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[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_Summer_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_Winter_Olympics" ]

[ "List of Olympic Games host cities The following is a list of host cities of theOlympic Games, both summer and winter, since themodern Olympicsbegan in 1896. Since then, summer and winter games have usually celebrated a four-year period known as an Olympiad. From the inaugural Winter Games in 1924 until 1992, winter and summer Games were held in the same year. Since 1994, summer and winter Games have been held in staggered even years. There have been 30 Until 2024,theSummer Olympic Gamesheld in 23 cities, and 24Winter Olympic Gamesheld in 21 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the games were scheduled to take place but were later cancelled due to war:Berlin(summer) in1916;Sapporo–Garmisch-Partenkirchen(winter) andTokyo–Helsinki(summer) in 1940; andCortina d'Ampezzo(winter) andLondon(summer) in 1944. The1906 Intercalated Olympicswere officially sanctioned and held inAthens. However, in 1949, theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games.The2020 Summer Olympicsin Tokyo were postponed for the first time in the Olympics history to summer 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, with the2022 Winter Olympicsbeing held roughly six months later inBeijingwhich also hosted the2008 Summer Olympics. Five cities and regions have been chosen by theIOCto host upcoming Olympic Games:For the first time on history,the2026 Winter Olympicswill be officialy shared betweenMilanand Cortina d'Ampezzo,Los Angelesfor the2028 Summer Olympics,a region will host the2030 Winter Olympics,as they were shared by venues in 7 cities in theFrench Alpsfor the2030 Winter Olympics,Brisbanewill host the2032 Summer Olympics, andSalt Lake Citywill host the2034 Winter Olympics. In 2022, Beijing became the first city to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. By 2034, eleven cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896and2004 Summer Olympics),Paris(1900,1924and2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908,1948and2012 Summer Olympics),St. Moritz(1928and1948 Winter Olympics),Lake Placid(1932and1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932,1984and2028 Summer Olympics), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956and2026 Winter Olympics),Innsbruck(1964and1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964and2020 Summer Olympics), Beijing (2008 Summer Olympicsand2022 Winter Olympics) and Salt Lake City (2002and2034 Winter Olympics).Stockholmhosted the1912 Summer Olympicsand the equestrian portion of the1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris is the second city to do so with the 2024 edition and will be followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. As of 2024,a large majority of the Games (41 out of 54) have been hosted in western Europe, the United States, Canada, or Australia. Eight Games have been hosted in Asia (all in East Asia), three have been hosted in eastern Europe, and two have been hosted in Latin America. Africa has yet to host an Olympic Games. Other major geographic regions and subcontinents that have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, Central Asia, theIndian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Central America,Antarctica, and theCaribbean. Between the first Winter Olympics in 1924 and the last ones to be held in the same year as the Summer Olympics in 1992, the Summer and Winter Games took place in the same country three times. Usually,the Games' host cities are selected by the IOC members with six to seven years in advance. Until the 2022 Winter Olympics,the selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may apply to become a host city. After ten months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant cities will become official candidates based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In the second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of theIOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.There was a change in host selection process in the late 2010s to address several problems – including the costs of hosting and the disappointment felt by unsuccessful applicants. CalledOlympic Agenda 2020,this new process is focused on reducing the cost of Games, minimising wasteful single-use construction projects and increasing the benefits felt by host nations. Bids are now easier and less expensive to prepare. The 2032 Summer Games host city, was the first to be fully selected under this process but another elements and rules were introduced later. Olympic Games host cities Host cities for Summer and Winter Olympic Games Key Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games Number of Olympic Games by country Number of Olympic Games by region Africa has never hosted any Olympics. Egypt, South Africa, and Morocco have been acknowledged as future possibilities, although it is noted that increased dialogue and developments are needed. In addition, the Middle East, though not a continent (with most of the region situated in Asia), has never hosted an Olympic Games. Several nations have been in talks as potential hosts, but the only city to enter a formal bid wasDoha(see alsoList of bids for the Summer Olympics). See also Notes References External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1988_Summer_Olympics (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92c3dcf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1988_Winter_Olympics (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92e55960>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]

[ "List of Olympic Games host cities The following is a list of host cities of theOlympic Games, both summer and winter, since themodern Olympicsbegan in 1896. Since then, summer and winter games have usually celebrated a four-year period known as an Olympiad. From the inaugural Winter Games in 1924 until 1992, winter and summer Games were held in the same year. Since 1994, summer and winter Games have been held in staggered even years. There have been 30 Until 2024,theSummer Olympic Gamesheld in 23 cities, and 24Winter Olympic Gamesheld in 21 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the games were scheduled to take place but were later cancelled due to war:Berlin(summer) in1916;Sapporo–Garmisch-Partenkirchen(winter) andTokyo–Helsinki(summer) in 1940; andCortina d'Ampezzo(winter) andLondon(summer) in 1944. The1906 Intercalated Olympicswere officially sanctioned and held inAthens. However, in 1949, theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games.The2020 Summer", "Summer Olympicsin Tokyo were postponed for the first time in the Olympics history to summer 2021 due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, with the2022 Winter Olympicsbeing held roughly six months later inBeijingwhich also hosted the2008 Summer Olympics. Five cities and regions have been chosen by theIOCto host upcoming Olympic Games:For the first time on history,the2026 Winter Olympicswill be officialy shared betweenMilanand Cortina d'Ampezzo,Los Angelesfor the2028 Summer Olympics,a region will host the2030 Winter Olympics,as they were shared by venues in 7 cities in theFrench Alpsfor the2030 Winter Olympics,Brisbanewill host the2032 Summer Olympics, andSalt Lake Citywill host the2034 Winter Olympics. In 2022, Beijing became the first city to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. By 2034, eleven cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896and2004 Summer Olympics),Paris(1900,1924and2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908,1948and2012 Summer Olympics),St. Moritz(1928and1948 Winter", "Winter Olympics),Lake Placid(1932and1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932,1984and2028 Summer Olympics), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956and2026 Winter Olympics),Innsbruck(1964and1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964and2020 Summer Olympics), Beijing (2008 Summer Olympicsand2022 Winter Olympics) and Salt Lake City (2002and2034 Winter Olympics).Stockholmhosted the1912 Summer Olympicsand the equestrian portion of the1956 Summer Olympics. London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris is the second city to do so with the 2024 edition and will be followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. As of 2024,a large majority of the Games (41 out of 54) have been hosted in western Europe, the United States, Canada, or Australia. Eight Games have been hosted in Asia (all in East Asia), three have been hosted in eastern Europe, and two have been hosted in Latin America. Africa has yet to host an Olympic Games. Other major geographic regions and subcontinents that have never hosted the", "never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, Central Asia, theIndian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Central America,Antarctica, and theCaribbean. Between the first Winter Olympics in 1924 and the last ones to be held in the same year as the Summer Olympics in 1992, the Summer and Winter Games took place in the same country three times. Usually,the Games' host cities are selected by the IOC members with six to seven years in advance. Until the 2022 Winter Olympics,the selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may apply to become a host city. After ten months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant cities will become official candidates based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In the second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of theIOC session, a general", "session, a general meeting of IOC members.There was a change in host selection process in the late 2010s to address several problems – including the costs of hosting and the disappointment felt by unsuccessful applicants. CalledOlympic Agenda 2020,this new process is focused on reducing the cost of Games, minimising wasteful single-use construction projects and increasing the benefits felt by host nations. Bids are now easier and less expensive to prepare. The 2032 Summer Games host city, was the first to be fully selected under this process but another elements and rules were introduced later. Olympic Games host cities Host cities for Summer and Winter Olympic Games Key Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games Number of Olympic Games by country Number of Olympic Games by region Africa has never hosted any Olympics. Egypt, South Africa, and Morocco have been acknowledged as future possibilities, although it is noted that increased dialogue and developments are needed. In addition, the Middle", "the Middle East, though not a continent (with most of the region situated in Asia), has never hosted an Olympic Games. Several nations have been in talks as potential hosts, but the only city to enter a formal bid wasDoha(see alsoList of bids for the Summer Olympics). See also Notes References External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1988_Summer_Olympics (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92c3dcf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1988_Winter_Olympics (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92e55960>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadja_(film", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Springs_Walk_of_Stars", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Fonda" ]

[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadja_(film", "Palm Springs Walk of Stars ThePalm Springs Walk of Starsis awalk of famein downtownPalm Springs, California, where \"Golden Palm Stars\", honoring various people who have lived in the greater Palm Springs area, are embedded in the sidewalk pavement. The walk includes portions of Palm Canyon Drive, Tahquitz Canyon Way, La Plaza Court andMuseum Drive. Among those honored arepresidents of the United States,showbusinesspersonalities, literary figures (authors, playwrights, screenwriters), pioneers and civic leaders (early settlers, tribal leaders, civic personalities), humanitarians andMedal of Honorrecipients. The Palm Springs Walk of Stars was established in 1992 by Gerhard Frenzel and Barbara Foster-Henderson. The first induction ceremony was held on February 26, 1992 and included Walk of Fame chairmanJohnny Grant. The first five Golden Palm Stars were dedicated toEarle C. Strebe,William Powell,Ruby Keeler,Charles FarrellandRalph Bellamy.: 13In May 2017, the Walk of Stars and the city of Palm Springs announced a temporary suspension on installing new stars while they reviewed the selection criteria.Additions resumed later that year. Honorees Medal of Honor recipients Five Medal of Honor recipients from theCoachella Valleywere honored during the 1999Veterans Dayholiday. Former presidents These formerpresidents of the United Stateslived in the Palm Springs area after their retirement. Showbusiness Palm Springs has been famous as a winter resort and second-home community for personalities in showbusiness. These honorees include actors, performers, directors, producers and cinematographers of film, radio, stage and television. Pioneers, civic leaders and other contributors Early pioneers and other contributors to the community are also honored. Literary These honorees include authors, playwrights, screenwriters, singers, composers and musicians. See also Notes References Further reading External links 33°49′23″N116°32′49″W / 33.82306°N 116.54694°W /33.82306; -116.54694", "Peter Fonda Peter Henry Fonda(February 23, 1940 – August 16, 2019) was an American actor, film director, and screenwriter. He was a two-timeAcademy Awardnominee, both for acting and screenwriting, and a two-timeGolden Globe Awardwinner for his acting. He was a member of the Fonda acting family, as the son of actorHenry Fonda, the brother of actress and activistJane Fonda, and the father of actressBridget Fonda. Fonda began his career on stage, winning aNew York Drama Critics' Circle Awardand theTheatre World Awardfor his performance in the playBlood, Sweat and Stanley Poole. He became a prominent figure in thecounterculture of the 1960s,starring in and co-writing the filmEasy Rider(1969), which earned him an Oscar nomination forBest Original Screenplay. He then made his directorial debut with theRevisionist WesternfilmThe Hired Hand(1971), in which he also starred. During the following decade, he established himself as anaction star, appearing in a variety of productions includingDirty Mary, Crazy Larry(1974) andFutureworld(1976). Fonda achieved a major critical comeback with his starring role in the drama filmUlee's Gold(1997), receiving an Oscar nomination for Best Actor and aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama. He also won theGolden Globe for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television FilmforThe Passion of Ayn Rand(1999). In 2003, Fonda received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameat 7018 Hollywood Blvd, for his contributions to the film industry. Early life Fonda was born bycaesarean sectionon February 23, 1940 atLeRoy Hospitalin New York City, the only son of actorHenry Fondaand socialiteFrances Ford Seymour; his older sister is actressJane Fonda.He and Jane had a half-sister, Frances de Villers Brokaw (1931–2008), from their mother's first marriage. Their mother committed suicide in a mental hospital when Peter, her youngest, was ten. He did not discover the circumstances or location of her death until he was fifteen. One month prior to his eleventh birthday, he accidentally shot himself in the abdomen and nearly died. He went to the hill station ofNainital, Indiaand stayed for a few months for recovery.Years later, while takingLSDwithJohn LennonandGeorge Harrison, he referred to this incident, saying, \"I know what it's like to be dead.\" This inspiredThe Beatles' song \"She Said She Said\". Peter attended the Fay School inSouthborough, Massachusetts, and was a member of the Class of 1954. He then matriculated inWestminster School, aConnecticutboarding school inSimsbury, where he graduated in 1958. Once he graduated, Fonda studied acting inOmaha, Nebraska, his father's hometown. While attending theUniversity of Nebraska-Omaha, Fonda joined theOmaha Community Playhouse. Career Early years and film work Upon his return to New York, Fonda joined the Cecilwood Theatre in 1960.Afterwards, he found work onBroadwayand gained notice inBlood, Sweat and Stanley Poole, written byJamesandWilliam Goldman, which ran for 84 performances in 1961. Fonda began guest starring on television shows likeNaked City,The New Breed,Wagon Train, andThe Defenders. Fonda's first film came when producerRoss Hunterwas looking for a new male actor to romanceSandra DeeinTammy and the Doctor(1963). He was cast in the role, in what was a minor hit.He followed this with a support part inThe Victors(1963), a bleak look at American soldiers in World War II, directed byCarl Foreman.Fonda's performance won him a Golden Globe Award for most promising newcomer. Fonda continued to work in television, guest starring inChanning,Arrest and Trial,The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, and12 O'Clock High. He also tested for the role ofJohn F. KennedyinPT-109.Fonda impressedRobert Rossenwho cast him in what would be Rossen's last movie,Lilith(1964), alongsideWarren Beatty,Jean SebergandGene Hackman. Fonda's performance was well reviewed. Shortly before dying, Rossen signed him to a seven-film contract which was to start with an adaptation ofBang the Drum Slowly.Fonda graduated to a starring role inThe Young Lovers(1964), about out-of-wedlock pregnancy, the sole directorial effort ofSamuel Goldwyn Jr. Counterculture figure and Roger Corman By the mid-1960s, Fonda was not a conventional \"leading man\" in Hollywood. AsPlayboymagazine reported, Fonda had established a \"solid reputation as a dropout\". He had become outwardly nonconformist and grew his hair long and took LSD regularly, alienating the \"establishment\" film industry. Desirable acting work became scarce.Through his friendships with members of the bandThe Byrds, Fonda visitedThe Beatlesin their rented house inBenedict Canyonin Los Angeles in August 1965. WhileJohn Lennon,Ringo Starr,George Harrison, and Fonda were under the influence ofLSD, Lennon heard Fonda say, \"I know what it's like to be dead.\" Lennon used the phrase in the lyrics for his song, \"She Said She Said\", which was included on their 1966 album,Revolver. In August 1966 Fonda was charged with possession of marijuana,and was later acquitted in December of that year.In November 1966 Fonda was arrested in theSunset Strip riot, which the police ended forcefully. The bandBuffalo Springfieldprotested the department's handling of the incident in their song \"For What It's Worth\". In 1967, Fonda recorded \"November Night\", a45-rpm singlewritten byGram Parsonsfor the Chisa label, backed with \"Catch the Wind\" byDonovan, produced byHugh Masekela. Fonda's first counterculture-oriented film role was as a biker inRoger Corman'sB movieThe Wild Angels(1966). Fonda originally was to supportGeorge Chakiris, but graduated to the lead when Chakiris revealed he could not ride a motorcycle. In the film, Fonda delivered a \"eulogy\" at a fallen Angel's funeral service. The movie was a big hit at the box office, screened at theVenice Film Festival, launched the biker movie genre, and established Peter Fonda as a movie name. Fonda made a television pilot,High Noon: The Clock Strikes Noon Again, filmed in December 1965. It was based on the filmHigh Noon(1952), starringGary Cooper, with Fonda in the Cooper role. However, it did not become a series. Fonda next played the male lead in Corman's filmThe Trip(1967), a take on the experience and \"consequences\" of consuming LSD, which was written byJack Nicholson. His co-stars includedSusan Strasberg,Bruce Dern, andDennis Hopper. The movie was a hit.Fonda then traveled to France to appear in theportmanteauhorror movieSpirits of the Dead(1968). His segment co-starred his sister Jane and was directed by her then-husbandRoger Vadim. For American television, he appeared in a movie,Certain Honorable Men(1968), alongsideVan Heflin, written byRod Serling. Easy Rider Fonda produced, co-wrote and starred inEasy Rider(1969), directed byDennis Hopper.Easy Rideris about two long-haired bikers traveling through thesouthwesternand southern United States where they encounter intolerance and violence. Fonda played \"Wyatt\",a charismatic, laconic man whose motorcycle jacket bore a largeAmerican flagacross the back.Dennis Hopperplayed the garrulous \"Billy\".Jack Nicholsonplayed George Hanson, an alcoholiccivil rightslawyer who rides along with them. Fonda co-wrote the screenplay withTerry Southernand Hopper. Fonda tried to secure financing from Roger Corman andAmerican International Pictures(AIP), with whom he had madeThe Wild AngelsandThe Trip, but they were reluctant to finance a film directed by Hopper. They succeeded in getting money fromColumbia Pictures. Hopper filmed the cross-country road trip depicted almost entirely on location. Fonda had secured funding of around $360,000, largely based on the fact he knew that it was the budgetRoger Cormanneeded to makeThe Wild Angels.The guitarist and composerRobbie Robertson, ofThe Band, was so moved by an advance screening that he approached Fonda and tried to convince him to let him write a complete score, even though the film was nearly due for wide release. Fonda declined the offer, instead usingSteppenwolf's \"Born to Be Wild\",Bob Dylan's \"It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)\" sung byThe Byrds'Roger McGuinn, and Robertson's own composition \"The Weight\", performed byThe Band, among many other tracks. The film was released to international success. Jack Nicholson was nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Oscar. Fonda, Hopper and Southern were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The film grossed over $40 million. Director and action star After the success ofEasy Rider, both Hopper and Fonda were sought for film projects. Hopper directed the filmThe Last Movie(1971), in which Fonda co-starred along with singerMichelle PhillipsofThe Mamas and the Papas.Fonda directed and starred in theWesternfilmThe Hired Hand(1971). He took the lead role in a cast that also featuredWarren Oates,Verna BloomandBeat GenerationpoetMichael McClure. The film received mixed reviews and failed commercially upon its initial release, but many years later, in 2001, a fully restored version was shown at various film festivals and was re-released by theSundance Channelon DVD that same year in two separate editions. Fonda later directed the science fiction filmIdaho Transfer(1973). He did not appear in the film, and the film received mixed reviews upon its limited release. Around the same time, he co-starred withLindsay WagnerinTwo People(also 1973) for directorRobert Wise, in which he portrayed aVietnam Wardeserter. Fonda starred alongsideSusan Georgeand longtime-friend (and frequent co-star)Adam Roarkein the filmDirty Mary, Crazy Larry(1974), a film about twoNASCARhopefuls who execute a supermarket heist to finance their jump into big-time auto racing. The film was a box-office hit that year. It led to Fonda's making a series of action movies:Open Season(1974), withWilliam Holden;Race with the Devil(1975), fleeing devil worshippers with Warren Oates (another hit);92 in the Shade(1975), again with Oates, for writer-directorThomas McGuane;Killer Force(1976) for directorVal Guest;Futureworld(1976), a sequel toWestworld(1973), financed by AIP;Fighting Mad(1976), a reuniting with Roger Corman, directed byJonathan Demme. Outlaw Blues(1977) was a drama, with Fonda playing a musician oppositeSusan Saint James. After some more action withHigh-Ballin'(1978), Fonda returned to directing, with the controversial dramaWanda Nevada(1979), wherein the 39-year-old Fonda starred as the \"love\" interest of the then 13-year-oldBrooke Shields. His father,Henry Fonda, made a brief appearance as well, and it is the only film in which they performed together. 1980s and 1990s Fonda was top billed inThe Hostage Tower(1980), a television movie based on a story byAlistair MacLean. Fonda appeared in the hit filmThe Cannonball Run(1981) as the \"chief biker\", a tongue-in-cheek nod to his earlier motorcycle films. He also played a charismatic cult leader inSplit Image(1982), a film that also starredJames Woods,Karen AllenandBrian Dennehy. Despite the strong cast and positive reviews, the film failed to find an audience. Fonda later appeared in a series of films in the 1980s of varying genres —Daijōbu, My Friend(1983), shot in Japan;Dance of the Dwarfs(1983);Peppermint Peace(1983), shot in Germany;Spasms(1983), a Canadian horror film withOliver Reed;A Reason to Live(1985), a TV movie;Certain Fury(1985), withTatum O'Neal;Mercenary Fighters(1988);Hawken's Breed(1988), a Western;Sound(1988);Gli indifferenti(1989) withLiv Ullmann; andThe Rose Garden(1989). In the early 1990s Fonda also contributed to the script ofEnemy(1990), in which he starred. He had the lead inFamily Express(1991) andSouth Beach(1993), but then drifted into supporting roles in many independent films:Deadfall(1993), directed byChristopher Coppola;Bodies, Rest & Motion(1993), starring his daughter Bridget;Molly & Gina(1994) withFrances FisherandNatasha Gregson;Love and a .45(1994) withRenée Zellweger;Nadja(1994), produced byDavid Lynch. He had a good supporting role inEscape from L.A.(1996) fromJohn Carpenterand was inDon't Look Back(1996). He also guest starred onIn the Heat of the Night. After years of films of varying success, Fonda received high-profile critical recognition and universal praise for his performance inUlee's Gold(1997). He portrayed a taciturn North Florida beekeeper and Vietnam veteran who tries to save his son and granddaughter from a life of drug abuse. For his performance, he was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Actor. He had the lead inPainted Hero(1997). In 1998, Fonda starred in the TV movieThe Tempest, based in part onWilliam Shakespeare'splay of the same name. It was directed by Jack Bender and starred Fonda,John Glover,Harold Perrineau, andKatherine Heigl. He playedFrank O'ConnorinThe Passion of Ayn Rand(1998), a performance for which he receiveda Golden Globe Awardin 2000,then appeared in the crime filmThe Limey(1999) as Terry Valentine, an aging rock music producer who accidentally kills his younger girlfriend. The film was directed bySteven Soderbergh. Fonda wrote an autobiography,Don't Tell Dad(1998). In the 1990s, Fonda appeared in an advertisement forAmerican Express. 2000s Fonda's work in the 2000s included parts inSouth of Heaven, West of Hell(2000),Second Skin(2000),Thomas and the Magic Railroad(2000)Wooly Boys(2001),The Laramie Project(2001),The Maldonado Miracle(2003),Capital City(2004),The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things(2004),A Thief of Time(2004),Back When We Were Grownups(2004),Supernova(2005), andEl cobrador: In God We Trust(2006). In 2002, Fonda was inducted into theAMAMotorcycle Hall of Fame. In 2004, he provided the voice of aginghippieweed grower \"The Truth\" inGrand Theft Auto: San Andreas, which was one of thebest-sellingvideo games of all time. In a 2007 interview, Fonda said that riding motorcycles helped him to focus, stating, I ride anMV Agusta. This is an Italian racing motorcycle. It forces focus. You have to be focused and in my life, in this business, focus is hard to find sometimes. So I need to force focus and that's great. The bike takes you on a free road. There's no fences on the roads I ride and I don't ride freeways. That's as much as I can tell you, because there are more lands waiting for this little Christian boy. That's not true. I'm an atheist, but what the heck. Fonda made a return to the big screen as thebounty hunterByron McElroy in3:10 to Yuma(2007), a remake of the1957 Western. He appeared withChristian BaleandRussell Crowe. The film received two Academy Award nominations and positive reviews from critics. He also appeared in the last scenes of the biker comedyWild Hogsas Damien Blade, founder of the biker gang Del Fuegos and father of Jack, played byRay Liotta. Fonda also portrayedMephistopheles, one of two main villains in the filmGhost Rider(also 2007). Although he wanted to play the character inthe sequel, he was replaced byCiarán Hinds. He appeared inJourney to the Center of the Earth(2008),Japan(2008), andThe Perfect Age of Rock 'n' Roll(2009) and as \"The Roman\", the main villain inThe Boondock Saints II: All Saints Day(also 2009), the sequel toThe Boondock Saints. Fonda also appeared on the television seriesCalifornication. Later career Fonda's later appearances includeAmerican Bandits: Frank and Jesse James(2010) forFred Olen Ray;The Trouble with Bliss(2011); episodes ofCSI: NY;Smitty(2012);Harodim(2012);As Cool as I Am(2013);Copperhead(2013);The Ultimate Life(2013);The Harvest(2013);HR(2014);House of Bodies(2014);Jesse James: Lawman(2015);The Runner(2015) withNicolas Cage;The Ballad of Lefty Brown(2017);The Most Hated Woman in America(2017);Borderland(2017);You Can't Say No(2018); andBoundaries(2018) withChristopher Plummer. He was an executive producer of the documentaryThe Big Fix(2012). His final portrayal was in theVietnam WarmovieThe Last Full Measure, whose directorTodd Robinson, has recounted that Peter Fonda was able to view that film in its entirety before his death, and got emotional upon viewing it. Honors In 2000, a Golden Palm Star on thePalm Springs, California,Walk of Starswas dedicated to him. Personal life Fonda was married three times, he married his first wife Susan Brewer in 1961; together they had two children,Bridgetand Justin.They divorced in 1974 after 13 years of marriage.Fonda married his second wife Portia Rebecca Crockett, in 1975.The marriage lasted for 36 years until they divorced in 2011.Fonda married his third wife Margaret DeVogelaere, in 2011.The marriage lasted for eight years until Fonda's death in 2019. Political views In 2011, Fonda andTim RobbinsproducedThe Big Fix, a documentary that examined the role ofBPin theDeepwater Horizon oil spilland its effects on theGulf of Mexico. At a press conference at theCannes Film Festival, Fonda stated that he had written to PresidentBarack Obamaabout the spill and attacked him as a \"fucking traitor\" for allowing \"foreign boots on our soil telling our military—in this case theCoast Guard—what they can and could not do, and telling us, the citizens of the United States, what we could or could not do.'\" In June 2018, Fonda went onTwitterto criticize PresidentDonald Trump's administration's enforcement of U.S. immigration policy byJeff Sessionsfor separating children from their parents at the Mexican border, writing that \"We should ripBarron Trumpfrom the arms of First LadyMelania Trumpand put him in a cage withpedophiles.\"He also suggested that Americans should seek out names ofU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcementagents in order to protest outside of their homes and the schools of their children.TheSecret Serviceopened an investigation based on a report from the Trump family.Huckabee's daughter, White House Press Secretary,Sarah Huckabee Sanders, was also the object of Fonda'stweets, in which he suggested that \"Maybe we should take her (Sanders') children away...\" In another later deleted tweet, Fonda targetedUnited States Department of Homeland SecuritySecretaryKirstjen Nielsenby calling her a \"vulgar\" name and calling for Nielsen to be \"put in a cage and poked at by passersby ...\" Fonda stated that he deleted his tweet regarding Barron Trump, saying that he \"immediately regretted it and sincerely apologize to the family for what I said and any hurt my words have caused.\"Backlash to Fonda's tweets resulted in a call for a boycott of his newest film,Boundaries, and other Sony projects.Sony Pictures releasedBoundariesas planned on June 22, 2018,but released a statement stating that Fonda's comments \"are abhorrent, reckless and dangerous, and we condemn them completely.\" Death Fonda died from respiratory failure caused bylung cancerat his home inLos Angeleson August 16, 2019, at the age of 79. Following Fonda's death, his older sisterJane Fondamade the following statement: \"I am very sad. He was my sweet-hearted baby younger brother, the talker of the family. I have had beautiful alone time with him these last days. He went out laughing.\" Awards and nominations References Further reading External links" ]

[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadja_(film", "Palm Springs Walk of Stars ThePalm Springs Walk of Starsis awalk of famein downtownPalm Springs, California, where \"Golden Palm Stars\", honoring various people who have lived in the greater Palm Springs area, are embedded in the sidewalk pavement. The walk includes portions of Palm Canyon Drive, Tahquitz Canyon Way, La Plaza Court andMuseum Drive. Among those honored arepresidents of the United States,showbusinesspersonalities, literary figures (authors, playwrights, screenwriters), pioneers and civic leaders (early settlers, tribal leaders, civic personalities), humanitarians andMedal of Honorrecipients. The Palm Springs Walk of Stars was established in 1992 by Gerhard Frenzel and Barbara Foster-Henderson. The first induction ceremony was held on February 26, 1992 and included Walk of Fame chairmanJohnny Grant. The first five Golden Palm Stars were dedicated toEarle C. Strebe,William Powell,Ruby Keeler,Charles FarrellandRalph Bellamy.: 13In May 2017, the Walk of Stars and the city of Palm Springs announced a", "Springs announced a temporary suspension on installing new stars while they reviewed the selection criteria.Additions resumed later that year. Honorees Medal of Honor recipients Five Medal of Honor recipients from theCoachella Valleywere honored during the 1999Veterans Dayholiday. Former presidents These formerpresidents of the United Stateslived in the Palm Springs area after their retirement. Showbusiness Palm Springs has been famous as a winter resort and second-home community for personalities in showbusiness. These honorees include actors, performers, directors, producers and cinematographers of film, radio, stage and television. Pioneers, civic leaders and other contributors Early pioneers and other contributors to the community are also honored. Literary These honorees include authors, playwrights, screenwriters, singers, composers and musicians. See also Notes References Further reading External links 33°49′23″N116°32′49″W / 33.82306°N 116.54694°W /33.82306; -116.54694", "Peter Fonda Peter Henry Fonda(February 23, 1940 – August 16, 2019) was an American actor, film director, and screenwriter. He was a two-timeAcademy Awardnominee, both for acting and screenwriting, and a two-timeGolden Globe Awardwinner for his acting. He was a member of the Fonda acting family, as the son of actorHenry Fonda, the brother of actress and activistJane Fonda, and the father of actressBridget Fonda. Fonda began his career on stage, winning aNew York Drama Critics' Circle Awardand theTheatre World Awardfor his performance in the playBlood, Sweat and Stanley Poole. He became a prominent figure in thecounterculture of the 1960s,starring in and co-writing the filmEasy Rider(1969), which earned him an Oscar nomination forBest Original Screenplay. He then made his directorial debut with theRevisionist WesternfilmThe Hired Hand(1971), in which he also starred. During the following decade, he established himself as anaction star, appearing in a variety of productions includingDirty Mary, Crazy Larry(1974)", "Crazy Larry(1974) andFutureworld(1976). Fonda achieved a major critical comeback with his starring role in the drama filmUlee's Gold(1997), receiving an Oscar nomination for Best Actor and aGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama. He also won theGolden Globe for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television FilmforThe Passion of Ayn Rand(1999). In 2003, Fonda received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameat 7018 Hollywood Blvd, for his contributions to the film industry. Early life Fonda was born bycaesarean sectionon February 23, 1940 atLeRoy Hospitalin New York City, the only son of actorHenry Fondaand socialiteFrances Ford Seymour; his older sister is actressJane Fonda.He and Jane had a half-sister, Frances de Villers Brokaw (1931–2008), from their mother's first marriage. Their mother committed suicide in a mental hospital when Peter, her youngest, was ten. He did not discover the circumstances or location of her death until he was fifteen. One month prior to his eleventh", "to his eleventh birthday, he accidentally shot himself in the abdomen and nearly died. He went to the hill station ofNainital, Indiaand stayed for a few months for recovery.Years later, while takingLSDwithJohn LennonandGeorge Harrison, he referred to this incident, saying, \"I know what it's like to be dead.\" This inspiredThe Beatles' song \"She Said She Said\". Peter attended the Fay School inSouthborough, Massachusetts, and was a member of the Class of 1954. He then matriculated inWestminster School, aConnecticutboarding school inSimsbury, where he graduated in 1958. Once he graduated, Fonda studied acting inOmaha, Nebraska, his father's hometown. While attending theUniversity of Nebraska-Omaha, Fonda joined theOmaha Community Playhouse. Career Early years and film work Upon his return to New York, Fonda joined the Cecilwood Theatre in 1960.Afterwards, he found work onBroadwayand gained notice inBlood, Sweat and Stanley Poole, written byJamesandWilliam Goldman, which ran for 84 performances in 1961. Fonda", "in 1961. Fonda began guest starring on television shows likeNaked City,The New Breed,Wagon Train, andThe Defenders. Fonda's first film came when producerRoss Hunterwas looking for a new male actor to romanceSandra DeeinTammy and the Doctor(1963). He was cast in the role, in what was a minor hit.He followed this with a support part inThe Victors(1963), a bleak look at American soldiers in World War II, directed byCarl Foreman.Fonda's performance won him a Golden Globe Award for most promising newcomer. Fonda continued to work in television, guest starring inChanning,Arrest and Trial,The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, and12 O'Clock High. He also tested for the role ofJohn F. KennedyinPT-109.Fonda impressedRobert Rossenwho cast him in what would be Rossen's last movie,Lilith(1964), alongsideWarren Beatty,Jean SebergandGene Hackman. Fonda's performance was well reviewed. Shortly before dying, Rossen signed him to a seven-film contract which was to start with an adaptation ofBang the Drum Slowly.Fonda graduated to a", "graduated to a starring role inThe Young Lovers(1964), about out-of-wedlock pregnancy, the sole directorial effort ofSamuel Goldwyn Jr. Counterculture figure and Roger Corman By the mid-1960s, Fonda was not a conventional \"leading man\" in Hollywood. AsPlayboymagazine reported, Fonda had established a \"solid reputation as a dropout\". He had become outwardly nonconformist and grew his hair long and took LSD regularly, alienating the \"establishment\" film industry. Desirable acting work became scarce.Through his friendships with members of the bandThe Byrds, Fonda visitedThe Beatlesin their rented house inBenedict Canyonin Los Angeles in August 1965. WhileJohn Lennon,Ringo Starr,George Harrison, and Fonda were under the influence ofLSD, Lennon heard Fonda say, \"I know what it's like to be dead.\" Lennon used the phrase in the lyrics for his song, \"She Said She Said\", which was included on their 1966 album,Revolver. In August 1966 Fonda was charged with possession of marijuana,and was later acquitted in December", "in December of that year.In November 1966 Fonda was arrested in theSunset Strip riot, which the police ended forcefully. The bandBuffalo Springfieldprotested the department's handling of the incident in their song \"For What It's Worth\". In 1967, Fonda recorded \"November Night\", a45-rpm singlewritten byGram Parsonsfor the Chisa label, backed with \"Catch the Wind\" byDonovan, produced byHugh Masekela. Fonda's first counterculture-oriented film role was as a biker inRoger Corman'sB movieThe Wild Angels(1966). Fonda originally was to supportGeorge Chakiris, but graduated to the lead when Chakiris revealed he could not ride a motorcycle. In the film, Fonda delivered a \"eulogy\" at a fallen Angel's funeral service. The movie was a big hit at the box office, screened at theVenice Film Festival, launched the biker movie genre, and established Peter Fonda as a movie name. Fonda made a television pilot,High Noon: The Clock Strikes Noon Again, filmed in December 1965. It was based on the filmHigh Noon(1952), starringGary", "starringGary Cooper, with Fonda in the Cooper role. However, it did not become a series. Fonda next played the male lead in Corman's filmThe Trip(1967), a take on the experience and \"consequences\" of consuming LSD, which was written byJack Nicholson. His co-stars includedSusan Strasberg,Bruce Dern, andDennis Hopper. The movie was a hit.Fonda then traveled to France to appear in theportmanteauhorror movieSpirits of the Dead(1968). His segment co-starred his sister Jane and was directed by her then-husbandRoger Vadim. For American television, he appeared in a movie,Certain Honorable Men(1968), alongsideVan Heflin, written byRod Serling. Easy Rider Fonda produced, co-wrote and starred inEasy Rider(1969), directed byDennis Hopper.Easy Rideris about two long-haired bikers traveling through thesouthwesternand southern United States where they encounter intolerance and violence. Fonda played \"Wyatt\",a charismatic, laconic man whose motorcycle jacket bore a largeAmerican flagacross the back.Dennis Hopperplayed the", "Hopperplayed the garrulous \"Billy\".Jack Nicholsonplayed George Hanson, an alcoholiccivil rightslawyer who rides along with them. Fonda co-wrote the screenplay withTerry Southernand Hopper. Fonda tried to secure financing from Roger Corman andAmerican International Pictures(AIP), with whom he had madeThe Wild AngelsandThe Trip, but they were reluctant to finance a film directed by Hopper. They succeeded in getting money fromColumbia Pictures. Hopper filmed the cross-country road trip depicted almost entirely on location. Fonda had secured funding of around $360,000, largely based on the fact he knew that it was the budgetRoger Cormanneeded to makeThe Wild Angels.The guitarist and composerRobbie Robertson, ofThe Band, was so moved by an advance screening that he approached Fonda and tried to convince him to let him write a complete score, even though the film was nearly due for wide release. Fonda declined the offer, instead usingSteppenwolf's \"Born to Be Wild\",Bob Dylan's \"It's Alright, Ma (I'm Only", "Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)\" sung byThe Byrds'Roger McGuinn, and Robertson's own composition \"The Weight\", performed byThe Band, among many other tracks. The film was released to international success. Jack Nicholson was nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Oscar. Fonda, Hopper and Southern were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. The film grossed over $40 million. Director and action star After the success ofEasy Rider, both Hopper and Fonda were sought for film projects. Hopper directed the filmThe Last Movie(1971), in which Fonda co-starred along with singerMichelle PhillipsofThe Mamas and the Papas.Fonda directed and starred in theWesternfilmThe Hired Hand(1971). He took the lead role in a cast that also featuredWarren Oates,Verna BloomandBeat GenerationpoetMichael McClure. The film received mixed reviews and failed commercially upon its initial release, but many years later, in 2001, a fully restored version was shown at various film festivals and was re-released by theSundance", "by theSundance Channelon DVD that same year in two separate editions. Fonda later directed the science fiction filmIdaho Transfer(1973). He did not appear in the film, and the film received mixed reviews upon its limited release. Around the same time, he co-starred withLindsay WagnerinTwo People(also 1973) for directorRobert Wise, in which he portrayed aVietnam Wardeserter. Fonda starred alongsideSusan Georgeand longtime-friend (and frequent co-star)Adam Roarkein the filmDirty Mary, Crazy Larry(1974), a film about twoNASCARhopefuls who execute a supermarket heist to finance their jump into big-time auto racing. The film was a box-office hit that year. It led to Fonda's making a series of action movies:Open Season(1974), withWilliam Holden;Race with the Devil(1975), fleeing devil worshippers with Warren Oates (another hit);92 in the Shade(1975), again with Oates, for writer-directorThomas McGuane;Killer Force(1976) for directorVal Guest;Futureworld(1976), a sequel toWestworld(1973), financed by AIP;Fighting", "by AIP;Fighting Mad(1976), a reuniting with Roger Corman, directed byJonathan Demme. Outlaw Blues(1977) was a drama, with Fonda playing a musician oppositeSusan Saint James. After some more action withHigh-Ballin'(1978), Fonda returned to directing, with the controversial dramaWanda Nevada(1979), wherein the 39-year-old Fonda starred as the \"love\" interest of the then 13-year-oldBrooke Shields. His father,Henry Fonda, made a brief appearance as well, and it is the only film in which they performed together. 