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Where did peanut butter and jelly sandwiches originate? | The first known reference for a peanut butter and jelly sandwich appeared in the Boston Cooking School Magazine in 1901; it called for "three very thin layers of bread and two of filling, one of peanut paste, whatever brand you prefer, and currant or crabapple jelly for the other", and called it as "so far as I know original". | In 1901, the Boston Cooking School Magazine published the first known reference for a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. This magazine article called for "three very thin layers of bread and two of filling, one of peanut paste, whatever brand you prefer, and currant or crabapple jelly for the other." | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph, how many seasons are there of Ted Lasso? | The first season of ten episodes premiered on Apple TV+ on August 14, 2020, with three episodes followed by weekly installments. A second season of 12 episodes premiered on July 23, 2021. In October 2020, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on March 15, 2023. | As of March 2023, there have been 3 seasons of Ted Lasso. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about Valery Moiseevich Leibin, tell me where he is a member of an editorial board and when he died. | Valery Moiseevich Leibin (born 8 March 1942 in the village of Khmelyovka in Zuevskiy district of Kirov region in Russia) is a Russian psychoanalyst, Ph.D., head of the department of history and theory of psychoanalysis in Institute of Psychoanalysis, Professor of Moscow State Medical Stomatological University, an honorary Doctor of East European Institute of Psychoanalysis, an honorary member of the interregional public organization Russian Psychoanalytical Society, a member of the Academy of Pedagogical and Social Sciences, a chief scientist of Institute for Systems Analysis of Russian Academy of Sciences, a member of the editorial boards of the "Russian Psychoanalytic Bulletin" (since 1991), the philosophic psychoanalytic journal "Archetype" (since 1996), "Psychoanalytic Review" (since 1997) and "Review of Psychoanalysis" (since 2005). According to the rating given by "Psychological newspaper" Valery Leibin is in the top ten most prominent psychoanalysts in Russia. | Valery Moiseevich Leibin is still alive. He is a member of the following editorial boards:
- "Russian Psychoanalytic Bulletin"
- "Archetype"
- "Psychoanalytic Review"
- "Review of Psychoanalysis" | closed_qa |
According to this paragraph, what is UVA's overall ranking among national universities? | U.S. News & World Report ranks UVA tied for 25th among national universities overall, 3rd among public universities and tied for 110th among global universities in its 2022 report, 8th best business program and 3rd best business management program. | UVA tied for 25th among national universities. | closed_qa |
Given these paragraphs about Multiomics, what is a typical advantage of single-cell multiomics versus bulk analysis? | Multiomics, multi-omics, integrative omics, "panomics" or "pan-omics" is a biological analysis approach in which the data sets are multiple "omes", such as the genome, proteome, transcriptome, epigenome, metabolome, and microbiome (i.e., a meta-genome and/or meta-transcriptome, depending upon how it is sequenced); in other words, the use of multiple omics technologies to study life in a concerted way. By combining these "omes", scientists can analyze complex biological big data to find novel associations between biological entities, pinpoint relevant biomarkers and build elaborate markers of disease and physiology. In doing so, multiomics integrates diverse omics data to find a coherently matching geno-pheno-envirotype relationship or association. The OmicTools service lists more than 99 softwares related to multiomic data analysis, as well as more than 99 databases on the topic.
Systems biology approaches are often based upon the use of panomic analysis data. The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) defines panomics as referring to "the interaction of all biological functions within a cell and with other body functions, combining data collected by targeted tests ... and global assays (such as genome sequencing) with other patient-specific information."
Single-cell multiomics
A branch of the field of multiomics is the analysis of multilevel single-cell data, called single-cell multiomics. This approach gives us an unprecedent resolution to look at multilevel transitions in health and disease at the single cell level. An advantage in relation to bulk analysis is to mitigate confounding factors derived from cell to cell variation, allowing the uncovering of heterogeneous tissue architectures.
Methods for parallel single-cell genomic and transcriptomic analysis can be based on simultaneous amplification or physical separation of RNA and genomic DNA. They allow insights that cannot be gathered solely from transcriptomic analysis, as RNA data do not contain non-coding genomic regions and information regarding copy-number variation, for example. An extension of this methodology is the integration of single-cell transcriptomes to single-cell methylomes, combining single-cell bisulfite sequencing to single cell RNA-Seq. Other techniques to query the epigenome, as single-cell ATAC-Seq and single-cell Hi-C also exist.
A different, but related, challenge is the integration of proteomic and transcriptomic data. One approach to perform such measurement is to physically separate single-cell lysates in two, processing half for RNA, and half for proteins. The protein content of lysates can be measured by proximity extension assays (PEA), for example, which use DNA-barcoded antibodies. A different approach uses a combination of heavy-metal RNA probes and protein antibodies to adapt mass cytometry for multiomic analysis.
Multiomics and machine learning
In parallel to the advances in highthroughput biology, machine learning applications to biomedical data analysis are flourishing. The integration of multi-omics data analysis and machine learning has led to the discovery of new biomarkers. For example, one of the methods of the mixOmics project implements a method based on sparse Partial Least Squares regression for selection of features (putative biomarkers).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiomics | An advantage of single-cell multiomics in relation to bulk analysis is to mitigate confounding factors derived from cell to cell variation, allowing the uncovering of heterogeneous tissue architectures. | closed_qa |
What is the launch date of Artemis mission? | During preliminary reviews in 2011, the launch date of Artemis was placed somewhere between 2019 and 2021, but afterwards the launch date was delayed to 2023 on a Space Launch System (SLS) launch vehicle. Although, as of March 2023, the mission is pegged for a November 2024 launch, the need to recycle and refurbish components from Orion that flew on Artemis 1 may push this back to later in 2024 or the first quarter of 2025. | Artemis launch date is November 2024 as of now but it’s likely to change. | closed_qa |
How are racial categories used historically? | Racial categories have historically been used as a way to enable an oppressive figure or group to discriminate against other groups or individuals which were seen as different from that of the oppressor. In nineteenth and early twentieth century Europe, artwork was a common form of racialization which targeted countries in the Middle East and Asia. The artwork, predominantly paintings, were portrayed in order to instill prejudice in the Western populations through sexualizing and manipulating images. One of the most prominent examples of Orientalist work in art is a piece by Eugène Delacroix titled Women of Algiers in their Apartment. Dating back to 1834, it portrays three women resting in a harem in exotic clothing while an African woman is dressed in plain clothing, depicting her role as a servant. Fine textiles, hookahs, and other paraphernalia adorn the room, which represents a European fantasy of an exotic scene. Attempts to portray these cultures as strange, foreign and exotic through Orientalism led to intolerance towards the Arab and Asian communities in Europe and the United States. Others argue that Delacroix, who travelled in North Africa sketching extensively, was depicting a realistic scene of the era based on his first-hand knowledge and experience. In such an interpretation the clothing, for example, is consistent with the times, as Arab North Africans dressed differently from Europeans, and kept black slaves who would not have been treated as equals. | Historically, oppressive groups use racial categories to discriminate against other groups that are different from them. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about autonomous buildings, why would they be safer during a military attack? | Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and lower costs of ownership. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of green building, not independence per se (see below). Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks. For example, Off-grid buildings would not lose power or water if public supplies were compromised. | Autonomous buildings often rely on less civil services and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disasters or military attacks. | closed_qa |
Based on this wikipedia paragraph, what original tool was Kubernetes based on? | Kubernetes (κυβερνήτης kubernḗtēs, Greek for "steersman, navigator" or "guide", and the etymological root of cybernetics) was announced by Google in mid-2014. The project was created by Joe Beda, Brendan Burns, and Craig McLuckie, who were soon joined by other Google engineers, including Brian Grant and Tim Hockin.
The design and development of Kubernetes was influenced by Google's Borg cluster manager. Many of its top contributors had previously worked on Borg; they codenamed Kubernetes "Project 7" after the Star Trek ex-Borg character Seven of Nine and gave its logo a seven-spoked wheel. Unlike Borg, which was written in C++, Kubernetes source code is in the Go language.
Kubernetes 1.0 was released on July 21, 2015. Google worked with the Linux Foundation to form the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) and offered Kubernetes as a seed technology. In February 2016, the Helm package manager for Kubernetes was released. | Kubernetes was originally based on Google's Borg cluster manager tool. | closed_qa |
Given this text about the nutrition profile of peanut butter, what vitamins is peanut butter rich in? | In a 100 gram amount, smooth peanut butter supplies 597 Calories and is composed of 51% fat, 22% protein, 22% carbohydrates (including 5% dietary fiber), and 1% water (table). Both crunchy and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated and monounsaturated fats (mainly oleic acid) as 25% of total serving amount, and polyunsaturated fat (12% of total), primarily as linoleic acid).
Peanut butter is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, folate, niacin, and vitamin B6 (table, USDA FoodData Central). Also high in content are the dietary minerals manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper, and sodium (added as salt during manufacturing). Peanut butter is a moderate source (10–19% DV) of thiamin, riboflavin, iron, and potassium (table). | Vitamins that peanut butter is rich in include vitamin E, pantothenic acid, folate, niacin, and vitamin B6. | closed_qa |
Can someone drive on Black Bear Road during the winter? | Black Bear Road is open a few months of the year, from late summer (usually the last week of July) to early fall. The road is traveled only downhill from Red Mountain Pass — except for the annual Jeeper's Jamboree in which travel is reversed for one day only. The start of the trail was formerly marked along U.S. 550 with a sign that read: | No, it is only open from late summer to early fall. | closed_qa |
Who played Harry Bosch in the eponymous TV series? | Detective Hieronymus "Harry" Bosch is a fictional character created by American author Michael Connelly. Bosch debuted as the lead character in the 1992 novel The Black Echo, the first in a best-selling police procedural series now numbering 24 novels.
The novels are more or less coincident in timeframe with the year in which they were published. Harry, as he is commonly known by his associates, is a veteran police homicide detective with the Los Angeles Police Department. He was named after the 15th-century Dutch artist Hieronymus Bosch.
Titus Welliver portrayed the title character from 2015 to 2021 in Bosch, a television series adapted from the novels, and from 2022 in its spin-off series Bosch: Legacy. | Titus Welliver played Detective Harry Bosch in "Bosch" and in "Bosch:Legacy". | closed_qa |
Who is the main cast in Seinfeld TV show? | Seinfeld (/ˈsaɪnfɛld/ SYNE-feld) is an American television sitcom created by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld. It aired on NBC from July 5, 1989, to May 14, 1998, over nine seasons and 180 episodes. It stars Seinfeld as a fictionalized version of himself and focuses on his personal life with three of his friends: best friend George Costanza (Jason Alexander), former girlfriend Elaine Benes (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) and his neighbor from across the hall, Cosmo Kramer (Michael Richards). It is set mostly in an apartment building in Manhattan's Upper West Side in New York City. It has been described as "a show about nothing", often focusing on the minutiae of daily life. Interspersed in earlier episodes are moments of stand-up comedy from the fictional Jerry Seinfeld, frequently using the episode's events for material. | Jerry Seinfeld
Jason Alexander
Julia Louis-Dreyfus
Michael Richards | closed_qa |
Who owns the canoe named The Island Bird? | The Island Bird is a Chesapeake Bay log canoe, built in 1882, by William Sidney Covington in Tilghman, Maryland. She is a 27 ft 4 in (8.33 m) sailing log canoe with a racing rig, a sharp stem with a longhead bow, and a sharp, raking stern. She is one of the smallest boats in the active racing fleet, with a beam of only 5 ft 6.5 in (1.689 m). The boat is privately owned by the descendants of Mr. Covington and has been racing every season since 1949. She one of the last 22 surviving traditional Chesapeake Bay racing log canoes that carry on a tradition of racing on the Eastern Shore of Maryland that has existed since the 1840s. She is located at St. Michaels, Talbot County, Maryland. | The descendants of William Sidney Covington | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about Mahatma Gandhi, can you tell me why did he go to London? | Gandhi had dropped out of the cheapest college he could afford in Bombay. Mavji Dave Joshiji, a Brahmin priest and family friend, advised Gandhi and his family that he should consider law studies in London. In July 1888, his wife Kasturba gave birth to their first surviving son, Harilal. His mother was not comfortable about Gandhi leaving his wife and family, and going so far from home. Gandhi's uncle Tulsidas also tried to dissuade his nephew. Gandhi wanted to go. To persuade his wife and mother, Gandhi made a vow in front of his mother that he would abstain from meat, alcohol and women. Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Putlibai gave Gandhi her permission and blessing.
On 10 August 1888, Gandhi aged 18, left Porbandar for Mumbai, then known as Bombay. Upon arrival, he stayed with the local Modh Bania community whose elders warned him that England would tempt him to compromise his religion, and eat and drink in Western ways. Despite Gandhi informing them of his promise to his mother and her blessings, he was excommunicated from his caste. Gandhi ignored this, and on 4 September, he sailed from Bombay to London, with his brother seeing him off. Gandhi attended University College, London, where he took classes in English literature with Henry Morley in 1888–1889.
