran, 1341 Š./1962. L. Bazin, Nāmahā-ye ṭabīb-e Nāder Šāh, tr. ʿA. Ḥarīrī, Tehran, 1340 Š./1961. Moḥammad Ḥasan Khan Eʿtemād-al-salṭana, Maṭlaʿ al-šams, Tehran, 1301-02/1884-85, II, pp. 341-53. Abu’l-Ḥasan Golestāna, Moǰmal al-tawārīḵ, ed. Modarres Rażawī, Tehran, 1344 Š./1965, pp. 24-120. Maḥmūd al-Moṯannā al-Ḥosaynī, Tārīḵ-e Aḥmadšāhī, British Library MS Or. 196 (Rieu, Pers. Man. I, p. 213b). L. Lockhart, Nadir Shah, London, 1938. J. Malcolm, The History of Persia II, London, 1815. Mīrzā Moḥammad Ḵalīl Maṛʿašī, Maǰmaʿ al-tawārīḵ, ed. ʿA. Eqbāl, Tehran, 1328 Š./1949. J. R. Perry, “Forced Migration in Iran,” Iranian Studies 8/4, 1972, pp. 199-215. (J. R. Perry)

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Bordeaux wine (Occitan: vin de Bordèu, French: vin de Bordeaux) is any wine produced in the Bordeaux region of southwest France. Bordeaux is centered on the city of Bordeaux, on the Garonne River. To the north of the city the Dordogne River joins the Garonne forming the broad estuary called the Gironde and covering the whole area of the Gironde department, with a total vineyard area of over 120,000 hectares, making it the largest wine growing area in France. Average vintages produce over 700 million bottles of Bordeaux wine, ranging from large quantities of everyday table wine, to some of the most expensive and prestigious wines in the world. The vast majority of wine produced in Bordeaux is red (sometimes called "claret" in Britain), with sweet white wines (most notably Sauternes), dry whites, and (in much smaller quantities) rosé and sparkling wines (Crémant de Bordeaux) collectively making up the remainder. Bordeaux wine is made by more than 8,500 producers or châteaux. There are 54 appellations of Bordeaux wine. The wine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-1st century, to provide wine for local consumption, and wine production has been continuous in the region since then. In the 12th century, the popularity of Bordeaux wines in England increased dramatically following the marriage of Henry Plantagenet and Eleanor of Aquitaine. The marriage made the province of Aquitaine part of the Angevin Empire, and thenceforth the wine of Bordeaux was exported to England. At this time, Graves was the principal wine region of Bordeaux, and the principal style was clairet. This accounts for the ubiquity of claret in England, though this is now used to refer to all red wine rather than the clairet style specifically. The export of Bordeaux was interrupted by the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War between France and England in 1337. By the end of the conflict in 1453 France had repossessed the province, thus taking control of wine production in the region. As part of the Auld Alliance, the French granted Scottish merchants a privileged position in the trade of claret—a position that continued largely unchanged after the Treaty of Edinburgh ended the military alliance between France and Scotland. Even when the by then Protestant kingdoms of England and Scotland, both ruled by the same Stuart king by this point, were trying to militarily aid the Huguenot rebels in their fight against Catholic France in La Rochelle, Scots trading vessels were not only permitted to enter the Gironde, but the French navy escorted them safely to the port of Bordeaux to protect them from Huguenot privateers. In the seventeenth century, Dutch traders drained the swampy ground of the Médoc so it could be planted with vines, and this gradually surpassed Graves as the most prestigious region of Bordeaux. Malbec was the dominant grape here, until the early 19th century, when it was replaced by Cabernet Sauvignon. In 1855, the châteaux of Bordeaux were classified; this classification remains widely used today. From 1875 to 1892 almost all Bordeaux vineyards were ruined by phylloxera infestations. The region's wine industry was rescued by grafting native vines on to pest-resistant American rootstock. Climate and geography The major reason for the success of winemaking in the Bordeaux region is an excellent environment for growing vines. The geological foundation of the region is limestone, leading to a soil structure that is heavy in calcium. The Gironde estuary dominates the regions along with its tributaries, the Garonne and the Dordogne rivers, and together irrigate the land and provide an Atlantic Climate, also known as an oceanic climate, for the region. Bordeaux lies at the center of the confluence of the Dordogne and Garonne Rivers, which flow into the Gironde. These rivers define the main geographical subdivisions of the region: - "The right bank", situated on the right bank of Dordogne, in the northern parts of the region, around the city of Libourne. - Entre-Deux-Mers, French for "between two seas", the area between the rivers Dordogne and Garonne, both of which are tidal, in the centre of the region. - "The left bank", situated on the left bank of Garonne, in the west and south of the region, around the city of Bordeaux itself. The left bank is further subdivided into: In Bordeaux the concept of terroir plays a pivotal role in wine production with the top estates aiming to make terroir driven wines that reflect the place they are from, often from grapes collected from a single vineyard. The soil of Bordeaux is composed of gravel, sandy stone, and clay. The region's best vineyards are located on the well-drained gravel soils that are frequently found near the Gironde river. An old adage in Bordeaux is the best estates can "see the river" from their vineyards. The majority of land facing riverward is occupied by classified estates. Red Bordeaux is generally made from a blend of grapes. Permitted grapes are Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Petit Verdot, Malbec and rarely Carménère. Today Carménère is rarely used, with Château Clerc Milon, a fifth growth Bordeaux, being one of the few to still retain Carménère vines. As of July 2019, Bordeaux wineries authorized the use of four new red grapes to combat temperature increases in Bordeaux. These newly approved grapes are Marselan, Touriga Nacional, Castets, and Arinarnoa. As a broad generalisation, Cabernet Sauvignon (Bordeaux's second-most planted grape variety) dominates the blend in red wines produced in the Médoc and the rest of the left bank of the Gironde estuary. Typical top-quality Châteaux blends are 70% Cabernet Sauvignon, 15% Cabernet Franc and 15% Merlot. This is typically referred to as the "Bordeaux blend". Merlot tends to predominate in Saint-Émilion, Pomerol and the other right bank appellations. These Right Bank blends from top -quality Châteaux are typically 70% Merlot, 15% Cabernet Franc and 15% Cabernet Sauvignon. White Bordeaux is predominantly, and exclusively in the case of the sweet Sauternes, made from Sémillon, Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle. Typical blends are 80% Sémillon and 20% Sauvignon blanc. As with the reds, white Bordeaux wines are usually blends, most commonly of Sémillon and a smaller proportion of Sauvignon blanc. Other permitted grape varieties are Sauvignon gris, Ugni blanc, Colombard, Merlot blanc, Ondenc and Mauzac. Recently permitted by Bordeaux wineries, three new white grapes have been added. These grapes are Alvarinho, Petit Manseng, and Liliorila. In the late 1960s Sémillon was the most planted grape in Bordeaux. Since then it has been in constant decline although it still is the most common of Bordeaux's white grapes. Sauvignon blanc's popularity on the other hand has been rising, overtaking Ugni blanc as the second most planted white Bordeaux grape in the late 1980s and now being grown in an area more than half the size of that of the lower yielding Sémillon. Wineries all over the world aspire to making wines in a Bordeaux style. In 1988, a group of American vintners formed The Meritage Association to identify wines made in this way. Although most Meritage wines come from California, there are members of the Meritage Association in 18 states and five other countries, including Argentina, Australia, Canada, Israel, and Mexico. Viticulture and winemaking The red grapes in the Bordeaux vineyard are Merlot (62% by area), Cabernet Sauvignon (25%), Cabernet Franc (12%) and a small amount of Petit Verdot, Malbec and Carménère (1% in total). The white grapes are Sémillon (54% by area), Sauvignon blanc (36%), Muscadelle (7%) and a small amount of Ugni blanc, Colombard and Folle blanche (3% in total). Because of the generally humid Bordeaux climate, a variety of pests can cause a problem for the vigneron. In the past, this was counteracted by the widespread use of pesticides, although the use of natural methods has recently been gaining in popularity. The vines are generally trained in either single or double guyot. Hand-picking is preferred by most of the prestigious châteaux, but machine-harvesting is popular in other places. Following harvest, the grapes are usually sorted and destemmed before crushing. Crushing was traditionally done by foot, but mechanical crushing is now almost universally used. Chaptalization is permitted, and is fairly common-place. Fermentation then takes place, usually in temperature controlled stainless steel vats. Next the must is pressed and transferred to barriques (in most cases) for a period of ageing (commonly a year). The traditional Bordeaux barrique is a 225-litre oak barrel. At some point between pressing and bottling the wine is blended. This is an integral part of the Bordeaux wine making process, as scarcely any Bordeaux wines are varietals; wine from different grape varieties is mixed together, depending on the vintage conditions, so as to produce a wine in the château's preferred style. In addition to mixing wine from different grape