1980s and 1990s Fonda was top billed inThe Hostage Tower(1980), a television movie based on a story byAlistair MacLean. Fonda appeared in the hit filmThe Cannonball Run(1981) as the \"chief biker\", a tongue-in-cheek nod to his earlier motorcycle films. He also played a charismatic cult leader inSplit Image(1982), a film that also starredJames Woods,Karen AllenandBrian Dennehy. Despite the strong cast and positive reviews, the film failed to find an audience. Fonda later appeared in a series of films in the", "of films in the 1980s of varying genres —Daijōbu, My Friend(1983), shot in Japan;Dance of the Dwarfs(1983);Peppermint Peace(1983), shot in Germany;Spasms(1983), a Canadian horror film withOliver Reed;A Reason to Live(1985), a TV movie;Certain Fury(1985), withTatum O'Neal;Mercenary Fighters(1988);Hawken's Breed(1988), a Western;Sound(1988);Gli indifferenti(1989) withLiv Ullmann; andThe Rose Garden(1989). In the early 1990s Fonda also contributed to the script ofEnemy(1990), in which he starred. He had the lead inFamily Express(1991) andSouth Beach(1993), but then drifted into supporting roles in many independent films:Deadfall(1993), directed byChristopher Coppola;Bodies, Rest & Motion(1993), starring his daughter Bridget;Molly & Gina(1994) withFrances FisherandNatasha Gregson;Love and a .45(1994) withRenée Zellweger;Nadja(1994), produced byDavid Lynch. He had a good supporting role inEscape from L.A.(1996) fromJohn Carpenterand was inDon't Look Back(1996). He also guest starred onIn the Heat of the Night.", "Heat of the Night. After years of films of varying success, Fonda received high-profile critical recognition and universal praise for his performance inUlee's Gold(1997). He portrayed a taciturn North Florida beekeeper and Vietnam veteran who tries to save his son and granddaughter from a life of drug abuse. For his performance, he was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Actor. He had the lead inPainted Hero(1997). In 1998, Fonda starred in the TV movieThe Tempest, based in part onWilliam Shakespeare'splay of the same name. It was directed by Jack Bender and starred Fonda,John Glover,Harold Perrineau, andKatherine Heigl. He playedFrank O'ConnorinThe Passion of Ayn Rand(1998), a performance for which he receiveda Golden Globe Awardin 2000,then appeared in the crime filmThe Limey(1999) as Terry Valentine, an aging rock music producer who accidentally kills his younger girlfriend. The film was directed bySteven Soderbergh. Fonda wrote an autobiography,Don't Tell Dad(1998). In the 1990s, Fonda appeared in an", "appeared in an advertisement forAmerican Express. 2000s Fonda's work in the 2000s included parts inSouth of Heaven, West of Hell(2000),Second Skin(2000),Thomas and the Magic Railroad(2000)Wooly Boys(2001),The Laramie Project(2001),The Maldonado Miracle(2003),Capital City(2004),The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things(2004),A Thief of Time(2004),Back When We Were Grownups(2004),Supernova(2005), andEl cobrador: In God We Trust(2006). In 2002, Fonda was inducted into theAMAMotorcycle Hall of Fame. In 2004, he provided the voice of aginghippieweed grower \"The Truth\" inGrand Theft Auto: San Andreas, which was one of thebest-sellingvideo games of all time. In a 2007 interview, Fonda said that riding motorcycles helped him to focus, stating, I ride anMV Agusta. This is an Italian racing motorcycle. It forces focus. You have to be focused and in my life, in this business, focus is hard to find sometimes. So I need to force focus and that's great. The bike takes you on a free road. There's no fences on the roads I", "on the roads I ride and I don't ride freeways. That's as much as I can tell you, because there are more lands waiting for this little Christian boy. That's not true. I'm an atheist, but what the heck. Fonda made a return to the big screen as thebounty hunterByron McElroy in3:10 to Yuma(2007), a remake of the1957 Western. He appeared withChristian BaleandRussell Crowe. The film received two Academy Award nominations and positive reviews from critics. He also appeared in the last scenes of the biker comedyWild Hogsas Damien Blade, founder of the biker gang Del Fuegos and father of Jack, played byRay Liotta. Fonda also portrayedMephistopheles, one of two main villains in the filmGhost Rider(also 2007). Although he wanted to play the character inthe sequel, he was replaced byCiarán Hinds. He appeared inJourney to the Center of the Earth(2008),Japan(2008), andThe Perfect Age of Rock 'n' Roll(2009) and as \"The Roman\", the main villain inThe Boondock Saints II: All Saints Day(also 2009), the sequel toThe Boondock", "toThe Boondock Saints. Fonda also appeared on the television seriesCalifornication. Later career Fonda's later appearances includeAmerican Bandits: Frank and Jesse James(2010) forFred Olen Ray;The Trouble with Bliss(2011); episodes ofCSI: NY;Smitty(2012);Harodim(2012);As Cool as I Am(2013);Copperhead(2013);The Ultimate Life(2013);The Harvest(2013);HR(2014);House of Bodies(2014);Jesse James: Lawman(2015);The Runner(2015) withNicolas Cage;The Ballad of Lefty Brown(2017);The Most Hated Woman in America(2017);Borderland(2017);You Can't Say No(2018); andBoundaries(2018) withChristopher Plummer. He was an executive producer of the documentaryThe Big Fix(2012). His final portrayal was in theVietnam WarmovieThe Last Full Measure, whose directorTodd Robinson, has recounted that Peter Fonda was able to view that film in its entirety before his death, and got emotional upon viewing it. Honors In 2000, a Golden Palm Star on thePalm Springs, California,Walk of Starswas dedicated to him. Personal life Fonda was married", "Fonda was married three times, he married his first wife Susan Brewer in 1961; together they had two children,Bridgetand Justin.They divorced in 1974 after 13 years of marriage.Fonda married his second wife Portia Rebecca Crockett, in 1975.The marriage lasted for 36 years until they divorced in 2011.Fonda married his third wife Margaret DeVogelaere, in 2011.The marriage lasted for eight years until Fonda's death in 2019. Political views In 2011, Fonda andTim RobbinsproducedThe Big Fix, a documentary that examined the role ofBPin theDeepwater Horizon oil spilland its effects on theGulf of Mexico. At a press conference at theCannes Film Festival, Fonda stated that he had written to PresidentBarack Obamaabout the spill and attacked him as a \"fucking traitor\" for allowing \"foreign boots on our soil telling our military—in this case theCoast Guard—what they can and could not do, and telling us, the citizens of the United States, what we could or could not do.'\" In June 2018, Fonda went onTwitterto criticize", "criticize PresidentDonald Trump's administration's enforcement of U.S. immigration policy byJeff Sessionsfor separating children from their parents at the Mexican border, writing that \"We should ripBarron Trumpfrom the arms of First LadyMelania Trumpand put him in a cage withpedophiles.\"He also suggested that Americans should seek out names ofU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcementagents in order to protest outside of their homes and the schools of their children.TheSecret Serviceopened an investigation based on a report from the Trump family.Huckabee's daughter, White House Press Secretary,Sarah Huckabee Sanders, was also the object of Fonda'stweets, in which he suggested that \"Maybe we should take her (Sanders') children away...\" In another later deleted tweet, Fonda targetedUnited States Department of Homeland SecuritySecretaryKirstjen Nielsenby calling her a \"vulgar\" name and calling for Nielsen to be \"put in a cage and poked at by passersby ...\" Fonda stated that he deleted his tweet regarding Barron", "regarding Barron Trump, saying that he \"immediately regretted it and sincerely apologize to the family for what I said and any hurt my words have caused.\"Backlash to Fonda's tweets resulted in a call for a boycott of his newest film,Boundaries, and other Sony projects.Sony Pictures releasedBoundariesas planned on June 22, 2018,but released a statement stating that Fonda's comments \"are abhorrent, reckless and dangerous, and we condemn them completely.\" Death Fonda died from respiratory failure caused bylung cancerat his home inLos Angeleson August 16, 2019, at the age of 79. Following Fonda's death, his older sisterJane Fondamade the following statement: \"I am very sad. He was my sweet-hearted baby younger brother, the talker of the family. I have had beautiful alone time with him these last days. He went out laughing.\" Awards and nominations References Further reading External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_Fusion", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_(rapper", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University" ]

[ "Mind Fusion Mind Fusionis a 5-volume series of albums produced byMadlib. Volume 1 Mind Fusion Vol. 1is the first of theMind Fusionseries of mixtapes and remixes byWest Coast hip hopproducerMadlib. As every mixtape follows a different genre of music, the first in the series focuses on hip hop songs produced and remixed by Madlib. It was released in CD format independently on Madlib's Mind Fusion imprint. It also features vocals from fellowStones Throwartists. Track list All tracks are produced, remixed, and arranged by Madlib. Volume 2 Mind Fusion Vol. 2is second of theMind Fusionseries. This mixtape was released byMadlibunder his Mind Fusion imprint. It is a compilation of many songs from different genres from the '60s to the '80s. Like otherMind Fusionmixtapes, this mixtape was released in very limited quantities and is a very rare and collectible item today. Track listing All tracks are compiled and mixed by Madlib. Volume 3 Mind Fusion Vol. 3is compilation mixtape byhip hopproducerMadlibindependently released in 2005. This album is a mix-up of Funk, Jazz, Dub and hip hop instrumentals released in a total of 8 tracks on CD format. Track list Volume 4 Mind Fusion Vol. 4is a remix album byhip hopproducerMadlibindependently released in 2007. This album features remixes of songs byNasandJay-Zand others. Track list Track list adapted fromRappcats.com. Volume 5 Mind Fusion Vol. 5is the fifth and last mixtape of theMind Fusionseries byhip hopproducerMadlib. This mixtape focuses on \"dirty hip hop crates\" from around the world as stated on the back cover. Following tradition, this mixtape was also independently released by Madlib on his Mind Fusion imprint in CD format. Track list The whole album features only two lengthy tracks which have about 10 to 15 different beats each mixed together. Track 1 - Dirty Crates From Around The World(35:58) Track 2 - Live At The Do-Over(36:55)", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_(rapper", "Florida A&M University Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University(FAMU), commonly known asFlorida A&M, is apublichistorically blackland-grant universityinTallahassee, Florida. Founded in 1887, It is the third largest historically black university in theUnited Statesby enrollment and the only public historically black university in Florida.It is a member institution of theState University System of Florida, as well as one of the state's land grant universities, and is accredited to award baccalaureate, master's and doctoral degrees by theCommission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. FAMU sports teams are known as theRattlers, and compete inDivision Iof theNCAA. They are a member of theSouthwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC). History BlackabolitionistJonathan C. Gibbsfirst introduced legislation to create theState Normal College for Colored Studentsin 1885, one year after being elected to theFlorida Legislature. The date also reflects the newFlorida Constitution of 1885, which prohibited racial integration in schools. The college was located in Tallahassee becauseLeon Countyand adjacent counties led the state in African-American population, reflecting Tallahassee's former status as the center of Florida's slave trade. (SeeTallahassee's black history.) The site of the university is the 375-acre slave plantation: 94of Florida governorWilliam Pope Duval, whose mansion, today the site of the Carnegie Library, burned in 1905. On October 3, 1887, the StateNormal Collegefor Colored Students began classes, and became aland-grant collegefour years later when it received $7,500 under the SecondMorrill Act, and its name was changed toState Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students. However, it was not an official institution of higher learning until the1905 Buckman Act, which transferred control from the Department of Education to the Board of Control, creating what was the foundation for the modern Florida A&M University. This same act is responsible for the creation of theUniversity of FloridaandFlorida State Universityfrom their previous institutions. In 1909, the name of the college was once again changed, toFlorida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, and in 1953 the name was finally changed toFlorida Agricultural and Mechanical University. Florida A&M is the only surviving publicly funded historically black college or university in the state of Florida.(Twelve publicly-funded junior collegesserving primarily the African-American population of Florida existed for different periods between 1949 and 1966.) In 1923, there was a student strike that led to the destruction of multiple campus buildings.The strike was a response to GovernorCary A. Hardee's attempts to eliminate the liberal arts program at the university and convert it to a purely vocational school. Hardee believed that a more educated black populace would be more likely to leave the state, which would negatively impact Florida's economy, and thus believed it was necessary to prevent African-American Floridians from being able to access non-vocational education. The conflict led to the resignation of university presidentNathan B. Young, which in turn sparked a student protest that burned down multiple campus buildings. Ultimately, the liberal arts program was restored after the end of Hardee's term and the appointment ofJ. R. E. Leeas the fourth president of the university. In 1951, the university started a pharmacy and nursing program. In order to give these students hands-on experience, the university built a hospital. Until 1971Florida A&M Hospitalwas the only one within 150 miles (240 km) of Tallahassee to serve African Americans.It closed in 1971, after then-Tallahassee Memorial Hospital, under federal pressure, started serving African Americans. On May 26, 1956, Wilhemina Jakes and Carrie Patterson, two Florida A&M University students, were arrested by the Tallahassee Police Department for \"placing themselves in a position to incite a riot\" which lead to theTallahassee bus boycottwhich sought to end racial segregation in the employment and seating arrangements of city buses. In 1963, FAMU students demonstrated against segregation in the city. In 1992, 1995, and 1997, FAMU successfully recruited moreNational Achievement Scholarsthan Harvard. FAMU tied with Harvard in 2000, recruiting 62 new National Achievement Scholars, although by 2006 that number had declined to one.The National Achievement Scholarship Corporation discontinued naming scholars in 2015. In the fall of 1997, FAMU was selected as theTime-Princeton Review\"College of the Year\" and was cited in 1999 byBlack Issues in Higher Educationfor awarding more baccalaureate degrees to African-Americans than any institution in the nation. In 2011 Robert Champion, a band member, was beaten to death in ahazing incident. Two faculty members resigned in connection with a hazing investigation and thirteen people were charged with felony or misdemeanor hazing crimes;one student, a band member, was convicted of manslaughter and hazing charges and sentenced to six years in prison.The scandal resulted in the resignation of FAMU's president and played a role in the university'sregional accreditor, theSouthern Association of Colleges and Schools, placing FAMU on probation for one year. In 2019, FAMU and other HBCUs developed a partnership withAdtalem Global Educationand its for-profitRoss University School of Medicinein Barbados. In May 2024, FAMU administrators announced during a commencement ceremony that it had received a $237 million donation, the largest single personal donation to FAMU in its 136-year history and the largest gift ever to aHBCU, from Gregory Gerami, CEO of Batterson Farms Corporation.The gift quickly came under scrutiny due to questions about its legitimacy. The donation was stock from Gerami's private company and its value could not be determined. In response to the public skepticism, FAMU paused the acceptance of the gift and initiated an external investigation to determine the soundness of the Gerami donation.The following month, university president Larry Robinson resigned.His resignation followed the May 2024 resignation of Shawnta Friday-Stroud, FAMU's former vice president for university advancement and executive director of the FAMU Foundation, who played a key role in negotiating the Gerami donation. In August 2024, FAMU released a final report prepared byBuchanan Ingersoll & Rooneythat concluded that the Gerami donation was of no real cash value.The report suggested that the proposed donor may have knowingly misrepresented his financial holdings and outlined how much the failed gift cost the university in actual travel and entertainment expenses as well as negative impact on the university's reputation. University presidents Academics The university offers 54 bachelor's degree programs, 29 master's degree programs, one professional degree, and 12 doctoral degree programs.It has 14 schools and colleges.Florida A&M also has an honors program for high-achieving undergraduate students who meet the high performance criteria.FAMU is a member school of theThurgood Marshall Scholarship Fund. In 2012, FAMU implemented the Medical Scholars Program (MSP) in partnership with theCharles E. Schmidt College of Medicine. MSP is a pre-medical program designed to prepare academically talented undergraduate students for success in medical school and beyond. There is a cap of 10 freshmen accepted into this competitive four-year program each year. FAMU has nine fully funded, endowed, eminent-scholars chairs, including two in the School of Journalism and Graphic Communications, four in the School of Business & Industry, one in the College of Education, one in Arts and Sciences, and one in its School of Pharmacy. FAMU's law school is one of five in the United States where twice as many women enroll as men. Colleges and schools FAMU offers undergraduate and graduate degrees through the following colleges and schools: Undergraduate admissions The fall 2020 incoming freshmen class had an average high schoolGPAof 3.44 and an averageSATscore of 1082. Demographics Florida A&M University student enrollment population consists primarily of undergraduates. 83% of the school's enrolled students areAfrican-American. The next largest demographic group isWhite (non-Hispanic)students at 7%, followed by Hispanic students at 6%. Multiracial, Asian, Native American, and international students round out the remaining 4%. Accreditation Florida A&M University has been accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) since 1935. Graduation rate In 2020, FAMU's four-year graduation rate was 21%,while its six-year graduation rate was 55%. Rankings The 2024 edition of theU.S. News & World Reportcollege rankings placed FAMU 170th among national universities, 91st among public universities, third among HBCUs, and first among public HBCUs. FAMU was also named 21st in the Top Performers in Social Mobility category. It isclassifiedamong \"R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity\". For 2017, theNational Science Foundationranked Florida A&M University 216th nationally and 2nd among HBCUs for total research and development expenditures. Research FAMU's annual research funding is $44.5 million.The university has access to research funding from many Federal agencies.FAMU's two largest research areas are agriculture and health sciences. The Pharmacy College's research funding is $20.2 million ($20.2 million in federal, $300k in state support, and from $300k in private industry support) with $29,281,352 committed. Campus FAMU's main campus is inTallahassee, Florida, just south of the State Capitol and the campus ofFlorida State University. It also has a law school campus inOrlando, Florida, and the Research and Development Center inQuincy, Florida. The College of Pharmacy has extension campuses in Miami, Jacksonville, Tampa and Crestview, Florida. Residential facilities FAMU requires all first-year students to live on campus, if their families are over 35 miles (56 km) from the FAMU campus. Exceptions to this rule include married students, students with dependents, and students who are of age 21 by the start of classes. FAMU's residential living community consists of eight on-campus residence halls housing over 2,500 students. The university offers a diverse number of living options including traditional dorms, suite-style halls, and on-campus apartments. In 2020, FAMU opened theFAMU Towers, a residence hall offering co-ed floors and 700 double rooms, in close proximity to campus eatery, The Hub. National historic district The Florida A&M Tallahassee Campusconsists of 132 buildings spread across 420 acres (1.7 km2). Part of the campus is listed on the U.S.National Register of Historic Placesas theFlorida Agricultural and Mechanical College Historic District. It received that designation on May 9, 1996. The district is centered along the section of Martin Luther King Boulevard that goes through the campus. According to the National Register, it covers 370 acres (1.5 km2), and contains 14 historic buildings and 1 object. One campus building, the oldCarnegie Library, is listed separately on the National Register.On April 18, 2012, theAIA's Florida Chapter placed Lee Hall at Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University (FAMU) on its list ofFlorida Architecture: 100 Years. 100 Places. Research centers and institutes The Division of Research houses 17 different research centers and institutes: Libraries The Samuel H. Coleman Memorial Library is the university's main library, named for the man who served as the university's general alumni president for 14 years. After the university's main building containing administrative offices, cafeteria, and library were destroyed by fire,Andrew Carnegiedonated a $10,000 gift for the construction of a new library facility. The construction of Coleman Library began during the post-World War II era. The new library was officially dedicated during FAMU's 1949 annual Founders Day celebration in honor of civil leader Samuel H. Coleman.The library was built in 1948, renovated in 1972, expanded in 1990 and again in 2004. The 88,964 square feet (8,265.0 m2) facility includes study rooms, a student study lounge and cafe, graduate and faculty study carrels, teleconference rooms, and a state-of-the-art information literacy classroom. The libraries hold nearly 2 million volumes, over 155,000 e-books and e-journals, and 256,126microforms. Carnegie Library The library of what was then the State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students was located in the grandest building on the campus, Duval Hall, the former mansion of Florida GovernorWilliam Pope Duval, which also held the university's administrative offices and cafeteria. It was destroyed by fire in 1905.Andrew Carnegiedonated a $10,000 gift for the construction of a new library facility. In 1907, when the city of Tallahassee turned down philanthropistAndrew Carnegie's offer of a library building, because by his rules it would have had to serve black patrons, Carnegie funded instead theCarnegie Library at FAMU. It no longer serves as a library, but instead houses the Southeastern Regional Black Archives Research Center and Museum. Athletics Florida A&M University is a member of theSouthwestern Athletic Conferenceand participates inNCAADivision I-FCS.FAMU's sports teams are called the Rattlers. FAMU offers men's sports in baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, tennis and track and field. It offers women's sports in basketball, bowling, cheerleading, cross country, softball, tennis, track and field and volleyball. From 1938 to 1961, the football team won the Black College National Championship eight times, including six times under head coachJake Gaither, in 1950, 1952, 1954, 1957, 1959 and 1961. When Gaither retired after 25 years of coaching in 1969, his FAMU teams had a 203-36-4 (wins-losses-ties) record, for a .844 winning percentage. Thirty-six players from Gaither's teams wereAll-Americans, and 42 went on to play in theNational Football League. During his 25 years as head coach, FAMU won 22Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conferencechampionships. Gaither was elected to theCollege Football Hall of Famein 1975. FAMU went on to win the first NCAA D1-AA National Championship in 1978 after defeating theUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst. The men's basketball team has qualified for the opening round game of the NCAA men's basketball tournament three times (1999, 2004 and 2007). The FAMU Wrestling Team placed third in their region and had several national placers in 2008 under Coach Sharif. Student life FAMU is one of the largest HBCUs in the nation with a student body of nearly 10,000 students hailing from all regions of the United States and several foreign countries. Individuals part of the FAMU community are affectionately referred to as \"FAMUly\" or members of \"Rattler Nation\".FAMU has over 100 student organizations on campus. Notable student organizations Student Government Association The Student Government Association (SGA) is the official voice of the student body and is divided into three branches: Executive, Judicial, and Legislative. FAMU Royal Court Miss FAMU, Mister FAMU, and other students represent the university in its royal court. Miss FAMU, Mister FAMU, and female students known as \"attendants\", are elected by the student body; there is a Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior, Graduate attendant and Queen of Orange and Green. The male \"escorts\" of the attendants are appointed by Mister FAMU through an application process. The only male escort that wears a crown besides Mister FAMU is the King of Orange and Green. The attendants and escorts are undergraduate students, except for one attendant and one escort who are graduate students. Gospel Choir The FAMU Gospel Choirwas established in 1957. Reserve Officers Training Corps FAMU is home to bothArmy ROTCandNaval ROTCunits, permitting students to pursue careers as commissioned officers in theU.S. Army,U.S. Navy,and U.S. Marine Corps, upon graduation. For those FAMU students desiring to become commissioned officers in theU.S. Air Force, a cross-campus arrangement permits their takingAir Force ROTCtraining with the AFROTC detachment at nearbyFlorida State University(FSU). Likewise, Florida State students desiring to become Navy and Marine Corps officers may also enroll with FAMU's NROTC unit under a similar arrangement. Marching band The FAMU marching band, The Marching 100, received national recognition in January 1993 when it performed in the 42nd Presidential Inauguration Parade by invitation ofBill Clinton. The band has also performed in the Super Bowl and in the 44th Presidential Inauguration Parade forBarack Obama. In 2019, the marching band performed in theRose ParadeinPasadena, Californiaon New Year's Day. Student media Notable alumni Notable faculty See also Explanatory notes References External links" ]

[ "Mind Fusion Mind Fusionis a 5-volume series of albums produced byMadlib. Volume 1 Mind Fusion Vol. 1is the first of theMind Fusionseries of mixtapes and remixes byWest Coast hip hopproducerMadlib. As every mixtape follows a different genre of music, the first in the series focuses on hip hop songs produced and remixed by Madlib. It was released in CD format independently on Madlib's Mind Fusion imprint. It also features vocals from fellowStones Throwartists. Track list All tracks are produced, remixed, and arranged by Madlib. Volume 2 Mind Fusion Vol. 2is second of theMind Fusionseries. This mixtape was released byMadlibunder his Mind Fusion imprint. It is a compilation of many songs from different genres from the '60s to the '80s. Like otherMind Fusionmixtapes, this mixtape was released in very limited quantities and is a very rare and collectible item today. Track listing All tracks are compiled and mixed by Madlib. Volume 3 Mind Fusion Vol. 3is compilation mixtape byhip hopproducerMadlibindependently", "released in 2005. This album is a mix-up of Funk, Jazz, Dub and hip hop instrumentals released in a total of 8 tracks on CD format. Track list Volume 4 Mind Fusion Vol. 4is a remix album byhip hopproducerMadlibindependently released in 2007. This album features remixes of songs byNasandJay-Zand others. Track list Track list adapted fromRappcats.com. Volume 5 Mind Fusion Vol. 5is the fifth and last mixtape of theMind Fusionseries byhip hopproducerMadlib. This mixtape focuses on \"dirty hip hop crates\" from around the world as stated on the back cover. Following tradition, this mixtape was also independently released by Madlib on his Mind Fusion imprint in CD format. Track list The whole album features only two lengthy tracks which have about 10 to 15 different beats each mixed together. Track 1 - Dirty Crates From Around The World(35:58) Track 2 - Live At The Do-Over(36:55)", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_(rapper", "Florida A&M University Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University(FAMU), commonly known asFlorida A&M, is apublichistorically blackland-grant universityinTallahassee, Florida. Founded in 1887, It is the third largest historically black university in theUnited Statesby enrollment and the only public historically black university in Florida.It is a member institution of theState University System of Florida, as well as one of the state's land grant universities, and is accredited to award baccalaureate, master's and doctoral degrees by theCommission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. FAMU sports teams are known as theRattlers, and compete inDivision Iof theNCAA. They are a member of theSouthwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC). History BlackabolitionistJonathan C. Gibbsfirst introduced legislation to create theState Normal College for Colored Studentsin 1885, one year after being elected to theFlorida Legislature. The date also reflects the newFlorida Constitution of 1885, which", "of 1885, which prohibited racial integration in schools. The college was located in Tallahassee becauseLeon Countyand adjacent counties led the state in African-American population, reflecting Tallahassee's former status as the center of Florida's slave trade. (SeeTallahassee's black history.) The site of the university is the 375-acre slave plantation: 94of Florida governorWilliam Pope Duval, whose mansion, today the site of the Carnegie Library, burned in 1905. On October 3, 1887, the StateNormal Collegefor Colored Students began classes, and became aland-grant collegefour years later when it received $7,500 under the SecondMorrill Act, and its name was changed toState Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students. However, it was not an official institution of higher learning until the1905 Buckman Act, which transferred control from the Department of Education to the Board of Control, creating what was the foundation for the modern Florida A&M University. This same act is responsible for the creation", "for the creation of theUniversity of FloridaandFlorida State Universityfrom their previous institutions. In 1909, the name of the college was once again changed, toFlorida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, and in 1953 the name was finally changed toFlorida Agricultural and Mechanical University. Florida A&M is the only surviving publicly funded historically black college or university in the state of Florida.(Twelve publicly-funded junior collegesserving primarily the African-American population of Florida existed for different periods between 1949 and 1966.) In 1923, there was a student strike that led to the destruction of multiple campus buildings.The strike was a response to GovernorCary A. Hardee's attempts to eliminate the liberal arts program at the university and convert it to a purely vocational school. Hardee believed that a more educated black populace would be more likely to leave the state, which would negatively impact Florida's economy, and thus believed it was necessary to", "it was necessary to prevent African-American Floridians from being able to access non-vocational education. The conflict led to the resignation of university presidentNathan B. Young, which in turn sparked a student protest that burned down multiple campus buildings. Ultimately, the liberal arts program was restored after the end of Hardee's term and the appointment ofJ. R. E. Leeas the fourth president of the university. In 1951, the university started a pharmacy and nursing program. In order to give these students hands-on experience, the university built a hospital. Until 1971Florida A&M Hospitalwas the only one within 150 miles (240 km) of Tallahassee to serve African Americans.It closed in 1971, after then-Tallahassee Memorial Hospital, under federal pressure, started serving African Americans. On May 26, 1956, Wilhemina Jakes and Carrie Patterson, two Florida A&M University students, were arrested by the Tallahassee Police Department for \"placing themselves in a position to incite a riot\" which lead to", "riot\" which lead to theTallahassee bus boycottwhich sought to end racial segregation in the employment and seating arrangements of city buses. In 1963, FAMU students demonstrated against segregation in the city. In 1992, 1995, and 1997, FAMU successfully recruited moreNational Achievement Scholarsthan Harvard. FAMU tied with Harvard in 2000, recruiting 62 new National Achievement Scholars, although by 2006 that number had declined to one.The National Achievement Scholarship Corporation discontinued naming scholars in 2015. In the fall of 1997, FAMU was selected as theTime-Princeton Review\"College of the Year\" and was cited in 1999 byBlack Issues in Higher Educationfor awarding more baccalaureate degrees to African-Americans than any institution in the nation. In 2011 Robert Champion, a band member, was beaten to death in ahazing incident. Two faculty members resigned in connection with a hazing investigation and thirteen people were charged with felony or misdemeanor hazing crimes;one student, a band member,", "a band member, was convicted of manslaughter and hazing charges and sentenced to six years in prison.The scandal resulted in the resignation of FAMU's president and played a role in the university'sregional accreditor, theSouthern Association of Colleges and Schools, placing FAMU on probation for one year. In 2019, FAMU and other HBCUs developed a partnership withAdtalem Global Educationand its for-profitRoss University School of Medicinein Barbados. In May 2024, FAMU administrators announced during a commencement ceremony that it had received a $237 million donation, the largest single personal donation to FAMU in its 136-year history and the largest gift ever to aHBCU, from Gregory Gerami, CEO of Batterson Farms Corporation.The gift quickly came under scrutiny due to questions about its legitimacy. The donation was stock from Gerami's private company and its value could not be determined. In response to the public skepticism, FAMU paused the acceptance of the gift and initiated an external investigation to", "investigation to determine the soundness of the Gerami donation.The following month, university president Larry Robinson resigned.His resignation followed the May 2024 resignation of Shawnta Friday-Stroud, FAMU's former vice president for university advancement and executive director of the FAMU Foundation, who played a key role in negotiating the Gerami donation. In August 2024, FAMU released a final report prepared byBuchanan Ingersoll & Rooneythat concluded that the Gerami donation was of no real cash value.The report suggested that the proposed donor may have knowingly misrepresented his financial holdings and outlined how much the failed gift cost the university in actual travel and entertainment expenses as well as negative impact on the university's reputation. University presidents Academics The university offers 54 bachelor's degree programs, 29 master's degree programs, one professional degree, and 12 doctoral degree programs.It has 14 schools and colleges.Florida A&M also has an honors program for", "honors program for high-achieving undergraduate students who meet the high performance criteria.FAMU is a member school of theThurgood Marshall Scholarship Fund. In 2012, FAMU implemented the Medical Scholars Program (MSP) in partnership with theCharles E. Schmidt College of Medicine. MSP is a pre-medical program designed to prepare academically talented undergraduate students for success in medical school and beyond. There is a cap of 10 freshmen accepted into this competitive four-year program each year. FAMU has nine fully funded, endowed, eminent-scholars chairs, including two in the School of Journalism and Graphic Communications, four in the School of Business & Industry, one in the College of Education, one in Arts and Sciences, and one in its School of Pharmacy. FAMU's law school is one of five in the United States where twice as many women enroll as men. Colleges and schools FAMU offers undergraduate and graduate degrees through the following colleges and schools: Undergraduate admissions The fall", "admissions The fall 2020 incoming freshmen class had an average high schoolGPAof 3.44 and an averageSATscore of 1082. Demographics Florida A&M University student enrollment population consists primarily of undergraduates. 83% of the school's enrolled students areAfrican-American. The next largest demographic group isWhite (non-Hispanic)students at 7%, followed by Hispanic students at 6%. Multiracial, Asian, Native American, and international students round out the remaining 4%. Accreditation Florida A&M University has been accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) since 1935. Graduation rate In 2020, FAMU's four-year graduation rate was 21%,while its six-year graduation rate was 55%. Rankings The 2024 edition of theU.S. News & World Reportcollege rankings placed FAMU 170th among national universities, 91st among public universities, third among HBCUs, and first among public HBCUs. FAMU was also named 21st in the Top Performers in Social Mobility category. It isclassifiedamong \"R2:", "\"R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity\". For 2017, theNational Science Foundationranked Florida A&M University 216th nationally and 2nd among HBCUs for total research and development expenditures. Research FAMU's annual research funding is $44.5 million.The university has access to research funding from many Federal agencies.FAMU's two largest research areas are agriculture and health sciences. The Pharmacy College's research funding is $20.2 million ($20.2 million in federal, $300k in state support, and from $300k in private industry support) with $29,281,352 committed. Campus FAMU's main campus is inTallahassee, Florida, just south of the State Capitol and the campus ofFlorida State University. It also has a law school campus inOrlando, Florida, and the Research and Development Center inQuincy, Florida. The College of Pharmacy has extension campuses in Miami, Jacksonville, Tampa and Crestview, Florida. Residential facilities FAMU requires all first-year students to live on campus, if their", "on campus, if their families are over 35 miles (56 km) from the FAMU campus. Exceptions to this rule include married students, students with dependents, and students who are of age 21 by the start of classes. FAMU's residential living community consists of eight on-campus residence halls housing over 2,500 students. The university offers a diverse number of living options including traditional dorms, suite-style halls, and on-campus apartments. In 2020, FAMU opened theFAMU Towers, a residence hall offering co-ed floors and 700 double rooms, in close proximity to campus eatery, The Hub. National historic district The Florida A&M Tallahassee Campusconsists of 132 buildings spread across 420 acres (1.7 km2). Part of the campus is listed on the U.S.National Register of Historic Placesas theFlorida Agricultural and Mechanical College Historic District. It received that designation on May 9, 1996. The district is centered along the section of Martin Luther King Boulevard that goes through the campus. According to", "According to the National Register, it covers 370 acres (1.5 km2), and contains 14 historic buildings and 1 object. One campus building, the oldCarnegie Library, is listed separately on the National Register.On April 18, 2012, theAIA's Florida Chapter placed Lee Hall at Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University (FAMU) on its list ofFlorida Architecture: 100 Years. 100 Places. Research centers and institutes The Division of Research houses 17 different research centers and institutes: Libraries The Samuel H. Coleman Memorial Library is the university's main library, named for the man who served as the university's general alumni president for 14 years. After the university's main building containing administrative offices, cafeteria, and library were destroyed by fire,Andrew Carnegiedonated a $10,000 gift for the construction of a new library facility. The construction of Coleman Library began during the post-World War II era. The new library was officially dedicated during FAMU's 1949 annual Founders Day", "annual Founders Day celebration in honor of civil leader Samuel H. Coleman.The library was built in 1948, renovated in 1972, expanded in 1990 and again in 2004. The 88,964 square feet (8,265.0 m2) facility includes study rooms, a student study lounge and cafe, graduate and faculty study carrels, teleconference rooms, and a state-of-the-art information literacy classroom. The libraries hold nearly 2 million volumes, over 155,000 e-books and e-journals, and 256,126microforms. Carnegie Library The library of what was then the State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students was located in the grandest building on the campus, Duval Hall, the former mansion of Florida GovernorWilliam Pope Duval, which also held the university's administrative offices and cafeteria. It was destroyed by fire in 1905.Andrew Carnegiedonated a $10,000 gift for the construction of a new library facility. In 1907, when the city of Tallahassee turned down philanthropistAndrew Carnegie's offer of a library building, because by his", "because by his rules it would have had to serve black patrons, Carnegie funded instead theCarnegie Library at FAMU. It no longer serves as a library, but instead houses the Southeastern Regional Black Archives Research Center and Museum. Athletics Florida A&M University is a member of theSouthwestern Athletic Conferenceand participates inNCAADivision I-FCS.FAMU's sports teams are called the Rattlers. FAMU offers men's sports in baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, tennis and track and field. It offers women's sports in basketball, bowling, cheerleading, cross country, softball, tennis, track and field and volleyball. From 1938 to 1961, the football team won the Black College National Championship eight times, including six times under head coachJake Gaither, in 1950, 1952, 1954, 1957, 1959 and 1961. When Gaither retired after 25 years of coaching in 1969, his FAMU teams had a 203-36-4 (wins-losses-ties) record, for a .844 winning percentage. Thirty-six players from Gaither's teams", "Gaither's teams wereAll-Americans, and 42 went on to play in theNational Football League. During his 25 years as head coach, FAMU won 22Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conferencechampionships. Gaither was elected to theCollege Football Hall of Famein 1975. FAMU went on to win the first NCAA D1-AA National Championship in 1978 after defeating theUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst. The men's basketball team has qualified for the opening round game of the NCAA men's basketball tournament three times (1999, 2004 and 2007). The FAMU Wrestling Team placed third in their region and had several national placers in 2008 under Coach Sharif. Student life FAMU is one of the largest HBCUs in the nation with a student body of nearly 10,000 students hailing from all regions of the United States and several foreign countries. Individuals part of the FAMU community are affectionately referred to as \"FAMUly\" or members of \"Rattler Nation\".FAMU has over 100 student organizations on campus. Notable student organizations", "organizations Student Government Association The Student Government Association (SGA) is the official voice of the student body and is divided into three branches: Executive, Judicial, and Legislative. FAMU Royal Court Miss FAMU, Mister FAMU, and other students represent the university in its royal court. Miss FAMU, Mister FAMU, and female students known as \"attendants\", are elected by the student body; there is a Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior, Graduate attendant and Queen of Orange and Green. The male \"escorts\" of the attendants are appointed by Mister FAMU through an application process. The only male escort that wears a crown besides Mister FAMU is the King of Orange and Green. The attendants and escorts are undergraduate students, except for one attendant and one escort who are graduate students. Gospel Choir The FAMU Gospel Choirwas established in 1957. Reserve Officers Training Corps FAMU is home to bothArmy ROTCandNaval ROTCunits, permitting students to pursue careers as commissioned officers in", "officers in theU.S. Army,U.S. Navy,and U.S. Marine Corps, upon graduation. For those FAMU students desiring to become commissioned officers in theU.S. Air Force, a cross-campus arrangement permits their takingAir Force ROTCtraining with the AFROTC detachment at nearbyFlorida State University(FSU). Likewise, Florida State students desiring to become Navy and Marine Corps officers may also enroll with FAMU's NROTC unit under a similar arrangement. Marching band The FAMU marching band, The Marching 100, received national recognition in January 1993 when it performed in the 42nd Presidential Inauguration Parade by invitation ofBill Clinton. The band has also performed in the Super Bowl and in the 44th Presidential Inauguration Parade forBarack Obama. In 2019, the marching band performed in theRose ParadeinPasadena, Californiaon New Year's Day. Student media Notable alumni Notable faculty See also Explanatory notes References External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Engine_Alliance", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty" ]