He also enrolled at Inner Temple with the intention of becoming a barrister. His childhood shyness and self-withdrawal had continued through his teens. He retained these traits when he arrived in London, but joined a public speaking practice group and overcame his shyness sufficiently to practise law | Gandhi travelled to London in the late 1880s to study law. He first took English literature classes and then enrolled in Inner Temple with the intention to become a barrister. | closed_qa |
Which full-frame mirrorless camera was first available in the market? | Sony was the first to introduce a full-frame mirrorless camera, the α7, in 2013. | Sony α7 in 2013 | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about Naul, tell me what country it's in and what river passes through it. | Naul (Irish: An Aill, meaning 'The Cliff', also known as "The Naul"), is a village, townland, and civil parish at the northern edge of Fingal and the traditional County Dublin in Ireland. The Delvin River to the north of the village marks the county boundary with County Meath. Naul civil parish is in the historic barony of Balrothery West.
Location and geography
The village sits on the crossroad of the R122 and R108 regional roads, the latter being the traditional route between Dublin and the port of Drogheda, while the R122 travels from Finglas in the south to Balbriggan.: 2
The River Delvin passes through Naul at the north, through a deep valley known as 'The Roche' which is hemmed in by steep banks and rocky cliffs which rise to 20 metres at one point. In the valley, there is a natural waterfall known as 'Waterfall of The Roches'. Further downstream the river has been dammed, forming an artificial pond and cascade with a small private hydroelectric plant.: 2
Naul village and the surrounding townlands which comprise the area of Naul, sit on the Northern border of County Dublin and Fingal. However, the area locally known as Naul also extends north of the county border into county Meath. The area of north county Dublin comprises 2,627 acres and includes 15 townlands: Naul (An Aill), Hazardstown (Baile an Hasardaigh), Reynoldstown (Baile Raghnaill), Coolfores (An Chúil Fhuar), Doolagh (Dúlach), Fortyacres (Daichead Acra), Winnings (Uininn), Hynestown (Baile Héin), Cabin Hill (Cnoc an Chábáin), Flacketstown (Baile Fhlaicéid), Lecklinstown (Baile Leithghlinne) and Westown (An Baile Thiar). | Naul is located in Ireland and the River Delvin passes through it. | closed_qa |
How much PVC produced each year? | Polyvinyl chloride (alternatively: poly(vinyl chloride), colloquial: polyvinyl, or simply vinyl; abbreviated: PVC) is the world's third-most widely produced synthetic polymer of plastic (after polyethylene and polypropylene). About 40 million tons of PVC are produced each year. | Each year about 40 million tons of PVC are produced. | closed_qa |
When did the Post Office in Mission Beach first open? | In the late 1920s after the construction of a road from El Arish, the area became a popular camping place. It was known as Mission Beach due to the mistaken belief that the Hull River Aboriginal Settlement previously located in the region was a religious mission. Mission Beach developed into a town during the 1940s and 50s with the Mission Beach Post Office opening on 15 December 1949. | Mission Beach Post Office opened on 15 December 1949. | closed_qa |
Where did Bermuda grass come from? | Cynodon dactylon, commonly known as Bermuda grass, is a grass found worldwide. It is native to Europe, Africa, Australia and much of Asia. It has been introduced to the Americas. Contrary to its common name, it is not native to Bermuda and is in fact an abundant invasive species there. In Bermuda it has been known as "crab grass" (also a name for Digitaria sanguinalis). Other names are Dhoob, dūrvā grass, ethana grass, dubo, dog grass, dog's tooth grass, Bahama grass, crab grass, devil's grass, couch grass, Indian doab, arugampul, grama, wiregrass and scutch grass. | Cynodon dactylon, commonly known as Bermuda grass, is a grass found worldwide. It is native to Europe, Africa, Australia and much of Asia. | closed_qa |
Why are people eating eggs at Easter | Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are decorated for the Christian feast of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs.
Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion."
This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion.
A modern custom in some places is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in coloured foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate. | Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are decorated for the Christian feast of Easter, which celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition, which continues to be used in Central and Eastern Europe, is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs.
Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus was resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion."
This custom of the Easter egg, according to many sources, can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Eastern Europe and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. Mediaevalist scholars normally conclude that the custom of Easter eggs has its roots in the prohibition of eggs during Lent after which, on Easter, they have been blessed for the occasion.
A modern custom in some places is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in coloured foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate. | closed_qa |
Tell me about Roger Federer | Roger Federer (German: [ˈrɔdʒər ˈfeːdərər]; born 8 August 1981) is a Swiss former professional tennis player. He was ranked world No. 1 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for 310 weeks, including a record 237 consecutive weeks, and finished as the year-end No. 1 five times. He won 103 singles titles on the ATP Tour, the second most of all time, including 20 major men's singles titles, a record eight men's singles Wimbledon titles, an Open Era joint-record five men's singles US Open titles, and a joint-record six year-end championships. In his home country, he is regarded as "the greatest and most successful" Swiss sportsperson in history.
A Wimbledon junior champion in 1998 and former ball boy, Federer won his first major singles title at Wimbledon in 2003 at age 21. Between 2003 and 2009, Federer played in 21 out of 28 major singles finals. He won three of the four majors and the ATP Finals in 2004, 2006, and 2007 as well as five consecutive titles at both Wimbledon and the US Open. He completed the career Grand Slam at the 2009 French Open after three consecutive runner-up finishes to Nadal, his main rival until 2010. At age 27, he surpassed Pete Sampras' record of 14 major men's singles titles at Wimbledon in 2009.
Federer and Stan Wawrinka led the Switzerland Davis Cup team to their first title in 2014, following their Olympic doubles gold victory at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Federer also won a silver medal in singles at the 2012 London Olympics, finishing runner-up to Andy Murray. After a half-year hiatus in late 2016 to recover from knee surgery, Federer returned to tennis, winning three more majors over the next two years, including the 2017 Australian Open over Rafael Nadal and an eighth singles title at the 2017 Wimbledon Championships. At the 2018 Australian Open, Federer became the first man to win 20 major singles titles and shortly the oldest ATP world No. 1 at age 36. In September 2022, he retired from professional tennis following the Laver Cup.
A versatile all-court player, Federer's perceived effortlessness has made him highly popular among tennis fans. Originally lacking self-control as a junior, he transformed his on-court demeanor to become well-liked for his graciousness, winning the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award 13 times. He has won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award a record five times. Outside of competing, he played an instrumental role in the creation of the Laver Cup team competition. He is also an active philanthropist. He established the Roger Federer Foundation, which targets impoverished children in southern Africa, and has raised funds in part through the Match for Africa exhibition series. He is routinely one of the top ten highest-paid athletes in any sport and ranked first among all athletes with $100 million in endorsement income in 2020. | Roger Federer, born 8 August 1981, is a Swiss former professional tennis player. He was ranked world No. 1 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for 310 weeks, including a record 237 consecutive weeks, and finished as the year-end No. 1 five times. He won 103 singles titles on the ATP Tour, the second most of all time, including 20 major men's singles titles, a record eight men's singles Wimbledon titles, an Open Era joint-record five men's singles US Open titles, and a joint-record six year-end championships. In his home country, he is regarded as "the greatest and most successful" Swiss sportsperson in history.
A Wimbledon junior champion in 1998 and former ball boy, Federer won his first major singles title at Wimbledon in 2003 at age 21. Between 2003 and 2009, Federer played in 21 out of 28 major singles finals. He won three of the four majors and the ATP Finals in 2004, 2006, and 2007 as well as five consecutive titles at both Wimbledon and the US Open. He completed the career Grand Slam at the 2009 French Open after three consecutive runner-up finishes to Nadal, his main rival until 2010. At age 27, he surpassed Pete Sampras' record of 14 major men's singles titles at Wimbledon in 2009.
Federer and Stan Wawrinka led the Switzerland Davis Cup team to their first title in 2014, following their Olympic doubles gold victory at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Federer also won a silver medal in singles at the 2012 London Olympics, finishing runner-up to Andy Murray. After a half-year hiatus in late 2016 to recover from knee surgery, Federer returned to tennis, winning three more majors over the next two years, including the 2017 Australian Open over Rafael Nadal and an eighth singles title at the 2017 Wimbledon Championships. At the 2018 Australian Open, Federer became the first man to win 20 major singles titles and shortly the oldest ATP world No. 1 at age 36. In September 2022, he retired from professional tennis following the Laver Cup.
A versatile all-court player, Federer's perceived effortlessness has made him highly popular among tennis fans. Originally lacking self-control as a junior, he transformed his on-court demeanor to become well-liked for his graciousness, winning the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award 13 times. He has won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year award a record five times. Outside of competing, he played an instrumental role in the creation of the Laver Cup team competition. He is also an active philanthropist. He established the Roger Federer Foundation, which targets impoverished children in southern Africa, and has raised funds in part through the Match for Africa exhibition series. He is routinely one of the top ten highest-paid athletes in any sport and ranked first among all athletes with $100 million in endorsement income in 2020. | closed_qa |
When was hailstorm island first photographed given this text | Hailstorm Island is a rocky island, 0.5 kilometres (0.25 nmi) long, between Cameron Island and the east end of Burnett Island in the central part of the Swain Islands, Antarctica. It was first roughly mapped from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump, 1946–47, and included in a 1957 survey of the Swain Islands by Wilkes Station personnel under Carl R. Eklund. It was named by Eklund for Radioman Kenneth J. Hailstorm, U.S. Navy, a Naval support force member of the 1957 wintering party at Wilkes Station during the International Geophysical Year. | 1946 | closed_qa |
Given these paragraphs about Natural hydrogen, what is it? | Natural hydrogen (known as white hydrogen), is naturally occurring molecular hydrogen on or in Earth (as opposed to hydrogen produced in the laboratory or in industry). The name white hydrogen distinguishes it from green hydrogen, which is produced from renewable energy sources, and from grey, brown or black hydrogen, which is obtained from fossil sources or from the electrolysis of water. Natural hydrogen may be renewable, non-polluting and allows for lower cost operation compared to industrial hydrogen. Natural hydrogen has been identified in many source rocks in areas beyond the sedimentary basins where oil companies typically operate.
Origin of natural hydrogen
There are several sources of natural hydrogen:
- degassing of deep hydrogen from the Earth's crust and mantle;
- reaction of water with ultrabasic rocks (serpentinisation);
- contact of water with reducing agents in the Earth's mantle;
- interaction of water with freshly exposed rock surfaces (weathering);
- decomposition of hydroxyl ions in the structure of minerals;
- Natural radiolysis of water;
- decomposition of organic matter;
- biological activity
- Extraction
- Natural hydrogen is extracted from wells, mixed with other gases such as nitrogen or helium.
Several sources have been identified in France. Geologists Alain Prinzhofer and Eric Derville have demonstrated the existence of large reservoirs in a dozen countries, including Mali and the United States. However, their potential remains difficult to assess.
Numerous emanations on the ocean floor have been identified but are difficult to exploit. The discovery of a significant emergence in Russia in 2008 suggests the possibility of extracting native hydrogen in geological environments.
Geology
Natural hydrogen is generated continuously from a variety of natural sources. There are many known hydrogen emergences on mid-ocean ridges. Another of the known reactions, serpentinisation, occurs under the sea floor (in the oceanic crust).
Diagenetic origin (iron oxidation) in the sedimentary basins of cratons, notably in Russia. Other sources are being explored, such as mantle hydrogen, or hydrogen from radiolysis (natural electrolysis) or from bacterial activity. In France, the Alps and Pyrenees are suitable for exploitation. New Caledonia has hyperalkaline sources that show dihydrogen emissions. A large accumulation of natural hydrogen was discovered in Bourakebougou (Mali).
Characteristics
Dihydrogen is very soluble in fresh water, especially at depth (solubility increases with pressure).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_hydrogen | Natural hydrogen (known as white hydrogen), is naturally occurring molecular hydrogen on or in Earth (as opposed to hydrogen produced in the laboratory or in industry). | closed_qa |
Based on this paragraph about dogs, what is a companion dog? | A companion dog is a dog that does not work, providing only companionship as a pet, rather than usefulness by doing specific tasks. Many of the toy dog breeds are used only for the pleasure of their company, not as workers. Any dog can be a companion dog, and many working types such as retrievers are enjoyed primarily for their friendly nature as a family pet, as are mixed breed dogs. The American Kennel Club also offers a Companion dog title for judged dog obedience competitions. | A companion dog is a dog that provides only companionship as a pet, rather than usefulness by doing specific tasks. | closed_qa |
When was IGFBP3 first characterized? | Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3, also known as IGFBP-3, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IGFBP3 gene. IGFBP-3 is one of six IGF binding proteins (IGFBP-1 to IGFBP-6) that have highly conserved structures and bind the insulin-like growth factors IGF-1 and IGF-2 with high affinity. IGFBP-7, sometimes included in this family, shares neither the conserved structural features nor the high IGF affinity. Instead, IGFBP-7 binds IGF1R, which blocks IGF-1 and IGF-2 binding, resulting in apoptosis.
Function
IGFBP-3 was first isolated, characterized, and quantitated in human plasma, in 1986. It has well-documented functions in the circulation, in the extracellular environment, and inside cells. It is the main IGF transport protein in the bloodstream, where it carries the growth factors predominantly in stable complexes that contain the binding protein, either IGF-1 or IGF-2, and a third protein called the acid-labile subunit or ALS. | The Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 or IGFBP-3 was first isolated, characterized, and quantitated in human plasma, in 1986. | closed_qa |
What is special about the number 1729? | The number 1729 is known as the Hardy–Ramanujan number after a famous visit by Hardy to see Ramanujan at a hospital. In Hardy's words:
I remember once going to see him when he was ill at Putney. I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729 and remarked that the number seemed to me rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not an unfavorable omen. "No", he replied, "it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways."