varieties, wine from different parts of the vineyard is often aged separately, and then blended into either the main or the second wine (or sold off wholesale) according to the judgment of the winemaker. The wine is then bottled and usually undergoes a further period of ageing before it is released for sale. The Bordeaux wine region is divided into subregions including Saint-Émilion, Pomerol, Médoc, and Graves. The 60 Bordeaux appellations and the wine styles they represent are usually categorized into six main families, four red based on the subregions and two white based on sweetness: - Red Bordeaux and Red Bordeaux Supérieur. Bordeaux winemakers may use the two regional appellations throughout the entire wine region; however, approximately half of the Bordeaux vineyard is specifically designated under Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur AOCs. With the majority of châteaux located on the Right Bank in the Entre-Deux-Mers area, wines are typically Merlot-dominant, often blended with the other classic Bordeaux varieties. There are many small, family-run châteaux, as well as wines blended and sold by wine merchants under commercial brand names. The Bordeaux AOC wines tend to be fruity, with minimal influence of oak, and are produced in a style meant to be drunk young. Bordeaux Superieur AOC wines are produced in the same area, but must follow stricter controls, such as lower yields, and are often aged in oak. For the past 10 years, there has been strong, ongoing investment by the winemakers in both the vineyards and in the cellar, resulting in ever increasing quality. New reforms for the regional appellations were instituted in 2008 by the Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur Winemakers' Association. In 2010, 55% of all Bordeaux wines sold in the world were from Bordeaux and Bordeaux Supérieur AOCs, with 67% sold in France and 33% exported (+9%), representing 14 bottles consumed per second. - Red Côtes de Bordeaux. Eight appellations are in the hilly outskirts of the region, and produce wines where the blend usually is dominated by Merlot. These wines tend to be intermediate between basic red Bordeaux and the more famous appellations of the left and right bank in both style and quality. However, since none of Bordeaux's stellar names are situated in Côtes de Bordeaux, prices tend to be moderate. There is no official classification in Côtes de Bordeaux. In 2007, 14.7% of the region's vineyard surface was used for wines in this family. - Red Libourne, or "Right Bank" wines. Around the city of Libourne, 10 appellations produce wines dominated by Merlot with very little Cabernet Sauvignon, the two most famous being Saint-Émilion and Pomerol. These wines often have great fruit concentration, softer tannins and are long-lived. Saint-Émilion has an official classification. In 2007, 10.5% of the region's vineyard surface was used for wines in this family. - Red Graves and Médoc or "Left Bank" wines. North and south of the city of Bordeaux, which are the classic areas, produce wines dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon, but often with a significant portion of Merlot. These wines are concentrated, tannic, long-lived and most of them meant to be cellared before drinking. The five First Growths are situated here. There are official classifications for both Médoc and Graves. In 2007, 17.1% of the region's vineyard surface was used for wines in this family. - Dry white wines. Dry white wines are made throughout the region, using the regional appellation Bordeaux Blanc, often from 100% Sauvignon blanc or a blend dominated by Sauvignon blanc and Sémillon. The Bordeaux Blanc AOC is used for wines made in appellations that only allow red wines. Dry whites from Graves are the most well-known and it is the only subregion with a classification for dry white wines. The better versions tend to have a significant oak influence. In 2007, 7.8% of the region's vineyard surface was used for wines in this family. - Sweet white wines. In several locations and appellations throughout the region, sweet white wine is made from Sémillon, Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle grapes affected by noble rot. The best-known of these appellations is Sauternes, which also has an official classification, and where some of the world's most famous sweet wines are produced. There are also appellations neighbouring Sauternes, on both sides of the Garonne river, where similar wines are made. These include Loupiac, Cadillac, and Sainte Croix du Mont. The regional appellation for sweet white wines is Bordeaux Supérieur Blanc. In 2007, 3.2% of the region's vineyard surface was used for wines in this family. The vast majority of Bordeaux wine is red, with red wine production outnumbering white wine production six to one. There are four different classifications of Bordeaux, covering different parts of the region: - The Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, covering (with one exception) red wines of Médoc, and sweet wines of Sauternes-Barsac. - The 1955 Official Classification of St.-Émilion, which is updated approximately once every ten years, and last in 2006. - The 1959 Official Classification of Graves, initially classified in 1953 and revised in 1959. - The Cru Bourgeois Classification, which began as an unofficial classification, but came to enjoy official status and was last updated in 2003. However, after various legal turns, the classification was annulled in 2007. As of 2007, plans exist to revive it as an unofficial classification. 78 producers took legal action against the 2003 classification. In September 2010 a new list of Crus Bourgeois was unveiled as a recognition of quality, with a yearly reappraisal. It is no longer a recognized classification. - The Cru artisan Classification was recognized by the European Union in June 1994 and published on January 11, 2006. The classification is to be revised every 10 years. The initial list of 44 Cru Artisans was extended to 50 in 2012; see Cru artisan [fr]. The 1855 classification system was made at the request of Emperor Napoleon III for the Exposition Universelle de Paris. This came to be known as the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, which ranked the wines into five categories according to price. The first growth red wines (four from Médoc and one, Château Haut-Brion, from Graves), are among the most expensive wines in the world. The first growths are: - Château Lafite Rothschild, in the appellation Pauillac - Château Margaux, in the appellation Margaux - Château Latour, in the appellation Pauillac - Château Haut-Brion, in the appellation Péssac-Leognan - Château Mouton Rothschild, in the appellation Pauillac, promoted from second to first growth in 1973. At the same time, the sweet white wines of Sauternes and Barsac were classified into three categories, with only Château d'Yquem being classified as a superior first growth. In 1955, St. Émilion AOC were classified into three categories, the highest being Premier Grand Cru Classé A with two members: In the 2012 classification, two more Châteaux became members: There is no official classification applied to Pomerol. However some Pomerol wines, notably Château Pétrus and Château Le Pin, are often considered as being equivalent to the first growths of the 1855 classification, and often sell for even higher prices. - The name of the estate (Image example: Château L'Angelus) - The estate's classification (Image example: Grand Cru Classé) This can be in reference to the 1855 Bordeaux classification or one of the Cru Bourgeois. - The appellation (Image example: Saint-Émilion) Appellation d'origine contrôlée laws dictate that all grapes must be harvested from a particular appellation for that appellation to appear on the label. The appellation is a key indicator of the type of wine in the bottle. With the image example, Pauillac wines are always red, and usually Cabernet Sauvignon is the dominant grape variety. - Whether or not the wine is bottled at the château (Image example: Mis en Bouteille au Château) or assembled by a Négociant. - The vintage (Image example: 1978) - Alcohol content (not shown on image) Claret derives from the French clairet, a now uncommon dark rosé, which was the most common wine exported from Bordeaux until the 18th century. The name was anglicised to "claret" as a result of its widespread consumption in England during the period in the 12th–15th centuries that Aquitaine was part of the Angevin Empire and continued to be controlled by Kings of England for some time after the Angevins. It is a protected name within the European Union, describing a red Bordeaux wine, accepted after the British wine trade demonstrated over 300 years' usage of the term. Claret is occasionally used in the United States as a semi-generic label for red wine in the style of the Bordeaux, ideally from the same grapes as are permitted in Bordeaux. The French themselves do not use the term, except for export purposes. The meaning of "claret" has changed over time to refer to a dry, dark red Bordeaux. It has remained a term associated with the English upper class, and consequently appears on bottles of generic red Bordeaux in an effort to raise their status in the market. In November 2011, the president of the Union des Maisons de Négoce de Bordeaux, announced an intention to use the term claret de Bordeaux for wines that are "light and fruity, easy to drink, in the same style as the original claret when it was prized by the English in former centuries". "Claret" is also sometimes used as a colour name to refer to the dark, purplish-red colour of Bordeaux wine. In Britain and Australia, "claret" has also been a slang term for blood. Many of the top Bordeaux wines are