[ "Global Engine Alliance Global Engine Alliance LLC, began as ajoint ventureofChrysler,Mitsubishi Motors, andHyundai Motor Companyfor developing a line of shared engines. In September 2009, Chrysler purchased Mitsubishi and Hyundai's shares, after 5 years of allied research and development, making its Dundee, Michigan plant a wholly owned subsidiary of what was then Chrysler Group LLC. Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance, LLC (GEMA) was the manufacturing arm of the Global Engine Alliance and consisted of five factories worldwide. Production began in 2005, with an annual capacity of approximately two million engines; each plant was capable of producing 420,000. Twenty different automobile models from the three companies were to use the engines. Chrysler had expected to use GEMA engines in ten models and projects, and buy up to 840,000 GEMA engines annually. The Dundee plants were purchased by Chrysler in December, 2012, and renamed theChrysler Dundee Engine Plant(s).After Chrysler's assimilation intoFCA, the plant simply became known as theDundee Engine Plant. Design Hyundai was initially responsible for leading the design of the base engine, while the Chrysler Group and Mitsubishi were involved in making other important engineering contributions pertaining to the design.The design features Siamese bores, an aluminium block with cast-iron cylinder liners, and an aluminium head. Different cylinder liners could be fitted to increase or decrease displacement depending on manufacturers needs. Each manufacturer configured their variants of the initial design differently based on their engineering needs and standards, so consumers may experience very different power, fuel efficiency, and \"feel\" from each manufacturer. See also References External links", "Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty TheTreaty Between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Strategic Offensive Reductions(SORT), also known as theTreaty of Moscow, was a strategicarms reduction treatybetween theUnited StatesandRussiathat was in force from June 2003 until February 2011 when it was superseded by theNew STARTtreaty. At the time, SORT was positioned as \"represent an important element of the new strategic relationship\" between the two countrieswith both parties agreeing to limit theirnuclear arsenalto between 1,700 and 2,200 operationally deployed warheads each. It was signed inMoscowon 24 May 2002. After ratification by theU.S. Senateand theState Duma, SORT came into force on 1 June 2003. It would have expired on 31 December 2012 if not superseded by New START. Either party could have withdrawn from the treaty upon giving three months written notice to the other. Mutual nuclear disarmament SORT was one in a long line of treaties and negotiations on mutualnuclear disarmamentbetween Russia (and its predecessor, theSoviet Union) and the United States, which includesSALT I(1969–1972), theABM Treaty(1972),SALT II(1972–1979), theINF Treaty(1987),START I(1991),START II(1993) andNew START(2010). The Moscow Treaty was different from START in that it limited operationally deployed warheads, whereas START I limited warheads through declared attribution to their means of delivery (ICBMs, SLBMs, and Heavy Bombers). Russian and U.S. delegations met twice a year to discuss the implementation of the Moscow Treaty at the Bilateral Implementation Commission (BIC). Ratification The treaty was submitted for ratification in December 2002. However, the passage of the agreement took about a year because the bill had to be resubmitted after its rejection in committee due to concerns about funding for nuclear forces and about cutting systems that had not yet reached the end of their service lives. Further, the deputies were concerned about the U.S.'s ability to upload reserve nuclear warheads for a first strike (upload potential). The ratification was also problematic because the chairman of the foreign affairs committee of the Duma,Dmitry Rogozin, disagreed with his Federation Council counterpartMargelov. Deputy Rogozin argued that the Moscow Treaty should be delayed because of the2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq. In the end, however, this delay never happened. The final vote was similar toSTART IIwith nearly a third of the deputies voting against. The ratification resolution mandated presidential reporting on nuclear force developments and noted that key legislators should be included in interagency planning. Implementation Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoryreported that President Bush directed the US military to cut its stockpile of both deployed and reserve nuclear weapons in half by 2012. The goal was achieved in 2007, a reduction of US nuclear warheads to just over 50 percent of the 2001 total. A further proposal by Bush would have brought the total down another 15 percent. Criticism While President Bush said the treaty \"liquidates the Cold War legacy of nuclear hostility\" and his security advisorCondoleezza Ricesaid it should be considered \"the last treaty of the last century,\"others criticized the treaty for various reasons: See also Further reading Footnotes" ]

[ "Global Engine Alliance Global Engine Alliance LLC, began as ajoint ventureofChrysler,Mitsubishi Motors, andHyundai Motor Companyfor developing a line of shared engines. In September 2009, Chrysler purchased Mitsubishi and Hyundai's shares, after 5 years of allied research and development, making its Dundee, Michigan plant a wholly owned subsidiary of what was then Chrysler Group LLC. Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance, LLC (GEMA) was the manufacturing arm of the Global Engine Alliance and consisted of five factories worldwide. Production began in 2005, with an annual capacity of approximately two million engines; each plant was capable of producing 420,000. Twenty different automobile models from the three companies were to use the engines. Chrysler had expected to use GEMA engines in ten models and projects, and buy up to 840,000 GEMA engines annually. The Dundee plants were purchased by Chrysler in December, 2012, and renamed theChrysler Dundee Engine Plant(s).After", "Plant(s).After Chrysler's assimilation intoFCA, the plant simply became known as theDundee Engine Plant. Design Hyundai was initially responsible for leading the design of the base engine, while the Chrysler Group and Mitsubishi were involved in making other important engineering contributions pertaining to the design.The design features Siamese bores, an aluminium block with cast-iron cylinder liners, and an aluminium head. Different cylinder liners could be fitted to increase or decrease displacement depending on manufacturers needs. Each manufacturer configured their variants of the initial design differently based on their engineering needs and standards, so consumers may experience very different power, fuel efficiency, and \"feel\" from each manufacturer. See also References External links", "Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty TheTreaty Between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Strategic Offensive Reductions(SORT), also known as theTreaty of Moscow, was a strategicarms reduction treatybetween theUnited StatesandRussiathat was in force from June 2003 until February 2011 when it was superseded by theNew STARTtreaty. At the time, SORT was positioned as \"represent an important element of the new strategic relationship\" between the two countrieswith both parties agreeing to limit theirnuclear arsenalto between 1,700 and 2,200 operationally deployed warheads each. It was signed inMoscowon 24 May 2002. After ratification by theU.S. Senateand theState Duma, SORT came into force on 1 June 2003. It would have expired on 31 December 2012 if not superseded by New START. Either party could have withdrawn from the treaty upon giving three months written notice to the other. Mutual nuclear disarmament SORT was one in a long line of treaties and negotiations on mutualnuclear", "on mutualnuclear disarmamentbetween Russia (and its predecessor, theSoviet Union) and the United States, which includesSALT I(1969–1972), theABM Treaty(1972),SALT II(1972–1979), theINF Treaty(1987),START I(1991),START II(1993) andNew START(2010). The Moscow Treaty was different from START in that it limited operationally deployed warheads, whereas START I limited warheads through declared attribution to their means of delivery (ICBMs, SLBMs, and Heavy Bombers). Russian and U.S. delegations met twice a year to discuss the implementation of the Moscow Treaty at the Bilateral Implementation Commission (BIC). Ratification The treaty was submitted for ratification in December 2002. However, the passage of the agreement took about a year because the bill had to be resubmitted after its rejection in committee due to concerns about funding for nuclear forces and about cutting systems that had not yet reached the end of their service lives. Further, the deputies were concerned about the U.S.'s ability to upload", "ability to upload reserve nuclear warheads for a first strike (upload potential). The ratification was also problematic because the chairman of the foreign affairs committee of the Duma,Dmitry Rogozin, disagreed with his Federation Council counterpartMargelov. Deputy Rogozin argued that the Moscow Treaty should be delayed because of the2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq. In the end, however, this delay never happened. The final vote was similar toSTART IIwith nearly a third of the deputies voting against. The ratification resolution mandated presidential reporting on nuclear force developments and noted that key legislators should be included in interagency planning. Implementation Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoryreported that President Bush directed the US military to cut its stockpile of both deployed and reserve nuclear weapons in half by 2012. The goal was achieved in 2007, a reduction of US nuclear warheads to just over 50 percent of the 2001 total. A further proposal by Bush would have brought the total", "brought the total down another 15 percent. Criticism While President Bush said the treaty \"liquidates the Cold War legacy of nuclear hostility\" and his security advisorCondoleezza Ricesaid it should be considered \"the last treaty of the last century,\"others criticized the treaty for various reasons: See also Further reading Footnotes" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Milvian_Bridge", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popes" ]

[ "Battle of the Milvian Bridge 350–353 Late period TheBattle of the Milvian Bridgetook place between theRoman EmperorsConstantine IandMaxentiuson 28 October AD 312. It takes its name from theMilvian Bridge, an important route over theTiber. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end theTetrarchyand become the sole ruler of theRoman Empire. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber during the battle; his body was later taken from the river and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets of Rome on the day following the battle before being taken to Africa. According to Christian chroniclersEusebius of CaesareaandLactantius, the battle marked the beginning ofConstantine's conversion to Christianity. Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had a vision sent by the Christian God. This was interpreted as a promise of victory if the sign of theChi Rho, the first two letters of Christ's name in Greek, was painted on the soldiers' shields. TheArch of Constantine, erected in celebration of the victory, certainly attributes Constantine's success to divine intervention; however, the monument does not display any overtly Christian symbolism. Historical background The underlying causes of the battle were the rivalries inherent inDiocletian'sTetrarchy. After Diocletian stepped down on 1 May 305, his successors began to struggle for control of the Roman Empire almost immediately. Although Constantine was the son of the Western EmperorConstantius, the Tetrarchic ideology did not necessarily provide for hereditary succession. When Constantius died on 25 July 306, his father's troops proclaimed Constantine asAugustusinEboracum(York). In Rome, the favorite was Maxentius, the son of Constantius' imperial colleagueMaximian, who seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. But whereas Constantine's claim was recognized byGalerius, ruler of the Eastern provinces and the senior emperor in the Empire, Maxentius was treated as a usurper. Galerius, however, recognized Constantine as holding only the lesser imperial rank of Caesar. Galerius ordered his co-Augustus,Severus, to put Maxentius down in early 307. Once Severus arrived in Italy, however, his army defected to Maxentius. Severus was captured, imprisoned, and executed. Galerius himself marched on Rome in the autumn, but failed to take the city.Constantine avoided conflict with both Maxentius and the Eastern emperors for most of this period. By 312, however, Constantine and Maxentius were engaged in open hostility with one another, although they were brothers-in‑law through Constantine's marriage toFausta, sister of Maxentius. In the spring of 312, Constantine gathered an army of 40,000 soldiers and decided to oust Maxentius himself.He easily overran northern Italy, winning two major battles: the first nearTurin, the second atVerona, where thepraetorian prefectRuricius Pompeianus, Maxentius' most senior general, was killed. Vision of Constantine It is commonly understood that on the evening of 27 October with the armies preparing for battle, Constantine had a vision which led him to fight under the protection of the Christian God. Some details of that vision, however, differ between the sources reporting it. Lactantius states that, in the night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to \"delineate the heavenly sign on the shields of his soldiers\" (On the Deaths of the Persecutors44.5). He followed the commands of his dream and marked the shields with a sign \"denoting Christ\". Lactantius describes that sign as a \"staurogram\", or aLatin crosswith its upper end rounded in a P-like fashion. There is no certain evidence that Constantine ever used that sign, opposed to the better knownChi-Rhosign described by Eusebius. From Eusebius, two accounts of the battle survive. The first, shorter one in theEcclesiastical Historypromotes the belief that the Christian God helped Constantine but does not mention any vision. In his laterLife of Constantine, Eusebius gives a detailed account of a vision and stresses that he had heard the story from the Emperor himself. According to this version, Constantine with his army was marching (Eusebius does not specify the actual location of the event, but it clearly is not in the camp at Rome), when he looked up to the sun and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words \" Ἐν Τούτῳ Νίκα\",En toutōi níka, usually translated into Latin as \"in hoc signo vinces\". The literal meaning of the phrase in Greek is \"in this (sign), conquer\" while in Latin it's \"in this sign, you shall conquer\"; a more free translation would be \"Through this sign conquer\". At first he was unsure of the meaning of the apparition, but in the following night he had a dream in which Christ explained to him that he should use the sign against his enemies. Eusebius then continues to describe thelabarum, the military standard used by Constantine in his later wars againstLicinius, showing the Chi-Rho sign. The accounts of the two contemporary authors, though not entirely consistent, have been merged into a popular notion of Constantine seeing the Chi-Rho sign on the evening before the battle. Both authors agree that the sign was not widely understandable to denote Christ (although among the Christians, it was already being used in thecatacombsalong with other special symbols to mark and/or decorate Christian tombs).Its first imperial appearance is on a Constantinian silver coin fromc.317, which proves that Constantine did use the sign at that time, though not very prominently.He made more extensive use of the Chi-Rho and the Labarum later, during the conflict with Licinius. Somehave considered the vision in a solar context (e.g. as asolar halophenomenon called asun dog), which may have preceded the Christian beliefs later expressed by Constantine. Coins of Constantine depicting him as the companion of a solar deity were minted as late as 313, the year following the battle. The solar deitySol Invictusis often pictured with animbusor halo. Various emperors portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithetinvictus, such as the legendSOLI INVICTO COMITI, claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine.Constantine's official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/6. Asolidusof Constantine as well as a gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor's bust in profilejugatewith Sol Invictus, with the legendINVICTUS CONSTANTINUS.The official cults of Sol Invictus and Sol InvictusMithraswere popular amongst the soldiers of the Roman Army. Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on theArch of Constantine. Constantine's triumphal arch was carefully positioned to align with thecolossal statue of Solby theColosseum, so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch. Events of the battle Constantine reached Rome at the end of October 312 approaching along theVia Flaminia. He camped at the location of Malborghetto nearPrima Porta, where remains of a Constantinian monument, theArch of Malborghetto, in honour of the occasion are still extant. It was expected that Maxentius would remain within Rome and endure a siege; he had successfully employed this strategy twice before, during the invasions of Severus and Galerius. Indeed, Maxentius had organised the stockpiling of large amounts of food in the city in preparation for such an event. Surprisingly, he decided otherwise, choosing to meet Constantine in open battle. Ancient sources commenting on these events attribute this decision either todivine intervention(e.g. Lactantius, Eusebius) or superstition (e.g. Zosimus). They also note that the day of the battle was the same as the day of his accession (28 October), which was generally thought to be a good omen. Additionally, Maxentius is reported to have consulted the oracularSibylline Books, which stated that \"on October 28 an enemy of the Romans would perish\". Maxentius interpreted this prophecy as being favourable to himself.Lactantius also reports that the populace supported Constantine with acclamations during circus games.Maxentius chose to make his stand in front of theMilvian Bridge, a stone bridge that carries theVia Flaminiaroad across the Tiber River into Rome (the bridge stands today at the same site, somewhat remodelled, named in ItalianPonte Milvioor sometimesPonte Molle, \"soft bridge\"). Holding it was essential if Maxentius was to keep his rival out of Rome, where theSenatewould surely favour whoever held the city. As Maxentius had probably partially destroyed the bridge during his preparations for a siege, he had a wooden orpontoon bridgeconstructed to get his army across the river. The sources vary as to the nature of the bridge central to the events of the battle. Zosimus mentions it, vaguely, as being constructed in two parts connected by iron fastenings, while others indicate that it was a pontoon bridge; sources are also unclear as to whether the bridge was deliberately constructed as a collapsible trap for Constantine's forces or not. The next day, the two armies clashed, and Constantine won a decisive victory. The dispositions of Maxentius may have been faulty as his troops seem to have been arrayed with the River Tiber too close to their rear, giving them little space to allow re-grouping in the event of their formations being forced to give ground.Already known as a skillful general, Constantine first launched his cavalry at the cavalry of Maxentius and broke them. Constantine's infantrythen advanced; most of Maxentius's troops fought well but they began to be pushed back toward the Tiber. Maxentius then decided to order a retreat, intending to make another stand at Rome itself. However, there was only one escape route, via the bridge. Constantine's men inflicted heavy losses on the retreating army.Finally, the temporary bridge set up alongside the Milvian Bridge, over which many of the Maxentian troops were escaping, collapsed, and those stranded on the north bank of the Tiber were either taken prisoner or killed. Maxentius'Praetorian Guard, who had originally acclaimed him emperor, seem to have made a stubborn stand on the northern bank of the river; \"in despair of pardon they covered with their bodies the place which they had chosen for combat.\" Maxentius was among the dead, having drowned in the river while trying to swim across it in an attempt to escape or, alternatively, he is described as having been thrown by his horse into the river.Lactantius describes the death of Maxentius in the following manner: \"The bridge in his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle grew hotter. The hand of the Lord prevailed, and the forces of Maxentius were routed. He fled towards the broken bridge; but the multitude pressing on him, he was driven headlong into the Tiber.\" Aftermath Constantine entered Rome on 29 October.He staged a grand arrival ceremony in the city (adventus), and was met with popular jubilation.Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through the streets for all to see.After the ceremonies, Maxentius' head was sent toCarthageas proof of his downfall; Africa then offered no further resistance. The battle gave Constantine undisputed control of the western half of the Roman Empire. The descriptions of Constantine's entry into Rome omit mention of him ending his procession at the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, where sacrifice was usually offered. Though often employed to show Constantine's Christian sensibilities, this silence cannot be taken as proof that Constantine was a Christian at this point.He chose to honour theSenatorialCuriawith a visit,where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters.Maxentius was condemned todamnatio memoriae; all his legislation was invalidated and Constantine usurped all of Maxentius' considerable building projects within Rome, including theTemple of Romulusand theBasilica of Maxentius. Maxentius' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when thePraetorian Guardand Imperial Horse Guard (equites singulares) were disbanded.Constantine is thought to have replaced the former imperial guards with a number of cavalry units termed theScholae Palatinae. Significance Paul K. Davis writes, \"Constantine’s victory gave him total control of the Western Roman Empire paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion for the Roman Empire and ultimately for Europe.\"The following year, 313, Constantine andLiciniusissued theEdict of Milan, which made Christianity an officially recognised and tolerated religion in the Roman Empire. Notes References The most important ancient sources for the battle areLactantius,De mortibus persecutorum44;Eusebius of Caesarea,Ecclesiastical Historyix, 9 andLife of Constantinei, 28–31 (the vision) and i, 38 (the actual battle);Zosimusii, 15–16; and thePanegyrici Latiniof 313 (anonymous) and 321 (byNazarius). Further reading External links 41°56′08″N12°28′01″E / 41.93556°N 12.46694°E /41.93556; 12.46694", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93625540>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "List of popes This chronological list ofpopesof theCatholic Churchcorresponds to that given in theAnnuario Pontificiounder the heading \"I Sommi Pontefici Romani\" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated asantipopes. Published every year by theRoman Curia, theAnnuario Pontificiono longeridentifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times.The 2001 edition of theAnnuario Pontificiointroduced \"almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II\". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope. The termpope(Latin:papa,lit.'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for exampleCoptic pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, includingSummus Pontifex,Pontifex Maximus, andServus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification. Hermannus Contractusmay have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His list ends in 1049 withLeo IXas number 154. Several changes were made to the list during the 20th century.Christopherwas considered a legitimate pope for a long time but was removed due to how he obtained the papacy.Pope-elect Stephenwas listed as Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his name was removed. The decisions of theCouncil of Pisa(1409) were reversed in 1963 in a reinterpretation of theWestern Schism, extendingGregory XII's pontificate to 1415 and classifying rival claimantsAlexander VandJohn XXIIIas antipopes. A significant number of these popes have been recognized assaints, including 48 out of the first 50 consecutive popes, and others are in the sainthood process. Of the first 31 popes, 28 died as martyrs. Chronological list of popes 1st millennium 1st century The chronology of the early popes is heavily disputed. The first ancient lists of popes were not written until the late 2nd century, after the monarchical episcopate had already developed in Rome. These first lists combined contradictory traditions, and even the succession of the first popes is disputed. The first certain dates are AD 222 and 235, the elections ofUrban IandLiberius. The years given for the first 30 popes follow the work ofRichard Adelbert Lipsius, which often show a 3-year difference with the traditional dates given byEusebius of Caesarea.These are also the dates used by theCatholic Encyclopedia. 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 2nd millennium 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Member of theDominican Order. Reverted Boniface VIII'sUnam Sanctam. 15th century 16th century Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as the ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. Born as a subject of theBishopric of Utrecht. The only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope untilJohn Paul IIin 1978. Tutor ofEmperor Charles V. Came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east. He refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic. However, he is noted for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation. Adrian's remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg. His efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion. Citizen of theRepublic of Florence. Cousin of Leo X. Romesackedby imperial troops (1527). Forbade the divorce ofHenry VIII; crowned Charles V as emperor atBologna(1530). Commissioned Michelangelo's painting ofThe Last Judgmentin the Sistine Chapel (1533). ApprovedCopernicus'heliocentric universe theory(1533). However Copernicus made very few astronomical observations and based his new model squarely on his mathematical calculations. Natural philosophers of that time (professionals who began to be called scientists only in the 19th century) noted that if the earth rotated there would be observable Coriolis effects. Secondly, a revolving earth would imply a stellar parallax. Given that neither of these effects were observed at the time (would be observed decades later) , Copernicus' model still did not prove heliocentrism. Thenieceof the pope was married to the futureHenry II of France(1533). Recognized theOrder of Friars Minor Capuchin(Capuchins). Born as a subject of theKingdom of Naples. Member of theTheatines. Established theRoman GhettoinCum Nimis Absurdum(1555) and established theIndex of Forbidden Books. Ordered Michelangelo to repaint the nudes ofThe Last Judgmentmodestly. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Member of theDominican Order. Excommunicated QueenElizabeth I of England(1570).Battle of Lepanto(1571); instituted the feast ofOur Lady of Victory. Issued the1570 Roman Missal. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States.Reformed the calendar(1582); built the Gregorian Chapel in the Vatican. The first pope to bestow theImmaculate Conceptionas patroness to the Philippine Islands through the bullIlius Fulti Præsido(1579). Strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations. 17th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Known for various building projects which included the facade ofSt Peter's Basilica. Established theBank of the Holy Spirit(1605); restored theAqua Traiana. During his pontificateGalileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those ofAristotleandPtolemyand closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time. Not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries.Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars, was sympathetic to Galileo's theories, but was invited to defend the Aristotelian point of view byClaudio Acquaviva, the Jesuits' Father General. Not all scientists at the time supported Galileo. Opposition fromTycho Braheand others arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no such evidence existed at the time. (Only in 1838 wasFriedrich Besselable to accurately observe it.) Galileo's arguments – based on sunspots and the action of tides – were flawed and were refuted and rejected by other scholars at the time. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. The great-great-great-grandson ofAlexander VI. Erected theFontana dei Quattro FiumiinPiazza Navona. Promulgated the apostolic constitutionCum occasione(1653) which condemned five doctrines ofJansenismasheresy. Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Mediated in thepeace of Aachen(1668). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Canonized the first saint from the Americas: St.Rose of Lima(1671). Decorated the bridge of Sant' Angelo with the ten statues of angels and added one of the two fountains that adorn the piazza of St. Peter's. Established regulations for the removal of relics of saints from cemeteries. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Condemned thedoctrine of mental reservation(1679) and initiated theHoly League. Extended theHoly Name of Maryas a universal feast (1684). Admired for positive contributions to catechesis. During his pontificateIsaac Newtonpublished thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation. 18th century Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Completed the new façade of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran(1735). Commissioned theTrevi Fountainin Rome (1732). CondemnedFreemasonryinIn eminenti apostolatus(1738). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Reformed the education ofpriestsand thecalendar of feasts. Completed theTrevi Fountainand affirmed the teachings ofThomas Aquinas; founded academies of art, religion and science. Authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of theDialogue. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Condemned theFrench Revolution; expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death. The last pope to be a patron ofRenaissanceart. During his pontificate, the astronomerWilliam Herschel, studying the movement of stars, was the first to realize that theSolar Systemis moving in space, and determined the approximate direction of movement. Also discovered that theMilky Way(which in the late 18th century was believed to be the entire Universe) is flat, disk-shaped and with the Sun at its center (assertion discovered to be wrong decades later, because today it is known that the Sun is not located in theGalactic Center). 19th century During his pontificate, Augustinian friarGregor Mendelpublished theExperiments on Plant HybridizationandCharles DarwinpublishedOn the Origin of Species. At the time, no high-level Church pronouncement attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species. Even before the development of thescientific method, Catholic theology had allowed for biblical texts to be read as allegorical rather than literal where they appeared to contradict that which could be established by science or reason. Thus, Catholicism has been able to refine its understanding of scripture in light of scientific discoveries. First Pope to befilmed by a motion picture cameraand the first pope with voice recorded. 20th century Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Encouraged and expanded reception of the Eucharist. CombattedModernism; issued theoath against it. Advocated theGregorian Chantandreformed the Roman Breviary. Born as a subject of theKingdom of Sardinia, later became an Italian citizen. Credited for intervening for peace during World War I. Issued the1917 Code of Canon Law; supported the missionaries inMaximum illud. Remembered byBenedict XVIas a \"prophet of peace\". Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Signed theLateran Treatywith Italy (1929) establishingVatican Cityas a sovereign state. InauguratedVatican Radio(1931). Re-founded thePontifical Academy of Sciences(1936). Created the feast ofChrist the King. OpposedCommunismandNazism. Italian citizen. Invoked papal infallibility in the encyclicalMunificentissimus Deus; defined the dogma of theAssumption. Eliminated the Italian majority ofcardinals. Credited with intervening for peace duringWorld War II; controversial forhis reactionsto theHolocaust. Published theHumani generis, the first encyclical to specifically refer to evolution and took up a neutral position, concentrating on human evolution: \"The Church does not forbid that ... research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter.\" Italian citizen. Opened theSecond Vatican Council; called \"Good Pope John\". Issued the encyclicalPacem in terris(1963) on peace and nuclear disarmament; intervened for peace during theCuban Missile Crisis(1962). Italian citizen. Last pope to becrowned. First pope since 1809 to travel outside Italy. Closed theSecond Vatican Council. Issued the encyclicalHumanae vitae(1968) condemning artificial contraception.RevisedtheRoman Missal(1969). Italian citizen. Abolished the coronation and opted for thepapal inauguration. First pope to use 'the First' in papal name; first with two names for two immediate predecessors. Last pope to use thesedia gestatoria. Polish citizen, first pope of Slavic origin. First non-Italian pope sinceAdrian VI(1522–1523). Travelled extensively,visiting 129 countriesduring his pontificate. Second-longest reign afterPius IX. FoundedWorld Youth Day(1984) and thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences(1994). Canonized more saints than all his predecessors. Youngest individual to start his papacy since Pius IX (1846). 3rd millennium 21st century German citizen. Oldest to become pope sinceClement XII(1730).ElevatedtheTridentine Massto a more prominent position and promoted the use ofLatin; re-introduced several disused papal garments. Authorized the creation ofAnglican ordinariates(2009). First pope torenounce the papacyon his own initiative sinceCelestine V(1294),becomingpope emeritus.Longest-lived pope on record.Died on 31 December 2022, in Vatican. Argentine citizen. First pope to be born outside Europe sinceGregory III(731–741) and the first from the Americas; first pope from the Southern Hemisphere. First pope from areligious institutesinceGregory XVI(1831–1846); firstJesuitpope. First to use a new and non-composed regnal name sinceLando(913–914). First pope to visit and celebrate a mass on theArabian Peninsula. Religious orders 51 popes and 6antipopes(in italics) have been members ofreligious orders, including 12 members ofthird orders. They are listed by order as follows: Numbering of popes Regnal numbersfollow the usual convention for European monarchs. The first pope who chooses a unique name is not usually identified by an ordinal,John Paul Ibeing the exception. Antipopes are treated aspretenders, and their numbers are reused by those considered to be legitimate popes. However, there are anomalies in the numbering of the popes. Several numbers were mistakenly increased in the Middle Ages because the records were misunderstood. Several antipopes were also kept in the sequence, either by mistake or because they were previously considered to be true popes. See also Lists Notes References Sources External links" ]