Immediately before this anecdote, Hardy quoted Littlewood as saying, "Every positive integer was one of [Ramanujan's] personal friends."
The two different ways are:
1729
=
1
3
+
12
3
=
9
3
+
10
3
.
{\displaystyle 1729=1^{3}+12^{3}=9^{3}+10^{3}.}
Generalisations of this idea have created the notion of "taxicab numbers". | 1729, known as the Hardy–Ramanujan number, is the smallest integer that can be expressed as the sum of the cubes of two unique pairs of integers. | closed_qa |
Where in Australia is Palm Cove located? | Palm Cove is located in Far North Queensland on the Australian coast. It has a long sandy beach along most of its seafront except for the rocky headland around Buchan Point in the north of the suburb. | Palm Cove is located in Far North Queensland on the Australian coast. | closed_qa |
Does Davos have a good hockey team | Hockey Club Davos is a professional Swiss ice hockey club based in Davos, Switzerland. Davos plays in the National League (NL). It is generally referred to by its abbreviation "HCD" by the fans. The team is usually a strong force in the league and often bolster their roster with Swiss national team players and players who once played for National Hockey League teams. HC Davos also has hosted the annual Spengler Cup tournament, an invitational competition, since 1923.
The team had the lowest attendance of the National League for the 2016–17 season, averaging 4,792 spectators over their 25 regular season home games.
History
HC Davos was founded in 1921. In 1923, Davos presented the first Spengler Cup, one of the oldest tournaments in sports still being played.
HC Davos was led by a forward line known as "The ni-storm" (German: Der ni-sturm) from 1933 to 1950, which included Bibi Torriani, along with brothers Hans Cattini and Ferdinand Cattini. The line was named for the last syllable (-ni) of players' surnames. The ni-storm was regarded as the top line of HC Davos and the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team from 1933 to 1950. During this time, the club won 18 Swiss championships, and six Spengler Cups.
The team was relegated into 1. Liga in 1990, one of the lowest points in its history. After a new beginning, the club moved into the Swiss League, and two years later returned to the NL. Davos has been among the best teams in the league since, with recent league championships in 2002, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, and 2015.[citation needed] | Davos indeed has an excellent hockey team and a record of most Swiss national titles.
Hockey Club Davos is a professional Swiss ice hockey club based in Davos, Switzerland. Davos plays in the National League (NL). It is generally referred to by its abbreviation "HCD" by the fans. The team is usually a strong force in the league and often bolster their roster with Swiss national team players and players who once played for National Hockey League teams. HC Davos also has hosted the annual Spengler Cup tournament, an invitational competition, since 1923.
The team had the lowest attendance of the National League for the 2016–17 season, averaging 4,792 spectators over their 25 regular season home games.
History
HC Davos was founded in 1921. In 1923, Davos presented the first Spengler Cup, one of the oldest tournaments in sports still being played.
HC Davos was led by a forward line known as "The ni-storm" (German: Der ni-sturm) from 1933 to 1950, which included Bibi Torriani, along with brothers Hans Cattini and Ferdinand Cattini. The line was named for the last syllable (-ni) of players' surnames. The ni-storm was regarded as the top line of HC Davos and the Switzerland men's national ice hockey team from 1933 to 1950. During this time, the club won 18 Swiss championships, and six Spengler Cups.
The team was relegated into 1. Liga in 1990, one of the lowest points in its history. After a new beginning, the club moved into the Swiss League, and two years later returned to the NL. Davos has been among the best teams in the league since, with recent league championships in 2002, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, and 2015. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about Rraboshtë, tell me what the village is known for and what country it's in. | Rraboshtë is a village located in the former Kallmet municipality, Lezhë County, northwestern Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became part of the municipality Lezhë. The village is situated near the river Drin, about 4 km north of the city Lezhë. Nearby mountains include Mali Kastriot and Mali i Velës.
In Rraboshtë there is also a church named Te Ngjiturit e Zojës ne Qiell but also a school.
Rraboshta is divided into four main mahalla ("quarter" or "neighbourhood"), that of the Tatej, Pemaj, Ballije, and Mahalla e Poshtme. The majority of brotherhoods descend from Mirdita, the tribal and ethnographic region located to the east of Rraboshtë, with most having arrived from Orosh and Spaç. Examples include the Tatej (Spaçi) and Pemaj (Oroshi). However, there are other minor brotherhoods who trace their ancestry to some of the other regions of northern Albania. The Robi arrived from Dibra in north-eastern Albania while the descendants of Gjon Paloka (the Vokërr Pali) came from Kelmend in Malësia.
The villagers of Rraboshtë are known for their patriotism and for preserving the traditions and customs of the areas where they came from. The traditional dress is the kalmetore and mirditore dress. The inhabitants of this village are usually engaged in agriculture and livestock. They are famous for the production of grape varieties and the cultivation of this product. | Rraboshtë is located in Albania and is known for producing grape varieties. | closed_qa |
Is black hole truly black? | A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light or other electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape its event horizon. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon. Although it has a great effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, it has no locally detectable features according to general relativity. In many ways, a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is of the order of billionths of a kelvin for stellar black holes, making it essentially impossible to observe directly. | According to general relativity, a black hole emits no lights at all. Thus it is 100% black by definition. However, when quantum effects are included, a black hole has finite temperature, emitting lights called Hawking radiation. In this sense, a black hole is not truly black. | closed_qa |
This table lists the change over time in population of a small town in France. Between which two consecutive entries from the table did the rate of population growth change the most? Explain your math. | Historical population
Year Pop. ±%
1911 752 —
1962 437 −41.9%
1968 486 +11.2%
1975 398 −18.1%
1982 393 −1.3%
1990 382 −2.8%
1999 395 +3.4%
2008 441 +11.6% | The rate of population growth changed the most between the entries for 1962 and 1968. Between 1911 and 1962, there was a -41.9% change in population, and between 1962 and 1968 there was a +11.2% change in population. The rate of change of population growth was |(−41.9% - +11.2%)| = 53.1% change, which is larger than the absolute difference between any other two consecutive rows in the table. | closed_qa |
In which city is this high school located? | The Instituto de Enseñanza Secundaria Lope de Vega (IES Lope de Vega) is a public high school in Madrid, Spain. It is located in the calle de San Bernardo. It is operated by the regional administration of the Community of Madrid. | Madrid | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about computers, what is the first RISC system? | Michael J. Flynn views the first RISC system as the IBM 801 design, begun in 1975 by John Cocke and completed in 1980. The 801 developed out of an effort to build a 24-bit high-speed processor to use as the basis for a digital telephone switch. To reach their goal of switching 1 million calls per hour (300 per second) they calculated that the CPU required performance on the order of 12 million instructions per second (MIPS), compared to their fastest mainframe machine of the time, the 370/168, which performed at 3.5 MIPS. | The first RISC system was the IBM 801, started in 1975 and completed in 1980. | closed_qa |
How many awards did the film The Walrus and the Whistleblower win per this entry of information? | The Walrus and the Whistleblower is a 2020 Canadian documentary film directed by Nathalie Bibeau. The film profiles Phil Demers, a former employee of Marineland who attempted to blow the whistle on allegedly inhumane treatment of animals at the institution.
According to a film industry newsletter, the film was made "in association with the Documentary Channel, and CBC Docs". The Documentary Channel's announcement about the film stated that Demers had "appeared four times on the Joe Rogan show, has testified before the Canadian Senate, and is being sued for $1.5 million for plotting to steal Smooshi, the walrus".
The film premiered as part of the 2020 Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada it was not screened theatrically, but premiered as part of the festival's online streaming component and aired on CBC Television on May 28 as part of the network's special Hot Docs at Home series of films from the festival.
In June 2020, the film was named as the winner of 2020 Rogers Audience Award, alongside the films 9/11 Kids, There's No Place Like This Place, Anyplace, First We Eat and The Forbidden Reel, and as Overall Favourite at Hot Docs. The Audience Award allowed the film to be fast tracked in the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature category, "provided it meets all other criteria for eligibility". Northern Banner, a division of Raven Banner Entertainment, subsequently announced that it had acquired the rights to distribute the film in Canada, probably starting before year end. The US and international distribution rights went to Gravitas Ventures.
The film received a nomination for the Donald Brittain Award at the 9th Canadian Screen Awards in 2021. | 2. the 2020 Rogers Audience Award, and the Donald Brittain Award in 2021. | closed_qa |
What type of babies did Regalado say Jiankui was making? | On 25 November 2018, Regalado posted on MIT Technology Review website that He Jiankui was making CRIPSR babies. As it was publicised, He was prompted to announce his experiment and posted the news of the birth of twins, nicknamed Lulu and Nana, on YouTube in five videos the same day. He formally presented the experiment at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing organized at the University of Hong Kong on 28 November 2018. He explained that the experiment was to make the babies resistant to HIV infection as they were (as embryos) obtained from an HIV-positive father. He specifically used a mutant gene named CCR5-Δ32 that is known to confer innate resistance to HIV. The twins were born in secrecy in October 2018, and a third baby (revealed in 2022 as Amy) was then almost born, as He reported. | Regalado said that Jiankui was making CRIPSR babies. | closed_qa |
What K-pop group did Kang Se-jung sing for? | Kang Se-jung (born January 15, 1982) is a South Korean actress. She made her entertainment debut as a singer for the K-pop girl group Papaya in 2000; the group released two albums before disbanding in 2001. Kang began acting full-time in 2004, and has appeared in television series such as Assorted Gems (2009) and Heartless City (2013). Upon turning to acting, she used the stage name Go Na-eun before reverting to use of her birth name in 2017. | Papaya | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about the Allegory of Peace, what does it represent? | Allegory of Peace or Triumph of Peace is a 1652 oil-on-canvas painting by Dutch artist Jan Lievens. The painting represents the 1648 Treaty of Münster and depicts Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, crowning Pax, the goddess of peace. | The painting represents the 1648 Treaty of Münster and depicts Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, crowning Pax, the goddess of peace. | closed_qa |
What is surfing? | Surfing is a surface water sport in which an individual, a surfer (or two in tandem surfing), uses a board to ride on the forward section, or face, of a moving wave of water, which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found on ocean shores, but can also be found in standing waves in the open ocean, in lakes, in rivers in the form of a tidal bore, or in wave pools. | Surfing is a sport where a rider uses a surfboard to ride a wave | closed_qa |
What was the The Treaty of Tordesillas? | In 1383, John I of Castile, husband of Beatrice of Portugal and son-in-law of Ferdinand I of Portugal, claimed the throne of Portugal. A faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by John of Aviz (later King John I of Portugal) and commanded by General Nuno Álvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota. With this battle, the House of Aviz became the ruling house of Portugal.
The new ruling dynasty would proceed to push Portugal to the limelight of European politics and culture, creating and sponsoring works of literature, like the Crónicas d'el Rei D. João I by Fernão Lopes, the first riding and hunting manual Livro da ensinança de bem cavalgar toda sela and O Leal Conselheiro both by King Edward of Portugal and the Portuguese translations of Cicero's De Oficiis and Seneca's De Beneficiis by the well traveled Prince Peter of Coimbra, as well as his magnum opus Tratado da Vertuosa Benfeytoria. In an effort of solidification and centralization of royal power the monarchs of this dynasty also ordered the compilation, organization and publication of the first three compilations of laws in Portugal: the Ordenações d'el Rei D. Duarte, which was never enforced; the Ordenações Afonsinas, whose application and enforcement was not uniform across the realm; and the Ordenações Manuelinas, which took advantage of the printing press to reach every corner of the kingdom. The Avis Dynasty also sponsored works of architecture like the Mosteiro da Batalha (literally, the Monastery of the Battle) and led to the creation of the manueline style of architecture in the 16th century.
Portugal also spearheaded European exploration of the world and the Age of Discovery. Prince Henry the Navigator, son of King John I of Portugal, became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavour. During this period, Portugal explored the Atlantic Ocean, discovering the Atlantic archipelagos the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde; explored the African coast; colonized selected areas of Africa; discovered an eastern route to India via the Cape of Good Hope; discovered Brazil, explored the Indian Ocean, established trading routes throughout most of southern Asia; and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to China and Japan.
In 1415, Portugal acquired the first of its overseas colonies by conquering Ceuta, the first prosperous Islamic trade centre in North Africa. There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic: Madeira and the Azores, which led to the first colonization movements.
In 1422, by decree of King John I, Portugal officially abandoned the previous dating system, the Era of Caesar, and adopted the Anno Domini system, therefore becoming the last catholic realm to do so.
Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the time, ranging from gold to slaves, as they looked for a route to India and its spices, which were coveted in Europe.
The Treaty of Tordesillas, intended to resolve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus, was made by Pope Alexander VI, the mediator between Portugal and Spain. It was signed on 7 June 1494, and divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the two countries along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa).
In 1498, Vasco da Gama accomplished what Columbus set out to do and became the first European to reach India by sea, bringing economic prosperity to Portugal and its population of 1.7 million residents, and helping to start the Portuguese Renaissance. In 1500, the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real reached what is now Canada and founded the town of Portugal Cove-St. Philip's, Newfoundland and Labrador, long before the French and English in the 17th century, and being just one of many Portuguese colonizations of the Americas.
In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Muscat and Ormuz in the Persian Strait, and Malacca, now a state in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe, landing in such places as Taiwan, Japan, the island of Timor, and in the Moluccas.