primarily sold as futures contracts, called selling en primeur. Because of the combination of longevity, fairly large production, and an established reputation, Bordeaux wines tend to be the most common wines at wine auctions. Market reports released in February 2009 showed that the market had increased in buying power by 128% while the prices had been lowered for the very best Bordeaux wines. Syndicat des AOC de Bordeaux et Bordeaux Supérieur Syndicate des Vins de Bordeaux et Bordeaux Supérieur is an organization representing the economic interests of 6,700 wine producers in Bordeaux, France. The wine lake and other economic problems have increased the salience of the winemakers' association, whose members are facing increasing costs and decreasing demand for their product. As the largest appellation producing fine wines, and the strong foundation of the pyramid of Bordeaux wines, Bordeaux AOC & Bordeaux Supérieur AOC today account for 55% of all Bordeaux wines consumed in the world. Plan Bordeaux was an initiative introduced in 2005 by ONIVINS, the French vintners association, designed to reduce France's wine production in order to improve profitability for the remaining producers. Part of the plan was to uproot 17,000 hectares of the 124,000 hectares of vineyards in Bordeaux. The wine industry in Bordeaux has been experiencing economic problems in the face of strong international competition from New World wines and declining wine consumption in France. In 2004, exports to the U.S. plummeted 59% in value over the previous year. Sales in Britain dropped 33% in value during the same period. The UK, a major market, now imports more wine from Australia than from France. Amongst the possible causes for this economic crisis are that many consumers tend to prefer wine labels that state the variety of grape used, and often find the required French AOC labels difficult to understand. Christian Delpeuch, president emeritus of Plan Bordeaux hoped to reduce production, improve quality, and sell more wine in the United States. However, two years after the beginning of the program, Mr Delpeuch resigned, "citing the failure of the French government to address properly the wine crisis in Bordeaux." Delpeuch told journalists assembled at the Bordeaux Press Club "I refuse to countenance this continual putting off of decisions which can only end in failure." "Delpeuch said he was shocked and disappointed by the failure of his efforts—and by the lack of co-operation from winemakers and négociants themselves—to achieve anything concrete in terms of reforms to the Bordeaux wine industry over the last 24 months." The future of Plan Bordeaux is uncertain. - "Synopsis of Bordeaux wines" (PDF). Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. - "Bordeaux In Figures". New Bordeaux. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012. - Johnson, Hugh; Robinson, Jancis (8 October 2013). The World Atlas of Wine (7th ed.). Mitchell Beazley. pp. 13, 81. ISBN 978-1845336899. - "Vins de Bordeaux (US)" (Official site). 2016. Archived from the original on 14 June 2017. - "BBC". 9 September 2014. - MacNeil, Karen (20 October 2001). The Wine Bible. Workman Publishing. pp. 118, 120. ISBN 978-0761185727. - "French Wine Regions". International Wine of the Month Club. Retrieved 28 June 2018. - Brook, Stephen (7 November 2012). The Complete Bordeaux: The Wines The Châteaux The People (revised ed.). London: Mitchell Beazley. pp. 36–74. ASIN B00E8V3G76. - Gray, W. Blake (2 July 2019). "New Grapes Approved for Bordeaux". Wine-Searcher. Archived from the original on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019. - Clarke, Oz; Rand, Margaret (30 September 2001). Grapes and Wines:Encyclopedia of Grapes. United Kingdom: Time Warner Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-0316857260. - "The 60 Appellations". Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). Archived from the original (read on May 28, 2010) on 30 April 2009. - Bordeaux & Bordeaux Supérieur Press Kit, 2011, CIVB Economie et Etudes Nov 16, 2010. - "The 60 Appellations – Côtes de Bordeaux". Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). Archived from the original (read on May 28, 2010) on 30 April 2009. - "The 60 Appellations – Saint-Emilion, Pomerol, Fronsac". Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). Archived from the original (read on May 28, 2010) on 30 April 2009. - "The 60 Appellations – Médoc and Graves". Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). Archived from the original (read on May 28, 2010) on 30 April 2009. - "The 60 Appellations – Dry white wines". Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). Archived from the original (read on May 28, 2010) on 30 April 2009. - "The 60 Appellations – Dry white wines". Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB). Archived from the original (read on May 28, 2010) on 30 April 2009. - Robinson, Jancis (ed) (1 October 2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 175–177, 212–216. ISBN 0-19-860990-6.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link) - Anson, Jane (10 July 2007). "Cru Bourgeois classification officially over". Decanter. - Anson, Jane (27 July 2007). "Cru Bourgeois to rise again with new name". Decanter. Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2008. - Sanderson, B (15 May 2007). "A Master Class in Cabernet". Wine Spectator. p. 62. - Oxford Companion to Wine (Clairet) (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 9780198609902. - Anson, Jane (3 November 2011). "Bordeaux reclaims 'claret' name". Decanter. Retrieved 23 October 2012. - "Definition of claret in English". Lexico (Oxford Dictonaries). Retrieved 28 July 2019. - Ghatineh, Aarash, WineInvestment.org - "Lettre ouverte aux régions viticoles françaises" [Open letter to French wine regions]. Vitisphere (in French). Archived from the original on 26 March 2006. Retrieved 26 March 2006. - Bell, Susan (6 June 2006). "Wine-makers destroy vines in lip service to glut crisis". The Scotsman. Archived from the original on 27 May 2006. - Kevany, Sophie (30 May 2006). "President of Bordeaux Wine Board resigns in frustration". Wine & Spirit. William Reed Publishing Ltd. Archived from the original on 18 June 2006. - Echikson, William. Noble Rot: A Bordeaux Wine Revolution. NY: Norton, 2004. - Teichgraeber, Tim (June 8, 2006). "Bordeaux for less dough". San Francisco Chronicle. - Vins de Bordeaux (CIVB) official website - Vins de Bordeaux Classifications - The wines of Bordeaux – The official website of France (in English) - Bordeaux Wine Guide - Wine war: Savy New World marketers are devastating the French wine industry - Robert Parker's Bordeaux vintage chart - Enobytes Bordeaux vintage chart

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Popular Science Monthly/Volume 37/May 1890/Sumptuary Laws and their Social Influence |SUMPTUARY LAWS AND THEIR SOCIAL INFLUENCE.| THERE are many persons who have what they conceive to be the good of their fellow-creatures so greatly at heart that, when they can not succeed in making them conform to a standard of right and wrong that they have set up for themselves, endeavor to accomplish their object by legal enactments. It is true they are very apt to do this under the fiction of insuring the public welfare; but it is none the less a fact, even if we admit the force of their alleged motive, that such laws as those to which I refer interfere with the personal liberty of those against whom they are aimed, and this to an extent incompatible with that degree of freedom of will and of action which is inseparable from the individual in all communities founded upon what we call liberty. Moreover, they are inquisitorial in their nature, and, what is perhaps a point of even still greater importance, they fail to accomplish the object in view; and being continually evaded on one pretext or another, tend to diminish that respect for the majesty of law which all well-ordered citizens should entertain. The history of sumptuary laws, or laws tending to limit luxury and expense, shows how truly the remarks just made are founded on fact; and yet in all ages of the world such laws have been passed, to be disobeyed, held in contempt, remaining on the statute-book unenforced, and finally either passing into oblivion or being formally repealed. As we are apparently passing through a stage of our national existence in which sumptuary laws are making their appearance, it seemed to me that the Society for Medical Jurisprudence and State Medicine might very properly have its attention directed to the subject. Among the first within our knowledge to provide by law for the regulation of the appetite, the taste, the affections, the dress, and the most minute details in the life of a citizen was Sparta, Sparta was a small country and its people were few; they were surrounded by powerful neighbors. The first principle instilled into the mind of every individual was, that the state had a claim upon him superior to that of parents or of any relational or social bond. He was from the very cradle trained for war; luxury, being regarded as incompatible with true manliness, was to be suppressed at all hazards. Foreigners, being liable to become a disturbing factor in the system of discipline enforced, were not allowed to enter Sparta; even the feeble children, as being unfit for war and liable to become burdens on the community, were put to death. Gold and silver were excluded, and the coinage was of iron. As far as possible the whole nation was fed alike. That the system was effectual in accomplishing the object that Lycurgus had in view, is probably true. It succeeded just as persecution succeeds when it is thorough and implacable. A half-hearted system of persecution