[ "Battle of the Milvian Bridge 350–353 Late period TheBattle of the Milvian Bridgetook place between theRoman EmperorsConstantine IandMaxentiuson 28 October AD 312. It takes its name from theMilvian Bridge, an important route over theTiber. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end theTetrarchyand become the sole ruler of theRoman Empire. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber during the battle; his body was later taken from the river and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets of Rome on the day following the battle before being taken to Africa. According to Christian chroniclersEusebius of CaesareaandLactantius, the battle marked the beginning ofConstantine's conversion to Christianity. Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had a vision sent by the Christian God. This was interpreted as a promise of victory if the sign of theChi Rho, the first two letters of Christ's name in Greek, was painted on the soldiers' shields. TheArch of Constantine,", "of Constantine, erected in celebration of the victory, certainly attributes Constantine's success to divine intervention; however, the monument does not display any overtly Christian symbolism. Historical background The underlying causes of the battle were the rivalries inherent inDiocletian'sTetrarchy. After Diocletian stepped down on 1 May 305, his successors began to struggle for control of the Roman Empire almost immediately. Although Constantine was the son of the Western EmperorConstantius, the Tetrarchic ideology did not necessarily provide for hereditary succession. When Constantius died on 25 July 306, his father's troops proclaimed Constantine asAugustusinEboracum(York). In Rome, the favorite was Maxentius, the son of Constantius' imperial colleagueMaximian, who seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. But whereas Constantine's claim was recognized byGalerius, ruler of the Eastern provinces and the senior emperor in the Empire, Maxentius was treated as a usurper. Galerius, however, recognized", "however, recognized Constantine as holding only the lesser imperial rank of Caesar. Galerius ordered his co-Augustus,Severus, to put Maxentius down in early 307. Once Severus arrived in Italy, however, his army defected to Maxentius. Severus was captured, imprisoned, and executed. Galerius himself marched on Rome in the autumn, but failed to take the city.Constantine avoided conflict with both Maxentius and the Eastern emperors for most of this period. By 312, however, Constantine and Maxentius were engaged in open hostility with one another, although they were brothers-in‑law through Constantine's marriage toFausta, sister of Maxentius. In the spring of 312, Constantine gathered an army of 40,000 soldiers and decided to oust Maxentius himself.He easily overran northern Italy, winning two major battles: the first nearTurin, the second atVerona, where thepraetorian prefectRuricius Pompeianus, Maxentius' most senior general, was killed. Vision of Constantine It is commonly understood that on the evening of 27", "the evening of 27 October with the armies preparing for battle, Constantine had a vision which led him to fight under the protection of the Christian God. Some details of that vision, however, differ between the sources reporting it. Lactantius states that, in the night before the battle, Constantine was commanded in a dream to \"delineate the heavenly sign on the shields of his soldiers\" (On the Deaths of the Persecutors44.5). He followed the commands of his dream and marked the shields with a sign \"denoting Christ\". Lactantius describes that sign as a \"staurogram\", or aLatin crosswith its upper end rounded in a P-like fashion. There is no certain evidence that Constantine ever used that sign, opposed to the better knownChi-Rhosign described by Eusebius. From Eusebius, two accounts of the battle survive. The first, shorter one in theEcclesiastical Historypromotes the belief that the Christian God helped Constantine but does not mention any vision. In his laterLife of Constantine, Eusebius gives a detailed", "gives a detailed account of a vision and stresses that he had heard the story from the Emperor himself. According to this version, Constantine with his army was marching (Eusebius does not specify the actual location of the event, but it clearly is not in the camp at Rome), when he looked up to the sun and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words \" Ἐν Τούτῳ Νίκα\",En toutōi níka, usually translated into Latin as \"in hoc signo vinces\". The literal meaning of the phrase in Greek is \"in this (sign), conquer\" while in Latin it's \"in this sign, you shall conquer\"; a more free translation would be \"Through this sign conquer\". At first he was unsure of the meaning of the apparition, but in the following night he had a dream in which Christ explained to him that he should use the sign against his enemies. Eusebius then continues to describe thelabarum, the military standard used by Constantine in his later wars againstLicinius, showing the Chi-Rho sign. The accounts of the two contemporary authors,", "authors, though not entirely consistent, have been merged into a popular notion of Constantine seeing the Chi-Rho sign on the evening before the battle. Both authors agree that the sign was not widely understandable to denote Christ (although among the Christians, it was already being used in thecatacombsalong with other special symbols to mark and/or decorate Christian tombs).Its first imperial appearance is on a Constantinian silver coin fromc.317, which proves that Constantine did use the sign at that time, though not very prominently.He made more extensive use of the Chi-Rho and the Labarum later, during the conflict with Licinius. Somehave considered the vision in a solar context (e.g. as asolar halophenomenon called asun dog), which may have preceded the Christian beliefs later expressed by Constantine. Coins of Constantine depicting him as the companion of a solar deity were minted as late as 313, the year following the battle. The solar deitySol Invictusis often pictured with animbusor halo. Various", "halo. Various emperors portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with a wide range of legends, only a few of which incorporated the epithetinvictus, such as the legendSOLI INVICTO COMITI, claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the emperor, used with particular frequency by Constantine.Constantine's official coinage continues to bear images of Sol until 325/6. Asolidusof Constantine as well as a gold medallion from his reign depict the Emperor's bust in profilejugatewith Sol Invictus, with the legendINVICTUS CONSTANTINUS.The official cults of Sol Invictus and Sol InvictusMithraswere popular amongst the soldiers of the Roman Army. Statuettes of Sol Invictus, carried by the standard-bearers, appear in three places in reliefs on theArch of Constantine. Constantine's triumphal arch was carefully positioned to align with thecolossal statue of Solby theColosseum, so that Sol formed the dominant backdrop when seen from the direction of the main approach towards the arch. Events of the battle", "of the battle Constantine reached Rome at the end of October 312 approaching along theVia Flaminia. He camped at the location of Malborghetto nearPrima Porta, where remains of a Constantinian monument, theArch of Malborghetto, in honour of the occasion are still extant. It was expected that Maxentius would remain within Rome and endure a siege; he had successfully employed this strategy twice before, during the invasions of Severus and Galerius. Indeed, Maxentius had organised the stockpiling of large amounts of food in the city in preparation for such an event. Surprisingly, he decided otherwise, choosing to meet Constantine in open battle. Ancient sources commenting on these events attribute this decision either todivine intervention(e.g. Lactantius, Eusebius) or superstition (e.g. Zosimus). They also note that the day of the battle was the same as the day of his accession (28 October), which was generally thought to be a good omen. Additionally, Maxentius is reported to have consulted the", "have consulted the oracularSibylline Books, which stated that \"on October 28 an enemy of the Romans would perish\". Maxentius interpreted this prophecy as being favourable to himself.Lactantius also reports that the populace supported Constantine with acclamations during circus games.Maxentius chose to make his stand in front of theMilvian Bridge, a stone bridge that carries theVia Flaminiaroad across the Tiber River into Rome (the bridge stands today at the same site, somewhat remodelled, named in ItalianPonte Milvioor sometimesPonte Molle, \"soft bridge\"). Holding it was essential if Maxentius was to keep his rival out of Rome, where theSenatewould surely favour whoever held the city. As Maxentius had probably partially destroyed the bridge during his preparations for a siege, he had a wooden orpontoon bridgeconstructed to get his army across the river. The sources vary as to the nature of the bridge central to the events of the battle. Zosimus mentions it, vaguely, as being constructed in two parts", "in two parts connected by iron fastenings, while others indicate that it was a pontoon bridge; sources are also unclear as to whether the bridge was deliberately constructed as a collapsible trap for Constantine's forces or not. The next day, the two armies clashed, and Constantine won a decisive victory. The dispositions of Maxentius may have been faulty as his troops seem to have been arrayed with the River Tiber too close to their rear, giving them little space to allow re-grouping in the event of their formations being forced to give ground.Already known as a skillful general, Constantine first launched his cavalry at the cavalry of Maxentius and broke them. Constantine's infantrythen advanced; most of Maxentius's troops fought well but they began to be pushed back toward the Tiber. Maxentius then decided to order a retreat, intending to make another stand at Rome itself. However, there was only one escape route, via the bridge. Constantine's men inflicted heavy losses on the retreating army.Finally, the", "army.Finally, the temporary bridge set up alongside the Milvian Bridge, over which many of the Maxentian troops were escaping, collapsed, and those stranded on the north bank of the Tiber were either taken prisoner or killed. Maxentius'Praetorian Guard, who had originally acclaimed him emperor, seem to have made a stubborn stand on the northern bank of the river; \"in despair of pardon they covered with their bodies the place which they had chosen for combat.\" Maxentius was among the dead, having drowned in the river while trying to swim across it in an attempt to escape or, alternatively, he is described as having been thrown by his horse into the river.Lactantius describes the death of Maxentius in the following manner: \"The bridge in his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle grew hotter. The hand of the Lord prevailed, and the forces of Maxentius were routed. He fled towards the broken bridge; but the multitude pressing on him, he was driven headlong into the Tiber.\" Aftermath Constantine", "Constantine entered Rome on 29 October.He staged a grand arrival ceremony in the city (adventus), and was met with popular jubilation.Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through the streets for all to see.After the ceremonies, Maxentius' head was sent toCarthageas proof of his downfall; Africa then offered no further resistance. The battle gave Constantine undisputed control of the western half of the Roman Empire. The descriptions of Constantine's entry into Rome omit mention of him ending his procession at the temple of Capitoline Jupiter, where sacrifice was usually offered. Though often employed to show Constantine's Christian sensibilities, this silence cannot be taken as proof that Constantine was a Christian at this point.He chose to honour theSenatorialCuriawith a visit,where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters.Maxentius was condemned", "was condemned todamnatio memoriae; all his legislation was invalidated and Constantine usurped all of Maxentius' considerable building projects within Rome, including theTemple of Romulusand theBasilica of Maxentius. Maxentius' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when thePraetorian Guardand Imperial Horse Guard (equites singulares) were disbanded.Constantine is thought to have replaced the former imperial guards with a number of cavalry units termed theScholae Palatinae. Significance Paul K. Davis writes, \"Constantine’s victory gave him total control of the Western Roman Empire paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion for the Roman Empire and ultimately for Europe.\"The following year, 313, Constantine andLiciniusissued theEdict of Milan, which made Christianity an officially recognised and tolerated religion in the Roman Empire. Notes References The most important ancient sources for the battle areLactantius,De mortibus persecutorum44;Eusebius of", "of Caesarea,Ecclesiastical Historyix, 9 andLife of Constantinei, 28–31 (the vision) and i, 38 (the actual battle);Zosimusii, 15–16; and thePanegyrici Latiniof 313 (anonymous) and 321 (byNazarius). Further reading External links 41°56′08″N12°28′01″E / 41.93556°N 12.46694°E /41.93556; 12.46694", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93625540>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "List of popes This chronological list ofpopesof theCatholic Churchcorresponds to that given in theAnnuario Pontificiounder the heading \"I Sommi Pontefici Romani\" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated asantipopes. Published every year by theRoman Curia, theAnnuario Pontificiono longeridentifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times.The 2001 edition of theAnnuario Pontificiointroduced \"almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II\". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope. The termpope(Latin:papa,lit.'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for exampleCoptic pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, includingSummus", "includingSummus Pontifex,Pontifex Maximus, andServus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification. Hermannus Contractusmay have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His list ends in 1049 withLeo IXas number 154. Several changes were made to the list during the 20th century.Christopherwas considered a legitimate pope for a long time but was removed due to how he obtained the papacy.Pope-elect Stephenwas listed as Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his name was removed. The decisions of theCouncil of Pisa(1409) were reversed in 1963 in a reinterpretation of theWestern Schism, extendingGregory XII's pontificate to 1415 and classifying rival claimantsAlexander VandJohn XXIIIas antipopes. A significant number of these popes have been recognized assaints, including 48 out of the first 50 consecutive popes, and others are in the sainthood process. Of the first 31 popes, 28 died as martyrs.", "28 died as martyrs. Chronological list of popes 1st millennium 1st century The chronology of the early popes is heavily disputed. The first ancient lists of popes were not written until the late 2nd century, after the monarchical episcopate had already developed in Rome. These first lists combined contradictory traditions, and even the succession of the first popes is disputed. The first certain dates are AD 222 and 235, the elections ofUrban IandLiberius. The years given for the first 30 popes follow the work ofRichard Adelbert Lipsius, which often show a 3-year difference with the traditional dates given byEusebius of Caesarea.These are also the dates used by theCatholic Encyclopedia. 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 2nd millennium 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Member of theDominican Order. Reverted Boniface VIII'sUnam Sanctam. 15th century 16th century", "16th century Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as the ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. Born as a subject of theBishopric of Utrecht. The only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope untilJohn Paul IIin 1978. Tutor ofEmperor Charles V. Came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east. He refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic. However, he is noted for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation. Adrian's remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg. His efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of", "resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion. Citizen of theRepublic of Florence. Cousin of Leo X. Romesackedby imperial troops (1527). Forbade the divorce ofHenry VIII; crowned Charles V as emperor atBologna(1530). Commissioned Michelangelo's painting ofThe Last Judgmentin the Sistine Chapel (1533). ApprovedCopernicus'heliocentric universe theory(1533). However Copernicus made very few astronomical observations and based his new model squarely on his mathematical calculations. Natural philosophers of that time (professionals who began to be called scientists only in the 19th century) noted that if the earth rotated there would be observable Coriolis effects. Secondly, a revolving earth would imply a stellar parallax. Given that neither of these effects were observed at the time (would be observed decades later) , Copernicus' model still did not prove heliocentrism. Thenieceof the pope was married to the", "was married to the futureHenry II of France(1533). Recognized theOrder of Friars Minor Capuchin(Capuchins). Born as a subject of theKingdom of Naples. Member of theTheatines. Established theRoman GhettoinCum Nimis Absurdum(1555) and established theIndex of Forbidden Books. Ordered Michelangelo to repaint the nudes ofThe Last Judgmentmodestly. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Member of theDominican Order. Excommunicated QueenElizabeth I of England(1570).Battle of Lepanto(1571); instituted the feast ofOur Lady of Victory. Issued the1570 Roman Missal. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States.Reformed the calendar(1582); built the Gregorian Chapel in the Vatican. The first pope to bestow theImmaculate Conceptionas patroness to the Philippine Islands through the bullIlius Fulti Præsido(1579). Strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations. 17th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Known for various building projects which included the facade ofSt Peter's Basilica.", "Peter's Basilica. Established theBank of the Holy Spirit(1605); restored theAqua Traiana. During his pontificateGalileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those ofAristotleandPtolemyand closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time. Not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries.Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars, was sympathetic to Galileo's theories, but was invited to defend the Aristotelian point of view byClaudio Acquaviva, the Jesuits' Father General. Not all scientists at the time supported Galileo. Opposition fromTycho Braheand others arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no such evidence existed at the time. (Only in 1838 wasFriedrich Besselable to accurately observe it.) Galileo's arguments – based on sunspots and the action of tides – were flawed", "tides – were flawed and were refuted and rejected by other scholars at the time. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. The great-great-great-grandson ofAlexander VI. Erected theFontana dei Quattro FiumiinPiazza Navona. Promulgated the apostolic constitutionCum occasione(1653) which condemned five doctrines ofJansenismasheresy. Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Mediated in thepeace of Aachen(1668). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Canonized the first saint from the Americas: St.Rose of Lima(1671). Decorated the bridge of Sant' Angelo with the ten statues of angels and added one of the two fountains that adorn the piazza of St. Peter's. Established regulations for the removal of relics of saints from cemeteries. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Condemned thedoctrine of mental reservation(1679) and initiated theHoly League. Extended theHoly Name of Maryas a universal feast (1684). Admired for positive contributions to catechesis. During his pontificateIsaac", "pontificateIsaac Newtonpublished thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation. 18th century Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Completed the new façade of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran(1735). Commissioned theTrevi Fountainin Rome (1732). CondemnedFreemasonryinIn eminenti apostolatus(1738). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Reformed the education ofpriestsand thecalendar of feasts. Completed theTrevi Fountainand affirmed the teachings ofThomas Aquinas; founded academies of art, religion and science. Authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of theDialogue. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Condemned theFrench Revolution; expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death. The last pope to be a patron ofRenaissanceart. During his pontificate, the astronomerWilliam Herschel, studying the", "studying the movement of stars, was the first to realize that theSolar Systemis moving in space, and determined the approximate direction of movement. Also discovered that theMilky Way(which in the late 18th century was believed to be the entire Universe) is flat, disk-shaped and with the Sun at its center (assertion discovered to be wrong decades later, because today it is known that the Sun is not located in theGalactic Center). 19th century During his pontificate, Augustinian friarGregor Mendelpublished theExperiments on Plant HybridizationandCharles DarwinpublishedOn the Origin of Species. At the time, no high-level Church pronouncement attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species. Even before the development of thescientific method, Catholic theology had allowed for biblical texts to be read as allegorical rather than literal where they appeared to contradict that which could be established by science or reason. Thus, Catholicism has been able to refine its understanding of", "understanding of scripture in light of scientific discoveries. First Pope to befilmed by a motion picture cameraand the first pope with voice recorded. 20th century Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Encouraged and expanded reception of the Eucharist. CombattedModernism; issued theoath against it. Advocated theGregorian Chantandreformed the Roman Breviary. Born as a subject of theKingdom of Sardinia, later became an Italian citizen. Credited for intervening for peace during World War I. Issued the1917 Code of Canon Law; supported the missionaries inMaximum illud. Remembered byBenedict XVIas a \"prophet of peace\". Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Signed theLateran Treatywith Italy (1929) establishingVatican Cityas a sovereign state. InauguratedVatican Radio(1931). Re-founded thePontifical Academy of Sciences(1936). Created the feast ofChrist the King. OpposedCommunismandNazism. Italian citizen. Invoked papal", "Invoked papal infallibility in the encyclicalMunificentissimus Deus; defined the dogma of theAssumption. Eliminated the Italian majority ofcardinals. Credited with intervening for peace duringWorld War II; controversial forhis reactionsto theHolocaust. Published theHumani generis, the first encyclical to specifically refer to evolution and took up a neutral position, concentrating on human evolution: \"The Church does not forbid that ... research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter.\" Italian citizen. Opened theSecond Vatican Council; called \"Good Pope John\". Issued the encyclicalPacem in terris(1963) on peace and nuclear disarmament; intervened for peace during theCuban Missile Crisis(1962). Italian citizen. Last pope to becrowned. First pope since 1809 to travel outside Italy. Closed theSecond Vatican Council. Issued the", "Council. Issued the encyclicalHumanae vitae(1968) condemning artificial contraception.RevisedtheRoman Missal(1969). Italian citizen. Abolished the coronation and opted for thepapal inauguration. First pope to use 'the First' in papal name; first with two names for two immediate predecessors. Last pope to use thesedia gestatoria. Polish citizen, first pope of Slavic origin. First non-Italian pope sinceAdrian VI(1522–1523). Travelled extensively,visiting 129 countriesduring his pontificate. Second-longest reign afterPius IX. FoundedWorld Youth Day(1984) and thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences(1994). Canonized more saints than all his predecessors. Youngest individual to start his papacy since Pius IX (1846). 3rd millennium 21st century German citizen. Oldest to become pope sinceClement XII(1730).ElevatedtheTridentine Massto a more prominent position and promoted the use ofLatin; re-introduced several disused papal garments. Authorized the creation ofAnglican ordinariates(2009). First pope torenounce the", "pope torenounce the papacyon his own initiative sinceCelestine V(1294),becomingpope emeritus.Longest-lived pope on record.Died on 31 December 2022, in Vatican. Argentine citizen. First pope to be born outside Europe sinceGregory III(731–741) and the first from the Americas; first pope from the Southern Hemisphere. First pope from areligious institutesinceGregory XVI(1831–1846); firstJesuitpope. First to use a new and non-composed regnal name sinceLando(913–914). First pope to visit and celebrate a mass on theArabian Peninsula. Religious orders 51 popes and 6antipopes(in italics) have been members ofreligious orders, including 12 members ofthird orders. They are listed by order as follows: Numbering of popes Regnal numbersfollow the usual convention for European monarchs. The first pope who chooses a unique name is not usually identified by an ordinal,John Paul Ibeing the exception. Antipopes are treated aspretenders, and their numbers are reused by those considered to be legitimate popes. However, there are", "However, there are anomalies in the numbering of the popes. Several numbers were mistakenly increased in the Middle Ages because the records were misunderstood. Several antipopes were also kept in the sequence, either by mistake or because they were previously considered to be true popes. See also Lists Notes References Sources External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tate_McRae", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_You_Think_You_Can_Dance:_The_Next_Generation_(American_TV_series" ]

[ "Tate McRae Tate Rosner McRae(born July 1, 2003) is a Canadian singer, songwriter, and dancer. At the age of 13, she gained prominence as the first Canadian finalist on the American reality television seriesSo You Think You Can Dance. McRae was signed byRCA Recordsin 2019 after her songs had gained traction online—including her 2017 viral hit \"One Day\"—and she released her debutextended play(EP),All the Things I Never Said(2020), in January of the following year. Her 2020 single, \"You Broke Me First\", became an international hit and peaked at number 17 on theBillboardHot 100. In 2021, McRae was the youngest musician to be featured on theForbes'30 Under 30list. Her second EP,Too Young to Be Sad(2021) was the most streamed female EP of 2021 onSpotify. Her debut studio album,I Used to Think I Could Fly(2022)was met with favorable critical response and peaked at number 13 on the USBillboard200, also reaching the top ten in several countries. Developing a more pop-oriented image, McRae's 2023 single, \"Greedy\" saw her furthest commercial success; it peaked atop theCanadian Hot 100and reached number three on theBillboardHot 100. Its follow-up, \"Exes\", peaked at numbers nine and 34 on the charts, respectively, and preceded the release of her second studio album,Think Later(2023), which debuted in the top five in various countries. Early life and education Tate Rosner McRaewas born inCalgary, Alberta, onCanada Dayin 2003, to a Canadian father ofScottishdescent and mother ofGermandescent.At the age of four, due to her father's work, she moved with her family toOman, where her mother taught dance lessons, and she lived there for three years.During her time in Oman, McRae attendedThe American International School Muscat(TAISM).McRae began recreational dance training at age six.Having returned to Calgary, at the age of eight, she began to train more intensively in danceand competed with Drewitz Dance Productions. From age 11, she began training in all styles of dance at YYC Dance Project, a dance company owned by her mother,and underwent ballet training at the School of Alberta Ballet, the training school for theAlberta Ballet Company.McRae attendedWestern Canada High Schooland graduatedonlinein 2022. Career 2013–2018: Dance career McRae was awarded MiniBest Female Dancerat the2013 Dance Awardsin New York City.After gaining some prominence,she became a brand ambassador for the American dance manufacturerCapezio.She became a finalist at the New York City Dance Alliance's 2014 National Gala.She also voiced Spot Splatter Splash for theLalaloopsy(2013-2015) franchise. In 2015, McRae was awarded a two-week scholarship at theBerlin State Balletcompany after winning the silver medal as a soloist and the bronze medal for her duet at the2015 Youth America Grand Prix.She danced in the music video forWalk off the Earth's platinum-certified single \"Rule The World\".For the second time, McRae was awarded theBest Female Danceraward at the2015 Dance Awards, this time in the Junior category. In June 2016, she performed atJustin Bieber's concert in Calgary for thePurpose World Tourduring Bieber's performance of \"Children\".In April 2016, McRae performed onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showas part of the DancerPalooza troupe.In June 2016, she took part in thethirteenth seasonof American television showSo You Think You Can Dance.While competing for the America's Favorite Dancer title as a non-American, she was mentored by American dancer and actressKathryn McCormick.She advanced further in the competition than any other Canadian in the show's history, placing third on the final episode.Canadian TV hostMurtz JafferfromToronto Sunreacted, \"The fact that Canadians couldn't vote for Tate makes her third-place finish all the more impressive. While she might not have been voted America's favourite dancer, she certainly might be Canada's.\"She performed at the2016 Teen Choice Awardsas a finalist from theSYTYCDcast.She performed again onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showin October 2016 as part of the Jump Dance Convention troupe. She was featured on the cover ofDance SpiritMagazinein April 2017.In May 2017, she was featured in apas de deuxin Alberta Ballet Company's production, \"Our Canada\"choreographed by Jean Grand-Maître.In November 2017, after performing a dance toDemi Lovato'ssongTell Me You Love Meshe was invited by Lovato to rehearse with their dancers for their performance at theAmerican Music Awards.For the third time, she won Best Female Dancer at the2018 Dance Awardsin Las Vegas, this time in the Teen category,making her the first dancer in the competition's history to win in all categories from mini to teen. In April 2018, she choreographed and danced in the music video for the song \"Just Say When\" by American rock bandNothing More. 2017–2019: Music career beginnings Since its creation in 2011, McRae's YouTube channel has featured a fairly consistent stream of primarily dance videos. In 2017 she started Create With Tate, a video series, focused on showcasing original songs she wrote and recorded in her bedroom.Her upload of the series' first song \"One Day\" which she wrote at the age of 14, attracted over 40 million views, prompting her to self-release the song as an independent single.The song would eventually be certified gold in Canada, making it the first certification of her career.From 2017 to 2019, McRae continued to upload and release independent singles as part of her Create With Tate series. Notable songs include \"Dear Ex Best Friend\" which has over 50 million views and \"Dear Parents\" with over 20 million views. The series led to her being named a YouTube Artist on the Rise. Her earlier upload of \"One Day\" caught the attention of 11 record labels.She eventually signed withRCA Records, in August 2019,because they supported her in maintaining a dance career alongside her music.Following her signing, McRae announced her debut EPAll the Things I Never Saidin December 2019.She released the five-track EP on January 24, 2020, and announced her first headlining tour of Europe and North America.Each stop on the tour was sold out.The tour received a four out of five star rating from Roisin O'Connor ofThe Independentwho described McRae as an impressive performer. The EP's lead single, \"Tear Myself Apart\", was co-written byBillie EilishandFinneas O'Connell.The EP's final single, \"Stupid\" charted in Ireland and Canada, earning significant radio airplay performance in the latter, peaking within the top 15 of the Canadian pop radio charts.\"Stupid\" was certified gold in Canada.\"That Way\", a track from the EP experienced a resurgence in 2021 after going viral on TikTok and charted in the UKand Ireland.McRae released a remix of \"That Way\" withJeremy Zuckeron September 3, 2021.By December 2023, the EP had amassed over 729 million streams on Spotify. 2020–2021:Too Young to Be Sad In April 2020, McRae released the single \"You Broke Me First\" as the lead single for her second EP titledToo Young to Be Sad.The song was an international success, peaking within the top ten of the charts in several countries and becoming her first single to chart on theBillboardHot 100.It was also the longest charting song released by a female artist in 2020 on theBillboard Hot 100, at 38 weeks.It peaked at number 1 on theMediabaseTop 40 chart, breaking the record for the longest climb to number 1 by a female solo artist at 28 weeks. McRae released the single \"Vicious\" featuring American rapperLil Moseyin June 2020and \"Don't Be Sad\" in August 2020.She was nominated for theMTV Video Music Award for Push Best New Artist,and performed \"You Broke Me First\" at theVMAs pre-show.In September 2020, she was featured on the cover ofDorkMagazine. McRae made her first late night TV appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in October 21 performing \"You Broke Me First\".The same month, she released the single \"Lie to Me\" with Canadian singerAli Gatie.She again performed \"You Broke Me First\" in November 2020 at the2020 MTV Europe Music Awards. She appeared on the cover ofNotionin November 2020.In December 2020, she released \"r u ok\", the second single from her upcoming EP. McRae gained notable recognition as a rising artist in 2020, being namedYouTube's Artist on the Rise,MTV's Push Artist for July, and aVevoDSCVR artist.She was featured inBillboard's21 Under 21 One to Watch listand named byPandora,The Independent,NME,Amazon Music,andUproxxas an artist to watch in 2021. In December 2020, she was the youngest person listed in theForbes 30 Under 30list in the music category.In the same month, she was named one ofRolling Stone's top ten biggest breakthrough artists of 2020and featured onTikTok's \"The Come Up: Emerging Artists\" list as one of the top emerging artists on the platform.She was also featured onHarper's Bazaar'sOn the Rise series.Towards the end of the year, following the success of \"You Broke Me First\", she signed a worldwide publishing deal withSony/ATV. In January 2021, McRae performed \"You Broke Me First\" onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.The following day, she released the song \"Rubberband\" as the third single from her upcoming EP.On March 3, 2021, she released the single \"Slower\" and announced her second EP calledToo Young to Be Sad, which was released on March 26, 2021.On that same day, she was announced as anApple MusicUp Nextartist.In March 2021, McRae appeared onJimmy Kimmel Live!performing \"Slower\",and received twoJuno Awardnominations. On April 16, 2021, McRae released the track\"You\"alongsideRegardandTroye Sivan.On May 8, 2021, McRae performed a global virtual show, \"Too Young to Be Sad\".The show was praised by Ali Shutler ofNME, who gave it a four star rating and described the show as slick, impressive, constant spectacle with pop star ambition. Later that month, she signed her first endorsement deal with Essentia Water.In May 2021, McRae was nominated for the Social Star Award at theIHeartRadio Music Awards,and performed \"You\" with Regard andTroye SivanonThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.At the end of the month, she was featured on the soundtrack of theAmazonoriginal seriesPanicwith the track \"Darkest Hour\". In June 2021, she was featured on the song \"U love U\" byBlackbear,performed \"Lie to Me\" at the2021 Juno Awards,and released the track \"Working\", a collaboration withKhalid.In August 2021, McRae was featured on the cover ofHunger.In October 2021, she was featured onBillboard's21 under 21 list for 2021 andPeople'sOne to Watch list for 2021.McRae was featured on the cover ofNuméroin November 2021.By the end of 2021,Too Young to Be Sadhad amassed over 1 billion Spotify streams, becoming the most streamed EP of 2021 by a female artist on Spotify. The EP was nominated forAlbum of the YearandPop Album of the Yearat the2022 Juno Awards. 2021–2022:I Used to Think I Could Fly On November 11, 2021, McRae released \"Feel Like Shit\", the lead single from her debut studio albumI Used to Think I Could Fly, which was released on May 27, 2022.In January 2022, she was nominated for three iHeart Radio Awards. \"She's All I Wanna Be\", the second single from the album, was released on February 4, 2022.The song reached the top 10 in Canada, Ireland, Norway, Singapore, and Belgium. It also charted in the Top 40 in several countries. It debuted at number 52 in the US, becoming her highest debut on the Hot 100 at the time.In February 2022, McRae was announced as a brand ambassador forMaybellineand the face of their new Vinyl Ink liquid lip color. McRae released \"Chaotic\", the third single from the album on March 25, 2022, and released \"What Would You Do?\" as the fourth single on May 13, 2022.On June 3, 2022, Tate released a music video for her single \"Don't Come Back\" exclusively via TikTok, and later released the vertical version of the video on July 11, 2022, on YouTube. In September 2022, McRae released the single \"Uh Oh\".In November 2022, Tate was featured on \"10:35\" byTiësto, a promo-single for the opening of the luxury resortAtlantis The Royal, Dubai.The song became her second UK Top 10. It reached the Top 10 in ten other countries. 2023–present:Think Later McRae was nominated for five Juno Awards in 2023, and performed at the show.In March 2023, McRae teamed up withMCM Worldwidefor their Spring/Summer 2023 Campaign, performing \"uh oh\" and \"She's All I Wanna Be\".On September 15, 2023, she released \"Greedy\" as the lead single for her sophomore studio albumThink Later.Greedy became her biggest debut to date on Spotify,and her first top 10 on the Global Spotify Charts.It debuted at number 1 in NorwayandDenmarkand peaked at number 1 in several countries includingCanada,Denmark,Austria, andthe Netherlands, as well as theBillboard Global 200, making it her first official number 1 single worldwide. McRae’s second studio albumThink Laterwas officially released on December 8, 2023.The album received mixed to positive appraisal from both fans and critics, withRolling StonenotingM.I.A.andAriana Grande’s influences on the project, stating that in terms of the latter,Think Later\"represented a career-defining shift for McRae as she pulled herself from the rubble of grief, heartbreak, and internal turmoil.\"Think Laterdebuted in the top 5 of the charts in US, UK, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Belgium and Norway. The second single fromThink Later, \"Exes\", was released on November 17, 2023, and peaked in the top 10 in Canada and the Netherlands, top 20 in the UK and Australia, and top 40 in the US. On November 18, 2023, she performed \"Greedy\" and a then-unreleased song titled \"Grave\" onSaturday Night Live.She also made her debut American award show performance with \"Greedy\" at theBillboard Music Awardson November 19, 2023.McRae performed a medley at the2024 NHL All-Star gameinTorontoin February 2024.In March 2024, she made her debut performance at theBrit Awardswith \"Greedy\"and subsequently performed a medley of \"Greedy\" and \"Exes\" at theiHeartRadio Music Awardsin April.McRae won theJuno Awardfor Artist of the Year, and Single of the Year for \"Greedy\" at the2024 Juno Awards. On September 13, 2024, McRae released the song \"It's OK I'm OK\". Personal life McRae is a fan of theCalgary Flamesof the NHL, and has attended numerous games. From late 2021 to early 2023, McRae was in a relationship withColumbus Blue JacketsplayerCole Sillinger.In April 2024, Australian rapper and singerthe Kid Laroiconfirmed his relationship with McRae. Artistry and public image McRae has namedPost Malone,the Weeknd,Khalid,Jessie Reyez,Ariana GrandeandJeremy Zuckeras her biggest musical influences.She citesZendayaandDua Lipaas all-around influences, and has described both women as her biggest idols,noting that she looks up to them in all aspects of life. She has also namedBruno Mars,Madonna,Christina Aguilera,Britney Spears,Ciara,Jennifer LopezandJustin Timberlakeas inspirations for bringing dance into her performances,while namingTaylor Swift,Julia MichaelsandAlec Benjaminas songwriting inspirations.Further, McRae has called herself a \"huge fan\" of Swift and described her as \"one of the greatest songwriters.\"McRae has also expressed an admiration forBillie EilishandRosalía. McRae has been described as \"the teen dance star turned future pop idol\" byi-D,\"the new teen queen\" byNotion,\"Canada's answer toBillie Eilish\" byElle,and \"one of pop's bright young hopes\" byThe Independent.She has also been noted for her honest lyrics, “impressive” vocals and relatable music.Additionally, McRae has received considerable acclaim as a dancer, and has been praised by artist, dancer and choreographerPaula Abdulwho declared her a \"gift from God\",and choreographers such asStacey TookeyandBlake McGrath, both of whom stated that she's talented beyond her years, with the latter describing her as \"one of the best dancers he has ever worked with\"as well as two-time Emmy winnerTravis Wall,who has named her as one of his muses.Margaret Furher ofDance Spirit Magazinedescribed her dancing as virtuosic both technically and artistically.As of March 2024, her YouTube channel has amassed over 1.5 billion views and she has garnered more than 8.4 billion career streams across all platforms. Discography Studio albums Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Listicles Tours See also References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_You_Think_You_Can_Dance:_The_Next_Generation_(American_TV_series" ]