Although for a long period it was believed the Dutch were the first Europeans to arrive in Australia, there is also some evidence that the Portuguese may have discovered Australia in 1521. From 1519 to 1522, Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães) organized a Spanish expedition to the East Indies which resulted in the first circumnavigation of the globe. Magellan never made it back to Europe as he was killed by natives in the Philippines in 1521.
The Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529 between Portugal and Spain, specified the anti-meridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas.
All these factors made Portugal one of the world's major economic, military, and political powers from the 15th century until the late 16th century. | After Christopher Columbus returned, a dispute arose between Portugal and Spain, which Pope Alexander VI mediated for the Treaty of Tordesillas.
According to this joint treaty, the newly discovered lands beyond Europe are divided between the two countries along a meridian located 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about cycling, who holds the record for the most Tour de France stage victories? | As a road cyclist, Mark Cavendish turned professional in 2005, and achieved eleven wins in his first professional season. Cavendish has won 34 Tour de France stages, tying him for first on the all-time list with Eddy Merckx, contributing to a third-highest total of fifty-three Grand Tour stage victories. He won the Men's road race at the 2011 road world championships, becoming the second male British rider to do so after Tom Simpson. Cavendish has also won the points classification in all three of the grand tours: the 2010 Vuelta a España, the 2011, and 2021 Tours de France and the 2013 Giro d'Italia. In 2012, he became the first person to win the final Champs-Élysées stage in the Tour de France in four consecutive years. | Mark Cavendish is tied with Eddie Merckx for the most Tour de France stage victories with 34. | closed_qa |
What programming languages does freeCodeCamp teach to students? | freeCodeCamp (also referred to as Free Code Camp) is a non-profit organization that consists of an interactive learning web platform, an online community forum, chat rooms, online publications and local organizations that intend to make learning web development accessible to anyone. Beginning with tutorials that introduce students to HTML, CSS and JavaScript, students progress to project assignments that they complete either alone or in pairs. Upon completion of all project tasks, students are partnered with other nonprofits to build web applications, giving the students practical development experience. | freeCodeCamp is a non-profit organization that has tutorials that introduce students to HTML, CSS and JavaScript. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about the IBJJF, provide two tournaments organized by IBJJ and the ruleset used by these tournaments. | The International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation (IBJJF) is a for-profit company that hosts several of the biggest Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) tournaments in the world, including the World Jiu-Jitsu Championship, World No-Gi Championship, Pan Jiu-Jitsu Championship, and European Open Jiu-Jitsu Championship. The federation was created by Carlos Gracie, Jr., who is the head of one of the largest Brazilian jiu-jitsu associations, Gracie Barra. The IBJJF uses the ruleset of the Confederação Brasileira de Jiu-Jitsu (CBJJ). On October 11, 2020, the IBJJF announced that they will begin to allow both heel hooks and knee-reaping for all brown and black belts competing in no-gi tournaments, starting on an undisclosed date in 2021. | World No-Gi Championship and Pan Jiu-Jitsu Championship are two tournaments organized by the IBJJF. They follow the ruleset of the CBJJ. | closed_qa |
Given the biography of Nemacolin, what years did George Washington use Nemacolin's Path? | The son of Checochinican (Chickoconecon), chief of the Fish Clan of the Turtle tribe, Nemacolin was born near the Brandywine Creek, probably close to the Swedish trading post at Fort Christina that later became Wilmington, Delaware. By a treaty with William Penn in 1726, various tribes either rented or gave up their land on both sides of Brandywine Creek. Nemacolin likely grew up near Shamokin, Pennsylvania, a village near the Susquehanna River to which the Delaware had retreated when faced with disease and colonization of their traditional lands by white settlers. His family grew to know trader Thomas Cresap, and moved south and west with the Cresap family, likely after a controversy between groups of settlers aligned with the colonies of Maryland and Pennsylvania known as Cresap's War.
Circa 1750, Cresap received instructions to improve the Native American path across the Appalachian Mountains through the Cumberland Narrows. He hired Nemacolin and his two sons, among others, to complete the task between Will's Creek (a trading post on a tributary of the Potomac River later the site of Fort Cumberland) and the mouth of Redstone Creek on the Monongahela River (a tributary of the Ohio River) which later became Redstone Old Fort and even later Brownsville, Pennsylvania. A side trail led to the residence of Christopher Gist. Gist led George Washington along Nemacolin's Path in 1753 and 1754. It was later improved to permit supply wagons for General Edward Braddock's army, and the General ultimately died on the route in 1755 after the disastrous Battle of the Monongahela near present day Pittsburgh. About 1759, as the war ended, Nemocolin reblazed the path to the residence of James Burd which became Fort Burd and later renamed Redstone Old Fort. Another branch went to Uniontown, Pennsylvania. | George Washington was led by Christopher Gist along Nemacolin's Path in 1753 and 1754 | closed_qa |
What are the ingredients in panch phuran? | Panch phoron, panch phodan or pancha phutana is a whole spice blend, originating from the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and used especially in the cuisine of Eastern India and Northeastern India, especially in the cuisine of Bhojpur, Mithila, Odisha, Bengal and Nepal. The name literally means "five spices".
All of the spices in panch phoron are seeds. Typically, panch phoron consists of fenugreek seed, nigella seed, cumin seed, black mustard seed and fennel seed in equal parts. Some cooks prefer to use a smaller proportion of fenugreek seeds, because of their mildly bitter taste. | Panch phuran, also known as panch phoron, comprises of the following spices in equal parts: cumin seeds, fenugreek seeds, black mustard seeds, fennel seeds and nigella seeds. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about Pablo Picasso, tell me when and where he was born, why he was famous, and what his most famous accomplishment was as a professional | Pablo Ruiz Picasso (25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973) was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist and theatre designer who spent most of his adult life in France. One of the most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and the anti-war painting Guernica (1937), a dramatic portrayal of the bombing of Guernica by German and Italian air forces during the Spanish Civil War.
Born: Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso
25 October 1881
Málaga, Kingdom of Spain | Pablo Ruiz Picasso was born on 25 October 1881 in Málaga, Spain. He was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist and theatre designer who spent most of his adult life in France. He is one of the most famous and influential artists of the 20th century because he co-founded the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, co-invented collage, and he delveoped and explored a wide variety of other styles. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and the anti-war painting Guernica (1937), a dramatic portrayal of the bombing of Guernica by German and Italian air forces during the Spanish Civil War. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about Listeriosis, tell me how how the bacterium is transfered into animals, and people. | Listeriosis is an infectious but not contagious disease caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, far more common in domestics animals (domestic mammals and poultry), especially ruminants, than in human beings. It can also occur in feral animals—among others, game animals—as well as in poultry and other birds.
The causative bacterium lives in the soil and in poorly made silage, and is acquired by ingestion. It is not contagious; over the course of a 30-year observation period of sheep disease in Morocco, the disease only appeared in the late 2000s (decade) when feeding bag-ensiled corn became common.[better source needed] In Iceland, the disease is called "silage sickness". | Listeriosis is most often associated with animals but can also infect people and is primarily transferred by ingestion. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about a president, tell me when he died. | William Henry Harrison (February 9, 1773 – April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth president of the United States. Harrison died just 31 days after his inauguration in 1841, and had the shortest presidency in United States history. He was also the first United States president to die in office, and a brief constitutional crisis resulted as presidential succession was not then fully defined in the United States Constitution. Harrison was the last president born as a British subject in the Thirteen Colonies and was the paternal grandfather of Benjamin Harrison, the 23rd president of the United States. | April 4, 1841 | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) awards, tell me how many albums need to be sold to get an award. | In the United States, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) awards certification based on the number of albums and singles sold through retail and other ancillary markets. Other countries have similar awards (see music recording certification). Certification is not automatic; for an award to be made, the record label must first request certification. The audit is conducted against net shipments after returns (most often an artist's royalty statement is used), which includes albums sold directly to retailers and one-stops, direct-to-consumer sales (music clubs and mail order) and other outlets.
Description and qualifications
A platinum award for the album GHV2 of Madonna
A Gold record is a song or album that sells 500,000 units (records, tapes, and compact discs). The award was launched in 1958; originally, the requirement for a Gold single was one million units sold and a Gold album represented $1 million in sales (at wholesale value, around a third of the list price). In 1975, the additional requirement of 500,000 units sold was added for Gold albums. Reflecting growth in record sales, the Platinum award was added in 1976, for albums able to sell one million units, and singles selling two million units. The Multi-Platinum award was introduced in 1984, signifying multiple Platinum levels of albums and singles. In 1989, the sales thresholds for singles were reduced to 500,000 for Gold and 1,000,000 for Platinum, reflecting a decrease in sales of singles. In 1992, RIAA began counting each disc in a multi-disc set as one unit toward certification. Reflecting additional growth in music sales, the Diamond award was instituted in 1999 for albums or singles selling ten million units. Because of these changes in criteria, the sales level associated with a particular award depends on when the award was made. | As of 1989, a song or album needed to exceed a sales threshold of 500,000 for Gold and 1,000,000 for Platinum. In 1999 after a growth in music sales, the Diamond award was introduced for songs or albums that sold over 10,000,000 units. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about the history of Beijing, when did Beijing get the current name? | Over the past 3,000 years, the city of Beijing has had numerous other names. The name Beijing, which means "Northern Capital" (from the Chinese characters 北 for north and 京 for capital), was applied to the city in 1403 during the Ming dynasty to distinguish the city from Nanjing (the "Southern Capital"). The English spelling Beijing is based on the government's official romanization (adopted in the 1980s) of the two characters as they are pronounced in Standard Mandarin. An older English spelling, Peking(北平 in Chinese meaning), was used by Jesuit missionary Martino Martini in a popular atlas published in Amsterdam in 1655. Although Peking is no longer the common name for the city, some of the city's older locations and facilities, such as Beijing Capital International Airport, with the IATA Code PEK, and Peking University, still retain the former romanization. | In 1403, during the Ming dynasty, Beijing got its current name. | closed_qa |
Given these paragraphs about battery storage power stations, for how long battery power storage was cheaper than open cycle gas turbine power as of 2019? | As of 2021, the power and capacity of the largest individual battery storage power plants is an order of magnitude less than that of the largest pumped storage power plants, the most common form of grid energy storage. For example, the Bath County Pumped Storage Station, the second largest in the world, can store 24GWh of electricity and dispatch 3GW while the first phase of Vistra Energy's Moss Landing Energy Storage Facility can store 1.2GWh and dispatch 300MW. Grid batteries do not however have to be large, and smaller ones can be deployed widely across a grid for greater redundancy.
As of 2019, battery power storage is cheaper than open cycle gas turbine power for use up to two hours, and there was around 365 GWh of battery storage deployed worldwide, growing extremely rapidly. Levelized cost of electricity from battery storage has fallen rapidly, halving in two years to US$150 per MWh as of 2020. | As of 2019, battery power storage is cheaper than open cycle gas turbine power for use up to two hours. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about Britney Spears, tell me when they were born and why they are famous. | Britney Jean Spears (born December 2, 1981) is an American singer, actress, and dancer. Often referred to as the "Princess of Pop", she is credited with influencing the revival of teen pop during the late 1990s and early 2000s. After appearing in stage productions and television series, Spears signed with Jive Records in 1997 at age fifteen. Her first two studio albums, ...Baby One More Time (1999) and Oops!... I Did It Again (2000), are among the best-selling albums of all time and made Spears the best-selling teenage artist of all time. With first-week sales of over 1.3 million copies, Oops!... I Did It Again held the record for the fastest-selling album by a female artist in the United States for fifteen years. Spears adopted a more mature and provocative style for her albums Britney (2001) and In the Zone (2003), and starred in the 2002 film Crossroads. | Britney Spears was born December 2, 1981 she is famous for being the "princess of pop" and being the best selling teenage artist of all time. | closed_qa |
Based on this paragraph, what was the name of Jesse LaFollette's mother? | LaFollette was born near Morristown, New Jersey in 1781. His father, Joseph, and grandfather, Jean, were Huguenots who had escaped the persecution in France, traveling first to Jersey and then to the colonies where they operated a small farm near the Wallkill River in northern New Jersey. Jean was killed during the French and Indian Wars. Joseph married Phoebe Gobel of Morristown, New Jersey, whose father's farm along with other neighboring farms in Jockey Hollow was used by George Washington and his troops during the winter of 1780. After serving with Count Casimir Pulaski during the Revolutionary War, Joseph and his family joined the pioneers who trekked westward through the Cumberland Gap. | Jesse LaFollette's mother was Phoebe Gobel, who was married to his father Joseph. | closed_qa |
Which era of counterculture were the Beatles pivotal to? | he Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960, that comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the most influential band of all time and were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture and popular music's recognition as an art form. Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock 'n' roll, their sound incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways; the band also explored music styles ranging from folk and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As pioneers in recording, songwriting and artistic presentation, the Beatles revolutionised many aspects of the music industry and were often publicised as leaders of the era's youth and sociocultural movements | The Beatles were integral to the development of 1960s counterculture | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about Password-authenticated key exchange, what year were the first provably-secure protocols created? | The first successful password-authenticated key agreement methods were Encrypted Key Exchange methods described by Steven M. Bellovin and Michael Merritt in 1992. Although several of the first methods were flawed, the surviving and enhanced forms of EKE effectively amplify a shared password into a shared key, which can then be used for encryption and/or message authentication. The first provably-secure PAKE protocols were given in work by M. Bellare, D. Pointcheval, and P. Rogaway (Eurocrypt 2000) and V. Boyko, P. MacKenzie, and S. Patel (Eurocrypt 2000). These protocols were proven secure in the so-called random oracle model (or even stronger variants), and the first protocols proven secure under standard assumptions were those of O. Goldreich and Y. Lindell (Crypto 2001) which serves as a plausibility proof but is not efficient, and J. Katz, R. Ostrovsky, and M. Yung (Eurocrypt 2001) which is practical.