not only fails in its object, but invariably advances the cause against which it is directed. If, for instance, we could kill all those who oppose us in our efforts to make matters accord with our own way of thinking, we should undoubtedly be triumphantly successful; but if we only killed a few of them, it would not be long before the number of the remainder would be so augmented that they would kill us. Nowhere has the inefficacy of sumptuary laws been more thoroughly demonstrated than in Rome. There the dress, the food, the furniture of the houses, were attempted to be regulated by law after law, which were either openly or secretly disobeyed, and which eventually disappeared from the statute-books. The cost of entertainments was limited; the number of guests a person might have at his house was restricted. No woman was allowed to have more than half an ounce of gold, or to wear a dress of more than one color, or to ride in a carriage. In France, during the Celtic period, a law was passed that women should drink water only. In 1188 or thereabout no person was allowed to wear garments of vair, gray, zibeline, or scarlet color. No laced or slashed garments were allowed, and no one could have more than two courses at meals. In 1328 scarlet was only permitted to be worn by princes, knights, and women of high rank. The use of silver plate was prohibited except to certain high dignitaries; and women were frequently sent to prison in forties, fifties, and sixties at a time for wearing clothes above their rank. Even as late as the seventeenth century gold, as an ornament on carriages, buildings, and gloves, was prohibited. In England, during the reign of Edward IV, cloth of gold or silk of a purple color was prohibited to all but members of the royal family. Lords were allowed to wear velvet, knights satin, and esquires and gentlemen camelet. None but noblemen were allowed to wear woolen clothes made out of England, or fur of sables, and no laborer, servant, or artificer might wear any cloth which cost more than two shillings a yard. In the year 1336 an act of Parliament was passed which I quote in full, as showing to what extremes law can go in the way of interfering with the interior life of the citizens: "Whereas heretofore, through the excessive and over-many sorts of costly meats which the people of this Realm have used more than elsewhere, many mischiefs have happened to the people of this Realm: for the great men by these excesses have been sore grieved, and the lesser people who only endeavor to imitate the great ones in such sorts of meats are much impoverished, whereby they are not able to aid themselves nor their liege lord in time of need as they ought, and many other evils have happened as well to their souls as to their bodies, our Lord the King, desiring the common profit as well of the great men as of the common people of his Realm, and considering the evils, grievances, and mischiefs aforesaid, by the common assent of the prelates, earls, barons, and other nobles of his said Realm and of the commons of the said Realm, hath ordained and established that no man, of what state or condition soever he be, shall cause himself to be served in his house or elsewhere, at dinner-meal or supper, or at any other time, with more than two courses and each mess of two sorts of victuals at the utmost, be it of flesh or fish, with the common sort of pottages without sauce or any other sort of victuals. And if any man choose to have sauce for his mess he may, provided it be not made at great cost; and if flesh or fish be to be mixed therein it shall be of two sorts only at the utmost, either flesh or fish, and shall stand instead of a mess except only on the principal feasts of the year, on which days every man may be served with three courses at the utmost, after the manner aforesaid." But laws and proclamations were of no avail, though they continued to be issued and passed down to the reign of Queen Elizabeth; and in the reign of James I all sumptuary laws were repealed. Since then the people of England have been allowed to wear, to eat, and to drink what they pleased. In our own country the experiment has been tried with as much thoroughness and with practically as little result as has attended the attempt by other nations. As early as the year 1639 we have the prototype of that curious law enacted a few years ago in the State of Iowa, which prohibits one person from inviting another to take a drink, or treating, as it is called. In the records of the colony of Massachusetts for the year mentioned we find as follows: "Forasmuch as it is evident unto this Court that the common custom of drinking one to another is a mere useless ceremony, and draweth on that abominable practice of drinking healths, and is also an occasion of much waste to the good creatures and of many other sins," such things are declared to be a reproach to a Christian commonwealth and are not to be tolerated. However, invectives of the council appear to have been of little effect, notwithstanding the severity of the punishments which were meted out to those who infringed the laws. Drunkenness, which is at most only a vice, was made a crime; and in 1636 one Peter Bussaker was condemned for drunkenness to be whipped with twenty stripes well laid on. Robert Coles, for drunkenness committed at Roxbury, was condemned to be disfranchised, and to wear about his neck so that it would hang upon his outward garment a letter D, made of red cloth, and set upon white, to continue this for a year, and not to leave it off at any time in public, under penalty of forty shillings for the first offense and five pounds for the second. Severity of punishments appeared only to aggravate the evil against which they were directed, for in 1648 the Court was forced to declare that "it is found by experience that a great quantity of wine is spent and much thereof is abused to excess of drinking and unto drunkenness itself, notwithstanding all the wholesome laws provided and published for the preventing thereof." It therefore orders, with a blind perversity which is a remarkable instance of the fatuity which actuates people when they endeavor to accomplish the impossible, that those who are authorized to sell wine and beer shall not harbor a drunkard in their houses, but shall forthwith give him up to be dealt with by the proper officer, under penalty of five pounds for disobedience. Tobacco, for some cause or other, was especially obnoxious to the early colonial authorities of Massachusetts. The trade in the weed was only allowed to the old planters, but the sale or use of it was absolutely forbidden unless upon urgent occasion for the benefit of health and taken privately. It was also ordered that victualers or keepers of an ordinary shall not suffer any tobacco to be taken into their houses, under penalty of five shillings for every offense, to be paid by the victualer, and twelvepence by the person who takes it. Further, it was ordered that no person should take tobacco publicly, under the penalty of two shillings sixpence, nor privately in his own house or in the house of another before strangers; and that two or more shall not take it together anywhere, under the aforesaid penalty for every offense. It is true these laws against the use of tobacco are not so severe as some that have been enacted in other countries, but they were equally inefficacious. Thus, a Sultan of Turkey issued an edict to the effect that any one of his subjects detected in the act of smoking should for the first offense have his cheeks bored and transfixed by his pipe; for the second offense he was to have his nose cut off; and for the third he was to lose his head. Fines in the case of the New-Englanders, and mutilation and death in the case of the Turks, have not in the slightest degree prevented the use of tobacco; and that some recent laws to which I shall presently draw attention will prove equally futile there can be. no doubt. In all these instances of sumptuary laws the ground has been taken that not only was the individual to be benefited, but that society as a whole was to be improved. Prohibitory laws relative to the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors which have been enacted in this country in our own times are based upon this assumption, but the arguments that have been used by those advocating such laws show that this is not the only motive by which they are governed. It has been and still is repeatedly asserted in the speeches and writings of these people that those who indulge in alcoholic liquors or in the use of tobacco spend money which could otherwise be more profitably used, and that indulgence in the habit of drinking or smoking directly conduces to idleness and luxurious habits. These assertions are probably true, and the laws against which the practices in question are directed are essentially sumptuary laws. The laws which several States have enacted relative to the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors are true sumptuary laws, notwithstanding the fact that it is claimed by their adherents that they are measures which every independent State having a regard for the welfare of society is in duty bound to enforce. On that ground there are many other acknowledged evils against which the law-making power might very properly direct its energies, and which would interfere scarcely less with personal rights. One chief difficulty with such laws is that if thoroughly enforced, they do harm to those who never under any circumstances drink intoxicating liquors to excess, and yet who are benefited by their moderate use. As a matter of fact they never are enforced equally upon all classes of the community. In the most severe of all the States it is