[ "Tate McRae Tate Rosner McRae(born July 1, 2003) is a Canadian singer, songwriter, and dancer. At the age of 13, she gained prominence as the first Canadian finalist on the American reality television seriesSo You Think You Can Dance. McRae was signed byRCA Recordsin 2019 after her songs had gained traction online—including her 2017 viral hit \"One Day\"—and she released her debutextended play(EP),All the Things I Never Said(2020), in January of the following year. Her 2020 single, \"You Broke Me First\", became an international hit and peaked at number 17 on theBillboardHot 100. In 2021, McRae was the youngest musician to be featured on theForbes'30 Under 30list. Her second EP,Too Young to Be Sad(2021) was the most streamed female EP of 2021 onSpotify. Her debut studio album,I Used to Think I Could Fly(2022)was met with favorable critical response and peaked at number 13 on the USBillboard200, also reaching the top ten in several countries. Developing a more pop-oriented image, McRae's 2023 single, \"Greedy\" saw", "\"Greedy\" saw her furthest commercial success; it peaked atop theCanadian Hot 100and reached number three on theBillboardHot 100. Its follow-up, \"Exes\", peaked at numbers nine and 34 on the charts, respectively, and preceded the release of her second studio album,Think Later(2023), which debuted in the top five in various countries. Early life and education Tate Rosner McRaewas born inCalgary, Alberta, onCanada Dayin 2003, to a Canadian father ofScottishdescent and mother ofGermandescent.At the age of four, due to her father's work, she moved with her family toOman, where her mother taught dance lessons, and she lived there for three years.During her time in Oman, McRae attendedThe American International School Muscat(TAISM).McRae began recreational dance training at age six.Having returned to Calgary, at the age of eight, she began to train more intensively in danceand competed with Drewitz Dance Productions. From age 11, she began training in all styles of dance at YYC Dance Project, a dance company owned", "dance company owned by her mother,and underwent ballet training at the School of Alberta Ballet, the training school for theAlberta Ballet Company.McRae attendedWestern Canada High Schooland graduatedonlinein 2022. Career 2013–2018: Dance career McRae was awarded MiniBest Female Dancerat the2013 Dance Awardsin New York City.After gaining some prominence,she became a brand ambassador for the American dance manufacturerCapezio.She became a finalist at the New York City Dance Alliance's 2014 National Gala.She also voiced Spot Splatter Splash for theLalaloopsy(2013-2015) franchise. In 2015, McRae was awarded a two-week scholarship at theBerlin State Balletcompany after winning the silver medal as a soloist and the bronze medal for her duet at the2015 Youth America Grand Prix.She danced in the music video forWalk off the Earth's platinum-certified single \"Rule The World\".For the second time, McRae was awarded theBest Female Danceraward at the2015 Dance Awards, this time in the Junior category. In June 2016, she", "In June 2016, she performed atJustin Bieber's concert in Calgary for thePurpose World Tourduring Bieber's performance of \"Children\".In April 2016, McRae performed onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showas part of the DancerPalooza troupe.In June 2016, she took part in thethirteenth seasonof American television showSo You Think You Can Dance.While competing for the America's Favorite Dancer title as a non-American, she was mentored by American dancer and actressKathryn McCormick.She advanced further in the competition than any other Canadian in the show's history, placing third on the final episode.Canadian TV hostMurtz JafferfromToronto Sunreacted, \"The fact that Canadians couldn't vote for Tate makes her third-place finish all the more impressive. While she might not have been voted America's favourite dancer, she certainly might be Canada's.\"She performed at the2016 Teen Choice Awardsas a finalist from theSYTYCDcast.She performed again onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showin October 2016 as part of the Jump Dance Convention", "Dance Convention troupe. She was featured on the cover ofDance SpiritMagazinein April 2017.In May 2017, she was featured in apas de deuxin Alberta Ballet Company's production, \"Our Canada\"choreographed by Jean Grand-Maître.In November 2017, after performing a dance toDemi Lovato'ssongTell Me You Love Meshe was invited by Lovato to rehearse with their dancers for their performance at theAmerican Music Awards.For the third time, she won Best Female Dancer at the2018 Dance Awardsin Las Vegas, this time in the Teen category,making her the first dancer in the competition's history to win in all categories from mini to teen. In April 2018, she choreographed and danced in the music video for the song \"Just Say When\" by American rock bandNothing More. 2017–2019: Music career beginnings Since its creation in 2011, McRae's YouTube channel has featured a fairly consistent stream of primarily dance videos. In 2017 she started Create With Tate, a video series, focused on showcasing original songs she wrote and recorded", "wrote and recorded in her bedroom.Her upload of the series' first song \"One Day\" which she wrote at the age of 14, attracted over 40 million views, prompting her to self-release the song as an independent single.The song would eventually be certified gold in Canada, making it the first certification of her career.From 2017 to 2019, McRae continued to upload and release independent singles as part of her Create With Tate series. Notable songs include \"Dear Ex Best Friend\" which has over 50 million views and \"Dear Parents\" with over 20 million views. The series led to her being named a YouTube Artist on the Rise. Her earlier upload of \"One Day\" caught the attention of 11 record labels.She eventually signed withRCA Records, in August 2019,because they supported her in maintaining a dance career alongside her music.Following her signing, McRae announced her debut EPAll the Things I Never Saidin December 2019.She released the five-track EP on January 24, 2020, and announced her first headlining tour of Europe and", "tour of Europe and North America.Each stop on the tour was sold out.The tour received a four out of five star rating from Roisin O'Connor ofThe Independentwho described McRae as an impressive performer. The EP's lead single, \"Tear Myself Apart\", was co-written byBillie EilishandFinneas O'Connell.The EP's final single, \"Stupid\" charted in Ireland and Canada, earning significant radio airplay performance in the latter, peaking within the top 15 of the Canadian pop radio charts.\"Stupid\" was certified gold in Canada.\"That Way\", a track from the EP experienced a resurgence in 2021 after going viral on TikTok and charted in the UKand Ireland.McRae released a remix of \"That Way\" withJeremy Zuckeron September 3, 2021.By December 2023, the EP had amassed over 729 million streams on Spotify. 2020–2021:Too Young to Be Sad In April 2020, McRae released the single \"You Broke Me First\" as the lead single for her second EP titledToo Young to Be Sad.The song was an international success, peaking within the top ten of the", "the top ten of the charts in several countries and becoming her first single to chart on theBillboardHot 100.It was also the longest charting song released by a female artist in 2020 on theBillboard Hot 100, at 38 weeks.It peaked at number 1 on theMediabaseTop 40 chart, breaking the record for the longest climb to number 1 by a female solo artist at 28 weeks. McRae released the single \"Vicious\" featuring American rapperLil Moseyin June 2020and \"Don't Be Sad\" in August 2020.She was nominated for theMTV Video Music Award for Push Best New Artist,and performed \"You Broke Me First\" at theVMAs pre-show.In September 2020, she was featured on the cover ofDorkMagazine. McRae made her first late night TV appearance onJimmy Kimmel Live!in October 21 performing \"You Broke Me First\".The same month, she released the single \"Lie to Me\" with Canadian singerAli Gatie.She again performed \"You Broke Me First\" in November 2020 at the2020 MTV Europe Music Awards. She appeared on the cover ofNotionin November 2020.In December", "2020.In December 2020, she released \"r u ok\", the second single from her upcoming EP. McRae gained notable recognition as a rising artist in 2020, being namedYouTube's Artist on the Rise,MTV's Push Artist for July, and aVevoDSCVR artist.She was featured inBillboard's21 Under 21 One to Watch listand named byPandora,The Independent,NME,Amazon Music,andUproxxas an artist to watch in 2021. In December 2020, she was the youngest person listed in theForbes 30 Under 30list in the music category.In the same month, she was named one ofRolling Stone's top ten biggest breakthrough artists of 2020and featured onTikTok's \"The Come Up: Emerging Artists\" list as one of the top emerging artists on the platform.She was also featured onHarper's Bazaar'sOn the Rise series.Towards the end of the year, following the success of \"You Broke Me First\", she signed a worldwide publishing deal withSony/ATV. In January 2021, McRae performed \"You Broke Me First\" onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.The following day, she released the", "she released the song \"Rubberband\" as the third single from her upcoming EP.On March 3, 2021, she released the single \"Slower\" and announced her second EP calledToo Young to Be Sad, which was released on March 26, 2021.On that same day, she was announced as anApple MusicUp Nextartist.In March 2021, McRae appeared onJimmy Kimmel Live!performing \"Slower\",and received twoJuno Awardnominations. On April 16, 2021, McRae released the track\"You\"alongsideRegardandTroye Sivan.On May 8, 2021, McRae performed a global virtual show, \"Too Young to Be Sad\".The show was praised by Ali Shutler ofNME, who gave it a four star rating and described the show as slick, impressive, constant spectacle with pop star ambition. Later that month, she signed her first endorsement deal with Essentia Water.In May 2021, McRae was nominated for the Social Star Award at theIHeartRadio Music Awards,and performed \"You\" with Regard andTroye SivanonThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.At the end of the month, she was featured on the soundtrack", "on the soundtrack of theAmazonoriginal seriesPanicwith the track \"Darkest Hour\". In June 2021, she was featured on the song \"U love U\" byBlackbear,performed \"Lie to Me\" at the2021 Juno Awards,and released the track \"Working\", a collaboration withKhalid.In August 2021, McRae was featured on the cover ofHunger.In October 2021, she was featured onBillboard's21 under 21 list for 2021 andPeople'sOne to Watch list for 2021.McRae was featured on the cover ofNuméroin November 2021.By the end of 2021,Too Young to Be Sadhad amassed over 1 billion Spotify streams, becoming the most streamed EP of 2021 by a female artist on Spotify. The EP was nominated forAlbum of the YearandPop Album of the Yearat the2022 Juno Awards. 2021–2022:I Used to Think I Could Fly On November 11, 2021, McRae released \"Feel Like Shit\", the lead single from her debut studio albumI Used to Think I Could Fly, which was released on May 27, 2022.In January 2022, she was nominated for three iHeart Radio Awards. \"She's All I Wanna Be\", the second", "Be\", the second single from the album, was released on February 4, 2022.The song reached the top 10 in Canada, Ireland, Norway, Singapore, and Belgium. It also charted in the Top 40 in several countries. It debuted at number 52 in the US, becoming her highest debut on the Hot 100 at the time.In February 2022, McRae was announced as a brand ambassador forMaybellineand the face of their new Vinyl Ink liquid lip color. McRae released \"Chaotic\", the third single from the album on March 25, 2022, and released \"What Would You Do?\" as the fourth single on May 13, 2022.On June 3, 2022, Tate released a music video for her single \"Don't Come Back\" exclusively via TikTok, and later released the vertical version of the video on July 11, 2022, on YouTube. In September 2022, McRae released the single \"Uh Oh\".In November 2022, Tate was featured on \"10:35\" byTiësto, a promo-single for the opening of the luxury resortAtlantis The Royal, Dubai.The song became her second UK Top 10. It reached the Top 10 in ten other countries.", "other countries. 2023–present:Think Later McRae was nominated for five Juno Awards in 2023, and performed at the show.In March 2023, McRae teamed up withMCM Worldwidefor their Spring/Summer 2023 Campaign, performing \"uh oh\" and \"She's All I Wanna Be\".On September 15, 2023, she released \"Greedy\" as the lead single for her sophomore studio albumThink Later.Greedy became her biggest debut to date on Spotify,and her first top 10 on the Global Spotify Charts.It debuted at number 1 in NorwayandDenmarkand peaked at number 1 in several countries includingCanada,Denmark,Austria, andthe Netherlands, as well as theBillboard Global 200, making it her first official number 1 single worldwide. McRae’s second studio albumThink Laterwas officially released on December 8, 2023.The album received mixed to positive appraisal from both fans and critics, withRolling StonenotingM.I.A.andAriana Grande’s influences on the project, stating that in terms of the latter,Think Later\"represented a career-defining shift for McRae as she", "for McRae as she pulled herself from the rubble of grief, heartbreak, and internal turmoil.\"Think Laterdebuted in the top 5 of the charts in US, UK, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Belgium and Norway. The second single fromThink Later, \"Exes\", was released on November 17, 2023, and peaked in the top 10 in Canada and the Netherlands, top 20 in the UK and Australia, and top 40 in the US. On November 18, 2023, she performed \"Greedy\" and a then-unreleased song titled \"Grave\" onSaturday Night Live.She also made her debut American award show performance with \"Greedy\" at theBillboard Music Awardson November 19, 2023.McRae performed a medley at the2024 NHL All-Star gameinTorontoin February 2024.In March 2024, she made her debut performance at theBrit Awardswith \"Greedy\"and subsequently performed a medley of \"Greedy\" and \"Exes\" at theiHeartRadio Music Awardsin April.McRae won theJuno Awardfor Artist of the Year, and Single of the Year for \"Greedy\" at the2024 Juno Awards. On September 13, 2024, McRae released the song", "released the song \"It's OK I'm OK\". Personal life McRae is a fan of theCalgary Flamesof the NHL, and has attended numerous games. From late 2021 to early 2023, McRae was in a relationship withColumbus Blue JacketsplayerCole Sillinger.In April 2024, Australian rapper and singerthe Kid Laroiconfirmed his relationship with McRae. Artistry and public image McRae has namedPost Malone,the Weeknd,Khalid,Jessie Reyez,Ariana GrandeandJeremy Zuckeras her biggest musical influences.She citesZendayaandDua Lipaas all-around influences, and has described both women as her biggest idols,noting that she looks up to them in all aspects of life. She has also namedBruno Mars,Madonna,Christina Aguilera,Britney Spears,Ciara,Jennifer LopezandJustin Timberlakeas inspirations for bringing dance into her performances,while namingTaylor Swift,Julia MichaelsandAlec Benjaminas songwriting inspirations.Further, McRae has called herself a \"huge fan\" of Swift and described her as \"one of the greatest songwriters.\"McRae has also expressed", "has also expressed an admiration forBillie EilishandRosalía. McRae has been described as \"the teen dance star turned future pop idol\" byi-D,\"the new teen queen\" byNotion,\"Canada's answer toBillie Eilish\" byElle,and \"one of pop's bright young hopes\" byThe Independent.She has also been noted for her honest lyrics, “impressive” vocals and relatable music.Additionally, McRae has received considerable acclaim as a dancer, and has been praised by artist, dancer and choreographerPaula Abdulwho declared her a \"gift from God\",and choreographers such asStacey TookeyandBlake McGrath, both of whom stated that she's talented beyond her years, with the latter describing her as \"one of the best dancers he has ever worked with\"as well as two-time Emmy winnerTravis Wall,who has named her as one of his muses.Margaret Furher ofDance Spirit Magazinedescribed her dancing as virtuosic both technically and artistically.As of March 2024, her YouTube channel has amassed over 1.5 billion views and she has garnered more than 8.4", "more than 8.4 billion career streams across all platforms. Discography Studio albums Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Listicles Tours See also References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_You_Think_You_Can_Dance:_The_Next_Generation_(American_TV_series" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennington", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydbrook", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stow-on-the-Wold", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witney", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" ]

[ "Rennington Renningtonis a village andcivil parishinNorthumberland, England about 4 miles (6 km) north ofAlnwick. The parish includes the village ofRockand the hamlets ofBroxfieldandStamford. In 2011 the parish had a population of 366. Governance Renningtonis in theparliamentaryconstituency ofBerwick-upon-Tweed. From 1974 to 2009 it was inAlnwickdistrict. Rennington was formerly atownshipandchapelryin the parish of Embleton,in 1866 Rennington became a separate civil parish, on 1 April 1955 the parishes of Broxfield, Rock and Stamford were abolished and merged with Rennington. References External links Media related toRenningtonat Wikimedia Commons ThisNorthumberlandlocation article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Lydbrook Lydbrookis acivil parishin theForest of Dean, alocal government districtin theEnglishcounty ofGloucestershireand is located in theWye Valley. It is on the north west edge of theForest of Dean's present legal boundary proper. It comprises the districts of Lower Lydbrook, Upper Lydbrook,Joys Greenand Worrall Hill. It has a mile and a half long high street, reputed to be the longest high street of any village in England. Early history The area now forming the present village of Lydbrook has been inhabited throughout history.Artifactsfrom Hangerberry and Eastbach on the south west corner of the parish, and Lower Lydbrook show evidence of widespread activity from theMesolithic period(Middle Stone Age 10,000–4000 BC) to the present.Flint stonetools from surrounding fields confirm that the area was occupied and farmed for more than 4,000 years. Lydbrook was inhabited by theRomansas there is evidence of a Roman homestead along Proberts Barn Lane, Lower Lydbrook. The timber building detected on the site may date from the 1st century AD. A later building with stone walls was still inhabited in the 4th century. The site was a farming and agricultural centre in the Roman period. There is also evidence of Roman activity at Hangerberry with traces of a Roman pavement. ARoman roadcame fromRuardeanthrough Lower Lydbrook (tracing theWye) toEnglish Bicknor. A further ancient road existed betweenJoys Greenand English Bicknor via Bell Hill. Traces of a Roman Road also exist from Worrall Hill toEdge End. These Roman track ways show evidence of following previousprehistoricpaths. In 1881 it was reported a large quantity ofRoman coinswere found at Lower Lydbrook. The Dean Archaeological Group's recent excavations in and around Lydbrook have recovered other coins from the Roman period, as well as other artefacts pre-dating and post dating this period. Parish boundaries For those living today there may be differences as to what comprises Lydbrook. There is the village of Lydbrook which for many would include Worrall Hill, Hangerberry and Stowfield. There is also the Parish of Lydbrook which includes Joys Green, Hawsley and High Beech. The complexities of boundaries for Lydbrook have been greater in the past. Before becoming part of Gloucestershire, prior to the 12th century, the Forest of Dean lay inHerefordshire. For example, Ruardean was an extension of the parish ofWalfordin Herefordshire and St John's church at Ruardean was a daughter church of Walford Church. In the same time as the Forest of Dean came into Gloucestershire the Forest had become the preserve of the Crown. The area now covered by Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green, would have been served in times past by the church atMitcheldean. However, from Norman times until the mid 19th century, it came under the Forest's Bailiff for Mitcheldean (in other words 'the Magna or Great Dean Bailiwick'), and thus was extra-parochial, or outside of a parish. Lower Lydbrook was divided between the parishes ofEnglish Bicknorand Walford (served by the Church of St John the Baptist at Ruardean), with the Lyd forming the boundary. The mid-19th century saw the parochialisation of the Forest. Each area within the legal boundaries of the Forest came under both a church district and a civic district. In 1816 Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green came under the newly created church of Holy Trinity at Harrow Hill, with a mission chapel built in Upper Lydbrook in 1821. By 1842 this arrangement was formalised by the newly created ecclesiastical district of Holy Trinity (Harrow Hill, Drybrook). The civic boundaries of the Forest differed from the church boundaries and from 1842 Lower Lydbrook and Upper Lydbrook became part of the Township of West Dean, with Joys Green coming within the westmost boundary of the Township of East Dean, the Railway line (constructed later in the 1860s) ran along this boundary. In 1852 Lower Lydbrook, Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green all became part of the newly created ecclesiastical parish of Lydbrook. It was much later in 1935 that the civic parish of Lydbrook was created. Lower Lydbrook and Upper Lydbrook had developed as separate communities prior to the 17th century and remained so legally until the 19th century. A few of the older inhabitants of the village reported that atoll gateonce existed between Lower and Upper Lydbrook. Lower Lydbrook was settled as part of the parishes of English Bicknor and Ruardean, and was the focus of the iron industry. You only have to look at the location of housing in Lower Lydbrook to see a defined community adjacent to the Wye River and Lyd brook. The pond also served as a focal point, as well a community meeting places. Lower Lydbrook people were buried in the churchyards of Ruardean and English Bicknor (as well as a number being buried atWelsh Bicknoracross the Wye). Upper Lydbrook lay within the Forest boundary which had been part of the Bailiwick of Mitcheldean, and had been encroached (housing being built within what was once strictly a Crown preserve), serving as a focus for the mining community. Governance Lydbrook falls in 'Lydbrook and Ruardean'electoral ward. This ward starts in the south east at Lydbrook and stretches to the north east atRuardean. The total parish population taken at the 2011 census was 4,819. Present community The present community of Lydbrook seems to have had its beginnings in the 13th century. In a record of a sale of trees in 1256, mention is made of 'the Mill of Lydbrook'. Further early notes on Lydbrook occur in a survey of the Forest of Dean in 1282. The Lyd (a brook, which flows into the River Wye, and not the one that flows to Lydney) formed, for part of its travels, the boundary between the Bailiwicks of Bikenore (English Bicknor) and Rywardin (Ruardean). Today many maps call the Lyd, Hough Brook, or Great Hough Brook, and How Brook which joins the Lyd is known on modern maps as Little Hough Brook. Listed in the 1282 entries of those who possessed cultivated land, William of Ludebrok (Lydbrook), appears under the parish of Bikenore, and under the parish of Rywardin. Rather than being two separate pieces of land in differing localities, it was probably that William's land will have included the brook, hence his inclusion in the records for both parishes. In addition, under the entry for Bikenore is recorded, Robert of Stoufeld (Stowfield). Thus the development of Lydbrook began at Lower Lydbrook. The village takes its name from the brook running its entire length – the 'loud brook' or lud brook to become Lyd Brook. The village developed as a site for the local iron and coal industries with the houses as an encroachment into the Forest tracing the Lyd brook which provided the water needed for industry and domestic use. The development of the encroachment, continued into the Bailiwick of Magna Dean (Mitcheldean), the area which became known as Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green. The village only became a place of population of any size 17th century onwards, but grew steadily since to remain static for almost a century and a half at a population of about 2,500 between the 1850s and the beginning of the 1990s. However, from the beginning of the 1990s the community has begun to slowly depopulate. One call to fame of the recent past, which now is thankfully no longer true, is that Humphrey Phelps, in his book on the Forest of Dean recalls that in the 1950s Lydbrook had the highest incidence oftuberculosisin England. Lydbrook presently Lydbrook has a shop and Post Office, afish and chip shop, many local businesses and pubs which include; The Jovial Colliers Inn and Bunkhouse (recently rebranded in house as The Colliers Inn), The Royal Spring Inn, The Forge Hammer Inn, Waterloo Business Park and Lydbrook Valley Garage/Autospray as well as the River Wye Lodge which replaced former The Courtfield Arms. The village is home to the Lydbrook brass band, a flourishing ensemble whose TV appearances include the Lotto Advert in 2014 and Countryfile in 2019. In 2012 Lydbrook was featured on ITV and BBC news due to the fact that the centre of Lydbrook was flooded and under up to 4 feet (1.2 m) of water. This was despite being nearly1⁄2mile (0.80 km) away from the local River Wye which is situated at the bottom of Lydbrook. This was due to a blockage of an old culvert under the road which contains a stream and the surface drainage for the entire village. In 2017, theForestry Commissioncommenced a project to introduceEurasian beaversinto an enclosed area of land uphill of the village, as part of a habitat-management programme: among the anticipated outcomes is the reduction in likelihood of furtherflash floodsoccurring. Lydbrook Parish Council In 1935, with the creation of the civic parish of Lydbrook, Joys Green became a full part of the parish. Industry Although Lydbrook is now developing as a useful centre for exploring both theWye Valleyand theForest of Deanwith its several hotels andbed and breakfastestablishments, its traditional connection is with industry especially with the iron, coal and timber industries. The arrival of the Romans brought with them the iron industry into the forest. The proven presence of aRoman communityin Lydbrook provides for the possibility of an early iron industry. There will certainly have beeniron oreandcoal mines, at low or outcrop level. Records for industry in the post Roman and preNormanperiods are scarce and it is only from the 13th century that numerous records can be found. However, details about Lydbrook can be difficult to isolate, as Lydbrook was not a parish in its own rights, and activity at Lydbrook, is activity at Ruardean or English Bicknor. One attraction of Lydbrook was the northward fast flowing Lyd. In the 1590s records exist of what became known as the UpperForgeat Lydbrook built by Thomas Bainham and later owned by Robert Devereux, secondEarl of Essex. In 1628 it was described as standing on \"Hangerbury Common, below the King's Forge\". By 1668 the Upper Forge had disappeared. Three other forges existed. The Middle Forge built in the 1590s was opposite what is now Beard's bakery building. After the demise of the original Upper Forge, the Middle Forge eventually took on the name of Upper Forge. The Lower Forge was built in 1610 (standing within two hundred yards from the Wye). Standing up-stream from the Upper Forge was the King's Howbrook Forge (also known as the Lydbrook Forge) built in 1612/13. This stood opposite what is now Brook House (was once the Yew Tree Inn). In March 1650 the Forge was demolished. Not far away and built in the same period was the King's Furnace powered by the Lyd (where the How brook joins the Lyd) this ceased by 1674. By the early 18th century only two forges existed, the Upper Forge (the renamed old Middle Forge) and the Lower Forge. In 1702 a further forge existed, although its location is now unknown, the New Forge. This forge was somewhere between the two others as it took on the name of 'Middle Forge'. By 1818 after many changes of hands both owners and tenants, the Partridge family dominated the iron works at Lydbrook. In 1622 there are details of a grist mill and a battering works nearby a disused cornmill. The Lower Forge became in its turn a Corn Mill. Existing also in Lydbrook around the 1690s was anAnvilmaking works.Roaring Meg (cannon), on display atGoodrich Castle, was made in Lydbrook in 1649. By 1798tinplateproduction began in Lydbrook through the agency of the Partridge and Allaway families (Thomas Allaway was a tenant of the Patridges). The Upper and Lower Forges had been converted to tinplate works by the Partridges and then were leased by Allaway in 1817. It has been argued that tinplate production began in Lydbrook in 1760, which would have made it the earliest centre for tinplate production. The Allaways firm became 'Pearce & Allaway' in 1820, and then in 1850 'Allaways, Partridge & Co'. In 1871 the business was leased to Richard Thomas who moved into the village and lived at the Poplars, Upper Lydbrook. Thomas expanded his business taking over Lydbrook Colliery and Waterloo Colliery. Richard Thomas died in 1916. The works were closed during theFirst World Warand ceased operating in 1925. The early tin works and rolling mills stood where Meredith & Sons and Lydwood works are today. In 1818 James Russell purchased theIronworksupstream of the Upper Forge, opposite the Bell Inn, where he created a wireworks. The enterprise was run by the family until its closure between 1890 and 1900. In 1912, Harold J Smith purchased land at Stowfield and erected the Lydbrook Cable Works. The First World War provided a number of contracts with employee numbers expanding from 40 to 650 with double shifts being worked. With the end of the War, came a slump in business, and in 1920 the Official Receiver was brought in ending Smith's connection with the factory. The business was bought in 1925 byEdison Swan Electric Company. With the greater resources available the plant at Stowfield further expanded, and was well placed to help with theSecond World Warpossessing one of only four machines for making lead alloy tube needed forP.L.U.T.O.– (Petroleum Lines Under The Ocean), which allowed fuel to be supplied to the Allied invasion force in Europe from Britain. In the late 1940s, Edison Swan was swallowed up byAssociated Electrical Industries. Integrated with theSiemens BrothersCable Works at Woolwich the Stowfield Factory at its height employed approximately 1,100 people. The Cable Works came to an end in 1966 when the factory was bought by Reed Paper Group, which in its turn was taken over by a Swedish Company SCA. The 18th and 19th centuries saw the village grow through the rise of industry. The first commercially successful blast furnace was sited in Lydbrook and was working as early as 1608. By the 18th century, Lydbook was an important location for the production of tin plate, and a book published in 1861 compared Lydbrook toSheffield. At the beginning of the 19th century the iron trade was in decline but the coal industry was growing fast. Lydbrook having its own collieries – Arthur & Edward (also called Waterloo as it opened in 1815), The Deep Level, The Old Soot Bag, The Old Engine, Worrall Hill Mine. Lower Lydbrook's situation by the Wye brought about its importance as being a loading place for coal to be taken by barge toHereford. The flat bottomed barges were dragged originally by men – until the construction of a tow path in 1811. This trade declined after the construction of theHerefordshire and Gloucestershire Canal, but the canal was soon superseded by the railways, which as far as Lydbrook is concerned has 'come and gone'. The community was served by two railway stations and a halt,Upper Lydbrook(the Halt),Lower LydbrookandLydbrook Junction. Not even the famousLower Lydbrook Viaductremains which enabled theSevern and Wye RailwayfromCinderfordvia Bilston and Serridge to connect with theRoss and Monmouth Railway. Theviaductrose some 87 feet above the roadway below, linking Forge Hill on the east with Randor on the west. It was built in 1872 and first used 26 August 1874. The line was closed to passengers in 1929 and to goods in 1951. It was dismantled in 1966. New industries replaced the old with the rise of a cable works, but this closed in 1965, replaced by Reed Corrugated Cases (since mid-1991 renamed SCA Packaging Ltd). Others in Lydbrook found employment withRank Xeroxat Mitcheldean. Other employment in the village is offered through the existence of a small number of light engineering works and three saw mills. The new industries differ from the old because they did not grow out of the Forest because of the minerals, but because of the availability of a work force. Only the saw mills (employing a small number of people) represent a connection with traditional Forest industry. Modern road communications with the surrounding areas has opened the village up to outsiders with the new phenomenon of holiday homes, being once the cottages of the Foresters. Local schools Almost forgotten as a fact is the place the churches played in providing education in Lydbrook. Situated in Lower Lydbrook was a school provided by the Goff Endowment Charity. The venture lasted from 1820 to the late 1830s. The school in Upper Lydbrook was founded by theChurch of England, which had provided a series of schools throughout the Forest in Mitcheldean, Christ Church, Drybrook, Woodside, the Hawthornes, Lydbrook, Park End, and Cinderford. The local school was founded by the Reverend Henry Berkin, as part of the National Schools, who erected a chapel schoolroom in 1822. The original building measured 50 feet long by 30 feet wide, and was fitted with benches with railed backs, and in the words of Henry Berkin \"will contain about 400 persons\". After 1851, with the erection of Holy Jesus Church, the chapel continued as a school and also served as the church hall. In 1872, fifty years on from 1822, the allocation of space being more generous per person, the school was (according to the record of the time) enlarged to \"seat 250 pupils\". On 20 January 1908 the beginnings of a new school had been erected as the 'Lydbrook Temporary Council School' to 'relieve the Lydbrook National School', with an intake of 35 boys. These will have been the senior boys. The new buildings were being erected across the main road from the old school on the west side of the village. By the autumn of 1909 the new school had been completed. The Headmaster, Mr Bishop transferred with the pupils on 6 September 1909. The school was due to be opened 30 August 1909, but the building work had not been completed so the children had the benefit of being granted an extra week's holiday. The registered number of 26937 belonging to the Lydbrook Church of England Infant School (allotted in April 1897) was transferred to the Lydbrook Council Infants' School, 30 August 1909. Joys Green school was erected in 1882 as a result of theEducation Act of 1870, and was implemented by the Dean School Board which in those years had the management of the schools in the area. School meals began in both schools in the early 1940s. Currently now, Joys Green Primary School was closed and is now a Young Persons Directorate. All students were transferred to Lydbrook when this happened. Lydbrook School is still headed by Executive Headteacher Simon Lusted. The past twoOfstedreports that Lydbrook School have had have given them ratings of Outstanding and Good with Outstanding features. Other notable buildings The Priory The oldest surviving building in Lydbrook is today known asThe Priory, which in fact had never been aPriory, but was originally known asLidbrook Farm. Once the home of the Probert family. The architectural design requires a date in the mid-16th century for this building, owing to the close timbered framework when oak was more plentiful, as opposed to square timbered style of the later period. There is a secret room in this building and claims for tunnels extending fromCourtfieldand theAnchor Inn. APriest holehas been argued for, but smuggling has been suggested as an alternative. The house is also reputed to behaunted. The Old House Further up the village, in Central Lydbrook, oppositeThe Anchor Innis the second oldest house in the village. This is (rather confusingly) calledThe Old House, and is a red-bricked and square-timbered house which at one stage belonged to Roger Kemble, father ofSarah Siddons(née Kemble – a famous actress 1755–1831). It has an extension built on the side which boasts the date '1718'. It is a Grade II* listed building. BothThe PrioryandThe Old Houseare situated in the oldest parts of the village in Lower and Central Lydbrook. It would not be surprising if even older structures were eventually discovered within other houses in Lower Lydbrook. Outlying neighbourhoods The two largest centres of housing positioned west and east of the valley areWorrall HillandJoys Green. The former district took its name from the Worrall family ofEnglish Bicknorand the name 'Joys Green' came fromJay's Greenon account of the numerousJaysseen in that locality. Centres of community Old School Rooms The Church of England mission chapel completed in 1822, not only provided a place ofChristianworship, but provided a school (hence its title of the old school rooms) and a church hall. After 1909 with a new school replacing the building, and a parish church replacing it as a chapel, the mission hall served as a parish hall with all manner of activities taking place. Reading Rooms Another early meeting place was the old 1 penny reading rooms in Mill Lane. The reading rooms were provided by the owners of the tinplate works which began in the mid-19th century. The reading rooms closed down in 1928/9. Anchor Hall The Anchor Hall adjacent to the Anchor public house provided a meeting place in the early part of the 20th century. A cinema was installed in 1914 run by theAlbany WardCompany. The Anchor Hall closed in the mid-1920s. Memorial Hall During theGreat Wara committee was formed to provide items for the welfare of the servicemen on leave. After the War the committee was left with £100. The committee and the Men's Institute (founded in 1892) formed a general committee and proposed the building of a Memorial Hall. Public subscriptions were sought, and a grant from the United Services Fund of £88 was obtained. The localWomen's Institutehad an original aim of erecting their own headquarters but joined in with the Memorial Hall committee providing from their own funds £100. In 1920 the committee purchased the building and lands known as 'The Poplars', and on 11 November 1926 the Lydbrook Memorial Hall, Men's and Women's Institute came into being at a cost of £3,150 opened by the blindVictoria Crossholder ofColeford, Captain Angus Buchanan. History of Christian worship in Lydbrook Church of England and the Lydbrook Mission Chapel In 1809 the Reverend Henry Berkin began his appointment as an assistant curate of the parish of Mitcheldean. Adjoining this parish were Forest areas which have since become the parishes of Drybrook and Lydbrook. Henry Berkin became concerned as to the plight of the Foresters \"destitute of churches or ministers whom they could call their own\". In 1812 he travelled around the areas of Forest adjoining his parish, visiting cottages where families would gather to hear him teach. Large crowds of up to 200, would gather in some places to hear him explaining the Holy scriptures. In 1814 Henry Berkin moved to a curacy atWeston-under-Penyard, but maintained a connection with the Forest. At Harry Hill, the Foresters encouraged him to build a large place for a regular meeting. After meeting with the Bishop Dr Ryder, Henry Berkin set about building a church, the Foresters could call their own and in 1817 Holy Trinity Church was built, serving both Drybrook and Lydbrook, Henry Berkin becoming the firstperpetual curate(now styled 'Vicar'). The missionary work still continued in the cottages at Lydbrook, but it was not too long before Henry Berkin built a small mission chapel to serve Lydbrook in 1821, completed in 1822 (on the site of the present vicarage). The chapel functioned as a school, a place of worship, and as a place for social gatherings. It was served by the assistant priests appointed by Henry Berkin, with residence in Lydbrook. The salary of the curate at Lydbrook was at least in 1835, according to the records, supplied by a gentleman who was above 90 years of age. Lydbrook chapel was the fourth church in the Forest. (Upper Lydbrook being within the Forest boundary). The first church within the Forest was Christ Church in 1816. The second being Holy Trinity. The third church within the Forest was St Paul's, Park End completed at the beginning of 1822. Curates of Holy Trinity serving at the Lydbrook Mission Chapel Methodist Church In the second decade of the 19th century, the Reverend William Woodall,WesleyanMethodistminister ofMonmouthhad established a preaching circuit within the Forest of Dean and as part of this venture, a house was registered for worship in Lydbrook on 15 May 1813. Despite this early foothold, it took until 1864 to build a small chapel in Lower Lydbrook. The chapel was situated almost under the viaduct. From 1824, James Roles of the Oakengates Primitive Methodist circuit had established a circuit of cottage meetings at Pillowell, Lydbrook, Broad Oak, Little Birch, West Hide, Shecknal, Coppice Wood, Garroway Common, and Yorkley. The usual custom of the Primitive Methodists was to name the chapels after Old Testament place names. By 1828 the Primitive Methodists had built the 'Ebenezer Chapel' at Upper Lydbrook. It had the honour of being the first Methodist church in the Forest. It was first enlarged in 1852 (the same year the new parish church was opened). The year after, in 1853Charles Dickenshad published his 'Christmas Stories' containing the 'Christmas Carol' which portrayed the character 'Ebenezer Scrooge' associating the name with a foreboding character. The chapel was further enlarged bringing about the present building completed in 1912, with the name 'Ebenezer' being omitted. A second primitive Methodist chapel 'Mount Tabor' was built at the Reddings in 1862. Schoolrooms were added in 1892. The Wesleyan chapel closed in 1956. The congregation and cause of the Wesleyans had never been very large in Lydbrook. The redundant Wesleyan chapel served as a warehouse until its demolition in 1966. After 1934 with the Methodist Church Union all the chapels belonged to the same denomination and were served by the same minister and two chapels still served the area. Mount Tabor chapel closed in 1960 and was sold and is currently being turned into flats. Sadly on Sunday 28 July 1991 the last of the Methodist chapels in Lydbrook closed. One consolation was that the Sunday school – 'Sandra's group' as it was known, transferred to the parish church to become 'The Sunday Club'. Baptist Church TheBaptistchurch at Lower Lydbrook did not owe its impulse to the Coleford mission but to work carried on in Herefordshire. Mr Edward Goff who died in 1813 had left eleven thousand pounds to establish schools for the benefit of poor children in Herefordshire and places contingent. Schoolmasters were employed during the week for the education of the children, and on the Sunday were employed for preaching. A Mr Wright had established a schoolroom in 1820. The building doubled up for Baptist worship and preaching on Sundays and was licensed as such on 7 November 1823. The work continued in Lydbrook until sometime in the late 1830s. For nearly two decades there existed two chapel schoolrooms. The mission chapel at Upper Lydbrook would have been the larger of the two and by 1935 had grown to such a large size in congregation, thoughts were on enlarging the building. The fortunes of the Baptist cause may not have fared so well as the endowment grant was transferred to Lay Hill Baptist church in Herefordshire proper. Whilst the loss of the schoolmaster meant the loss of a full-time worker for the Baptist cause in Lydbrook, the main concern of the Goff Charity was education, and this was probably being served by the Anglican mission chapel founded a little after. In addition by the middle 1820s the Baptist were competing for the affections of the resident population with four other denominations (Anglican, Wesleyan Methodist, Primitive Methodist, Independent). The church did not survive the loss of the school and schoolmaster. In 1857 twelve members separated from Lays Hill Baptist and re-formed the Lydbrook Baptist Church in the old reading rooms. In 1863 the church appointed its first Minister, and the services at the Old Reading Room were packed to capacity, so land was purchased at Lower Lydbrook, and a church completed and opened in November 1864 at the cost of £700-0-0. In the spring of 1872 a foundation stone of an enlarged chapel was laid, but the work was held up owing to the local navvies taking up work with the creation of Lydbrook branch railway (presumably better paid!). The line was completed in August 1874 and allowed the building of the enlarged chapel to continue, and this was completed in September 1875. United Reformed Church/Congregational The founding of an Independent chapel in Lydbrook may well owe itself to a former Anglican priest. On 11 March 1821, the Reverend Isaac Bridgeman was appointed assistant curate to the Reverend Henry Berkin. In addition to the mission work at Lydbrook, Henry Berkin had founded a chapel-schoolroom at Littledean Hill. Curates to Berkin served at both mission chapels, but were based at Littledean. Bridgeman had developed an affection for nonconformists and often worshipped and worked with them. Due to this 'irregularity' on 4 November 1822, theBishop of Gloucesterrevoked his licence and interdicted him from officiating in any church in the Diocese of Gloucester. Bridgeman stayed within the Forest and by 1823 had built up five congregations, one of which was sufficiently large enough to build a chapel 'The Tabernacle' at Brains Green, Blakeney Hill, this becoming Bridgeman's mission base. The congregation at Lydbrook met at the house of James Russell, ironmaster. Bridgeman will have used the following he built up at the Lydbrook Mission Chapel to create the independent congregation. Initially Bridgeman used the Church of England Liturgy but by 1825 had joined himself to theCongregationalistsand thus further their missionary endeavours within the Forest of Dean. It was a further sixty one years before the Congregational chapel was built at Worrall Hill in 1884. The chapel was enlarged in 1888. In 1972 it became part of the United Reformed Church with the Union of the Congregational church and Presbyterian church. Mission Chapel, Forge Hill The last of the seven church buildings to be erected in Lydbrook was the Independent mission chapel on Forge Hill, built in 1889. The Reverend Arthur William Latham, Baptist minister at Lydbrook 1883–1900 appears on the Deeds as a Trustee and is also mentioned throughout the account rendered by the solicitor to the Trustees. The Baptist involvement was probably due to a dispute between the founders of the mission as to whether there should be a Trust Deed or not. Mr Latham, Baptist minister for Lydbrook was called in to advise on the Trust Deed. The mission seems to have been, and remained a joint venture between Non-conformists. It certainly always remained an independent venture. Once full to capacity, over the length of years the congregation declined to such a point where only occasional services were held, and the building eventually fell into disuse. Previously to this decline services were held most Sunday afternoons, with an average attendance of 8. A ladies' meeting was held on Thursday evenings. The chapel closed in 1980. When the last remaining Trustee of the mission died (Alderman Stan Hatton), the Charity Commission approached the vicar of Lydbrook (the Reverend Stuart Parker) who organised four new trustees (one from each of the four Lydbrook Churches) to consider the charity's future. Church at Joys Green On 20 August 1989 the first of a series of monthly church services was held at 6 pm at Joys Green School, sponsored by the parish church. The frequency was increased to fortnightly in October 1991. In the summer of 1991 the Baptist followed holding a monthly morning service in the school. Church of Holy Jesus and the Parish of Lydbrook In 1842 the Crown divided the Forest into ecclesiastical districts, one of which was the Holy Trinity district. Within that district, the Forest Church, served the village of Drybrook and the daughter church, the mission chapel served Upper Lydbrook. By the middle 1830s the congregation at the Lydbrook mission chapel had so grown, that in 1835 at a meeting of the Dean Forest Commissioners, following representations from the Bishop of the Diocese and clergy of the Forest, it was recommended that the mission chapel at Lydbrook be enlarged to the status of a church. Although this recommendation was not followed through, in the late 1840s a new church was planned. The work on Lydbrook parish church began in 1850 and was completed in 1851, when Lydbrook became a parish in its own rights and with its own vicar. Although the