The first password-authenticated key retrieval methods were described by Ford and Kaliski in 2000.
A considerable number of alternative, secure PAKE protocols were given in work by M. Bellare, D. Pointcheval, and P. Rogaway, variations, and security proofs have been proposed in this growing class of password-authenticated key agreement methods. Current standards for these methods include IETF RFC 2945, RFC 5054, RFC 5931, RFC 5998, RFC 6124, RFC 6617, RFC 6628 and RFC 6631, IEEE Std 1363.2-2008, ITU-T X.1035 and ISO-IEC 11770-4:2006. | The first provably-secure protocols for Password-authenticated key exchanges(PAKE) were presented in 2000 at "Eurocrypt 2000" by two groups Mihir Bellare, David Pointcheval and Phillip Rogaway, and Victor Boyko, Philip MacKenzie and Sarvar Patel. | closed_qa |
What is Clemson University? | Clemson University (/ˈklɛmp.sən, ˈklɛm.zən/[note a]) is a public land-grant research university in Clemson, South Carolina. Founded in 1889, Clemson is the second-largest university by enrollment in South Carolina. For the fall 2019 semester, the university enrolled a total of 20,195 undergraduate students and 5,627 graduate students, and the student/faculty ratio was 18:1. Clemson's 1,400-acre campus is in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The campus now borders Lake Hartwell, which was formed by the dam completed in 1962. The university manages the nearby 17,500-acre Clemson Experimental Forest that is used for research, education, and recreation.
Clemson University consists of seven colleges: Agriculture, Forestry and Life Sciences; Architecture, Arts and Humanities; The Wilbur O. and Ann Powers College of Business; Behavioral, Social and Health Sciences; Education; Engineering, Computing and Applied Sciences; and Science. U.S. News & World Report ranks Clemson University 77th for 2022 among national U.S. universities. Clemson University is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity." | Clemson University is a School based in the Upstate of South Carolina in a town called Clemson. They are known for their Football team and bright orange paw. Clemson is consistently a top 10 football team. Their biggest in-state rival is the University of South Carolina Gamecocks. Clemson has 7 different colleges ranging from Engineering, Business, Agriculture, and Health Sciences. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about the terrain of the Iberian Peninsula, tell me the highest point in the peninsula and its altitude. | The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely mountainous. The major mountain systems are:
The Pyrenees and their foothills, the Pre-Pyrenees, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. Aneto in the Maladeta massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
The Mulhacén, the highest peak in the Iberian Peninsula
The Cantabrian Mountains along the northern coast with the massive Picos de Europa. Torre de Cerredo, at 2,648 m, is the highest point
The Galicia/Trás-os-Montes Massif in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks. Pena Trevinca, at 2,127 m, is the highest point
The Sistema Ibérico, a complex system at the heart of the peninsula, in its central/eastern region. It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers. Moncayo, at 2,313 m, is the highest point
The Sistema Central, dividing the Iberian Plateau into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of Continental Portugal (1,993 m) is located in the Serra da Estrela). Pico Almanzor in the Sierra de Gredos is the highest point, at 2,592 m
The Montes de Toledo, which also stretches into Portugal from the La Mancha natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is La Villuerca in the Sierra de Villuercas, Extremadura
The Sierra Morena, which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m, Bañuela is the highest point
The Baetic System, which stretches between Cádiz and Gibraltar and northeast towards Alicante Province. It is divided into three subsystems:
Prebaetic System, which begins west of the Sierra Sur de Jaén, reaching the Mediterranean Sea shores in Alicante Province. La Sagra is the highest point at 2,382 m.
Subbaetic System, which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from Cape Trafalgar in Cádiz Province across Andalusia to the Region of Murcia. The highest point, at 2,027 m (6,650 ft), is Peña de la Cruz in Sierra Arana.
Penibaetic System, located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén in the Sierra Nevada. | The highest point in the Iberian Peninsula is Mulhacen, located within the Penibaetic System. Its altitude is 3,478 m, or 11,411 ft | closed_qa |
What is an adjacency list? | In graph theory and computer science, an adjacency list is a collection of unordered lists used to represent a finite graph. Each unordered list within an adjacency list describes the set of neighbors of a particular vertex in the graph. This is one of several commonly used representations of graphs for use in computer programs. | In graph theory and computer science, an adjacency list is a collection of unordered lists used to represent a finite graph. | closed_qa |
Can you name a few of Leonardo's famous works | Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance. Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works—including numerous unfinished works—he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art. His magnum opus, the Mona Lisa, is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. In 2017, Salvator Mundi, attributed in whole or part to Leonardo, was sold at auction for US$450.3 million, setting a new record for the most expensive painting ever sold at public auction. | Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, Vitruvian Man, Salvator Mundi | closed_qa |
Who is Silvio Micali? | Silvio Micali (born October 13, 1954) is an Italian computer scientist, professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the founder of Algorand, a proof-of-stake blockchain cryptocurrency protocol. Micali's research at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory centers on cryptography and information security.
In 2012, he received the Turing Award for his work in cryptography along with Shafi Goldwasser for their work on zero-knowledge proofs. | Silvio Micali is a cryptography professor at MIT. He received a Turing award in 2012 along with Shafi Goldwasser for their work on zero-knowledge proofs. Micali also founded Algorand, which is a a proof-of-stake blockchain cryptocurrency protocol and company. | closed_qa |
Based on the provided text, how many awards did the book "The Killing Jar" win and what year were they awarded? | The Killing Jar (Chatto and Windus) is the debut novel of Nicola Monaghan, published in March 2006. It tells the story of Kerrie Ann Hill, a young girl growing up on a drug-ridden housing estate in Nottingham. Kerrie Ann meets an elderly neighbour when she's young, Mrs Ivanovich, an entomologist who teaches Kerrie about life, death, the Amazon rainforest and the miniature, alien world of insects. "Kez" struggles to look after her brother Jon, and hold things together as she's brought up by her junkie mum, Sue, and later, living with her boyfriend Mark as he becomes more and more involved with heroin and crack cocaine.
The book explores themes of metamorphosis, the highs and lows of drugs, and how people become trapped by poisoned environments, and what it takes to escape them.
Monaghan was included in The Independent's New Year list of "Rising Talent of 2006" and The Killing Jar made their 50 Hot Books for summer and Books of Year features. It went on to win a Betty Trask Award, The Authors' Club Best First Novel Award, and the Waverton Good Read Award. | The Killing Jar won 3 awards and they were awarded in 2006 | closed_qa |
In total how long was Winston Churchill the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. | Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, soldier, and writer who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice, from 1940 to 1945 during the Second World War, and again from 1951 to 1955. Apart from two years between 1922 and 1924, he was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1900 to 1964 and represented a total of five constituencies. Ideologically an economic liberal and imperialist, he was for most of his career a member of the Conservative Party, which he led from 1940 to 1955. He was a member of the Liberal Party from 1904 to 1924. | A total of 9 years in 2 spells between 1940 to 1945 and 1951 to 1955. | closed_qa |
Given a reference text about the Salt River, tell me how long the river is and where it starts and finishes. | The Salt River is a formerly navigable hanging channel of the Eel River which flowed about 9 miles (14 km) from near Fortuna and Waddington, California, to the estuary at the Pacific Ocean, until siltation from logging and agricultural practices essentially closed the channel. It was historically an important navigation route until the early 20th century. It now intercepts and drains tributaries from the Wildcat Hills along the south side of the Eel River floodplain. Efforts to restore the river began in 1987, permits and construction began in 2012, and water first flowed in the restored channel in October 2013. | The Salt River is about 9 miles long and starts near Fortuna and Waddington California and flows into the Pacific Ocean. | closed_qa |
What event John Johnstone won as a rider? | John Johnstone (1881-1935) was a British businessman and rider. He was the tai-pan of the Jardine, Matheson & Co., member of the Shanghai Municipal Council and Legislative Council of Hong Kong.
He was the head of the Jardine, Matheson & Co. as well as director of numerous companies. He was member of the Shanghai Municipal Council and the Legislative Council of Hong Kong.
He was a keen rider and bore the reputation of being the best rider East of the Suez. He succeeded in winning the Jockey Cup on a pony named Ben-y-Gloe belonging to C. H. Ross, the former tai-pan of Jardines when he first went to Hong Kong in 1903. In 1904, he won the Professional Cup on a pony named Runaway Girl, purchased from W. A. Cruickshank. From 1903 to 1919, he rode in 1,178 races, winning 334, securing 192 seconds and 186 thirds, being unplaced 466 times, excluding the record of minor events such as Off Days or Gymkhanas. He won 14 Grand Nationals in China, and at one meeting in Hong Kong rode in 30 races winning 16 of them. He was also the President of the St. Andrew's Society.
He left Hong Kong on 31 March 1921 for home by the Empress of Asia.
In 1928 he won The Foxhunters Cup at Cheltenham riding Rathpatrick and officiated as steward at several of the northern meetings. He died at the Cheltenham meeting in 1935 where he was officiating. | John Johnstone won the Jockey Cup on a horse named Ben-y-Gloe. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about a Tesla Model 3, tell me what the EPA-rated ranges are for the various models. | The Tesla Model 3 is an electric car produced by American marque Tesla. It is a battery-powered four-door sedan that is considered a mid-size car in the US and a large family car in Europe, and is marketed in the compact-executive segment. Limited production of the Model 3 began in mid-2017, with the first production vehicle rolling off the assembly line on July 7, 2017. The official launch and delivery of the first 30 cars took place on July 28.
The base Model 3 delivers an EPA-rated all-electric range of 272 miles (438 km) and the Long Range version delivers 358 miles (576 km). According to Tesla, the Model 3 carries full self-driving hardware, with periodic software updates adding functionality.
The Model 3 was marketed as being more affordable to more people than previous models by Tesla. Since early 2020, the Model 3 is the bestselling electric car in world history, and, in June 2021, became the first electric car to pass the 1 million global sales milestone. The Model 3 has been the world's top selling plug-in electric car (PEV) for three years running, from 2018 to 2020. It has also been the bestselling PEV in the United States for three consecutive years, 2018 to 2020, the top selling PEV in Europe in 2019, and the bestselling PEV in China in 2020. | The Tesla Model 3 comes in a base model with a range of 272 miles (438 km) and also comes in a Long Range version that delivers 358 miles (576 km). | closed_qa |
Can Penguins fly? | Penguins (order Sphenisciformes /sfɪˈnɪsəfɔːrmiːz/, family Spheniscidae /sfɪˈnɪsɪdiː, -daɪ/) are a group of aquatic flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere: only one species, the Galápagos penguin, is found north of the Equator. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage and flippers for swimming. Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sea life which they catch with their bills and swallow whole while swimming. A penguin has a spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey. | Penguins are a group of aquatic flightless birds. | closed_qa |
According to the text below about UVA, name the UVA alumni that have won the Pulitzer Prize. | Rhodes Scholarships are international postgraduate awards given to students to study at the University of Oxford. Since the scholarship program began in 1904, UVA has had fifty-five Rhodes Scholars, the most of any university in the American South, eighth-most overall, and third-most outside the Ivy League (behind Stanford University and the United States Military Academy (West Point)).
Eight NASA astronauts and launch directors are UVA alumni: Karl Gordon Henize, Bill Nelson, Thomas Marshburn, Leland Melvin, Jeff Wisoff, Kathryn Thornton, Patrick Forrester; and Michael Leinbach.
The Pulitzer Prize has been awarded to eight UVA alumni: Edward P. Jones, Ron Suskind, Virginius Dabney, Claudia Emerson, Henry Taylor, Lane DeGregory, George Rodrigue, and Michael Vitez. | The Pulitzer Prize has been awarded to UVA alumni: Edward P. Jones, Ron Suskind, Virginius Dabney, Claudia Emerson, Henry Taylor, Lane DeGregory, George Rodrigue, and Michael Vitez. | closed_qa |
Given these paragraphs about Large language models, what is hallucination? | A large language model (LLM) is a language model consisting of a neural network with many parameters (typically billions of weights or more), trained on large quantities of unlabelled text using self-supervised learning. LLMs emerged around 2018 and perform well at a wide variety of tasks. This has shifted the focus of natural language processing research away from the previous paradigm of training specialized supervised models for specific tasks.
Properties
Though the term large language model has no formal definition, it often refers to deep learning models having a parameter count on the order of billions or more. LLMs are general purpose models which excel at a wide range of tasks, as opposed to being trained for one specific task (such as sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or mathematical reasoning). The skill with which they accomplish tasks, and the range of tasks at which they are capable, seems to be a function of the amount of resources (data, parameter-size, computing power) devoted to them, in a way that is not dependent on additional breakthroughs in design.
Though trained on simple tasks along the lines of predicting the next word in a sentence, neural language models with sufficient training and parameter counts are found to capture much of the syntax and semantics of human language. In addition, large language models demonstrate considerable general knowledge about the world, and are able to "memorize" a great quantity of facts during training.
Hallucinations
Main article: Hallucination (artificial intelligence)
In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data.