perfectly practicable for any person with pecuniary means to import as much alcoholic liquor for his own use and that of his family and friends as he chooses. The poor man, to whom a glass of beer or of wine taken decently and in order might not only do no harm, but might supply a positive want of his system, has to go without, or else resort to all kinds of deceit and subterfuge to get what he wants. States exceed their legitimate powers when they undertake to prevent a person doing that which is beneficial to him, and which does no harm to any one else. Moreover, as I have already said, such laws, being in this age of the world impossible of enforcement, tend to bring all law into contempt. It is not necessary for me to go into detail on this point; every one who hears me knows how the prohibitory liquor laws of the various States that have passed them are disregarded and ridiculed. Every now and then we hear of some instance where an offender is arrested and punished, but for every one brought before the courts a thousand go unnoticed. In the States of Maine, Vermont, and Rhode Island I know from my own personal experience that, notwithstanding the stringent liquor laws that exist, it is just as easy for a person to get any kind of liquor he wants as it is in the city of New York. Upon one occasion, at a prominent hotel in the State of Rhode Island, while at the dinner-table, I asked the waiter to bring me a bottle of champagne. He departed, but returned in a few minutes with the information that I could not have it without a medical prescription. I took his wine-card and writing the mystic symbol "℞," followed it with the words "vini campaniæ, ℥ xxxij–Sig.: To be taken p.r.m."–signing my name to it. In a few minutes he returned with the bottle, and I could have had as many more as I wanted on the same terms. Several of the States, as we know, have recently receded from their advanced position on prohibition, and the State of Rhode Island has by its Legislature recently resubmitted the question to the people. In the State of Iowa, not only is there a stringent prohibitory law, but it is made a penal offense for one person to ask another to take a drink. Of course, as I learn from reliable information, the law is almost a dead letter. It can be evaded in a hundred different ways. For instance, one man invites another into his house, takes him to the sideboard, and, perhaps in the presence of a dozen witnesses, pours out two glasses of whisky, drinks one himself, looks away for a moment, and his friend drinks the other. He has not disregarded the letter of the law. Are not such laws as this the height of human folly? The State of Minnesota has quite recently struck out still fur ther in the same direction, and has to a still greater extent inter fered with the personal liberty of the individual. A law framed, as we are told, by Senator Schaeffer, has recently gone into effect in that State, and which is designed to punish drunkenness. It provides for a fine of from ten to forty dollars for the first offense, from forty to sixty dollars for the second offense, and ninety days in the workhouse for the third. When asked what effect the law would have on the Minneapolis municipal court, Judge Maloney said: "It will not materially change the order of things with us. Our custom in treating drunkenness is much the same as pro vided in the new law. There is, however, one feature of the law that differs from the ordinance under which we formerly worked. According to the ordinance, the offense was not punishable unless committed in some public place, while the statute covers drunkenness in secret as well as in the public street. I am glad this bill passed the Legislature. It makes it a crime now in our State to drink to excess, and it is an expression of the public condemnation of drunkenness. I think it will result in doing a great deal of good. For the reasons I have cited, the new law has created no unusual features in the pastime of drunkenness in this city as yet. Its eventual effect will, of course, depend greatly upon the leniency or strictness of the authorities." Now, that drunkenness is both a vice and a sin is not to be questioned; but, if the law-making power sets out to punish vices and sins, it will have its hands full, and will attempt an impossible task. The world has tried this experiment in almost all ages, and uniformly without success. Not very many years ago the ordinances of the Church were in some countries enforced by law; and even now some nations, and, I am sorry to say, some of the States of this very Union of ours, inflict severe punishments upon profane swearers and blasphemers, thus again punishing sins and vices as though they were crimes. A sin or a vice does not necessarily inflict injury upon others, whereas a crime does. Drunkenness is not of itself, properly speaking, a crime; but if a person through his drunkenness creates disorder in the streets, or is offensive in any respect to those with whom he comes in contact, he ought to be punished to just that extent that his disorderly or offensive conduct requires. It is almost impossible for a person to be drunk in the public streets without being in some degree disorderly and offensive, and he is very properly arrested and fined or imprisoned. But if any law can be more ridiculous, more outrageous in its influence upon the liberty of the citizen, it is this one which the State of Minnesota has recently enacted. A man, for instance, in the sanctity of his own house gets quietly drunk and goes to bed. He has injured no living being but himself, and he has a right to injure himself if he is such a fool. He has a legal right to cut off his hand, or to knock out his teeth, or to punch out his eye, even though by these acts he does inflict injury indirectly upon those who are dependent upon him. He has a natural right to take his own life, and though the State of New York (the only community, to my knowledge, that has such a law upon its statute-book) makes the attempt at self-destruction a crime, the law is so absurd that no one yet has been punished under it. Moreover, the Minnesota law against drunkenness is almost impossible of enforcement, unless under such a system of espionage and domiciliary visiting as would render it intolerable to any people having a spark of manliness or independence in their character. Think of a police officer armed with a warrant entering a man's house, finding him in bed and in an apparent state of insensibility. He applies the only test known to the average policeman, and smells the breath of his potential victim. He detects the odor of alcohol, and straightway drags the supposed offender before a magistrate. The man may have had a headache, and have taken a glass of wine or of some other liquor; he is naturally indignant at being treated in so outrageous a manner, and utters his protest in no measured language; his conduct only serves to convince his captors that the charge based upon the odor of alcohol is well founded, and he is mulcted in forty or sixty dollars, or sent to the workhouse for ninety days, as the case may be. No one is safe under such a law; it is often a very difficult matter to determine whether a person is drunk or sober, and frequently it is impossible even by the most minute examination. Again, some people become intoxicated from a single glass of champagne, while others will drink two or more bottles with impunity. It is manifestly unjust to allow an individual peculiarity like this to establish the guilt or innocence of an accused person. As I have said, why stop at making drunkenness a crime when there are other vices far more immoral and more destructive to the character of the perpetrator? Why not enact a law against lying? There are laws against slander, which injures the one against whom it is directed, and they are well enough, for to injure another is a crime. But lying in the abstract remains unnoticed by the penal statutes, though a more degrading vice in the eyes of all civilized mankind than mere drunkenness. On the first of June of the year 1889 a statute went into effect in the State of New York which prohibits, under severe penalties, the selling of cigarettes to minors under the age of sixteen; and the State of Michigan has recently not only enacted a similar law, but goes farther, and interdicts the manufacture of cigarettes within the limits of the State. Is it to be supposed for one moment that minors under the age of sixteen in either State smoke fewer cigarettes than they did before these laws were passed? How is the vender to know in many cases whether the applicant for cigarettes is over sixteen or not? And is there any difficulty for any minor to get a companion who is undoubtedly over sixteen, or some one else, to buy cigarettes for him? Legislatures that pass such laws, and governors that sign them, are apparently ignorant of the first principles of jurisprudence. I venture to say that even now, although not two weeks have elapsed since the act went into effect, it is practically a dead letter in the city of New York and throughout the State generally, and I am quite sure that not a single conviction will ever be obtained under its provisions. I am not certain that our society did its full duty in not protesting against the statute-books being encumbered with such rubbish. Cigarette-smoking by minors is an evil to be suppressed by proper instruction and by the intervention of parents and guardians. If these latter can not prevent it, it is quite certain that all the policemen in the State, backed by all the majesty of this particular law, will have their labor for their pains. - Read before the New York Society for Medical Jurisprudence and State Medicine, June 3, 1889.

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This article was written by Michael Brooks for the Amersham Society/Amersham Museum newsletter and is reproduced here with permission. The Postal System was first introduced into this country by the Romans who set up a sophisticated system, whereby horses were kept at ‘posts’ at 8 to 10 mile intervals, with rest houses for the message-carriers every 20 to 30 miles along the military roads radiating from London. Messages on thin bark or waxed wooden tablets could be sent up to 50 miles a day, depending on weather and terrain. Such letters are still being excavated at the Roman Fort at Vindolanda to the South of Hadrian’s Wall. During the middle ages this Roman system was to some extent adopted for use by Royal Messengers, though because the roads were not maintained, in many places foot messengers were often able to travel more quickly than those on horseback. No private letters could officially be sent by this service. As Amersham was not on one of the main postal routes and had a very small literate population, the town was not involved at this time. In 1635, by the terms of the Proclamation of Bagshot, the Royal Messenger Service, or King’s Mail, was gradually opened up for use by the general public. Charges for conveyance of letters depended on the mileage and the number of sheets of paper. The King needed the money and it also gave him an opportunity to access the contents of the letters in troubled times. The first Postage Act of 1656/7 confirmed the rights of the Postmaster General to carry letters, establish postal rates and supply horses for the post roads. Separate letter-carrying services provided by monarchy, the Church, the towns, the carriers and the merchants were replaced by a national postal service with great social benefit. Postal receiving houses were set up in inns, coffee houses and other premises where letters could be handed in or collected. The proprietors of the premises were often appointed as the postmaster. The Crown Inn was chosen to be the postal receiving house and excise office in Amersham, though I have been unable to discover from Post Office Records the exact date when this was established. During the 17th and 18th centuries mail to and from London travelled via Tatling End by post boy on foot or horseback or local carrier. Cross Posts linking one main postal route to another and By-Posts to places off the main routes were not to affect Amersham until the end of the 18th century. The cost to the Exchequer of running the system was such that ‘Farming the Post’ began. The ‘farmer’ paid a rental to run a part of the system taking the income for so-doing; this privatisation initially saved the Postmaster General money. In 1693 Richard and Stephen Bigg of Winslow farmed the Buckinghamshire area based on the London-Banbury-Chester-Holyhead route. It covered ‘Edgework (Edgeware), Stanmore, Watford, King’s Henley (King’s Langley?), Hempstead, Barkhamstead, Buckingham, Chesham, Agmondisham, Gt Marlow, Wendover & Warwick’. They paid £300 in 1693 and £900 in 1694. It was difficult to make a profit from the farm but by 1706-1707 Richard Bigg paid £1,100 and in 1710-1711 £1,180. The system was then altered and in 1712-13 he was paid a salary of £821 plus 10% of the revenue. By 1715 he seems to have been on a salary only and was described as ‘Clerk of the Road’. Agmondesham (Amersham) is shown on the 1720 Brittania Depicta Map by Emanuel Bowen on the post road from London via Uxbridge, Chalfont, (where it is shown crossing a River that Horses & Carriages go through), then on to Great Missenden, Aylesbury and Banbury. The map bears a description of Agmondesham as ‘An Ancient Borough, Govern’d by Burgeffes. The Reprefentatives in Parliament of this Town are chofen by Homage in the Lords Court Baron. The houfes in the Town that are in the Borough situate in the middle of ye Borough being excluded that Priviledge. Market on Tuefdays. Vigil on Whitfun Monday & Michaelmas Day. In this Town is a Free School founded by Dr Robt Chaloner, Cannon of Windfor’. William Child, a brewer, owned the Crown Inn in 1637 and James Child in 1695. Montague Garrard Drake purchased it in 1728, his wife Isabella, inheriting when he died from gout in Bath that year. From about 1740 the Fowler family were tenants and innkeepers at the Crown. The family had lived in Amersham for many generations and a Thomas Fowler had a life tenancy of the Manor of Amersham in 1483. In 1774 Charles Fowler is recorded as Postmaster and Proprietor. His Deputy Postmaster was William Harvey, the Landlord of the Griffin Inn, who robbed the mail in that year. The Postmaster General advertised a Reward of £50 for his apprehension and conviction: The following advertisement appeared in The London Gazette in 1774: William Harvey, of Amersham in the County of Bucks, Inn-holder and Deputy-Postmaster of that place, stands charged upon Oath, on a violent Suspicion of having feloniously stolen out of the Post-Office there, several Bank Notes and Bills contained in Letters sent by the Post. The said William Harvey absconded from his dwelling-house at Amersham aforesaid, on Sunday last the 9th Instant. He is about forty years of Age, five Feet six Inches high, very fat, short Neck, and carries his Head very upright; is remarkably full chested, rather a black Complexion, short thick Nose, very full Eyes, wears a black curled Wig with a Tyburn Top, and is supposed to have had on a brown Coat and red Waistcoat when he absconded. Whosoever shall apprehend and convict, or cause to be apprehended and convicted, the said William Harvey, will be intitled to a Reward of FIFTY POUNDS. By Command of the Postmaster General, Anth.Todd, Secretary This advertisement appeared in the Gazette a further 31 times up to the 31st May 1774. It is at present unknown whether he was apprehended or convicted of the offence. He does not seem to have been a very attractive character. The Tyburn Top was a style of wig with the foretop projecting forward over the eyes and with a large knot of artificial hair at the nape of the neck. This style had been promoted by a group of dandies, fops and aesthetes called ‘The Macaronis’ fashionable from 1770 to 1775, so William was in the height of fashion in 1774 He had become the Landlord of the Griffin Inn in 1773. As the Deputy- Postmaster he would have had access to the mail in the Post Receiving House which was at the Crown Inn in 1773/4, where Charles Fowler was the proprietor and Postmaster. The Macaronis began as a group of young men who had been on the Grand Tour and who, on their return in around 1760, formed the Macaroni Club where the new-fangled Italian food of that name was served. They were fond of gambling, drinking and duelling, often rude and insolent and sometimes vicious. They became a curse in the then fashionable Vauxhall Gardens. They were regarded as a degenerate group following the previously fashionable Beaux and Wits. “Five pounds of hair they wear behind, the ladies to delight-O, Their senses give unto the wind, to make themselves a fright-O. This fashion, who does e’er pursue, I think a simple-tony: For he’s a fool, say what you will, who is a Macaroni.” They frequently sported an umbrella or parasol to protect their wigs from rain or sun as they minced along the streets. A well-known nursery rhyme – “Yankee Doodle went to town, riding on a pony; He stuck a feather in his cap, and called it Macaroni.” was a popular song with British troops in North America during the Anglo-French War which ended in 1763. Later an American Regiment raised in Maryland during the War of Independence came to be called ‘The Macaronis’ because of their showy uniforms. The rhyme was first published in England in 1778 and later in the United States where it soon became a national