Emergent abilities
On a number of natural language benchmarks involving tasks such as question answering, models perform no better than random chance until they reach a certain scale (in this case, measured by training computation), at which point their performance sharply increases. These are examples of emergent abilities.
Unpredictable abilities that have been observed in large language models but that were not present in simpler models (and that were not explicitly designed into the model) are usually called "emergent abilities". Researchers note that such abilities "cannot be predicted simply by extrapolating the performance of smaller models". These abilities are discovered rather than programmed-in or designed, in some cases only after the LLM has been publicly deployed. Hundreds of emergent abilities have been described. Examples include multi-step arithmetic, taking college-level exams, identifying the intended meaning of a word, chain-of-thought prompting, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word’s letters, identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs.
Architecture and training
Large language models have most commonly used the transformer architecture, which, since 2018, has become the standard deep learning technique for sequential data (previously, recurrent architectures such as the LSTM were most common). LLMs are trained in an unsupervised manner on unannotated text. A left-to-right transformer is trained to maximize the probability assigned to the next word in the training data, given the previous context. Alternatively, an LLM may use a bidirectional transformer (as in the example of BERT), which assigns a probability distribution over words given access to both preceding and following context. In addition to the task of predicting the next word or "filling in the blanks", LLMs may be trained on auxiliary tasks which test their understanding of the data distribution such as Next Sentence Prediction (NSP), in which pairs of sentences are presented and the model must predict whether they appear side-by-side in the training corpus.
The earliest LLMs were trained on corpora having on the order of billions of words. The first model in OpenAI's GPT series was trained in 2018 on BookCorpus, consisting of 985 million words. In the same year, BERT was trained on a combination of BookCorpus and English Wikipedia, totalling 3.3 billion words. In the years since then, training corpora for LLMs have increased by orders of magnitude, reaching up to hundreds of billions or trillions of tokens.
LLMs are computationally expensive to train. A 2020 study estimated the cost of training a 1.5 billion parameter model (1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than the state of the art at the time) at $1.6 million.
A 2020 analysis found that neural language models' capability (as measured by training loss) increased smoothly in a power law relationship with number of parameters, quantity of training data, and computation used for training. These relationships were tested over a wide range of values (up to seven orders of magnitude) and no attenuation of the relationship was observed at the highest end of the range (including for network sizes up to trillions of parameters).
Application to downstream tasks
Between 2018 and 2020, the standard method for harnessing an LLM for a specific natural language processing (NLP) task was to fine tune the model with additional task-specific training. It has subsequently been found that more powerful LLMs such as GPT-3 can solve tasks without additional training via "prompting" techniques, in which the problem to be solved is presented to the model as a text prompt, possibly with some textual examples of similar problems and their solutions.
Fine-tuning
Main article: Fine-tuning (machine learning)
Fine-tuning is the practice of modifying an existing pretrained language model by training it (in a supervised fashion) on a specific task (e.g. sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or part-of-speech tagging). It is a form of transfer learning. It generally involves the introduction of a new set of weights connecting the final layer of the language model to the output of the downstream task. The original weights of the language model may be "frozen", such that only the new layer of weights connecting them to the output are learned during training. Alternatively, the original weights may receive small updates (possibly with earlier layers frozen).
Prompting
See also: Prompt engineering and Few-shot learning (natural language processing)
In the prompting paradigm, popularized by GPT-3, the problem to be solved is formulated via a text prompt, which the model must solve by providing a completion (via inference). In "few-shot prompting", the prompt includes a small number of examples of similar (problem, solution) pairs. For example, a sentiment analysis task of labelling the sentiment of a movie review could be prompted as follows:
Review: This movie stinks.
Sentiment: negative
Review: This movie is fantastic!
Sentiment:
If the model outputs "positive", then it has correctly solved the task. In zero-shot prompting, no solve examples are provided. An example of a zero-shot prompt for the same sentiment analysis task would be "The sentiment associated with the movie review 'This movie is fantastic!' is".
Few-shot performance of LLMs has been shown to achieve competitive results on NLP tasks, sometimes surpassing prior state-of-the-art fine-tuning approaches. Examples of such NLP tasks are translation, question answering, cloze tasks, unscrambling words, and using a novel word in a sentence. The creation and optimisation of such prompts is called prompt engineering.
Instruction tuning
Instruction tuning is a form of fine-tuning designed to facilitate more natural and accurate zero-shot prompting interactions. Given a text input, a pretrained language model will generate a completion which matches the distribution of text on which it was trained. A naive language model given the prompt "Write an essay about the main themes of Hamlet." might provide a completion such as "A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied to submissions received after March 17." In instruction tuning, the language model is trained on many examples of tasks formulated as natural language instructions, along with appropriate responses. Various techniques for instruction tuning have been applied in practice. OpenAI's InstructGPT protocol involves supervised fine-tuning on a dataset of human-generated (prompt, response) pairs, followed by reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), in which a reward function was learned based on a dataset of human preferences. Another technique, "self-instruct", fine-tunes the language model on a training set of examples which are themselves generated by an LLM (bootstrapped from a small initial set of human-generated examples).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model | In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about surfboards, summarize what a surfboard is made of | Most modern surfboards are made of fiberglass foam (PU), with one or more wooden strips or "stringers", fiberglass cloth, and polyester resin (PE). An emerging board material is epoxy resin and Expanded Polystyrene foam (EPS) which is stronger and lighter than traditional PU/PE construction. Even newer designs incorporate materials such as carbon fiber and variable-flex composites in conjunction with fiberglass and epoxy or polyester resins. Since epoxy/EPS surfboards are generally lighter, they will float better than a traditional PU/PE board of similar size, shape and thickness. This makes them easier to paddle and faster in the water. However, a common complaint of EPS boards is that they do not provide as much feedback as a traditional PU/PE board. For this reason, many advanced surfers prefer that their surfboards be made from traditional materials. | Surfboards can be made out of a variety of materials, but most surfboards these days are made from a foam core that is coated in a hard exterior | closed_qa |
What color is Lavendar? | Lavender is a light shade of purple or violet. It applies particularly to the color of the flower of the same name. The web color called lavender is displayed at right—it matches the color of the very palest part of the lavender flower; however, the more saturated color shown below as floral lavender more closely matches the average color of the lavender flower as shown in the picture and is the tone of lavender historically and traditionally considered lavender by the average person as opposed to those who are website designers. The color lavender might be described as a medium purple or a light pinkish-purple. The term lavender may be used in general to apply to a wide range of pale, light or grayish-purples but only on the blue side. Lilac is pale purple on the pink side. In paints, the color lavender is made by mixing purple and white paint.
The first recorded use of the word lavender as a color term in English was in 1705. | Lavender is a light shade of purple or violet. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about the history of triathlon, what is the earliest known triathlon event. | The evolution of triathlon as a distinct sport is difficult to trace with precision. Many, including triathlon historian and author Scott Tinley, consider events in early twentieth century France to be the beginnings of triathlon, with many three element multisport events of differing composition appearing, all called by different names. The earliest record for an event was from 1901 in Joinville-le-Pont, Val-de-Marne: it called itself "Les Trois Sports" (The Three Sports). It was advertised as an event for "the sportsmen of the time" and consisted of a run, a bicycle and a canoe segment. By 19 June 1921, the event in Joinville-le-Pont had become more like a standard triathlon, with the canoe segment being replaced with a swim. According to the newspaper L’Auto, the race consisted of a 3 km (1.9 mi) run, a 12 km (7.5 mi) bike ride and the crossing of the river Marne, all staged consecutively and without a break. Throughout the 1920s other bike, run, and swim events appeared in different cities, such as the “Course des Trois Sports” in Marseille and "La Course des Débrouillards" in Poissy. These multisport events would continue to slowly spread and grow in popularity: by 1934 "Les Trois Sports" was being hosted in the city of La Rochelle, though it consisted of three distinct events, swimming a 200 m (660 ft) channel crossing, a 10 km (6 mi) bike competition around the harbour of La Rochelle and the parc Laleu, and a 1.2 km (0.75 mi) run in the stadium André-Barbeau. Throughout this growth with new events appearing no unified rules ever existed and as a whole triathlon would remain a minority event on the world stage | Triathlon events have evolved of the years, and its origins are not fully known. Triathlon historians have evidenced multisports events dating back to 1901. In this era "Les Trois Sports" did not include the swim as it does in modern day triathlon, but instead included a canoe discipline. As the name suggest, triathlon appears to have first surfaced in the history books in france in the suburbs of paris known as Joinville-le-pont, Val-de-marne. | closed_qa |
Where was Ostad Elahi born and who was his father | Elahi was born in Jeyhunabad, a small Kurdish village near the eponymous capital of Kermanshah Province. His father, Hajj Nematollah (1871–1920), was a mystic and poet who was a leader of the Ahl-e Haqq and revered as a saint. From early childhood, he led an ascetic, secluded life of rigorous discipline under his father's supervision with a special focus on mysticism, music, and ethics. In addition to religious and moral instruction, he received the classical education of the time. During study and contemplation in his youth, he established the basis of his philosophical and spiritual reflections. | He was born in Jeyhunabad, a small Kurdish village and his father was Hajj Nematollah, a mystic and poet and a leader of Ahl-e Haqq | closed_qa |
How old were the indigenous civilizations in Mexico prior to European contact? | Human presence in Pre-Columbian Mexico goes back to 8,000 BCE and it went to become one of the world's six cradles of civilization. In particular, the Mesoamerican region was home to many intertwined civilizations, including the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, and Purepecha. Last were the Aztecs, who dominated the region in the century before European contact. In 1521, the Spanish Empire and its indigenous allies conquered the Aztec Empire from its capital Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), establishing the colony of New Spain. | There were many civilizations that came prior to European contact, some that date back as early as 8,000 BCE. The last civilization to dominate Mexico a century prior to European contact were the Aztecs, whose capital, Tenochtitlan, became what is now Mexico City. | closed_qa |
According to this paragraph, tell me what is referred to as the most exciting collegiate sporting event. | In 2019, Virginia men's basketball won the NCAA Championship in "March Madness", the single-elimination national college basketball tournament considered by YouGov polled American viewers (as of the same year) to be the most exciting collegiate sporting event. In 2015, when Virginia first won its first Capital One Cup its teams won the 2014 College Cup, the 2015 College World Series, and the 2015 NCAA Tennis Championships. When it repeated the feat in 2019, the program won both March Madness and the 2019 Men's Lacrosse Championship. | What is referred to as the most exciting collegiate sporting event is when the Virginia men's basketball team won the NCAA Championship in 2019. | closed_qa |
How many points did Jaromír Jágr score in the 1995-1996 season? | In the 1994–95 season, Jágr won his first Art Ross Trophy after finishing the regular season with the most points in the NHL; he tied Eric Lindros with 70 points but won based on his 32 goals to Lindros' 29. The next year, Jágr set a record for most points, 149, by a European-born player. Both his 62 goals and 87 assists from that season still stand as career-highs. His 1995–96 totals for assists and points stand as the records for right-wingers in those categories. After the 1997–98 season, Penguins captain Ron Francis signed with the Carolina Hurricanes, leaving Jágr the Penguins' captaincy. From 1997–98 to 2000–01, Jágr would win four-straight NHL scoring titles. In 1999, he would win the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player, as well as the Lester B. Pearson Award. In 1998, he led the Czech Republic to a gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics. | In a record-setting year, Jaromír Jágr scored 149 points in the 1995-96 season. | closed_qa |
Where was Atlassian founded? | Atlassian Corporation (/ətˈlæsiən/) is an Australian software company that develops products for software developers, project managers and other software development teams. The company is domiciled in Delaware, with global headquarters in Sydney, Australia, and US headquarters in San Francisco. | Atlassian Corporation was founded in Australia, but is domeciled in Delaware, with global headquarters in Sydney, Australia, and US headquarters in San Francisco. | closed_qa |
Given this reference text, what was John Dalberg-Acton's most famous pronouncement, and to whom did he make it? | John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton, 13th Marquess of Groppoli, KCVO, DL (10 January 1834 – 19 June 1902), better known as Lord Acton, was an English Catholic historian, politician, and writer. He is best remembered for the remark he wrote in a letter to an Anglican bishop in 1887:
"Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men…"
In 1870, along with his mentor Döllinger, Acton opposed the moves to promulgate the doctrine of papal infallibility in the First Vatican Council, travelling to Rome to lobby against it, ultimately unsuccessfully. Unlike Döllinger, Acton did not become an Old Catholic, and continued attending Mass regularly; he received the last rites on his deathbed. The Catholic Church did not try to force his hand. It was in this context that, in a letter he wrote to scholar and ecclesiastic Mandell Creighton, dated April 1887, Acton made his most famous pronouncement:
But if we might discuss this point until we found that we nearly agreed, and if we do agree thoroughly about the impropriety of Carlylese denunciations and Pharisaism in history, I cannot accept your canon that we are to judge Pope and King unlike other men, with a favourable presumption that they did no wrong. If there is any presumption it is the other way, against the holders of power, increasing as the power increases. Historic responsibility has to make up for the want of legal responsibility. Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men, even when they exercise influence and not authority, still more when you superadd the tendency or the certainty of corruption by authority. There is no worse heresy than that the office sanctifies the holder of it. That is the point at which the negation of Catholicism and the negation of Liberalism meet and keep high festival, and the end learns to justify the means. You would hang a man of no position like Ravaillac; but if what one hears is true, then Elizabeth asked the gaoler to murder Mary, and William III of England ordered his Scots minister to extirpate a clan. Here are the greatest names coupled with the greatest crimes; you would spare those criminals, for some mysterious reason. I would hang them higher than Haman, for reasons of quite obvious justice, still more, still higher for the sake of historical science.