song. The name Macaroni was also given to a type of Penguin, which breeds in the Falkland Islands Dependency of South Georgia, on account of its flamboyant yellow head crest feathers. In 1784 a London to Oxford Mail Coach service began via Beaconsfield which, as the roads were so improved, speeded mail transmission; so much so that in 1790 a post-boy link was set up from the Crown to link with that coach service in Beaconsfield and a horse was provided for this. Amersham was one of the first towns to have a Crown Post office in 1790, though John Fowler – now the Proprietor and Postmaster at the Crown, was dismissed as Postmaster for lack of care of his duties. He had been using the post office horse on his farm instead of concentrating on meeting the Mail Coach in Beaconsfield. (PMG’s Report No.69L, 1796) The Inland Revenue office however remained at the Crown. John and Thomas Marshall became joint postmasters working probably from the house to the east of the Crown in Market Square. From 1810 to 1839 Francis Priest, a grocer, cordwainer and Parish Clerk, was appointed postmaster. In 1820 he complained to the PMG at the high cost of provender for the post office horse. During his time in office, Cross Posts were set up linking Amersham to Rickmansworth and St. Albans in 1829. His daughter Eleanor, also described as grocer and cordwainer, succeeded as postmistress in 1839. In 1840 Postal orders & Money Orders became available and in 1842 a Cross Post to High Wycombe was established. In 1845 John Bettesworth, a grocer and local schoolmaster gave up the latter to become postmaster. His son, John Robinson Bettesworth took over as schoolmaster. John senior died on 15 December 1854 and John junior took over as postmaster. In 1859 the post office horse dropped dead taking the mail cart near the Old Lodge as it entered Wycombe Heath. In the same year a telegram service began from the post office. Around 1860 John R. Bettesworth wrote to the PMG to suggest a change in the design of the postage stamp to prevent fraudulent mis-use and a new design was issued in 1864; he died on 5 August 1870. In 1869 his daughter Emily Ann Bettesworth became postmistress which position she held until her retirement in 1905 (see photo below). Her uncle Edwin moved to Staines where he and his sons also became postal officials. In 1871 the driver of the mail cart bearing Christmas mail from Maidenhead arrived at Amersham post office drunk and he had to go before the Petty Sessions. Emily and a neighbour, Rebeccah Elburn, gave evidence and he was fined 2/6d. In January 1875 the mail cart from Chesham was descending Rectory Hill when the horse shied at some snow and bolted down the hill running into a Weller’s dray, breaking the cart. The badly injured horse had to be put down but the driver escaped unhurt. A replacement cart was provided by the Crown Inn; the cart had been hired from Mr. Bachelor of Maidenhead but in 1889 the post office provided a horse and cart for the Berkhampstead run. A parcel post service began from Amersham post office in 1883. A second post box was provided in Chesham Bois in 1890; previously that in the Market Square post office was the only one. By 1890 it became obvious to the postal authorities that the Market Square Post office could no longer cope with increasing business due to a rising population, the parcel service and the popularity of postcards and Christmas cards. It was decided to rent from Miss Day’s Charity a large house in the High Street, previously J.C. King’s Drapers Shop, at the entrance to Hatches Yard (now 67- 69 High Street). Day’s Charity had pulled down a row of workmen’s cottages in the yard in 1875 and erected a row of Alms Houses on the site. The rental was an important part of the charity income. George Darlington, builder and Captain of the Volunteer Fire Brigade, converted the building to provide a public office, a sorting office, a private office for the Postmistress, Emily Bettesworth, and a rest room for the post office staff. The new Post Office opened on 12th February 1891 and the yard behind became known thereafter as Post Office Yard. New letter boxes were installed at Whielden Corner and Bury End. Mail carts transported mail from the High Street to Berkhampstead or Taplow for onward transmission by rail, and this arrangement continued for some years even though the Metropolitan Railway station opened in Amersham in 1892. A letter box was installed by the railway bridge in 1895. On 5th June 1897, four Sub-Post Offices opened – in Station Road in Amersham New Town, in White Lion Road on Amersham Common, in Little Chalfont and in Chesham Bois. On the 14th June that same year a severe thunderstorm flooded the High Street Post Office to a depth of 6 inches. Benjamin Smith, one of the staff in the High Street office, died suddenly at the age of 30 and was buried in Amersham Cemetery. He had made insufficient contributions to his Odd Fellow Lodge and had been supporting two aged parents so the townsfolk rallied round. The Odd Fellows contributed to his funeral expenses and Emily Bettesworth launched an appeal which raised a further £12. A Guard of Honour of nine postmen in full uniform with white gloves and two telegraph boys attended the funeral on 5th January 1899. The balance of the fund made a significant relief for his grieving family. The same postal staff may be seen in one of George Ward’s photographs taken outside the High Street office. This well-known picture appears in several books about Amersham, often incorrectly titled as showing a Commemoration of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee of 1887. The glass slide has recently been digitised and the resulting prints show amazing details. It is almost certainly a group assembled to celebrate the Relief of Mafeking in 1900. It shows Emily Ann Bettesworth, her younger sister Amelia Matilda Bettesworth and their cousin, Julia Lydia Cole with the male staff and a small boy in fancy dress wearing a Boer-style hat. A member of the Bettesworth family agrees with this interpretation. (See below for a fuller history of the Bettesworth family.) In 1902 Amersham’s first Telephone Exchange was installed in Post Office Yard at the rear of the High Street Office. There were 13 subscribers initially. In 1902 Emily Bettesworth retired as postmistress. Her family had served the post office for 60 years in total; a presentation was given in her honour. She died in 1908 and a Mr. Harris became postmaster in succession. The opening hours in the High Street main post office were in 1907: 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. Monday to Saturday and 9 a.m. to 10 a.m. on Sundays. All mail was delivered by 7.30 a.m. on seven days a week. Even in the small town of Amersham, with a population of 2-3,000, the position of postmaster was much valued in the community as means of communication became increasingly important. Amersham was fortunate in having two families who held the post for almost 100 years – the Priests and the Bettesworths. Francis Priest, a grocer, cordwainer and parish Clerk, served as postmaster from 1910 to 1839 and was followed by his daughter, Eleanor Priest, as postmistress. John Bettesworth (b.1783) succeeded in 1845. John had been the first schoolmaster of the National School in Great Marlow in 1813. Trained in the Madras system, under which older pupils were used to help to teach the younger pupils, he went on to open another school in Aylesbury in 1822. He came to Amersham in 1842 as schoolmaster in the British School, which included workhouse children as pupils. He gave up teaching in 1845 when he was appointed postmaster and his son took over the teaching post. John Robinson Bettesworth (b.1826) became postmaster in 1854 when his father died at the age of 72 years. He died young in 