Thenceforth he steered clear of theological polemics. He devoted himself to reading, study and congenial society. With all his capacity for study, he was a man of the world and a man of affairs, not a bookworm. His only notable publications were a masterly essay in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on "Democracy in Europe;" two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in 1877 on "The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The History of Freedom in Christianity"—these last the only tangible portions put together by him of his long-projected "History of Liberty;" and an essay on modern German historians in the first number of the English Historical Review, which he helped to found (1886). After 1879 he divided his time between London, Cannes, and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating the society of his friends. In 1872 he had been given the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy by the University of Munich; in 1888 Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, and in 1889 Oxford the Doctor of Civil Law; and in 1890 he received the high academic accolade of being made a fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. | In a letter to Mandell Creighton, John Dalberg-Acton made his most famous pronouncement: "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men, even when they exercise influence and not authority, still more when you superadd the tendency or the certainty of corruption by authority." | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about Lady Gaga, which album did "Bloody Mary" appear on? | "Bloody Mary" is a song by American singer Lady Gaga recorded for her second studio album Born This Way (2011). Gaga, Fernando Garibay, and Paul "DJ White Shadow" Blair wrote and produced it; Clinton Sparks also received producer credit. "Bloody Mary" is an electropop song with elements of synth-pop and trance, and features Gregorian chants. Although the song's title is an epithet mostly associated with the English queen Mary Tudor, Gaga assumes the role of biblical figure Mary Magdalene in its lyrics, whom she considered a "feminine force" she had worshiped since her childhood in a Catholic girls school. It is one of several tracks on the album with religious themes. | Born this Way (2011) | closed_qa |
From the given text, please tell me what were Bachendari Pal's accomplishments? | Bachendri Pal (born 24 May 1954) is an Indian mountaineer. She is the first Indian woman to climb the summit of world's highest mountain, Mount Everest, what she did in 1984. She was awarded the third highest civilian award Padma Bhushan by Government of India in 2019.
Bachendri Pal was born to a Bhotiya family on 24 May 1954 in Nakuri village, in the Uttarkashi district in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. She was one of five children to Hansa Devi, and Shri Kishan Singh Pal, – a border tradesman who supplied groceries from India to Tibet. She was born only five days prior to the first anniversary of the original ascension of Mount Everest by Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary. She completed her M.A. and B.Ed. from D.A.V. Post Graduate College, Dehradun. She started mountaineering at the age of 12 when, along with her friends, she scaled a 13,123 ft (3,999.9 m) high peak during a school picnic. On the invitation of her school principal, she was sent to college for higher studies and, during her course at Nehru Institute of Mountaineering, became the first female to climb Mount Gangotri 23,419 ft (7,138.1 m) and Mount Rudragaria 19,091 ft (5,818.9 m) in 1982. In that time, she became an instructor at the National Adventure Foundation (NAF), which had set up an adventure school for training women to learn mountaineering.
Pal encountered stiff opposition from her family and relatives when she chose a career as a professional mountaineer rather than a schoolteacher. However, she soon found success in her chosen field when, after summiting a number of smaller peaks, she was selected to join India's first mixed-gender team to attempt an expedition to Mount Everest in 1984.
Bachendri Pal has been conferred with following awards and accolades:
Gold Medal for Excellence in Mountaineering by the Indian Mountaineering Foundation (1984)
Padma Shri – the fourth highest civilian award of the Republic of India (1984)
Gold Medal by the Department of Education, Government of Uttar Pradesh, India (1985)
Arjuna Award by the Government of India (1986)
Calcutta Ladies Study Group Award (1986)
Listed in the Guinness Book of World Records (1990)
National Adventure Award by the Government of India (1994)
Yash Bharti Award by the Government of Uttar Pradesh, India (1995)
Honorary Doctorate from the Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University (formerly known as Garhwal University) (1997)
She is the first recipient of the Virangana Lakshmibai Rashtriya Samman 2013–14, which was given by the Ministry of Culture, Government of Madhya Pradesh, India at Gwalior on 18 June 2013 for her personal achievement in adventure sports and women's upliftment in the country.
Padma Bhushan – the third highest civilian award of the Republic of India (2019)
Bharat Gaurav Award by East Bengal Club: 2014 | Bachendari Pal is an Indian mountaineer. Despite stiff opposition from her family, she still chose to pursue professional mountaineer as a career. Some of her noted accomplishments are:
1. She is the first Indian woman to climb the summit of world's highest mountain, Mount Everest, in 1984.
2. While pursuing her course at Nehru Institute of Mountaineering, she became the first female to climb Mount Gangotri 23,419 ft (7,138.1 m) and Mount Rudragaria 19,091 ft (5,818.9 m) in 1982.
Bachendari Pal has also been conferred with several awards and accolades. She was awarded "Padma Shri" (fourth highest civilian award of Republic of India) in 1984 and "Padma Bhushan" (third highest civilian award of Republic of India) in 2019. | closed_qa |
What is the happiness index report and which country tops the happiness index in the world | The World Happiness Report is a publication that contains articles and rankings of national happiness, based on respondent ratings of their own lives, which the report also correlates with various (quality of) life factors. As of March 2023, Finland has been ranked the happiest country in the world six times in a row.
The report is a publication of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network, a global initiative of the United Nations. The report primarily uses data from the Gallup World Poll. Each annual report is available to the public to download on the World Happiness Report website. The Editors of the 2020 report are John F. Helliwell, Richard Layard, Jeffrey D. Sachs, and Jan-Emmanuel De Neve. Associate Editors are Lara Aknin, Shun Wang, and Haifang Huang | United nations every year in collaboration with sustainable development solution network perform survey and release the report global happiness index. As of March 2023, Finland has been ranked the happiest country in the world six times in a row.
The World Happiness Report is a publication that contains articles and rankings of national happiness, based on respondent ratings of their own lives, which the report also correlates with various (quality of) life factors | closed_qa |
What is Douglas Stuart Moore's best remembered for? | Douglas Stuart Moore (August 10, 1893 – July 25, 1969) was an American composer, songwriter, organist, pianist, conductor, educator, actor, and author. A composer who mainly wrote works with an American subject, his music is generally characterized by lyricism in a popular or conservative style which generally eschewed the more experimental progressive trends of musical modernism. Composer Virgil Thomson described Moore as a neoromantic composer who was influenced by American folk music. While several of his works enjoyed popularity during his lifetime, only his folk opera The Ballad of Baby Doe (1956) has remained well known into the 21st century. | The Ballad of Baby Doe (1956) as it has remained well known into the 21st century. | closed_qa |
What is the name of the family at the centre of the TV show Succession? | Succession is an American satirical black comedy-drama television series created by Jesse Armstrong. It premiered on June 3, 2018, on HBO. The series centers on the Roy family, the owners of Waystar RoyCo, a global media and entertainment conglomerate, who are fighting for control of the company amid uncertainty about the health of the family's patriarch, Logan Roy (Brian Cox). The series has been renewed for a fourth and final season, which premiered on March 26, 2023. | Succession centres on the Roy family, the owners of Waystar RoyCo | closed_qa |
Given a reference text bout the Tampa Convention Center, when did it open and how big is it? | The Tampa Convention Center is a mid-sized convention center located in downtown Tampa, Florida at the mouth of the Hillsborough River. It has both waterfront views of Tampa Bay and views of the city's skyline. Harbour Island is across the eponymous bridge on the other side of the Garrison Channel. The center is connected to the neighboring Channelside District and Ybor City via the TECO Line Streetcar, which has a station across the street. The center opened in 1990 and encompasses 600,000 square feet (56,000 m2) in total. It has a 200,000 square feet (19,000 m2) exhibit hall, a ballroom capable of accommodating over 2,000 guests, and 36 meeting rooms that can be adjusted to various sizes. The facility hosts over 300 events per year. | The Tampa Convention Center opened in 1990 and is about 600,000 square feet. | closed_qa |
Given this reference text about the consumption of peanut butter, when is national peanut butter day? | The United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter, and one of the largest consumers of peanut butter annually per capita. January 24 is National Peanut Butter Day in the United States. In March 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, retail sales of peanut butter in the United States increased by 75% over the level in March 2019.
According to Jon Krampner's 2013 book on peanut butter, per capita consumption of peanut butter in Canada and the Netherlands – the largest consumer per capita in Europe – exceed that in the United States.
In Israel, the peanut-butter-flavored puffcorn snack Bamba accounts for 25% of the snack market; its consumption by infants has been linked to a low incidence of peanut allergies among Israelis. | National Peanut Butter Day takes place on January 24th in the United States. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about material, what is lithophane? | A lithophane is a thin plaque of translucent material, normally porcelain, which has been moulded to varying thickness, such that when lit from behind the different thicknesses show as different shades, forming an image. Only when lit from behind does the image display properly. They were invented in the 19th century and became very popular, typically for lampshades, nightlights, or to be hung on windows. They could also be given stands, to be placed in front of a light source. The longest side of a lithophane is typically between 6 and 10 inches. | A lithophane is a thin plaque of translucent material, normally porcelain, which has been moulded to varying thickness, such that when lit from behind the different thicknesses show as different shades, forming an image. | closed_qa |
What is Oxygen Not Included? | Oxygen Not Included is a survival simulation video game developed and published by Klei Entertainment. After being released on Steam's early access since February 2017, the game was officially released on July 30, 2019.
Oxygen Not Included is a simulation survival game. At the start of a new game, three colonists (referred to as duplicants) find themselves in an asteroid with isolated pockets of breathable atmosphere, with no memory of how they got there. The player is tasked with managing and taking care of these duplicants as they try to survive and create a sustainable makeshift space colony. The player must monitor the duplicants' hunger, waste, and oxygen levels to keep them alive. Each game's world is procedurally generated. The world is then subdivided into various regions or "biomes" that contain different and often biome specific materials and critters. While initial areas have a breathable atmosphere, subsequent areas are in a vacuum or lack oxygen, requiring proper preparation by the duplicants before they explore these areas. The world also contains several hazards such as diseases and extreme temperatures. The game simulates the diffusion of gases and equalization of atmospheres when a new natural chamber is opened, which can cause oxygen levels to drop in existing chambers, as well as the draining of liquids by gravity.
To help establish the colony, the player directs the duplicants to perform certain tasks, such as mining for resources, growing food, crafting equipment, researching new technologies, and maintaining their own health through nourishment, rest, and hygiene. The player does not control the duplicants directly, and instead provides prioritized instructions, from which the duplicants will then follow to the best of their abilities. For example, the player can order a conduit of wire to be built; which will have the duplicants collect the materials to make the wire, clear away any materials around the conduit's path, and then construct the wire. If the duplicants cannot access a source of copper for the wire, the task will remain uncompleted as the duplicants go to complete other tasks they can do. Duplicants have stats that determine how effective they are at certain tasks, and will prioritize tasks that they are best at. These duplicants' skills can be improved over time and practice. | Oxygen Not Included is a space-colony simulation survival game produced and published by Klei Entertainment, the same studio that developed Don’t Starve. At the start of a new game, three colonists (referred to as duplicants) find themselves in an asteroid with isolated pockets of breathable atmosphere, with no memory of how they got there. The player is tasked with managing and taking care of these duplicants as they try to survive and create a sustainable makeshift space colony. The player must monitor the duplicants' hunger, waste, and oxygen levels to keep them alive. To help establish the colony, the player directs the duplicants to perform certain tasks, such as mining for resources, growing food, crafting equipment, researching new technologies, and maintaining their own health through nourishment, rest, and hygiene. | closed_qa |
What is the capital of Mongolia? | Mongolia (/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (listen)) is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of just 3.3 million, making it the world's most sparsely populated sovereign nation. Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea, and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to roughly half of the country's population. | Ulaanbaatar is the capital of Mongolia | closed_qa |
How many volumes of Wheel of Time are there? | The Wheel of Time is a series of high fantasy novels by American author Robert Jordan, with Brandon Sanderson as a co-author for the final three novels. Originally planned as a six-book series at its debut in 1990, The Wheel of Time came to span 14 volumes, in addition to a prequel novel and two companion books. Jordan died in 2007 while working on what was planned to be the final volume in the series. He prepared extensive notes which enabled fellow fantasy author Brandon Sanderson to complete the final book, which grew into three volumes: The Gathering Storm (2009), Towers of Midnight (2010), and A Memory of Light (2013). | Originally planned as a six-book series at its debut in 1990, The Wheel of Time came to span 14 volumes | closed_qa |
Where can you find Lygodactylus gutturalis? | Lygodactylus gutturalis, also known as the Uganda dwarf gecko or chevron-throated dwarf gecko, is a species of gecko. It is widely distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa from near the Equator northward. Subspecies Lygodactylus gutturalis dysmicus is endemic to Cameroon, and subspecies Lygodactylus gutturalis paurospilus to Tanzania. | Lygodactylus gutturalis is a species of gecko commonly found in Sub-Saharan Africa from near the Equator northward. | closed_qa |
Given this paragraph about planting and harvesting for peanut butter, when are peanuts typically harvested? | Due to weather conditions, peanuts are usually planted in spring. The peanut comes from a yellow flower that bends over and penetrates the soil after blooming and wilting, and the peanut starts to grow in the soil. Peanuts are harvested from late August to October, while the weather is clear. This weather allows for dry soil so that when picked, the soil does not stick to the stems and pods. The peanuts are then removed from vines and transported to a peanut shelling machine for mechanical drying. After cropping, the peanuts are delivered to warehouses for cleaning, where they are stored unshelled in silos. | Peanuts are typically harvested from late August to October | closed_qa |
Given the paragraph around Star Trek starships, which is the fastest. | The warp drive of the Prometheus-class made the ships of this class faster than any other starship in the fleet at the time in the mid 2370s. The warp drive was capable of maintaining speeds exceeding warp 9.9. (VOY: "Message in a Bottle") | The fastest starship in the Star Trek universe is the USS Prometheus | closed_qa |
Is Maison Ikkoku a manga series | Maison Ikkoku is a manga series written and illustrated by Rumiko Takahashi. It was serialized in Shogakukan's Big Comic Spirits from November 15, 1980 to April 20, 1987. It has been adapted into an anime series and a live action film and two episode TV drama. The plot follows Yusaku Godai, a rōnin who resides in an old apartment complex named Maison Ikkoku as he studies for the university entrance exam. Yusaku's life progression and interactions progress episodically and focuses on his growing relationship with the apartment manager, Kyoko Otonashi. | Maison Ikkoku is a manga series written and illustrated by Rumiko Takahashi. It was serialized in Shogakukan's Big Comic Spirits from November 15, 1980 to April 20, 1987. It has been adapted into an anime series and a live action film and two episode TV drama. | closed_qa |
Who was the first to record the Needles and Pins song? | "Needles and Pins" is a rock song credited to American writers Jack Nitzsche and Sonny Bono. Jackie DeShannon recorded it in 1963 and other versions followed. The most successful ones were by the Searchers, whose version reached No. 1 on the UK singles chart in 1964, and Smokie, who had a worldwide hit in 1977. Others who recorded the song include the Ramones, Gene Clark, and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers with Stevie Nicks.
Jackie DeShannon version (1963)
In his autobiography, Bono states that he sang along with Nitzsche's guitar-playing, thus creating both the tune and the lyrics, being guided by the chord progressions. However, Jackie DeShannon claims that the song was written at the piano, and that she was a full participant in the song's creation, along with Nitzsche and Bono, although she did not get formal credit.
DeShannon was the first to record the song; in the US it peaked at number 84 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in May 1963. Though it was only a minor US hit, DeShannon's recording of the song topped the charts in Canada, hitting number one on the CHUM Chart in July 1963 | The first artist to record Needles and Pins song was DeShannon. | closed_qa |
What sacrifices did Ons's parents make to help her tennis career? | Ons Jabeur was born to Samira and Ridha Jabeur in Ksar Hellal, a small town in Tunisia. She grew up in the larger nearby coastal town of Sousse. Jabeur has two older brothers, Hatem and Marwen, and an older sister, Yasmine. Her mother played tennis recreationally and introduced her to the sport at the age of three. Jabeur trained under coach Nabil Mlika for ten years from ages four to thirteen, originally starting to work with him at a tennis promotion centre at her school. When she was ten years old, her club did not have their own tennis courts and she could only train on courts at nearby hotels. At twelve years old, Jabeur moved to the capital city of Tunis to train at the Lycée Sportif El Menzah, a national sport high school for the country's up-and-coming athletes, where she stayed for several years.
She also later trained in Belgium and France starting at the age of 16. Jabeur credits her parents for the sacrifices they made when she was growing up, saying, "My parents sacrificed a lot of things – my mom used to drive me everywhere around Tunisia to go play the tournaments, and she encouraged me to go to a special school to study. That was a big sacrifice to see her little girl going for a dream that, honestly, wasn't 100% guaranteed. She believed in me and gave me the confidence to be there." | Ons's mother used to drive Ons all around Tunisia to play tennis tournaments and encouraged Ons to go to a special school to study. | closed_qa |
Is ABAKO no longer an active political party? | The Alliance of Bakongo (French: Alliance des Bakongo, or ABAKO) was a Congolese political party, founded by Edmond Nzeza Nlandu, but headed by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, which emerged in the late 1950s as vocal opponent of Belgian colonial rule in what today is the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Additionally, the organization served as the major ethno-religious organization for the Kongo people (also known as Bakongo) and became closely intertwined with the Kimbanguist Church which was extremely popular in the lower Congo. | Correct, The Alliance of Bakongo, or ABAKO, is no longer a political party. | closed_qa |
How old is Tamil language? | Tamil is one of the longest-surviving classical languages of India. A. K. Ramanujan described it as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past". The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as "one of the great classical traditions and literatures of the world". Recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years. The earliest period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from c. 300 BC until AD 300. It has the oldest extant literature among Dravidian languages. The earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and 'hero stones' date from around the 3rd century BC. About 60,000 of the approximately 100,000 inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India in India are in Tamil Nadu. Of them, most are in Tamil, with only about 5 percent in other languages. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka and on trade goods in Thailand and Egypt. The two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. | Tamil language is one of the oldest and longest surviving classical language and is existing from 300 BC. Tamil as a literature has been documented for over 2000 years. Earliest epigraphic records found on rocks date back to 3rd century BC. It is also the official language of Singapore and Sri lanka apart from Tamil Nadu state in India. | closed_qa |
what's the tallest mountain in the world | Mount Everest is Earth's highest mountain above sea level, located in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas. The China–Nepal border runs across its summit point. Its elevation of 8,848.86 m was most recently established in 2020 by the Chinese and Nepali authorities | Mount Everest | closed_qa |
Tell me about the play Die Schutzbefohlenen | Die Schutzbefohlenen (translated as "Charges (The Supplicants)"[note 1]), is a play by Elfriede Jelinek written in 2013. She termed it a Sprachkunstwerk, a language artwork. It deals critically with the politics at the time concerning refugees. The play was first read in Hamburg on 21 September 2013. The first scenic production was in Mannheim on 23 May 2014. The first production in Austria was staged at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 28 March 2015, which was recognised internationally. Later that year, Jelinek expanded the text to reflect the changed political situation. | Die Schutzbefohlenen, translated as the supplicants is a play by Elfriede Jelinek written in 2013. She termed it a Sprachkunstwerk, a language artwork. It deals critically with the politics at the time concerning refugees. The play was first read in Hamburg on 21 September 2013. The first scenic production was in Mannheim on 23 May 2014.
The first production in Austria was staged at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 28 March 2015, which was recognised internationally. Later that year, Jelinek expanded the text to reflect the changed political situation. | closed_qa |
What band sings the song "My Own Worst Enemy"? | a song by the American rock band Lit. It was commercially released in June 1999 as the lead single from Lit's second album, A Place in the Sun, which was also released that year. The song was only moderately successful at first, reaching number 17 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart on February 27, 1999. It later achieved mainstream success, peaking at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number one on the Modern Rock Tracks (also known as Alternative Songs) chart. | Lit | closed_qa |
Given these paragraphs about Large language models, what is an LLM? | A large language model (LLM) is a language model consisting of a neural network with many parameters (typically billions of weights or more), trained on large quantities of unlabelled text using self-supervised learning. LLMs emerged around 2018 and perform well at a wide variety of tasks. This has shifted the focus of natural language processing research away from the previous paradigm of training specialized supervised models for specific tasks.
Properties
Though the term large language model has no formal definition, it often refers to deep learning models having a parameter count on the order of billions or more. LLMs are general purpose models which excel at a wide range of tasks, as opposed to being trained for one specific task (such as sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or mathematical reasoning). The skill with which they accomplish tasks, and the range of tasks at which they are capable, seems to be a function of the amount of resources (data, parameter-size, computing power) devoted to them, in a way that is not dependent on additional breakthroughs in design.
Though trained on simple tasks along the lines of predicting the next word in a sentence, neural language models with sufficient training and parameter counts are found to capture much of the syntax and semantics of human language. In addition, large language models demonstrate considerable general knowledge about the world, and are able to "memorize" a great quantity of facts during training.
Hallucinations
Main article: Hallucination (artificial intelligence)
In artificial intelligence in general, and in large language models in particular, a "hallucination" is a confident response that does not seem to be justified by the model's training data.
Emergent abilities
On a number of natural language benchmarks involving tasks such as question answering, models perform no better than random chance until they reach a certain scale (in this case, measured by training computation), at which point their performance sharply increases. These are examples of emergent abilities.
Unpredictable abilities that have been observed in large language models but that were not present in simpler models (and that were not explicitly designed into the model) are usually called "emergent abilities". Researchers note that such abilities "cannot be predicted simply by extrapolating the performance of smaller models". These abilities are discovered rather than programmed-in or designed, in some cases only after the LLM has been publicly deployed. Hundreds of emergent abilities have been described. Examples include multi-step arithmetic, taking college-level exams, identifying the intended meaning of a word, chain-of-thought prompting, decoding the International Phonetic Alphabet, unscrambling a word’s letters, identifying offensive content in paragraphs of Hinglish (a combination of Hindi and English), and generating a similar English equivalent of Kiswahili proverbs.
Architecture and training
Large language models have most commonly used the transformer architecture, which, since 2018, has become the standard deep learning technique for sequential data (previously, recurrent architectures such as the LSTM were most common). LLMs are trained in an unsupervised manner on unannotated text. A left-to-right transformer is trained to maximize the probability assigned to the next word in the training data, given the previous context. Alternatively, an LLM may use a bidirectional transformer (as in the example of BERT), which assigns a probability distribution over words given access to both preceding and following context. In addition to the task of predicting the next word or "filling in the blanks", LLMs may be trained on auxiliary tasks which test their understanding of the data distribution such as Next Sentence Prediction (NSP), in which pairs of sentences are presented and the model must predict whether they appear side-by-side in the training corpus.
The earliest LLMs were trained on corpora having on the order of billions of words. The first model in OpenAI's GPT series was trained in 2018 on BookCorpus, consisting of 985 million words. In the same year, BERT was trained on a combination of BookCorpus and English Wikipedia, totalling 3.3 billion words. In the years since then, training corpora for LLMs have increased by orders of magnitude, reaching up to hundreds of billions or trillions of tokens.
LLMs are computationally expensive to train. A 2020 study estimated the cost of training a 1.5 billion parameter model (1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than the state of the art at the time) at $1.6 million.
A 2020 analysis found that neural language models' capability (as measured by training loss) increased smoothly in a power law relationship with number of parameters, quantity of training data, and computation used for training. These relationships were tested over a wide range of values (up to seven orders of magnitude) and no attenuation of the relationship was observed at the highest end of the range (including for network sizes up to trillions of parameters).
Application to downstream tasks
Between 2018 and 2020, the standard method for harnessing an LLM for a specific natural language processing (NLP) task was to fine tune the model with additional task-specific training. It has subsequently been found that more powerful LLMs such as GPT-3 can solve tasks without additional training via "prompting" techniques, in which the problem to be solved is presented to the model as a text prompt, possibly with some textual examples of similar problems and their solutions.
Fine-tuning
Main article: Fine-tuning (machine learning)
Fine-tuning is the practice of modifying an existing pretrained language model by training it (in a supervised fashion) on a specific task (e.g. sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, or part-of-speech tagging). It is a form of transfer learning. It generally involves the introduction of a new set of weights connecting the final layer of the language model to the output of the downstream task. The original weights of the language model may be "frozen", such that only the new layer of weights connecting them to the output are learned during training. Alternatively, the original weights may receive small updates (possibly with earlier layers frozen).
Prompting
See also: Prompt engineering and Few-shot learning (natural language processing)
In the prompting paradigm, popularized by GPT-3, the problem to be solved is formulated via a text prompt, which the model must solve by providing a completion (via inference). In "few-shot prompting", the prompt includes a small number of examples of similar (problem, solution) pairs. For example, a sentiment analysis task of labelling the sentiment of a movie review could be prompted as follows:
Review: This movie stinks.
Sentiment: negative
Review: This movie is fantastic!
Sentiment:
If the model outputs "positive", then it has correctly solved the task. In zero-shot prompting, no solve examples are provided. An example of a zero-shot prompt for the same sentiment analysis task would be "The sentiment associated with the movie review 'This movie is fantastic!' is".
Few-shot performance of LLMs has been shown to achieve competitive results on NLP tasks, sometimes surpassing prior state-of-the-art fine-tuning approaches. Examples of such NLP tasks are translation, question answering, cloze tasks, unscrambling words, and using a novel word in a sentence. The creation and optimisation of such prompts is called prompt engineering.
Instruction tuning
Instruction tuning is a form of fine-tuning designed to facilitate more natural and accurate zero-shot prompting interactions. Given a text input, a pretrained language model will generate a completion which matches the distribution of text on which it was trained. A naive language model given the prompt "Write an essay about the main themes of Hamlet." might provide a completion such as "A late penalty of 10% per day will be applied to submissions received after March 17." In instruction tuning, the language model is trained on many examples of tasks formulated as natural language instructions, along with appropriate responses. Various techniques for instruction tuning have been applied in practice. OpenAI's InstructGPT protocol involves supervised fine-tuning on a dataset of human-generated (prompt, response) pairs, followed by reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF), in which a reward function was learned based on a dataset of human preferences. Another technique, "self-instruct", fine-tunes the language model on a training set of examples which are themselves generated by an LLM (bootstrapped from a small initial set of human-generated examples).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model | A large language model (LLM) is a language model consisting of a neural network with many parameters (typically billions of weights or more), trained on large quantities of unlabelled text using self-supervised learning. | closed_qa |