1870 and his daughter, Emily Ann Bettesworth succeeded as Postmistress at the age of 23 years. Emily was a popular figure in the town, being assisted by her younger sisters, Amelia Matilda (b. 1859) and Maria (b. 1861) and also by their cousin, Julia Lydia Cole and by members of the Elbourn family. Emily’s Aunt, Anne Maria Bettesworth (b.1821) who had two sons by Henry Elbourn, a tailor in the High Street – Edwin (b.1842 out of wedlock) who retained his Mother’s name of Bettesworth, and Frederick (b.1850). Henry married Anna during this second pregnancy. Edwin moved to Richmond where he later had several sons who also served in the Post Office. Emily never married. She supervised the move of Amersham Post Office from Market Square to the High Street in 1891 and retired after 36 years as postmistress in 1905. A presentation was made in her honour and she retired to one of the Almshouses in Post Office Yard. She died in 1908 from cancer in Stone Lunatic Asylum, Aylesbury. John Bettesworth and John Robinson Bettesworth are buried in the cemetery behind St. Mary’s Church, together with other family members – their names being recorded on both sides of a common grave stone. A report by the Postmaster General for the Year 1906/7 gives some idea of the huge volume of business carried out by the Post Office nationally by that date. 2,804,400,000 letters and 831,400,000 postcards had been handled, as well as 4,862,920,000 postal packages and 104,820,000 parcels delivered; 89,493,999 telegrams had been delivered and 19,803,300 telephone trunk calls made. Over 200,000 people were employed throughout the country. Amersham, though a relative backwater, had a much busier Post Office in the High Street and by then four sub-post offices in the rapidly growing New town, in Amersham Common, in Little Chalfont and in Chesham Bois; together these served a huge area from Bury End to Shardeloes, Woodrow and Winchmore Hill, Coleshill, Hyron’s Farm, Amersham Common, Little Chalfont, Little Missenden and Penn Street. There were eight letter boxes in the area. The High Street Office sorted all the mail from the area. The opening hours were 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. Monday to Saturday and also 10.0 a.m. on Sundays for stamps only. All mail was delivered in the town by 7.30 a.m. seven days a week. Incoming mail from London came via Slough at 5.37 a.m., 9.50 a.m. and 6 p.m. Mail to London was despatched at 10.0 a.m., 11.40 a.m., 4.10 p.m. and 7.50 p.m. Mail from the North of England came from Berkhamsted at 5.10 a.m. and returned there at 6.40 p.m. The inhabitants of Miss Day’s Almshouses in Post Office Yard must have had very little rest! The Great War of 1914 -1918 must have been very difficult for the Post Office with manpower shortage due to the call-up; more female staff were therefore employed. Mr. A.F. Matthews came from Amersham Common Post Office to take over as Postmaster in 1917. All was not doom and gloom, however, as in February 1917, he inaugurated an annual Social Evening which was held that year in the main sorting room in the High Street Post Office, which was reported as having been tastefully decorated by the female staff. Eighteen employees sat down to an excellent meal, presided over by Mr. Matthews. After the meal several talented members of the staff entertained their colleagues with songs and ‘the party broke up about midnight with mutual congratulations on having taken part in so enjoyable a gathering’. In following years, this annual event transferred to the Saracen’s Head; 26 members of the Post Office staff sat down to dinner there in 1921. Business continued to build up during the 1920s. A new post box was erected on Oakfield Corner in 1923, and a new telephone exchange was installed in Post Office Yard in September 1927, by which time there were over 400 subscribers. During the Christmas rush in December 1928, the old Pavilion Picture House had to be used as a temporary Post Office because of the volume of parcels. Because Amersham on the Hill generated so much of the mail and business, the Post Office started to make plans for a new purpose-built Post Office and telephone Exchange on Chesham Road. The new main Crown Office designed by Mr. A.C Dean of High Wycombe, opened for business on 28th July, 1930 with Mr. S.G. Neal as Postmaster; Amersham’s first telephone kiosk was incorporated in the development. The old High Street office was down-graded to become a sub-office with Mrs. Elsie Pratt as postmistress. She ran a tobacconist business from that address. By December 1930, three more telephone kiosks had been erected at the Railway station, at the Fire Station and at the Sycamore Road crossing. In 1931 it was decided that the new Amersham Post Office in Chesham Road should be designated the Crown Office for Amersham and Chesham; the two names were incorporated in a new postmark. Following the downgrade and removal of the telephone exchange, much of the space in the old High Street Post Office was redundant. In 1932, a new sub-office was established a few doors away at 51 High Street, next door to what is now Amersham Museum. The Office incorporated a telephone call facility and an external wall stamp dispenser. Elsie Pratt continued as Sub-Postmistress and to run her tobacconist business there, until her retirement in August 1970, having served for 40 years; she was a much respected member of the Amersham community. In 1933 the old 67/69 High Street premises were up for sale. The Brazil family purchased them and created two shops on the ground floor with flats above. One shop was used for their Butchery business and the other leased to a Gents’ Outfitter. On 4th January 1935, Mr. Neal, the head Post Master of Chesham and Amersham, reported that on Christmas morning no mail was delivered later than 8.30 a.m. The new postal and telephone services were coping well with a rapidly expanding town. Later that year, Mrs. Philomena Drake inaugurated a new ‘nine words for sixpence’ telegram rate, by sending a wire to the Prince of Wales. However, the Post Office realised that, with a rising population and demand for better communications especially by telephone, further Post Office development would be necessary, and as early as 1936 a large plot was purchased on Hill Avenue. The Amersham R.D.C. expressed unhappiness about the proposed Sunday closure of the Post Office public counter in 1958. Over the next 50 years weekend services were gradually to deteriorate nationwide. By 1961, the telephone exchange in Chesham Road had 31 switchboards, 100 lines and 13 operatives and needed to expand its capacity. Plans were drawn up to build a new Post Office and sorting office on the Hill Avenue site to which the postal services would move, releasing the Chesham Road premises for telephonic expansion. Constructions began in 1962, the contractors being E.S. Gates Limited of Little Chalfont, at a cost of £65,000. The new Post Office was opened on the 10th August, 1964, by Earl Clement Attlee, the ex-Postmaster General, but two weeks later than scheduled due to a strike of postal workers! He was the first customer, purchasing a set of Shakespearian Festival Memorial stamps, issued in April that year. At Christmas 1964, 824,500 Christmas cards passed through the new Post Office and over 880,000 cards the following year. Contracts to switch Amersham’s telephone system to a new automatic exchange with STD dialling in Sycamore Road were signed in 1966, but due to delays this was not completed until 1969 at a cost of £200,000. It catered for 5,000 subscribers and Councillor Arthur Rodgers made the first call with the new system on the 19th June 1969. From January 1973, the main Post Office closed on Saturday afternoons and postcodes were introduced.

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