first building for worship in Lydbrook was erected in 1822, the church began well before then with Henry Berkin's itinerant preaching starting in 1812. On Sunday 12 August 1850 the foundation stone of the new church was laid. The Reverend J Burdon, Rector of English Bicknor (who was responsible for the spiritual welfare of those living in the area of Lower Lydbrook within his parish) had worked hard to accomplish the building of the church, collaborating with the Reverend H G Nicholls, perpetual curarte of Drybrook, the Reverend William Penfold, perpetual curate of Ruardean (appointed March 1851, Ruardean having become an ecclesiastical parish in its own rights in 1844), and the Reverend E Machen, rector of Mitcheldean. The building cost the grand sum of £3,500. The largest proportion of this money -a generous donation of £2,000 was a gift from Edward T Machen, Deputy surveyor of the Royal Forest (father of the Rector of Mitcheldean) and his relatives. Messrs Allaway-Partridge gave £250 and a grant of £230 given by the 'Incorporated Society for Promoting the Enlargement, Building and Repairing of Churches and Chapels' on the condition that the seats were to be free for the use of the poor for ever. The word 'free' was to be painted in a conspicuous manner on each seat. As the foundation stone was laid just after the feast of the Name of Jesus (7 August 1850) the dedication became 'The Holy Jesus'. The dedication was once thought to be unique, but two other churches have been discovered of similar dedication although having been built later; a Roman Catholic church inManchesterbuilt in 1869–1872 by the architects J.A. & J.S. Harrison which was dedicated to the Holy Name of Jesus and the Church of the Holy Name,Cumbernauld New Town, Glasgow, part of theScottish Episcopal Churchand dedicated in 1958. The Church at Lydbrook was consecrated on 4 December 1851 by Dr Ollivant,Bishop of Llandaff(Dr Monk, theBishop of Gloucesterbeing to ill to attend). Upwards of a 1,000 people attended, 50 of these being clergy. From then on Lydbrook was a parish on its own. In 1858 the reported attendance was 150 attending Matins and 250 attending Evensong! The number of communicants for the parish in that year is given as 40 per week. The present day figure stands at around 35, with a higher average throughout the year of about 40 per week. The original chapel served as a National Day School until 1909 and was used for church functions until its dilapidation in the 1960s. In 1975 it was demolished to make way for the present vicarage, which is the third in the village. The first vicarage, built in stone stands to the south east of the church 500 yards south, down the course of the old railway line. In May 1879, the vicar, the Reverend Henry Hoitt applied for permission to walk on the line from the vicarage to the church and schools.The Severn & Wye Railwaygranted this request but limited to Sundays only. The vicarage was sold in 1961 due to extensive repairs needed. The house now serves as a Bed and Breakfast establishment under the name 'The Old Vicarage'. A new house was purchased, 'Mirey Stock' in 1962, 3/4-mile south of the church. This served as the second vicarage. Its distance from the church in severe weather proved impracticable, hence the building of the present vicarage in 1975. The patronage (or the right to present a priest for appointment as vicar) originally belonged jointly to the Crown andQueen's College, Oxford. The two patrons took turns in presenting new vicars. In 1884 the alternate right of patronage was transferred from Queen's College to the Bishop of Gloucester. In 1961 the Crown transferred its interest in the patronage to the Bishop, leaving the Bishop of the Diocese as the sole patron. Although legally, the Bishop has the right to appoint, advice has to be sought from representatives of the parochial church council. Railways Lydbrook Junctionwas a former station on theRoss and Monmouth RailwaybetweenRoss-on-WyeandMonmouth Troyrunning through the scenicWye Valleywhich ran from 1873 to 1959. The station was constructed in the hamlet of Stowfield approximately half a mile from Lydbrook and itsviaducton theSevern and Wye Railway. It was located approximately 4 miles and 34chainsalong the railway fromRoss-on-Wye station. In 1874 theSevern and Wye Railwayopened a branch from Serridge Junction andCinderford, passenger services commenced in 1875. All passenger trains along the S&W branch were withdrawn from 1929. See also References External links", "Stow-on-the-Wold Stow-on-the-Woldis amarket townandcivil parishinGloucestershire, England, on top of an 800-foot (244 m) hill at the junction of main roads through theCotswolds, including theFosse Way(A429), which is of Roman origin. The town was founded byNormanlords to absorb trade from the roads converging there.Fairshave been held by royal charter since 1330; a horse fair is still held on the edge of town nearest to Oddington in May and October each year. History Early Stow-on-the-Wold, originally called Stow St Edward or Edwardstow after the town's patron saint Edward, probablyEdward the Martyr,is said to have originated as anIron Ageforton this defensive position on a hill. Indeed, there are many sites of similar forts in the area, andStone AgeandBronze Ageburial moundsare common throughout the area. It is likely thatMaugersburywas the primary settlement of the parish before Stow was built as a marketplace on the hilltop nearer to the crossroads, to take advantage of passing trade. Originally the small settlement was controlled byabbotsfrom the localabbey, and when the first weekly market was set up in 1107 byHenry I, he decreed that the proceeds go toEvesham Abbey. In 1330, a royal charter byEdward IIIset up an annual 7-day market to be held in August. The royal charter granted a fair where sheep and horses were allowed to be sold.In 1476,Edward IVreplaced that with two 5-day fairs, two days before and two days after the feast ofSt PhilipandSt Jamesin May, and similarly in October on the feast ofEdward the Confessor(the saint associated with the town). The aim of the annualcharter fairswas to establish Stow as a place to trade and alleviate the unpredictability of the passing trade. These fairs were located in thesquare, which is still the town centre. Civil war Stow played a role in theEnglish Civil War. A number of engagements took place in the area, the local church of St Edward being damaged in one skirmish. On 21 March 1646, theRoyalists, commanded by SirJacob Astley, were defeated at theBattle of Stow-on-the-Wold, with hundreds of prisoners being confined for some time in St Edwards.This battle took place one mile north of Stow-on-the-Wold. After initial royalist success, the superiority of the parliamentary forces overwhelmed and routed the royalist forces. Fleeing the field, the royalists fought a running fight back into the streets of Stow, where the final action took place, culminating in surrender in the market square. Modern As the fairs grew in fame and importance, so did the town. Traders dealing inlivestockadded many handmade goods, and thewool tradewas always prominent.Daniel Defoe reported in the 18th century that 20,000 sheep were sold in one day.Many alleys known as 'tures' that run between buildings into the market square were used in herding sheep to be sold.From the mid-19th century, theTalbot Hotelwas the venue for corn merchants carrying out their trade. Most of the buildings around the market square dated from the 18th to 19th century including St Edward's Hall (the present-day library). As the wool trade declined, people began to trade in horses. The practice continues, although the fair has been moved from the square to a large field near the village ofMaugersburyevery May and October. It remains popular, with roads around Stow blocked by the extra traffic for many hours. However, there has been controversy surrounding Stow Fair. The many visitors and traders have attracted more vendors not dealing in horses. Local businesses used to profit from the increased custom, but in recent years most pubs and shops close for 2–3 miles around due to the risks of theft or vandalism. Governance The town belongs to the Stowelectoral ward, which covers the parishes of Stow-on-the-Wold,MaugersburyandSwell. In 2010 these parishes had a total population of 2,594. Stow-on-the-Wold has an active Parish Council with 10 members. Stow-on-the-Wold ward is represented onCotswold District Councilby theLiberal DemocratCouncillor Dilys Neill, who was first elected in the 2016 local elections.The Stow Division is represented onGloucestershire County Councilby theConservativeCouncillor Mark Mackenzie-Charrington. Stow Ward Gloucestershire County Council Economy Scotts of Stow, a mail order company, also has two shops in the town. Media Local news and television programmes are provided byBBC SouthandITV Meridian. Television signals are received from theOxfordand local relay transmitters. Local radio stations areBBC Radio Gloucestershire,Heart West,Greatest Hits Radio South Westand Cotswolds Radio, community based radio station The town is served by the local newspaper, Cotswold Journal. Popular culture Stow-on-the-Wold, Where the wind blows cold. Where horses young and old are sold,Where farmers come to spend their gold,Where men are fools and women are bold,And many a wicked tale is told. High on the freezing Cotswold. Transport The following roads pass through the town: From 1881 until 1962, the town was served byStow-on-the-Wold railway stationon theGreat Western Railway'sBanbury and Cheltenham Direct Railway. The nearest station is now atMoreton-in-Marsh, which is 4 miles (6.4 km) away, on theCotswold LinebetweenHerefordandLondon Paddington; services are provided byGreat Western Railway. An alternative is atKingham, 5 miles (8.0 km) away from Stow on the same line. Local bus services are operated predominantly by Pulhams Coaches; key routes that serve the town lead toMoreton-in-Marsh,Hook NortonandBourton-on-the-Water. Notable people References External links", "Witney Witneyis a market town on theRiver WindrushinWest Oxfordshirein the county ofOxfordshire, England. It is 12 miles (19 km) west ofOxford. History Theplace-name\"Witney\" is derived from theOld Englishfor \"Witta's island\".The earliest known record of it is asWyttannigein a Saxon charter of 969. TheDomesday Bookof 1086 records it asWitenie,in the ancienthundredof Bampton. TheChurch of England parish churchof St Mary the Virgin was originallyNorman. The north porch and northaislewere added in this style late in the 12th century, and survived a major rebuilding in about 1243. In this rebuilding the presentchancel,transepts,towerandspirewere added and thenavewas remodelled, all in theEarly Englishstyle. In the 14th century a number of side chapels and some of the present windows were added in theDecoratedstyle. In the 15th century the south transept was extended and the present west window of the nave were added in thePerpendicularstyle.The tower has apealof eight bells.The tower of the church is 69 feet (21 metres) high, topped by a tall and slender spire, which brings the total height of the church to 154 feet (47 metres). Holy Trinity Church, Wood Green, was built in 1849 in a Gothic Revival rendition ofEarly English Gothic. St Mary the Virgin and Holy Trinity are now members of a single team parish. TheFriends Meeting Housein Wood Green was built in the 18th century. Since 1997Quakersin Witney have met at theCorn Exchange.TheMethodistchurch in the High Street was built in 1850.It is now one of five Methodist churches and chapels in Witney.The Roman Catholic parish of Our Lady andSaint Hughwas founded in 1913.It originally used a chapel in West End built in 1881but now has its own modern building.The old chapel in West End is nowElim Christian Fellowship.Witney High Street still has several older buildings, which are protected by the Witney and Cogges conservation area. Witney Market began in theMiddle Ages. Thursday is the traditional market day but there is also a market on Saturday. Thebuttercrossin themarket squareis so called because people from neighbouring towns would gather there to buy butter and eggs. It was built in about 1600 and its clock was added in 1683.Witney Town Hall, which is arcaded on the ground floor and has an assembly room on the first floor, was completed in 1786.Witney has long been an important crossing over theRiver Windrush. The architectThomas Wyattrebuilt the bridge in Bridge Street in 1822. Witneyworkhousewas on Razor Hill (now Tower Hill). It was designed by the architectGeorge Wilkinsonand built in 1835–36. It had four wings radiating from anoctagonalcentral building, similar to theChipping Nortonworkhouse, which also was built by Wilkinson. His younger brotherWilliam Wilkinsonadded a separate chapel to Witney Workhouse in 1860.In the First World War the workhouse heldprisoners of war. In 1940 the workhouse was converted into Crawford Colletsengineering factory under the direction of Leonard Frank Eve. The chapel was made the factory canteen. In 1979 Crawford Collets had the main buildings demolished and replaced with a modern factory, but preserved the entrance gate and former chapel. In 2004 the modern factory was demolished for redevelopment. The gate and chapel have again been preserved and the former chapel converted into offices. Industry Witney has been famous for its woollenblanketssince the Middle Ages.The water for the production of these blankets is drawn from theRiver Windrush, which was believed to be the secret of Witney's high-quality blankets. The cloth industry dominated life in Witney where one 17th-century observer noted that \"almost 3,000 people from 8 years old to old age worked\" in the manufacture of blankets.Mops were also traditionally made by the blanket manufacturers; at one time every ship in the Royal Navy had Witney mops aboard. The Blanket Hall in High Street was built in 1721 for weighing and measuring blankets.At one time there were five blanket factories in the town but with the closure of the largest blanket maker Early's, in 2002, the town's blanket industry completely ceased production. Early's factory, once a vital and important part of the town's history, has now been demolished, and is the site of several new housing estates. One of the oldest mill sites in the town, New Mill, where there has been a mill since theDomesday Book, now houses the head office ofAudley Travel. For many years Witney had its own brewery andmaltings:J.W. Clinch and Co, which founded the Eagle Maltings in 1841. In 1961,Couragebought Clinch's for its pub estate and closed down the brewery. Paddy Glenny founded the Glenny Brewery at the former Clinch's site in 1983, but it was renamed toWychwood Breweryin 1990.Wychwood brewedreal ales, includingHobgoblin, itsflagship brand. Refresh UK, a subsidiary ofMarston's Brewery, took over the brewery in 2002,and Marston's bought Refresh UK and Wychwood Brewery outright in 2008.Marston's brewing operations, including Wychwood Brewery,were merged into Carlsberg Marston’s Brewing Company in 2020, and Wychwood Brewery was shut down in November 2023, its brands continuing to be brewed elsewhere in the CMBC network. Railways TheWitney RailwayopenedWitney's first stationin 1861, linking the town toYarntonwhere the line joined theOxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway. In 1873 the East Gloucestershire Railway opened from a new station, linking Witney withLechladeandFairford. TheGreat Western Railwayoperated services on both lines and eventually took them over. In 1962British Railwaysclosed the EGR completely and withdrew passenger services from the Witney Railway. In 1970 British Railways closed the Witney Railway completely and it was dismantled. Reopening proposal In 2015 Witney Oxford Transport Group (WOT) proposed the reopening of the railway, with a station at Witney, as an alternative to improvements to theA40 roadproposed byOxfordshire County Council.In 2016 WOT and West Oxfordshire Green Party cited chronic traffic congestion on roads linking Witney with Oxford as a reason to reopen the railway.In 2021 WOT Group submitted a bid to the Department for Transport's 'Restoring Your Railway' Ideas Fund for a grant to develop the case for a new railway in the A40 corridor 'Building a better-connected West Oxfordshire, transforming the wider Oxford economic region' as part of an Oxford Metro advocated byRailfuture. Museums Witney has four museums.Cogges Manor Farm Museum, in the 13th-century manor houseand farm ofCogges, represents farming and countryside history. Witney and District Museum has many artefacts and documents representing the history of the town. Witney Blanket Hall, built in the 18th century, showcases both the history of the Hall and of Witney's blanket industry and has Witney blankets for sale. The Wychwood Brewery has a museum open at weekends. Education Witney has three county secondary schools:Henry Box School,Wood Green Schooland Springfield School. In 1660 Henry Box founded WitneyGrammar School. In 1968 it became thecomprehensiveHenry Box School.In 1970 new school buildings were added to the original 17th-century premises beside Church Green.Wood Green Schoolwas founded in 1954 and is at the top of Woodstock Road. Springfield Schoolwas founded in 1967 and is aspecial-needsschool for pupils with severelearning difficulties. Springfield School senior section is a self-contained unit, with some shared facilities, within the grounds of Wood Green School. Wood Green was substantially expanded from 2000 to 2004; an additional block with 15 teaching rooms was added, together with a purpose-builtsixth formcentre, school restaurant and newAstroTurfpitch. 2009 saw part of the old Lower School being remodelled to provide new changing and shower facilities for the AstroTurf pitch and its many users from local community sports clubs. The King's Schoolis independent of OxfordshireLocal Education Authority. It was founded by Oxfordshire Community Churches,anevangelicalChristian organisation, in 1984.Cokethorpe Schoolis an independent secondary school, founded in 1957. St. Mary's School beside Church Green was established in 1813. It was aChurch of Englandprimary school but in 1953 it became a Church of England controlled School for Infant children, and the Junior children transferred to the Batt School premises.Witney now has two Church of England primary schools: The Batt Schoolin Corn Street and The Blake Schoolin Cogges Hill Road. Our Lady ofLourdesCatholic Primary Schoolis a Roman Catholic school founded in 1958. Witney has fivecommunity primary schools: Madley Park Community Primary School,Queen's Dyke Primary School,Tower Hill Community Primary School,West Witney Primary Schooland Witney Community Primary School.It also has one SEN primary school, Springfield School, which is part of the same school as Springfield secondary School. Springfield school (Primary) shares a building with Madley Brook Primary, but aside from sharing a building, some resources and integration, the schools run independently of one another. The former Witney Technical College is now part ofAbingdon and Witney College.A complete rebuilding of its premises began in September 2008. Sports Witney United Football Club, formerly known as Witney Town and nicknamed the Blanketmen, played in theHellenic LeaguePremier Division, until they dissolved in the 2012–2013 season.Witney and District Leagueis a local association football league with about 32 clubs in five divisions. Witney Rugby Football Clubfirst XV plays in theRFUSouth West 1 East.Wychwood LadiesHockeyClub's first team play in the Trysport Hockey League Division 1; Witney Hockey Clubmen's first XI plays in theEngland HockeyMen's Conference East divisionand its ladies' first XI plays in South Clubs' Women's Hockey League Division 3A.Witney Swifts Cricket Clubfirst XI plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association Division Three.Witney Wolves Basketball Club plays in the Oxford and Chiltern Basketball League. TheToleman Group Motorsportracing team was once based in Witney until it was rebrandedBenetton Formulain 1986. The team itself stayed in Witney until 1992 when they moved toEnstoneeventually being rebranded in 2002 as Renault F1 when the team was purchased by the FrenchRenaultcar company. The team competed as Renault F1 until 2011, when it was again rebranded this time under the \"Lotus Renault GP\" name after forging a partnership with the BritishLotus Carscompany. The subsequent year the team becameLotus F1after they dropped the Renault name. The team was later re-purchased by Renault in late 2015 to become theRenault Sport F1 Teamfor 2016. Politics Witneywas, until recently, asafe seatfor theConservative Party. Former Foreign SecretaryDouglas Hurdand former leader of the Conservatives and Prime MinisterDavid Cameronwere both MPs for Witney. In the1997 General Election,Shaun Woodwardstood and won the seat as a Conservative, after Hurd retired. Woodward switched to theLabour Partyin 1999. In the2001 General ElectionWoodward stood as the Labour candidate in theSt Helens Southconstituency, and David Cameron retook Witney for the Conservatives. He became Prime Minister in coalition with theLiberal Democratsin May 2010 and continued after the 2015 election, in which the Conservative Party gained a majority, but retired to the backbenches after the referendum that rejected his government's recommendation to remain in the European Union. He stood down as an MP soon afterwards, triggering aby-electionheld on 20 October 2016, in whichRobert Courtswas elected for the Conservatives. Courts was re-elected in 2017. For elections toOxfordshire County CouncilWitney is covered by the electoral wards of 'Witney North and East' and 'Witney South and Central'. The west of the town is included in the ward of 'Witney West and Bampton' which includes villages ofBamptonandDucklington.The wards were created in 2013, with the new Witney South and Central won by the Labour Party and the other two wards won by the Conservatives.At the2021 Oxfordshire County Council electionLabour held Witney South and Central and gained Witney North and East from the Conservatives. For elections toWest Oxfordshire District CouncilWitney is divided into the wards of Witney Central, Witney East, Witney North, Witney South and Witney West electing a total of 12 district councillors.As of 2023 the majority of Witney town councillors represent The Labour Party.The Mayor of Witney for 2023 is The Labour Party's Owen Collins, along with Deputy Mayor Georgia Meadows. Twinning Witney istwinnedwith: Floods In July 2007 Witney saw its worst flooding in more than 50 years. Homes and businesses were evacuated and Bridge Street, a major road into the town and the only road across theWindrush, was closed. About 200 properties in central Witney were flooded, with areas around Bridge Street, Mill Street and West End the worst affected. The new and incomplete housing development Aquarius also suffered substantial flooding. In 2008 further flooding contributed to the death of a 17-year-old boy who drowned in a culvert. Climate Witney has a maritime climate type typical to the British Isles, with evenly spread rainfall, a narrow temperature range, and comparatively low sunshine totals. The nearest official weather station isBrize Norton, about 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of Witney. The absolute maximum recorded was 35.4c(95.7f)in August 1990, although in a typical year the warmest day should only reach 29.5c(85.1f)with an average of 14.6 daysreporting a maximum temperature of 25.1c(77.2f) or above. The absolute minimum is −20.7c(−5.3f),recorded in January 1982. In a more typical year the annual minimum temperature should be −8.1c(17.4f),although a total of 47.1 nightsshould report an air frost. Rainfall averages slightly under 644mmper year with more than 1mm of rain falling on just under 115 daysof the year. Media The town receives its television signals from theOxford TV transmitter. In May 2010, WitneyTV was launched as a non-profit online broadcaster with a weekly show that features local news and upcoming events within West Oxfordshire for the benefit of the community. An archive of videos featuring local attractions, clubs, organisations and previous shows is also available. A small-scale music festival, Witney Music festival, is held annually on The Leys Recreation Ground. While mostly hosting smaller local artists andtribute bands, it has previously hosted acts such asEMF,The FarmandN-Trance. Witney has a number of recording studios, including The Witney Music Roomsand GreenRoomStudios.There are also several small venues for music, including Fat Lil's, a music and comedy venue, Langdale Hall, a function venue that regularly hosts music acts, and Studio Se7en, a live music venue sited at GreenRoomStudios. Witney has an independentrecord shopwhich was established in 2004 as Rapture. In 2011, Rapture's owner, Gary Smith, collaborated withTruck Festivalco-founder Robin Bennett to open Truck Store, a sister store onCowley Road in Oxford.Rapture adopted the Oxford store's name and branding in 2022 and now operates as Truck Witney. Local radio stations areBBC Radio Oxfordon 95.2 FM,Heart Southon 102.6 FM, andGreatest Hits Radio Southon 106.4 FM. On 30 November 2012 Witney Radio was launched, providing hyper-local news, music and current affairs to the people of Witney and West Oxfordshire. A licence to broadcast on FM radio was granted in April 2016 by the licensing authorityOfcom. On 14 July 2017 Witney Radio began to broadcast on 99.9fm to Witney and West Oxfordshire. The station broadcasts 24 hours a day, 7 days a week with over 30 presenters from the local area. The station also broadcasts online for listeners online viaTuneIn. AnInternet radiostation, Windrush Radio, was established in 2018. It broadcasts mostly pop and electronic music in the daytime, but has a number of hosts that present specific genres, including a showcase of local artists.Windrush Radio has announced plans to broadcast overDAB radio, and a small-scale radio multiplex license has been submitted to Ofcom. The local newspapers are theOxford Times,Oxfordshire GuardianandWitney Gazette. Notable people Notable people associated with Witney include: See also References Sources and further reading External links", "London Londonis thecapitalandlargest cityof bothEnglandand theUnited Kingdom, with a population of 8,866,180 in 2022.Thewider metropolitan areais the largest inWestern Europe, with a population of 14.9 million.London stands on theRiver Thamesin southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km)estuarydown to theNorth Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years.Its ancient core andfinancial centre, theCity of London, was founded by theRomansasLondiniumand has retained its medieval boundaries.TheCity of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host ofthe national governmentandparliament. London grew rapidlyin the 19th century, becoming the world'slargest city at the time. Since the 19th century,the name \"London\" has referred to themetropolisaround the City of London, historically split between thecountiesofMiddlesex,Essex,Surrey,Kent, andHertfordshire,which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area ofGreater London, governed by33 local authoritiesand theGreater London Authority. As one of the world's majorglobal cities,London exerts a strong influence on worldart, entertainment,fashion, commerce, finance,education,healthcare,media, science, technology,tourism,transport, and communications.Despite a post-Brexitexodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,London remains Europe's most economically powerful cityandone of the world's major financial centres. It hosts Europe's largest concentration ofhigher education institutions,some of which are the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world:Imperial College Londoninnaturalandapplied sciences, theLondon School of Economicsinsocial sciences, and the comprehensiveUniversity College London.It is themost visited cityin Europe and has the world'sbusiest city airport system.TheLondon Undergroundis the world's oldestrapid transitsystem. London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.The 2023 population of Greater London of just under 10 millionmade it Europe'sthird-most populous city,accounting for 13.4% of the United Kingdom's populationand over 16% of England's population. TheGreater London Built-up Areais thefourth-most populousin Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011.The London metropolitan area is thethird-most populousin Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants as of 2016, making London amegacity. FourWorld Heritage Sitesare located in London:Kew Gardens; theTower of London; the site featuring thePalace of Westminster,Church of St. Margaret, andWestminster Abbey; and the historic settlement inGreenwichwhere theRoyal Observatorydefines theprime meridian(0°longitude) andGreenwich Mean Time.Other landmarks includeBuckingham Palace, theLondon Eye,Piccadilly Circus,St Paul's Cathedral,Tower Bridge, andTrafalgar Square. The city has the mostmuseums, art galleries, libraries, and cultural venues in the UK, including theBritish Museum,National Gallery,Natural History Museum,Tate Modern,British Library, and numerousWest Endtheatres.Importantsporting events held in Londoninclude theFA Cup Final, theWimbledon Tennis Championships, and theLondon Marathon. It became the first city to host threeSummer Olympic Gamesupon hosting the2012 Summer Olympics. Toponymy Londonis an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in theLatinisedformLondinium.Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources:Latin(usuallyLondinium),Old English(usuallyLunden), andWelsh(usuallyLlundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages fromCommon Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as*Londonjonor something similar. This was then adapted into Latin asLondiniumand borrowed into Old English. Until 1889, the name \"London\" applied officially only to theCity of London, but since then it has also referred to theCounty of Londonand toGreater London. History Prehistory In 1993, remains of aBronze Agebridge were found on the south River Thames foreshore, upstream fromVauxhall Bridge.Two of the timbers wereradiocarbon datedto 1750–1285 BC.In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC,were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-undergroundRiver Effraflows into the Thames. Roman London Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by theRomansaround 47 AD,about four years after their invasion of 43 AD.This only lasted until about 61 AD, when theIcenitribe led byQueen Boudicastormed it and burnt it to the ground. The next planned incarnation ofLondiniumprospered, supersedingColchesteras the principal city of theRoman provinceofBritanniain 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000. Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, althoughRoman civilisationcontinued aroundSt Martin-in-the-Fieldsuntil about 450.From about 500, anAnglo-Saxonsettlement known asLundenwicdeveloped slightly west of the old Roman city.By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeatedVikingassaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed. The Vikings appliedDanelawover much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London toChesteras an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by theDanishwarlord,Guthrumand theWest SaxonkingAlfred the Greatin 886. TheAnglo-Saxon Chroniclerecords that Alfred \"refounded\" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the oldRoman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950. By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England.Westminster Abbey, rebuilt inRomanesquestyle by KingEdward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe.Winchesterhad been the capital ofAnglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view ofFrank Stenton: \"It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to anational capital.\" Middle Ages After winning theBattle of Hastings,William, Duke of Normandywas crownedKing of Englandin newly completedWestminster Abbeyon Christmas Day 1066.William built theTower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants.In 1097,William IIbegan buildingWestminster Hall, near the abbey. It became the basis of a newPalace of Westminster. In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes atWestminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in theTower. While theCity of Westminsterdeveloped into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, theCity of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, theCorporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.With theBlack Deathin the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population.London was the focus of thePeasants' Revoltin 1381. London was a centre of England'sJewish populationbefore theirexpulsionbyEdward Iin 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.In 1264 during theSecond Barons' War,Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts. Early modern During theTudor period, theReformationproduced a gradual shift toProtestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.In 1475, theHanseatic Leagueset up a main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called theStalhoforSteelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities ofLübeck,BremenandHamburgsold the property toSouth Eastern Railway.Woollencloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of theLow Countries. Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas ofnorth-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and theMediterraneanwas normally throughAntwerpand over theAlps; any ships passing through theStrait of Gibraltarto or from England were likely to be Italian orRagusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity.TheRoyal Exchangewas founded.Mercantilismgrew and monopoly traders such as theEast India Companywere founded as trade expanded to theNew World. London became the mainNorth Seaport, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605. In the 16th century,William Shakespeareand his contemporaries lived in London duringEnglish Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare'sGlobe Theatrewas constructed in 1599 inSouthwark. Stage performances came to a halt in London whenPuritanauthoritiesshut down the theatresin the 1640s.The ban on theatre was lifted duringthe Restorationin 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre,Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now theWest Endtheatre district. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt onJames Iin Westminster, in theGunpowder Plotof 5 November 1605.In 1637, the government ofCharles Iattempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish theLiberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's \"The Great Refusal\", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of theCity. In theEnglish Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported theParliamentarycause. After an initial advance by theRoyalistsin 1642, culminating in the battles ofBrentfordandTurnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as theLines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.The fortifications failed their only test when theNew Model Armyentered London in 1647,and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.London wasplaguedby disease in the early 17th century,culminating in theGreat Plagueof 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.TheGreat Fire of Londonbroke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymathRobert Hooke. In 1710,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed, replacing its medieval predecessor that burned in the Great Fire of 1666. The dome of St Paul's dominated the London skyline for centuries, inspiring the artworks and writing ofWilliam Blake, with his 1789 poem \"Holy Thursday\" referring to ‘the high dome of Pauls'.During theGeorgian era, new districts such asMayfairwere formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development inSouth London. In the east, thePort of Londonexpanded downstream. London's development as an internationalfinancial centrematured for much of the 18th century. In 1762,George IIIacquiredBuckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime,and theBow Street Runnerswere established in 1750 as a professional police force.Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday. Coffee-housesbecame a popular place to debate ideas, as growingliteracyand development of theprinting pressmade news widely available, withFleet Streetbecoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, theRoyal Navybecame the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. Following a fire in 1838, the Royal Exchange was redesigned byWilliam Titeand rebuilt in 1844. The repeal of theCorn Lawsin 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre. Late modern and contemporary With the onset of theIndustrial Revolutionin Britain, an unprecedented growth inurbanisationtook place, and the number ofHigh Streets(the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew.London was the world'slargest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare).In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such asHarding, Howell & Co.—one of the firstdepartment stores—located onPall Mall, the streets had scores ofstreet sellers.London's overcrowded conditions led tocholeraepidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.Risingtraffic congestionled to the creation of theLondon Underground, the world's firsturban rail network.TheMetropolitan Board of Worksoversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when theLondon County Councilwas created out of county areas surrounding the capital. From the early years of the 20th century onwards,teashopswere found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, withLyons, who opened the first of theirchainof teashops inPiccadillyin 1894, leading the way.The tearooms, such as theCriterionin Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.The city was the target of many attacks during thesuffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such asWestminster AbbeyandSt Paul's Cathedralbombed. London wasbombed by the Germansin theFirst World War, and during theSecond World War,the Blitzand other bombings by the GermanLuftwaffekilled over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.The tomb ofthe Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920.The Cenotaph, located inWhitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for theNational Service of Remembranceheld annually onRemembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November. The1948 Summer Olympicswere held at the originalWembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war.From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily fromCommonwealthcountries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, theFestival of Britainwas held on theSouth Bank.TheGreat Smogof 1952 led to theClean Air Act 1956, which ended the \"pea soup fogs\" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the \"Big Smoke\". Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwideyouth culture, exemplified by theSwinging Londonsub-culture associated with theKing's Road,ChelseaandCarnaby Street.The role of trendsetter revived in thepunkera.In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a newGreater London Councilwas created.DuringThe Troublesin Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by theProvisional Irish Republican Army.These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with theOld Bailey bombing.Racial inequality was highlighted by the1981 Brixton riot. Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.The principal ports for London moved downstream toFelixstoweandTilbury, with theLondon Docklandsarea becoming a focus for regeneration, including theCanary Wharfdevelopment. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.Located about 2 miles (3 km) east of central London, theThames Barrierwas completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from theNorth Sea. The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of theGreater London Authority.To mark the 21st century, theMillennium Dome,London EyeandMillennium Bridgewere constructed.On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage theOlympic Gamesthree times.On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in aseries of terrorist attacks. In 2008,Timenamed London alongside New York City and Hong Kong asNylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influentialglobal cities.In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.During theBrexit referendumin 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave theEuropean Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining.However, Britain'sexit from the EUin early 2020 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre. Administration Local government The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by theGreater London Authority(GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.The GLA consists of two elected components: themayor of London, who hasexecutive powers, and theLondon Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional armTransport for London(TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.The headquarters of the GLA isCity Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has beenSadiq Khan, the firstMuslimmayor of a major Western capital.The mayor'sstatutory planningstrategy is published as theLondon Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011. The local authorities are the councils of the 32London boroughsand theCity of London Corporation.They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation,social services, local roads and refuse collection.Certain functions, such aswaste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA). TheLondon Fire Brigadeis thestatutoryfire and rescue servicefor Greater London, run by theLondon Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the world.National Health Serviceambulance servicesare provided by theLondon Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world.TheLondon Air Ambulancecharity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required.Her Majesty's Coastguardand theRoyal National Lifeboat Institutionoperate on theRiver Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of thePort of London AuthorityfromTeddington Lockto the sea. National government London is the seat of theGovernment of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as theprime minister'sresidence at10 Downing Street, are based close to thePalace of Westminster, particularly alongWhitehall.There are 75 members ofParliament(MPs) from London; As ofJune 2024, 59 are from theLabour Party, 9 areConservatives, 6 areLiberal Democratsand one constituency is held by anindependent.The ministerial post ofminister for Londonwas created in 1994, however as of 2024, the post has been vacant. Policing and crime Policing in Greater London, with the exception of theCity of London, is provided by theMetropolitan Police(\"The Met\"), overseen by the mayor through theMayor's Office for Policing and Crime(MOPAC).The Met is also referred to asScotland Yardafter the location of its original headquarters in a road calledGreat Scotland Yardin Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – theCity of London Police.First worn by Met police officers in 1863, thecustodian helmethas been called a \"cultural icon\" and a \"symbol of British law enforcement\".Introduced by the Met in 1929, the bluepolice telephone box(basis for theTARDISinDoctor Who) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK. TheBritish Transport Policeare responsible for police services onNational Rail,London Underground,Docklands Light RailwayandTramlinkservices.TheMinistry of Defence Policeis a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public.The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered inThames Houseon the north bank of the River Thames and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered in theSIS Buildingon the south bank. Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally atLocal AuthorityandWardlevel.In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved.However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the year, and the murder rate in London is much lower thanother major citiesaround the world. Geography Scope London, also known asGreater London, is one of nineregions of Englandand the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. TheCity of Londonat its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, theCorporation of Londonresisted attempts to amalgamate the city with itssuburbs, causing \"London\" to be defined several ways. Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by theLondon post town, in which 'London' forms part of postal addresses.The London telephonearea code(020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has beenaligned to the M25 motorwayin places. Further urban expansion is now prevented by theMetropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately definedGreater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vastLondon commuter belt.Greater London is split for some purposes intoInner LondonandOuter London,and by the River Thames intoNorthandSouth, with an informalcentral Londonarea. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the originalEleanor CrossatCharing Crossnear the junction ofTrafalgar SquareandWhitehall, are about51°30′26″N00°07′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.12750°W /51.50722; -0.12750. Status Within London, both the City of London and theCity of Westminsterhavecity status. The City of London and the remainder of Greater London are bothcounties for the purposes of lieutenancies.The area ofGreater Londonincludes areas that are part of thehistoric countiesofMiddlesex,Kent,Surrey,EssexandHertfordshire.More recently, Greater London has been defined as aregion of Englandand in this context is known asLondon. It is the capital of the United Kingdom and of England byconventionrather than statute. The capital of England was moved to London fromWinchesteras thePalace of Westminsterdeveloped in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of theroyal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. Topography Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km2). Modern London stands on theThames, its primary geographical feature, anavigableriver which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. TheThames Valleyis aflood plainsurrounded by gently rolling hills includingParliament Hill,Addington Hills, andPrimrose Hill. Historically London grew up at thelowest bridging pointon the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensivemarshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width. Since theVictorian erathe Thames has been extensivelyembanked, and many of its Londontributariesnow flowunderground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise inhigh waterlevel caused byclimate changeand by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result ofpost-glacial rebound. Climate London has a temperateoceanic climate(Köppen:Cfb). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began atKew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893.The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm).The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall ofNew York City.Despite relatively low annual precipitation, London receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. London is vulnerable toclimate change, and there is concern amonghydrologicalexperts that households may run out of water before 2050. Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981.Records foratmospheric pressurehave been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020. Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths.A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893. Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerableurban heat islandeffect,making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. SeeClimate of Londonfor additional climate information. Areas Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such asMayfair,Southwark,Wembley, andWhitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes orformer boroughs. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32London boroughsin addition to the ancient City of London.The City of London is the main financial district,andCanary Wharfhas recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in theDocklandsto the east. TheWest Endis London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.West Londonincludes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.The average price for properties inKensington and Chelseais over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London. TheEast Endis the area closest to the originalPort of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.The surroundingEast Londonarea saw much of London's early industrial development; now,brownfieldsites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of theThames Gatewayincluding theLondon RiversideandLower Lea Valley, which was developed into theOlympic Parkfor the2012 Olympics and Paralympics. Architecture London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as theNational Gallery, are constructed fromPortland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by whitestuccoor whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date theGreat Fireof 1666, these being a few traceRomanremains, theTower of Londonand a few scatteredTudorsurvivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-periodHampton Court Palace. Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches byChristopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as theRoyal Exchangeand theBank of England, to the early 20th centuryOld Baileycourthouse and the 1960sBarbican Estate. The 1939Battersea Power Stationby the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples ofVictorian architecture, most notablySt. PancrasandPaddington.The density of London varies, with high employment density in thecentral areaandCanary Wharf, high residential densities ininner London, and lower densities inOuter London. The Monumentin the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating theGreat Fire of London, which originated nearby.Marble ArchandWellington Arch, at the north and south ends ofPark Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do theAlbert MemorialandRoyal Albert HallinKensington.Nelson's Column(built to commemorateAdmiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument inTrafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellowLondon stock brick. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as30 St Mary Axe(dubbed \"The Gherkin\"),Tower 42, theBroadgate TowerandOne Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London andCanary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstructprotected viewsofSt Paul's Cathedraland other historic buildings.This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937.Nevertheless, there area number of tall skyscrapersin central London, including the 95-storeyShard London Bridge, thetallest building in the United Kingdomand Western Europe. Other notable modern buildings includeThe Scalpel,20 Fenchurch Street(dubbed \"The Walkie-Talkie\"), the formerCity HallinSouthwark, theArt DecoBBC Broadcasting Houseplus thePostmodernistBritish LibraryinSomers Town/Kings CrossandNo 1 PoultrybyJames Stirling. TheBT Towerstands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top. What was formerly theMillennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue calledthe O2Arena. Natural history TheLondon Natural History Societysuggests that London is \"one of the World's Greenest Cities\" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that thetidal Thamessupports 120 species of fish.They state that over 60 species of bird nest incentral Londonand that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London'swetlandareas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38Sites of Special Scientific Interest(SSSIs), twonational nature reservesand 76local nature reserves. Amphibiansare common in the capital, includingsmooth newtsliving by theTate Modern, andcommon frogs,common toads,palmate newtsandgreat crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such asslowworms,common lizards,barred grass snakesandadders, are mostly only seen inOuter London. Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found inGreater Londonarehedgehog,brown rat, mice,rabbit,shrew,vole, andgrey squirrel.In wilder areas of Outer London, such asEpping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, includingEuropean hare,badger,field,bankandwater vole,wood mouse,yellow-necked mouse,mole, shrew, andweasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A deadotterwas found at The Highway, inWapping, about a mile from theTower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest:soprano,Nathusius'andcommon pipistrelles,common noctule,serotine,barbastelle,Daubenton's,brown long-eared,Natterer'sandLeisler's. Herds ofredandfallow deerroam freely within much ofRichmondandBushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population ofmelanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary nearTheydon Bois.Muntjac deerare also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces. Demography London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011,while its widermetropolitan areahad a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used.According toEurostat, London is the secondmost populousmetropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001. The region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km2), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km2)more than ten times that of any otherBritish region.In population terms, London is the 19thlargest cityand the 18thlargest metropolitan region. In tenure, 23.1% socially rent within London, 46.8% either own their house outright or with a mortgage or loan and 30% privately rent at the 2021 census.Many Londoner's work from home, 42.9% did so at the 2021 census while 20.6% drive a car to work. The biggest decrease in method of transportation was seen within those who take the train and underground, declining from 22.6% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2021.In qualifications, 46.7% of London had census classified Level 4 qualifications or higher, which is predominately university degrees. 16.2% had no qualifications at all. Age structure and median age London's median age is one of the youngest regions in the UK. It was recorded in 2018 that London's residents were 36.5 years old, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3. Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London. Country of birth The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population wereforeign-born,making it among the cities with thelargest immigrant populationin terms of absolute numbers and a growth of roughly 3 million since 1971 when the foreign born population was 668,373.13% of the total population were Asian born (32.1% of the total foreign born population), 7.1% are African born (17.5%), 15.5% are Other European born (38.2%) and 4.2% were born in the Americas and Caribbean (10.3%).The 5 largest single countries of origin were respectively India, Romania, Poland, Bangladesh and Pakistan. About 56.8% of children born in London in 2021 were born to a mother who was born abroad.This trend has been increasing in the past two decades when foreign born mothers made up 43.3% of births in 2001 in London, becoming the majority in the middle of the 2000s by 2006 comprising 52.5%. A large degree of the foreign born population who were present at the 2021 census had arrived relatively recently. Of the total population, those that arrived between the years of 2011 and 2021 account for 16.6% of London.Those who arrived between 2001 and 2010 are 10.4%, between 1991 and 2001, 5.7%, and prior to 1990, 7.3%. Ethnic groups According to theOffice for National Statistics, based on the 2021 census, 53.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London wereWhite, with 36.8%White British, 1.8%White Irish, 0.1%Gypsy/Irish Traveller, 0.4 Roma and 14.7% classified asOther White.Meanwhile, 22.2% of Londoners were ofAsianor mixed-Asian descent, with 20.8% being of full Asian descents and 1.4% being of mixed-Asian heritage.Indiansaccounted for 7.5% of the population, followed byBangladeshisandPakistanisat 3.7% and 3.3% respectively.Chinesepeople accounted for 1.7%, andArabsfor 1.6%. A further 4.6% were classified as \"Other Asian\".15.9% of London's population were ofBlackor mixed-Black descent. 13.5% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.4%.Black Africansaccounted for 7.9% of London's population; 3.9% identified asBlack Caribbean, and 1.7% as \"Other Black\". 5.7% were ofmixed race.This ethnic structure has changed considerably since the 1960s. Estimates for 1961 put the total non-White ethnic minority population at 179,109 comprising 2.3% of the population at the time,having risen since then to 1,346,119 and 20.2% in 1991and 4,068,553 and 46.2% in 2021.Of those of a White British background, estimates for 1971 put the population at 6,500,000 and 87% of the total population,of since fell to 3,239,281 and 36.8% in 2021. As of 2021, the majority of London's school pupils come from ethnic minority backgrounds. 23.9% were White British, 14% Other White, 23.2% Asian, 17.9% Black, 11.3% Mixed, 6.3% Other and 2.3% unclassified.Altogether at the 2021 census, of London's 1,695,741 population aged 0 to 15, 42% were White in total, splitting it down into 30.9% who were White British, 0.5% Irish, 10.6% Other White, 23% Asian, 16.4% Black, 12% Mixed and 6.6% another ethnic group. Languages In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000.At the 2021 census, 78.4% of Londoners spoke English as their first language.The 5 biggest languages outside of English were Romanian, Spanish, Polish, Bengali, and Portuguese. Religion Religion in London (2021) According to the2021 Census, the largest religious groupings wereChristians(40.66%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%),Muslims(15%), no response (8.5%),Hindus(5.15%), Jews (1.65%),Sikhs(1.64%),Buddhists(1.0%) and other (0.8%). London has traditionally beenChristian, and has alarge number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-knownSt Paul's Cathedralin the City andSouthwark Cathedralsouth of the river areAnglicanadministrative centres,while theArchbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of theChurch of Englandand worldwideAnglican Communion, has his main residence atLambeth Palacein theLondon Borough of Lambeth. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared betweenSt Paul'sandWestminster Abbey.The Abbey is not to be confused with nearbyWestminster Cathedral, the largestRoman Catholiccathedral inEngland and Wales.Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics. Notable mosques include theEast London Mosquein Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, theLondon Central Mosqueon the edge ofRegent's Parkand theBaitul Futuhof theAhmadiyya Muslim Community. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthyMiddle-EasternArab Muslims based themselves aroundMayfair, Kensington andKnightsbridgein West London.There are largeBengali Muslimcommunities in the eastern boroughs ofTower HamletsandNewham. Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs ofHarrowandBrent, the latter hosting what was until 2006Europe's largestHindu temple,Neasden Temple.London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including theBAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India. The majority ofBritish Jewslive in London, with notable Jewish communities inStamford Hill,Stanmore,Golders Green,Finchley,Hampstead,Hendon, andEdgware, all inNorth London.Bevis Marks Synagoguein theCity of Londonis affiliated to London's historicSephardicJewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years.Stanmore and Canons Park Synagoguehas the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe.TheLondon Jewish Forumwas set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government. Accents Cockneyis an accent heard across London, mainly spoken byworking-classandlower-middle classLondoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older.Some features of Cockney include,Th-fronting(pronouncing \"th\" as \"f\"), \"th\" inside a word is pronounced with a \"v\",H-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accentdrops the \"r\"after a vowel.John Camden Hotten, in hisSlang Dictionaryof 1859, makes reference to Cockney \"use of a peculiar slang language\" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing thecostermongersof the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in thehome counties.This is particularly pronounced in areas like Romford (in the London Borough of Havering) and Southend (in Essex) which have received significant inflows of older East End residents in recent decades. Estuary Englishis an intermediate accent between Cockney andReceived Pronunciation.It is widely spoken by people of all classes. Multicultural London English(MLE) is amultiethnolectbecoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence. Received Pronunciation(RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard forBritish English.It has no specific geographical correlate,although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England.It is mainly spoken byupper-classandupper-middle classLondoners. Economy London'sgross regional productin 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter ofUK GDP.London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington, and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world. City of London London's finance industry is based in theCity of LondonandCanary Wharf, the two majorbusiness districts. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. This caused many bankers established inAmsterdam(e.g. Hope, Baring I'm), to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century.The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity. By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency.As of 2023, London ranks second in the world rankings on theGlobal Financial Centres Index(GFCI),and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index. London's largest industry is finance, and itsfinancial exportsmake it a large contributor to the UK'sbalance of payments. Notwithstanding a post-Brexitexodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,London is still one of Europe's most economically powerful cities,and it remains one of the major financial centres of the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.Along withprofessional servicesheadquarters, the City of London is home to theBank of England, London Stock Exchange, andLloyd's of Londoninsurance market.Founded in 1690,Barclays, whosebranch in Enfield, north London installed the firstcash machine(ATM) in 1967, is one of theoldest banks in continuous operation. Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (theFTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent ofFortune 500companies have offices in London.In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, SirAdrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery companyCadbury, produced theCadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform ofcorporate governancearound the world. Media and technology Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.TheBBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters, includingITV,Channel 4,Channel 5, andSky, also have headquarters around the city. Manynational newspapers, includingThe Times, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the termFleet Street(where most national newspapers operated) remains ametonymfor the British national press.The communications companyWPPis the world's largest advertising agency. A large number of technology companies are based in London, notably inEast London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive ageoTLD.In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list byfDi Intelligence.A museum inBletchley Park, whereAlan Turingwas based during World War II, is inBletchley, 40 miles (64 km) north of central London, as isThe National Museum of Computing. The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed byNational Grid plc,SGNandUK Power Networks. Tourism London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK. In 2015, the top ten most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London (shown with visits per venue): The number of hotel rooms in London in 2023 stood at 155,700 and is expected to grow to 183,600 rooms, the most of any city outside China.Luxury hotels in London includethe Savoy(opened in 1889),Claridge's(opened in 1812 and rebuilt in 1898),the Ritz(opened in 1906) andthe Dorchester(opened in 1931), while budget hotel chains includePremier InnandTravelodge. Transport Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London,but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007, the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form theLondon Overgroundnetwork, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered byTransport for London(TfL). The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when theLondon Passenger Transport BoardorLondon Transportwas created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by theMayor of London. Aviation London is a major international air transport hub with thebusiest city airspacein the world.Eight airports use the wordLondonin their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally,various other airportsalso serve London, catering primarily togeneral aviationflights. Rail Underground and DLR Opened in 1863, theLondon Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longestmetrosystem in the world.The system serves272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, theCity and South London Railway, which opened in 1890. Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the2012 Summer Olympics.TheDocklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, morelocal metro systemusing smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve theDocklands,GreenwichandLewisham. Suburban There are368 railway stationsin theLondon Travelcard Zoneson an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running intoeighteen terminal stations, with the exception of theThameslinktrains connectingBedfordin the north andBrightonin the south viaLutonandGatwickairports.London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includesWaterloo Eaststation) each year.Clapham Junctionis one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges. With the need for more rail capacity, theElizabeth Line(also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022.It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into theHome Countieswith a branch toHeathrow Airport.It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost. Inter-city and international London is the centre of theNational Railnetwork, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.King's Cross stationandEuston station, both in London, are the starting points of theEast Coast Main Lineand theWest Coast Main Line– the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns.The Flying Scotsmanis an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service,Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934. Some international railway services toContinental Europewere operated during the 20th century asboat trains. The opening of theChannel Tunnelin 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowingEurostarservices to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains linkSt. Pancras InternationalwithLille,Calais, Paris,Disneyland Paris, Brussels,Amsterdamand other European tourist destinations via theHigh Speed 1rail link and theChannel Tunnel.The firsthigh-speed domestictrains started in June 2009, linkingKentto London.There are plans for asecond high speed linelinking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire. Buses, coaches and trams London'sbus networkruns 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops.In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year.Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the worldand from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. An emblem of London, the reddouble-decker busfirst appeared in the city in 1947 with theAEC Regent III RT(predecessor to theAEC Routemaster).London's coach hub isVictoria Coach Station, opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and then purchased by London Transport (nowTransport for London), Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe. London has a modern tram network, known asTramlink. It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink. Cable car London's first and to date only cable car is theLondon Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and linksGreenwich Peninsulawith theRoyal Docksin the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times. Cycling In the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day,meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of abicycle hire schemein July 2010 was successful and generally well received. Port and river boats ThePort of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.Most of this cargo passes through thePort of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London. London has river boat services on the Thames known asThames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services.At major piers includingCanary Wharf,London Bridge City,Battersea Power StationandLondon Eye(Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times.TheWoolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking theNorthandSouth CircularRoads. Roads Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. Theinner ring road(around the city centre), theNorthandSouth Circularroads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (theM25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate intoinner London. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long.TheA1andM1connect London toLeeds, andNewcastleandEdinburgh. TheAustin Motor Companybegan makinghackney carriages(London taxis) in 1929, and models includeAustin FX3from 1948,Austin FX4from 1958, with more recent modelsTXIIandTX4manufactured byLondon Taxis International. The BBC states, \"ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions\".Although traditionally black, some are painted in other colours or bear advertising. London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h).In 2003, acongestion chargewas introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000. Low Traffic Neighbourhoods (LTN)were widely introduced in London, but in 2023 the Department for Transport stopped funding them, even though the benefits outweighed the costs by approximately 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time. Education Tertiary education London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the worldand its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.A 2014PricewaterhouseCoopersreport termed London the global capital of higher education.A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022QS World University Rankings,Imperial College Londonis ranked No. 6 in the world,University College London(UCL) is ranked 8th, andKing's College London(KCL) is ranked 37th.All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in theResearch Excellence Frameworkranking 2021.TheLondon School of Economics(LSE) has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.TheLondon Business Schoolis considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by theFinancial Times.The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings): theRoyal College of Music(ranking 2nd in the world), theRoyal Academy of Music(ranking 4th) and theGuildhall School of Music and Drama(ranking 6th). With students in London and around 48,000 inUniversity of London Worldwide,the federalUniversity of Londonis the largest contact teaching university in the UK.It includes five multi-faculty universities –City, King's College London,Queen Mary,Royal Hollowayand UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions includingBirkbeck, theCourtauld Institute of Art,Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, theLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, theRoyal Academy of Music, theCentral School of Speech and Drama, theRoyal Veterinary Collegeand theSchool of Oriental and African Studies. Universities in London outside the University of London system includeBrunel University,Imperial College London,Kingston University,London Metropolitan University,University of East London,University of West London,University of Westminster,London South Bank University,Middlesex University, andUniversity of the Arts London(the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).In addition, there are three international universities –Regent's University London,Richmond, The American International University in LondonandSchiller International University. London is home tofive major medical schools–Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry(part ofQueen Mary),King's College London School of Medicine(the largest medical school in Europe),Imperial College School of Medicine,UCL Medical SchoolandSt George's, University of London– and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eightacademic health science centresare based in the city –Imperial College Healthcare,King's Health PartnersandUCL Partners(the largest such centre in Europe).Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently inWhite City. Founded by pioneering nurseFlorence NightingaleatSt Thomas' Hospitalin 1860, thefirst nursing schoolis now part of King's College London.It was at King's in 1952 where a team led byRosalind FranklincapturedPhoto 51, the critical evidence in identifying the structure ofDNA.There are a number of business schools in London, including theLondon School of Business and Finance,Cass Business School(part ofCity University London),Hult International Business School,ESCP Europe,European Business School London,Imperial College Business School, theLondon Business Schooland theUCL School of Management. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including esteemed drama schools such asRADA(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art), theLondon Academy of Music and Dramatic Art(LAMDA),Drama Studio London,Sylvia Young Theatre School, theRoyal Central School of Speech and Dramaand theGuildhall School of Music and Drama, as well as theLondon College of Contemporary Arts(LCCA),Central School of Ballet,London Contemporary Dance School,National Centre for Circus Arts,Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, theRoyal College of Art, andTrinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. TheBRIT Schoolin the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies. Primary and secondary education The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by theLondon boroughsor otherwise state-funded; leading examples includeAshbourne College,Bethnal Green Academy,Brampton Manor Academy,City and Islington College,City of Westminster College,David Game College,Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College,Leyton Sixth Form College,London Academy of Excellence,Tower Hamlets College, andNewham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such asCity of London School,Harrow(alumni includes seven former British prime ministers),St Paul's School,Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School,University College School,The John Lyon School,Highgate SchoolandWestminster School. Royal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies Founded in 1675, theRoyal ObservatoryinGreenwichwas established to address the problem of calculatinglongitudefor navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royalNevil Maskelyne'sNautical Almanacwhich made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as theprime meridian(0° longitude) in 1884. Important scientificlearned societiesbased in London include theRoyal Society—the UK's nationalacademy of sciencesand the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660,and theRoyal Institution, founded in 1799. Since 1825, theRoyal Institution Christmas Lectureshave presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included physicist and inventorMichael Faraday, aerospace engineerFrank Whittle, naturalistDavid Attenboroughand evolutionary biologistRichard Dawkins. Culture Leisure and entertainment Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to Londonat 25.6 events per 1000 people.The city is one of the fourfashion capitalsof the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world. Within theCity of Westminster, the entertainment district of theWest Endhas its focus aroundLeicester Square, where London and world filmpremieresare held, andPiccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements.London'stheatre districtis here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city'sChinatowndistrict (inSoho), and just to the east isCovent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. In 1881, the West End'sSavoy Theatre, which was built to showcase the plays ofGilbert and Sullivan, was fitted with the incandescent light bulb developed by SirJoseph Swanto become the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electricity.The city is the home ofAndrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century.Agatha Christie'sThe Mousetrap, the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952.TheLaurence Olivier Awards–named afterLaurence Olivier–are given annually by theSociety of London Theatre. TheRoyal Ballet,English National Ballet,Royal Opera, andEnglish National Operaare based in London and perform at theRoyal Opera House, theLondon Coliseum,Sadler's Wells Theatre, and theRoyal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country. Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) longUpper Street, extending northwards fromAngel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK.Europe's busiest shopping area isOxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers anddepartment stores, includingSelfridgesflagship store.Knightsbridge, home to the equally renownedHarrodsdepartment store, lies to the south-west. One of the world's largest retail destinations, London frequently ranks at or near the top of retail sales of any city.Opened in 1760 with its flagship store onRegent Streetsince 1881,Hamleysis the oldesttoy storein the world.Madame Tussaudswax museum opened inBaker Streetin 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began. London is home to designersJohn Galliano,Stella McCartney,Manolo Blahnik, andJimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion.Mary Quantdesigned theminiskirtin herKing's Roadboutique inSwinging Sixties London.In 2017, London was ranked the top city for luxury store openings.London Fashion Weektakes place twice a year, in February and September; Londoners on the catwalk have includedNaomi Campbell,Kate MossandCara Delevingne. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants ofBrick Laneand theChineserestaurants ofChinatown.There areChinese takeawaysthroughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provideIndian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.Around 1860, the firstfish and chipsshop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, inBow.Thefull English breakfastdates from the Victorian era, and manycafesin London serve a full English throughout the day.London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, includingRestaurant Gordon RamsayinChelsea.Many hotels in London provide a traditionalafternoon teaservice, such as theOscar Wilde Loungeat theHotel Café Royalin Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example anAlice in Wonderlandthemed afternoon tea served at theEgerton House Hotel, andCharlie and the Chocolate Factorythemed afternoon tea atOne Aldwychin Covent Garden.The nation's most popularbiscuittodunkin tea,chocolate digestiveshave been manufactured byMcVitie'sat theirHarlesdenfactory in north-west London since 1925. There is a variety ofannual events, beginning with the relatively newNew Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at theLondon Eye; the world's second largeststreet party, theNotting Hill Carnival, is held on the lateAugust Bank Holidayeach year. Traditional parades include November'sLord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a newLord Mayor of the City of Londonwith a procession along the streets of the city, and June'sTrooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of theCommonwealthandBritisharmies to celebrate theKing's Official Birthday.TheBoishakhi Melais aBengali New Yearfestival celebrated by theBritish Bangladeshicommunity. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors.First held in 1862, theRHS Chelsea Flower Show(run by theRoyal Horticultural Society) takes place in May every year. LGBT scene The firstgay barin London in the modern sense wasThe Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just offRegent Street, in 1912 and \"which developed a reputation for sexual freedom and tolerance of same-sex relations.\" While London has been an LGBT tourism destination, afterhomosexuality was decriminalisedin England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970sSoho(and in particularOld Compton Street) became the centre of theLondon LGBT community.G-A-Y, previously based at theAstoria, and nowHeaven, is a long-running night club. Wider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence ofglam rockin the UK in the early 1970s, viaMarc BolanandDavid Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musicalThe Rocky Horror Show, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements.TheBlitz Kids(which includedBoy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz inCovent Garden, helping launch theNew Romanticsubcultural movement in the late 1970s.Today, the annualLondon Pride Paradeand theLondon Lesbian and Gay Film Festivalare held in the city. Literature, film and television London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims inGeoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-centuryCanterbury Talesset out forCanterburyfrom London.William Shakespearespent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporaryBen Jonsonwas also based there, and some of his work, most notably his playThe Alchemist, was set in the city.A Journal of the Plague Year(1722) byDaniel Defoeis a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665Great Plague. The literary centres of London have traditionally been hillyHampsteadand (since the early 20th century)Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diaristSamuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of theGreat Fire;Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of earlyVictorianLondon; andVirginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremostmodernistliterary figures of the 20th century.Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries areArthur Conan Doyle'sSherlock Holmesstories.Robert Louis Stevensonmixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote theStrange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, agothicnovella set in Victorian London.In 1898,H. G. Wells' sci-fi novelThe War of the Worldssees London (and southern England) invaded by Martians.Letitia Elizabeth LandonwroteCalendar of the London Seasonsin 1834. Modern writers influenced by the city includePeter Ackroyd, author ofLondon: The Biography, andIain Sinclair, who writes in the genre ofpsychogeography. In the 1940s,George Orwellwrote essays in theLondon Evening Standard, including \"A Nice Cup of Tea\" (method for making tea) and \"The Moon Under Water\" (an idealpub).The WWIIevacuation of children from Londonis depicted inC. S. Lewis' first Narnia bookThe Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe(1950). On Christmas Eve 1925,Winnie-the-Poohdebuted in London'sEvening News, with the character based on a stuffed toyA. A. Milnebought for his sonChristopher Robinin Harrods.In 1958, authorMichael BondcreatedPaddington Bear, a refugee found inPaddington station. A screen adaptation,Paddington(2014), features the calypso song \"London is the Place for Me\".Buckingham Palace features inRoald Dahl's 1982 novelThe BFG. London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London includePinewood,Elstree,Ealing,Shepperton,Twickenham, andLeavesden, with theJames BondandHarry Potterseries among many notable films produced here.Working Title Filmshas its headquarters in London. Apost-productioncommunity is centred inSoho, and London houses six of the world's largestvisual effectscompanies, such asFramestore.The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded byAndy Serkis.London has been the setting for films includingOliver Twist(1948),Scrooge(1951),Peter Pan(1953),One Hundred and One Dalmatians(1961),My Fair Lady(1964),Mary Poppins(1964),Blowup(1966),A Clockwork Orange(1971),The Long Good Friday(1980),The Great Mouse Detective(1986),Notting Hill(1999),Love Actually(2003),V for Vendetta(2005),Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street(2008) andThe King's Speech(2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London includeCharlie Chaplin,Alfred Hitchcock,Michael Caine,Julie Andrews,Peter Sellers,David Lean,Julie Christie,Gary Oldman,Emma Thompson,Guy Ritchie,Christopher Nolan,Alan Rickman,Jude Law,Helena Bonham Carter,Idris Elba,Tom Hardy,Daniel Radcliffe,Keira Knightley,Riz Ahmed,Dev Patel,Daniel Kaluuya,Tom HollandandDaniel Day-Lewis. Post-warEaling comediesfeaturedAlec Guinness, from the 1950sHammer HorrorsstarredChristopher Lee, films directed byMichael Powellincluded the London-set earlyslasherPeeping Tom(1960), the 1970s comedy troupeMonty Pythonhad film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990sRichard Curtis's rom-coms have featuredHugh Grant. The largest cinema chain in the country,Odeon Cinemaswas founded in London in 1928 byOscar Deutsch.TheBFI IMAXon theSouth Bankis the largest cinema screen in the UK.TheBritish Academy Film Awards(BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with theBAFTA Fellowshipthe Academy's highest accolade.Founded in 1957, theBFI London Film Festivaltakes place over two weeks every October. London is a major centre for television production, with studios includingTelevision Centre,ITV Studios,Sky CampusandFountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows,Pop Idol,The X Factor, andBritain's Got Talent(the latter two created by TV personalitySimon Cowellwho starred as a judge in all three shows), before each format was exported around the world.Formerly a franchise of ITV,Thames Televisionfeatured comedians such asBenny HillandRowan Atkinson(Mr. Beanwas first screened by Thames), whileTalkbackproducedDa Ali G Showwhich featuredSacha Baron CohenasAli G.Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap operaEastEnders. Museums, art galleries and libraries London ishome to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are majortourist attractionsas well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was theBritish MuseuminBloomsbury, in 1753.Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, theNational Gallerywas founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position inTrafalgar Square. TheBritish Libraryis thesecond largest libraryin the world, and thenational libraryof the United Kingdom.There are many other research libraries, including theWellcome LibraryandDana Centre, as well asuniversity libraries, including theBritish Library of Political and Economic ScienceatLSE, theAbdus Salam LibraryatImperial, theMaughan LibraryatKing's, and theSenate House Librariesat theUniversity of London. In the latter half of the 19th century the locale ofSouth Kensingtonwas developed as \"Albertopolis\", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: theVictoria and Albert Museum, theNatural History Museum, and theScience Museum. TheNational Portrait Gallerywas founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.The national gallery of British art is atTate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved toTate Modern, a new gallery housed in the formerBankside Power Stationwhich is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via theMillennium Bridge. Music London is one of the major classical andpopular musiccapitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such asUniversal Music Group InternationalandWarner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as theBarbican Arts Centre(principal base of theLondon Symphony Orchestraand theLondon Symphony Chorus), theSouthbank Centre(London Philharmonic Orchestraand thePhilharmonia Orchestra),Cadogan Hall(Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and theRoyal Albert Hall(The Proms).The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with theLast Night of the Proms. London's two main opera houses are theRoyal Opera Houseand theLondon Coliseum(home to theEnglish National Opera).The UK's largestpipe organis at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells ofSt Clement Danesfeature in the 1744nursery rhyme\"Oranges and Lemons\".Severalconservatoiresare within the city:Royal Academy of Music,Royal College of Music,Guildhall School of Music and DramaandTrinity Laban. The record labelEMIwas formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company,Alan Blumlein, createdstereo soundthat year.Guitar amp engineerJim MarshallfoundedMarshall Amplificationin London in 1962. London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue,the O2Arena,andWembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such asBrixton Academy, theHammersmith Apolloand theShepherd's Bush Empire.Severalmusic festivals, including theWireless Festival,LoveboxandHyde Park'sBritish Summer Time, are held in London. The city is home to the originalHard Rock Cafeand theAbbey Road Studios, wherethe Beatlesrecorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups likeElton John,Pink Floyd,David Bowie,the Rolling Stones,Queen,Eric Clapton,the Who,the Kinks,Cliff Richard,Led Zeppelin,Iron Maiden,Deep Purple,T. Rex,the Police,Elvis Costello,Dire Straits,Cat Stevens,Fleetwood Mac,the Cure,Madness,Culture Club,Dusty Springfield,Phil Collins,Rod Stewart,Status QuoandSade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London. London was instrumental in the development ofpunk music, with groups such as theSex Pistols,the Clashand fashion designerVivienne Westwoodall based in the city.Other artists to emerge from the London music scene includeGeorge Michael,Kate Bush,Seal,Siouxsie and the Banshees,Bush, theSpice Girls,Jamiroquai,Blur,the Prodigy,Gorillaz,Mumford & Sons,Coldplay,Dido,Amy Winehouse,Adele,Sam Smith,Ed Sheeran,Leona Lewis,Ellie Goulding,Dua LipaandFlorence and the Machine.Artists from London played a prominent role in the development ofsynth-pop, includingGary Numan,Depeche Mode, thePet Shop BoysandEurythmics; the latter's \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods.Artists from London with a Caribbean influence includeHot Chocolate,Billy Ocean,Soul II SoulandEddy Grant, with the latter fusingreggae, soul and samba with rock and pop.London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genresUK garage,drum and bass,dubstepandgrimeevolved in the city from the foreign genres ofhouse,hip hop, and reggae, alongside localdrum and bass. Urban acts from London includeStormzy,M.I.A.,Jay SeanandRita Ora. Music stationBBC Radio 1Xtrawas set up to support the rise of localurban contemporarymusic both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. TheBritish Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, theBrit Awards, are held in London. Recreation Parks and open spaces A 2013 report by theCity of London Corporationsaid that London is the \"greenest city\" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens.The largest parks in thecentral area of Londonare three of the eightRoyal Parks, namelyHyde Parkand its neighbourKensington Gardensin the west, andRegent's Parkto the north.Hyde Park in particular is popular forsportsand sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park containsLondon Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is nearMadame Tussaudswax museum.Primrose Hillis a popular spot from which to view the city skyline. Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks,Green ParkandSt. James's Park.A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, includingHampstead Heathand the remaining Royal Parks ofGreenwich Parkto the southeast, andBushy ParkandRichmond Park(the largest) to the southwest.Hampton Court Parkis also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by theHistoric Royal Palaces, unlike the eightRoyal Parks. Close to Richmond Park isKew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on theUNESCOlist ofWorld Heritage Sites.There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, includingVictoria Parkin theEast EndandBattersea Parkin the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, includingHampstead HeathandEpping Forest,both controlled by theCity of London Corporation.Hampstead Heath incorporatesKenwood House, a formerstately homeand a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake.Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks,Thorpe Parknear Staines-upon-Thames,Chessington World of Adventuresin Chessington andLegoland Windsor, are located within 20 miles (32 km) of London. Walking Walking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks includeWimbledon Common,Epping Forest,Hampton Court Park,Hampstead Heath, the eightRoyal Parks,Regents CanalWalk, canals and disused railway tracks.Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of theThames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is withinGreater London, and TheWandle Trailalong theRiver Wandle. Otherlong-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including theCapital Ring, theGreen Chain Walk,London Outer Orbital Path(\"Loop\"),Jubilee Walkway,Lea Valley Walk, and theDiana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk. Sport London has hosted theSummer Olympicsthree times: in1908,1948, and2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.The city was also the host of theBritish Empire Gamesin1934.In 2017, London hosted theWorld Championships in Athleticsfor the first time. London'smost popular sportisfootball, and it has seven clubs in thePremier Leaguein the2023–24 season:Arsenal,Brentford,Chelsea,Crystal Palace,Fulham,Tottenham Hotspur, andWest Ham United.Other professional men's teams in London areAFC Wimbledon,Barnet,Bromley,Charlton Athletic,Dagenham & Redbridge,Leyton Orient,Millwall,Queens Park RangersandSutton United. Four London-based teams are in theWomen's Super League:Arsenal,Chelsea,TottenhamandWest Ham United. TwoPremiership Rugbyunion teams are based in Greater London:HarlequinsandSaracens.Ealing TrailfindersandLondon Scottishplay in theRFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city includeRichmond,Rosslyn Park,Westcombe ParkandBlackheath.Twickenham Stadiumin south-west London hosts home matches for theEngland national rugby union team.Whilerugby leagueis more popular in the north of England, the sport has one professional club in London – theLondon Broncoswho play in theSuper League. One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is theWimbledon Tennis Championships, held at theAll England Clubin the south-western suburb ofWimbledonsince 1877.Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious. London has twoTest cricketgrounds which host theEngland cricket team,Lord's(home ofMiddlesex C.C.C.) andthe Oval(home ofSurrey C.C.C.). Lord's has hosted four finals of theCricket World Cupand is known as theHome of Cricket.In golf, theWentworth Clubis located inVirginia Water, Surrey on the south-west fringes of London, while the closest venue to London that is used as one of the courses forthe Open Championship, the oldest major and tournament in golf, isRoyal St George'sin Sandwich, Kent.Alexandra Palacein north London hosts thePDC World Darts Championshipand theMasterssnookertournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participationLondon Marathonand theUniversity Boat Raceon the Thames contested betweenOxfordandCambridge. Notable people See also Notes References Bibliography External links" ]

[ "Rennington Renningtonis a village andcivil parishinNorthumberland, England about 4 miles (6 km) north ofAlnwick. The parish includes the village ofRockand the hamlets ofBroxfieldandStamford. In 2011 the parish had a population of 366. Governance Renningtonis in theparliamentaryconstituency ofBerwick-upon-Tweed. From 1974 to 2009 it was inAlnwickdistrict. Rennington was formerly atownshipandchapelryin the parish of Embleton,in 1866 Rennington became a separate civil parish, on 1 April 1955 the parishes of Broxfield, Rock and Stamford were abolished and merged with Rennington. References External links Media related toRenningtonat Wikimedia Commons ThisNorthumberlandlocation article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Lydbrook Lydbrookis acivil parishin theForest of Dean, alocal government districtin theEnglishcounty ofGloucestershireand is located in theWye Valley. It is on the north west edge of theForest of Dean's present legal boundary proper. It comprises the districts of Lower Lydbrook, Upper Lydbrook,Joys Greenand Worrall Hill. It has a mile and a half long high street, reputed to be the longest high street of any village in England. Early history The area now forming the present village of Lydbrook has been inhabited throughout history.Artifactsfrom Hangerberry and Eastbach on the south west corner of the parish, and Lower Lydbrook show evidence of widespread activity from theMesolithic period(Middle Stone Age 10,000–4000 BC) to the present.Flint stonetools from surrounding fields confirm that the area was occupied and farmed for more than 4,000 years. Lydbrook was inhabited by theRomansas there is evidence of a Roman homestead along Proberts Barn Lane, Lower Lydbrook. The timber building detected on the site may", "on the site may date from the 1st century AD. A later building with stone walls was still inhabited in the 4th century. The site was a farming and agricultural centre in the Roman period. There is also evidence of Roman activity at Hangerberry with traces of a Roman pavement. ARoman roadcame fromRuardeanthrough Lower Lydbrook (tracing theWye) toEnglish Bicknor. A further ancient road existed betweenJoys Greenand English Bicknor via Bell Hill. Traces of a Roman Road also exist from Worrall Hill toEdge End. These Roman track ways show evidence of following previousprehistoricpaths. In 1881 it was reported a large quantity ofRoman coinswere found at Lower Lydbrook. The Dean Archaeological Group's recent excavations in and around Lydbrook have recovered other coins from the Roman period, as well as other artefacts pre-dating and post dating this period. Parish boundaries For those living today there may be differences as to what comprises Lydbrook. There is the village of Lydbrook which for many would include", "many would include Worrall Hill, Hangerberry and Stowfield. There is also the Parish of Lydbrook which includes Joys Green, Hawsley and High Beech. The complexities of boundaries for Lydbrook have been greater in the past. Before becoming part of Gloucestershire, prior to the 12th century, the Forest of Dean lay inHerefordshire. For example, Ruardean was an extension of the parish ofWalfordin Herefordshire and St John's church at Ruardean was a daughter church of Walford Church. In the same time as the Forest of Dean came into Gloucestershire the Forest had become the preserve of the Crown. The area now covered by Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green, would have been served in times past by the church atMitcheldean. However, from Norman times until the mid 19th century, it came under the Forest's Bailiff for Mitcheldean (in other words 'the Magna or Great Dean Bailiwick'), and thus was extra-parochial, or outside of a parish. Lower Lydbrook was divided between the parishes ofEnglish Bicknorand Walford (served by", "Walford (served by the Church of St John the Baptist at Ruardean), with the Lyd forming the boundary. The mid-19th century saw the parochialisation of the Forest. Each area within the legal boundaries of the Forest came under both a church district and a civic district. In 1816 Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green came under the newly created church of Holy Trinity at Harrow Hill, with a mission chapel built in Upper Lydbrook in 1821. By 1842 this arrangement was formalised by the newly created ecclesiastical district of Holy Trinity (Harrow Hill, Drybrook). The civic boundaries of the Forest differed from the church boundaries and from 1842 Lower Lydbrook and Upper Lydbrook became part of the Township of West Dean, with Joys Green coming within the westmost boundary of the Township of East Dean, the Railway line (constructed later in the 1860s) ran along this boundary. In 1852 Lower Lydbrook, Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green all became part of the newly created ecclesiastical parish of Lydbrook. It was much later in", "was much later in 1935 that the civic parish of Lydbrook was created. Lower Lydbrook and Upper Lydbrook had developed as separate communities prior to the 17th century and remained so legally until the 19th century. A few of the older inhabitants of the village reported that atoll gateonce existed between Lower and Upper Lydbrook. Lower Lydbrook was settled as part of the parishes of English Bicknor and Ruardean, and was the focus of the iron industry. You only have to look at the location of housing in Lower Lydbrook to see a defined community adjacent to the Wye River and Lyd brook. The pond also served as a focal point, as well a community meeting places. Lower Lydbrook people were buried in the churchyards of Ruardean and English Bicknor (as well as a number being buried atWelsh Bicknoracross the Wye). Upper Lydbrook lay within the Forest boundary which had been part of the Bailiwick of Mitcheldean, and had been encroached (housing being built within what was once strictly a Crown preserve), serving as a", "serving as a focus for the mining community. Governance Lydbrook falls in 'Lydbrook and Ruardean'electoral ward. This ward starts in the south east at Lydbrook and stretches to the north east atRuardean. The total parish population taken at the 2011 census was 4,819. Present community The present community of Lydbrook seems to have had its beginnings in the 13th century. In a record of a sale of trees in 1256, mention is made of 'the Mill of Lydbrook'. Further early notes on Lydbrook occur in a survey of the Forest of Dean in 1282. The Lyd (a brook, which flows into the River Wye, and not the one that flows to Lydney) formed, for part of its travels, the boundary between the Bailiwicks of Bikenore (English Bicknor) and Rywardin (Ruardean). Today many maps call the Lyd, Hough Brook, or Great Hough Brook, and How Brook which joins the Lyd is known on modern maps as Little Hough Brook. Listed in the 1282 entries of those who possessed cultivated land, William of Ludebrok (Lydbrook), appears under the parish of", "under the parish of Bikenore, and under the parish of Rywardin. Rather than being two separate pieces of land in differing localities, it was probably that William's land will have included the brook, hence his inclusion in the records for both parishes. In addition, under the entry for Bikenore is recorded, Robert of Stoufeld (Stowfield). Thus the development of Lydbrook began at Lower Lydbrook. The village takes its name from the brook running its entire length – the 'loud brook' or lud brook to become Lyd Brook. The village developed as a site for the local iron and coal industries with the houses as an encroachment into the Forest tracing the Lyd brook which provided the water needed for industry and domestic use. The development of the encroachment, continued into the Bailiwick of Magna Dean (Mitcheldean), the area which became known as Upper Lydbrook and Joys Green. The village only became a place of population of any size 17th century onwards, but grew steadily since to remain static for almost a", "static for almost a century and a half at a population of about 2,500 between the 1850s and the beginning of the 1990s. However, from the beginning of the 1990s the community has begun to slowly depopulate. One call to fame of the recent past, which now is thankfully no longer true, is that Humphrey Phelps, in his book on the Forest of Dean recalls that in the 1950s Lydbrook had the highest incidence oftuberculosisin England. Lydbrook presently Lydbrook has a shop and Post Office, afish and chip shop, many local businesses and pubs which include; The Jovial Colliers Inn and Bunkhouse (recently rebranded in house as The Colliers Inn), The Royal Spring Inn, The Forge Hammer Inn, Waterloo Business Park and Lydbrook Valley Garage/Autospray as well as the River Wye Lodge which replaced former The Courtfield Arms. The village is home to the Lydbrook brass band, a flourishing ensemble whose TV appearances include the Lotto Advert in 2014 and Countryfile in 2019. In 2012 Lydbrook was featured on ITV and BBC news due", "and BBC news due to the fact that the centre of Lydbrook was flooded and under up to 4 feet (1.2 m) of water. This was despite being nearly1⁄2mile (0.80 km) away from the local River Wye which is situated at the bottom of Lydbrook. This was due to a blockage of an old culvert under the road which contains a stream and the surface drainage for the entire village. In 2017, theForestry Commissioncommenced a project to introduceEurasian beaversinto an enclosed area of land uphill of the village, as part of a habitat-management programme: among the anticipated outcomes is the reduction in likelihood of furtherflash floodsoccurring. Lydbrook Parish Council In 1935, with the creation of the civic parish of Lydbrook, Joys Green became a full part of the parish. Industry Although Lydbrook is now developing as a useful centre for exploring both theWye Valleyand theForest of Deanwith its several hotels andbed and breakfastestablishments, its traditional connection is with industry especially with the iron, coal and", "the iron, coal and timber industries. The arrival of the Romans brought with them the iron industry into the forest. The proven presence of aRoman communityin Lydbrook provides for the possibility of an early iron industry. There will certainly have beeniron oreandcoal mines, at low or outcrop level. Records for industry in the post Roman and preNormanperiods are scarce and it is only from the 13th century that numerous records can be found. However, details about Lydbrook can be difficult to isolate, as Lydbrook was not a parish in its own rights, and activity at Lydbrook, is activity at Ruardean or English Bicknor. One attraction of Lydbrook was the northward fast flowing Lyd. In the 1590s records exist of what became known as the UpperForgeat Lydbrook built by Thomas Bainham and later owned by Robert Devereux, secondEarl of Essex. In 1628 it was described as standing on \"Hangerbury Common, below the King's Forge\". By 1668 the Upper Forge had disappeared. Three other forges existed. The Middle Forge built", "Middle Forge built in the 1590s was opposite what is now Beard's bakery building. After the demise of the original Upper Forge, the Middle Forge eventually took on the name of Upper Forge. The Lower Forge was built in 1610 (standing within two hundred yards from the Wye). Standing up-stream from the Upper Forge was the King's Howbrook Forge (also known as the Lydbrook Forge) built in 1612/13. This stood opposite what is now Brook House (was once the Yew Tree Inn). In March 1650 the Forge was demolished. Not far away and built in the same period was the King's Furnace powered by the Lyd (where the How brook joins the Lyd) this ceased by 1674. By the early 18th century only two forges existed, the Upper Forge (the renamed old Middle Forge) and the Lower Forge. In 1702 a further forge existed, although its location is now unknown, the New Forge. This forge was somewhere between the two others as it took on the name of 'Middle Forge'. By 1818 after many changes of hands both owners and tenants, the Partridge", "the Partridge family dominated the iron works at Lydbrook. In 1622 there are details of a grist mill and a battering works nearby a disused cornmill. The Lower Forge became in its turn a Corn Mill. Existing also in Lydbrook around the 1690s was anAnvilmaking works.Roaring Meg (cannon), on display atGoodrich Castle, was made in Lydbrook in 1649. By 1798tinplateproduction began in Lydbrook through the agency of the Partridge and Allaway families (Thomas Allaway was a tenant of the Patridges). The Upper and Lower Forges had been converted to tinplate works by the Partridges and then were leased by Allaway in 1817. It has been argued that tinplate production began in Lydbrook in 1760, which would have made it the earliest centre for tinplate production. The Allaways firm became 'Pearce & Allaway' in 1820, and then in 1850 'Allaways, Partridge & Co'. In 1871 the business was leased to Richard Thomas who moved into the village and lived at the Poplars, Upper Lydbrook. Thomas expanded his business taking over", "taking over Lydbrook Colliery and Waterloo Colliery. Richard Thomas died in 1916. The works were closed during theFirst World Warand ceased operating in 1925. The early tin works and rolling mills stood where Meredith & Sons and Lydwood works are today. In 1818 James Russell purchased theIronworksupstream of the Upper Forge, opposite the Bell Inn, where he created a wireworks. The enterprise was run by the family until its closure between 1890 and 1900. In 1912, Harold J Smith purchased land at Stowfield and erected the Lydbrook Cable Works. The First World War provided a number of contracts with employee numbers expanding from 40 to 650 with double shifts being worked. With the end of the War, came a slump in business, and in 1920 the Official Receiver was brought in ending Smith's connection with the factory. The business was bought in 1925 byEdison Swan Electric Company. With the greater resources available the plant at Stowfield further expanded, and was well placed to help with theSecond World", "theSecond World Warpossessing one of only four machines for making lead alloy tube needed forP.L.U.T.O.– (Petroleum Lines Under The Ocean), which allowed fuel to be supplied to the Allied invasion force in Europe from Britain. In the late 1940s, Edison Swan was swallowed up byAssociated Electrical Industries. Integrated with theSiemens BrothersCable Works at Woolwich the Stowfield Factory at its height employed approximately 1,100 people. The Cable Works came to an end in 1966 when the factory was bought by Reed Paper Group, which in its turn was taken over by a Swedish Company SCA. The 18th and 19th centuries saw the village grow through the rise of industry. The first commercially successful blast furnace was sited in Lydbrook and was working as early as 1608. By the 18th century, Lydbook was an important location for the production of tin plate, and a book published in 1861 compared Lydbrook toSheffield. At the beginning of the 19th century the iron trade was in decline but the coal industry was growing", "was growing fast. Lydbrook having its own collieries – Arthur & Edward (also called Waterloo as it opened in 1815), The Deep Level, The Old Soot Bag, The Old Engine, Worrall Hill Mine. Lower Lydbrook's situation by the Wye brought about its importance as being a loading place for coal to be taken by barge toHereford. The flat bottomed barges were dragged originally by men – until the construction of a tow path in 1811. This trade declined after the construction of theHerefordshire and Gloucestershire Canal, but the canal was soon superseded by the railways, which as far as Lydbrook is concerned has 'come and gone'. The community was served by two railway stations and a halt,Upper Lydbrook(the Halt),Lower LydbrookandLydbrook Junction. Not even the famousLower Lydbrook Viaductremains which enabled theSevern and Wye RailwayfromCinderfordvia Bilston and Serridge to connect with theRoss and Monmouth Railway. Theviaductrose some 87 feet above the roadway below, linking Forge Hill on the east with Randor on the", "with Randor on the west. It was built in 1872 and first used 26 August 1874. The line was closed to passengers in 1929 and to goods in 1951. It was dismantled in 1966. New industries replaced the old with the rise of a cable works, but this closed in 1965, replaced by Reed Corrugated Cases (since mid-1991 renamed SCA Packaging Ltd). Others in Lydbrook found employment withRank Xeroxat Mitcheldean. Other employment in the village is offered through the existence of a small number of light engineering works and three saw mills. The new industries differ from the old because they did not grow out of the Forest because of the minerals, but because of the availability of a work force. Only the saw mills (employing a small number of people) represent a connection with traditional Forest industry. Modern road communications with the surrounding areas has opened the village up to outsiders with the new phenomenon of holiday homes, being once the cottages of the Foresters. Local schools Almost forgotten as a fact is", "as a fact is the place the churches played in providing education in Lydbrook. Situated in Lower Lydbrook was a school provided by the Goff Endowment Charity. The venture lasted from 1820 to the late 1830s. The school in Upper Lydbrook was founded by theChurch of England, which had provided a series of schools throughout the Forest in Mitcheldean, Christ Church, Drybrook, Woodside, the Hawthornes, Lydbrook, Park End, and Cinderford. The local school was founded by the Reverend Henry Berkin, as part of the National Schools, who erected a chapel schoolroom in 1822. The original building measured 50 feet long by 30 feet wide, and was fitted with benches with railed backs, and in the words of Henry Berkin \"will contain about 400 persons\". After 1851, with the erection of Holy Jesus Church, the chapel continued as a school and also served as the church hall. In 1872, fifty years on from 1822, the allocation of space being more generous per person, the school was (according to the record of the time) enlarged to", "time) enlarged to \"seat 250 pupils\". On 20 January 1908 the beginnings of a new school had been erected as the 'Lydbrook Temporary Council School' to 'relieve the Lydbrook National School', with an intake of 35 boys. These will have been the senior boys. The new buildings were being erected across the main road from the old school on the west side of the village. By the autumn of 1909 the new school had been completed. The Headmaster, Mr Bishop transferred with the pupils on 6 September 1909. The school was due to be opened 30 August 1909, but the building work had not been completed so the children had the benefit of being granted an extra week's holiday. The registered number of 26937 belonging to the Lydbrook Church of England Infant School (allotted in April 1897) was transferred to the Lydbrook Council Infants' School, 30 August 1909. Joys Green school was erected in 1882 as a result of theEducation Act of 1870, and was implemented by the Dean School Board which in those years had the management of the", "management of the schools in the area. School meals began in both schools in the early 1940s. Currently now, Joys Green Primary School was closed and is now a Young Persons Directorate. All students were transferred to Lydbrook when this happened. Lydbrook School is still headed by Executive Headteacher Simon Lusted. The past twoOfstedreports that Lydbrook School have had have given them ratings of Outstanding and Good with Outstanding features. Other notable buildings The Priory The oldest surviving building in Lydbrook is today known asThe Priory, which in fact had never been aPriory, but was originally known asLidbrook Farm. Once the home of the Probert family. The architectural design requires a date in the mid-16th century for this building, owing to the close timbered framework when oak was more plentiful, as opposed to square timbered style of the later period. There is a secret room in this building and claims for tunnels extending fromCourtfieldand theAnchor Inn. APriest holehas been argued for, but", "argued for, but smuggling has been suggested as an alternative. The house is also reputed to behaunted. The Old House Further up the village, in Central Lydbrook, oppositeThe Anchor Innis the second oldest house in the village. This is (rather confusingly) calledThe Old House, and is a red-bricked and square-timbered house which at one stage belonged to Roger Kemble, father ofSarah Siddons(née Kemble – a famous actress 1755–1831). It has an extension built on the side which boasts the date '1718'. It is a Grade II* listed building. BothThe PrioryandThe Old Houseare situated in the oldest parts of the village in Lower and Central Lydbrook. It would not be surprising if even older structures were eventually discovered within other houses in Lower Lydbrook. Outlying neighbourhoods The two largest centres of housing positioned west and east of the valley areWorrall HillandJoys Green. The former district took its name from the Worrall family ofEnglish Bicknorand the name 'Joys Green' came fromJay's Greenon", "fromJay's Greenon account of the numerousJaysseen in that locality. Centres of community Old School Rooms The Church of England mission chapel completed in 1822, not only provided a place ofChristianworship, but provided a school (hence its title of the old school rooms) and a church hall. After 1909 with a new school replacing the building, and a parish church replacing it as a chapel, the mission hall served as a parish hall with all manner of activities taking place. Reading Rooms Another early meeting place was the old 1 penny reading rooms in Mill Lane. The reading rooms were provided by the owners of the tinplate works which began in the mid-19th century. The reading rooms closed down in 1928/9. Anchor Hall The Anchor Hall adjacent to the Anchor public house provided a meeting place in the early part of the 20th century. A cinema was installed in 1914 run by theAlbany WardCompany. The Anchor Hall closed in the mid-1920s. Memorial Hall During theGreat Wara committee was formed to provide items for the", "items for the welfare of the servicemen on leave. After the War the committee was left with £100. The committee and the Men's Institute (founded in 1892) formed a general committee and proposed the building of a Memorial Hall. Public subscriptions were sought, and a grant from the United Services Fund of £88 was obtained. The localWomen's Institutehad an original aim of erecting their own headquarters but joined in with the Memorial Hall committee providing from their own funds £100. In 1920 the committee purchased the building and lands known as 'The Poplars', and on 11 November 1926 the Lydbrook Memorial Hall, Men's and Women's Institute came into being at a cost of £3,150 opened by the blindVictoria Crossholder ofColeford, Captain Angus Buchanan. History of Christian worship in Lydbrook Church of England and the Lydbrook Mission Chapel In 1809 the Reverend Henry Berkin began his appointment as an assistant curate of the parish of Mitcheldean. Adjoining this parish were Forest areas which have since become", "have since become the parishes of Drybrook and Lydbrook. Henry Berkin became concerned as to the plight of the Foresters \"destitute of churches or ministers whom they could call their own\". In 1812 he travelled around the areas of Forest adjoining his parish, visiting cottages where families would gather to hear him teach. Large crowds of up to 200, would gather in some places to hear him explaining the Holy scriptures. In 1814 Henry Berkin moved to a curacy atWeston-under-Penyard, but maintained a connection with the Forest. At Harry Hill, the Foresters encouraged him to build a large place for a regular meeting. After meeting with the Bishop Dr Ryder, Henry Berkin set about building a church, the Foresters could call their own and in 1817 Holy Trinity Church was built, serving both Drybrook and Lydbrook, Henry Berkin becoming the firstperpetual curate(now styled 'Vicar'). The missionary work still continued in the cottages at Lydbrook, but it was not too long before Henry Berkin built a small mission", "a small mission chapel to serve Lydbrook in 1821, completed in 1822 (on the site of the present vicarage). The chapel functioned as a school, a place of worship, and as a place for social gatherings. It was served by the assistant priests appointed by Henry Berkin, with residence in Lydbrook. The salary of the curate at Lydbrook was at least in 1835, according to the records, supplied by a gentleman who was above 90 years of age. Lydbrook chapel was the fourth church in the Forest. (Upper Lydbrook being within the Forest boundary). The first church within the Forest was Christ Church in 1816. The second being Holy Trinity. The third church within the Forest was St Paul's, Park End completed at the beginning of 1822. Curates of Holy Trinity serving at the Lydbrook Mission Chapel Methodist Church In the second decade of the 19th century, the Reverend William Woodall,WesleyanMethodistminister ofMonmouthhad established a preaching circuit within the Forest of Dean and as part of this venture, a house was", "a house was registered for worship in Lydbrook on 15 May 1813. Despite this early foothold, it took until 1864 to build a small chapel in Lower Lydbrook. The chapel was situated almost under the viaduct. From 1824, James Roles of the Oakengates Primitive Methodist circuit had established a circuit of cottage meetings at Pillowell, Lydbrook, Broad Oak, Little Birch, West Hide, Shecknal, Coppice Wood, Garroway Common, and Yorkley. The usual custom of the Primitive Methodists was to name the chapels after Old Testament place names. By 1828 the Primitive Methodists had built the 'Ebenezer Chapel' at Upper Lydbrook. It had the honour of being the first Methodist church in the Forest. It was first enlarged in 1852 (the same year the new parish church was opened). The year after, in 1853Charles Dickenshad published his 'Christmas Stories' containing the 'Christmas Carol' which portrayed the character 'Ebenezer Scrooge' associating the name with a foreboding character. The chapel was further enlarged bringing about", "bringing about the present building completed in 1912, with the name 'Ebenezer' being omitted. A second primitive Methodist chapel 'Mount Tabor' was built at the Reddings in 1862. Schoolrooms were added in 1892. The Wesleyan chapel closed in 1956. The congregation and cause of the Wesleyans had never been very large in Lydbrook. The redundant Wesleyan chapel served as a warehouse until its demolition in 1966. After 1934 with the Methodist Church Union all the chapels belonged to the same denomination and were served by the same minister and two chapels still served the area. Mount Tabor chapel closed in 1960 and was sold and is currently being turned into flats. Sadly on Sunday 28 July 1991 the last of the Methodist chapels in Lydbrook closed. One consolation was that the Sunday school – 'Sandra's group' as it was known, transferred to the parish church to become 'The Sunday Club'. Baptist Church TheBaptistchurch at Lower Lydbrook did not owe its impulse to the Coleford mission but to work carried on in", "work carried on in Herefordshire. Mr Edward Goff who died in 1813 had left eleven thousand pounds to establish schools for the benefit of poor children in Herefordshire and places contingent. Schoolmasters were employed during the week for the education of the children, and on the Sunday were employed for preaching. A Mr Wright had established a schoolroom in 1820. The building doubled up for Baptist worship and preaching on Sundays and was licensed as such on 7 November 1823. The work continued in Lydbrook until sometime in the late 1830s. For nearly two decades there existed two chapel schoolrooms. The mission chapel at Upper Lydbrook would have been the larger of the two and by 1935 had grown to such a large size in congregation, thoughts were on enlarging the building. The fortunes of the Baptist cause may not have fared so well as the endowment grant was transferred to Lay Hill Baptist church in Herefordshire proper. Whilst the loss of the schoolmaster meant the loss of a full-time worker for the", "worker for the Baptist cause in Lydbrook, the main concern of the Goff Charity was education, and this was probably being served by the Anglican mission chapel founded a little after. In addition by the middle 1820s the Baptist were competing for the affections of the resident population with four other denominations (Anglican, Wesleyan Methodist, Primitive Methodist, Independent). The church did not survive the loss of the school and schoolmaster. In 1857 twelve members separated from Lays Hill Baptist and re-formed the Lydbrook Baptist Church in the old reading rooms. In 1863 the church appointed its first Minister, and the services at the Old Reading Room were packed to capacity, so land was purchased at Lower Lydbrook, and a church completed and opened in November 1864 at the cost of £700-0-0. In the spring of 1872 a foundation stone of an enlarged chapel was laid, but the work was held up owing to the local navvies taking up work with the creation of Lydbrook branch railway (presumably better paid!).", "better paid!). The line was completed in August 1874 and allowed the building of the enlarged chapel to continue, and this was completed in September 1875. United Reformed Church/Congregational The founding of an Independent chapel in Lydbrook may well owe itself to a former Anglican priest. On 11 March 1821, the Reverend Isaac Bridgeman was appointed assistant curate to the Reverend Henry Berkin. In addition to the mission work at Lydbrook, Henry Berkin had founded a chapel-schoolroom at Littledean Hill. Curates to Berkin served at both mission chapels, but were based at Littledean. Bridgeman had developed an affection for nonconformists and often worshipped and worked with them. Due to this 'irregularity' on 4 November 1822, theBishop of Gloucesterrevoked his licence and interdicted him from officiating in any church in the Diocese of Gloucester. Bridgeman stayed within the Forest and by 1823 had built up five congregations, one of which was sufficiently large enough to build a chapel 'The Tabernacle' at", "'The Tabernacle' at Brains Green, Blakeney Hill, this becoming Bridgeman's mission base. The congregation at Lydbrook met at the house of James Russell, ironmaster. Bridgeman will have used the following he built up at the Lydbrook Mission Chapel to create the independent congregation. Initially Bridgeman used the Church of England Liturgy but by 1825 had joined himself to theCongregationalistsand thus further their missionary endeavours within the Forest of Dean. It was a further sixty one years before the Congregational chapel was built at Worrall Hill in 1884. The chapel was enlarged in 1888. In 1972 it became part of the United Reformed Church with the Union of the Congregational church and Presbyterian church. Mission Chapel, Forge Hill The last of the seven church buildings to be erected in Lydbrook was the Independent mission chapel on Forge Hill, built in 1889. The Reverend Arthur William Latham, Baptist minister at Lydbrook 1883–1900 appears on the Deeds as a Trustee and is also mentioned throughout", "throughout the account rendered by the solicitor to the Trustees. The Baptist involvement was probably due to a dispute between the founders of the mission as to whether there should be a Trust Deed or not. Mr Latham, Baptist minister for Lydbrook was called in to advise on the Trust Deed. The mission seems to have been, and remained a joint venture between Non-conformists. It certainly always remained an independent venture. Once full to capacity, over the length of years the congregation declined to such a point where only occasional services were held, and the building eventually fell into disuse. Previously to this decline services were held most Sunday afternoons, with an average attendance of 8. A ladies' meeting was held on Thursday evenings. The chapel closed in 1980. When the last remaining Trustee of the mission died (Alderman Stan Hatton), the Charity Commission approached the vicar of Lydbrook (the Reverend Stuart Parker) who organised four new trustees (one from each of the four Lydbrook", "the four Lydbrook Churches) to consider the charity's future. Church at Joys Green On 20 August 1989 the first of a series of monthly church services was held at 6 pm at Joys Green School, sponsored by the parish church. The frequency was increased to fortnightly in October 1991. In the summer of 1991 the Baptist followed holding a monthly morning service in the school. Church of Holy Jesus and the Parish of Lydbrook In 1842 the Crown divided the Forest into ecclesiastical districts, one of which was the Holy Trinity district. Within that district, the Forest Church, served the village of Drybrook and the daughter church, the mission chapel served Upper Lydbrook. By the middle 1830s the congregation at the Lydbrook mission chapel had so grown, that in 1835 at a meeting of the Dean Forest Commissioners, following representations from the Bishop of the Diocese and clergy of the Forest, it was recommended that the mission chapel at Lydbrook be enlarged to the status of a church. Although this recommendation was", "recommendation was not followed through, in the late 1840s a new church was planned. The work on Lydbrook parish church began in 1850 and was completed in 1851, when Lydbrook became a parish in its own rights and with its own vicar. Although the first building for worship in Lydbrook was erected in 1822, the church began well before then with Henry Berkin's itinerant preaching starting in 1812. On Sunday 12 August 1850 the foundation stone of the new church was laid. The Reverend J Burdon, Rector of English Bicknor (who was responsible for the spiritual welfare of those living in the area of Lower Lydbrook within his parish) had worked hard to accomplish the building of the church, collaborating with the Reverend H G Nicholls, perpetual curarte of Drybrook, the Reverend William Penfold, perpetual curate of Ruardean (appointed March 1851, Ruardean having become an ecclesiastical parish in its own rights in 1844), and the Reverend E Machen, rector of Mitcheldean. The building cost the grand sum of £3,500. The", "sum of £3,500. The largest proportion of this money -a generous donation of £2,000 was a gift from Edward T Machen, Deputy surveyor of the Royal Forest (father of the Rector of Mitcheldean) and his relatives. Messrs Allaway-Partridge gave £250 and a grant of £230 given by the 'Incorporated Society for Promoting the Enlargement, Building and Repairing of Churches and Chapels' on the condition that the seats were to be free for the use of the poor for ever. The word 'free' was to be painted in a conspicuous manner on each seat. As the foundation stone was laid just after the feast of the Name of Jesus (7 August 1850) the dedication became 'The Holy Jesus'. The dedication was once thought to be unique, but two other churches have been discovered of similar dedication although having been built later; a Roman Catholic church inManchesterbuilt in 1869–1872 by the architects J.A. & J.S. Harrison which was dedicated to the Holy Name of Jesus and the Church of the Holy Name,Cumbernauld New Town, Glasgow, part of", "Glasgow, part of theScottish Episcopal Churchand dedicated in 1958. The Church at Lydbrook was consecrated on 4 December 1851 by Dr Ollivant,Bishop of Llandaff(Dr Monk, theBishop of Gloucesterbeing to ill to attend). Upwards of a 1,000 people attended, 50 of these being clergy. From then on Lydbrook was a parish on its own. In 1858 the reported attendance was 150 attending Matins and 250 attending Evensong! The number of communicants for the parish in that year is given as 40 per week. The present day figure stands at around 35, with a higher average throughout the year of about 40 per week. The original chapel served as a National Day School until 1909 and was used for church functions until its dilapidation in the 1960s. In 1975 it was demolished to make way for the present vicarage, which is the third in the village. The first vicarage, built in stone stands to the south east of the church 500 yards south, down the course of the old railway line. In May 1879, the vicar, the Reverend Henry Hoitt applied", "Henry Hoitt applied for permission to walk on the line from the vicarage to the church and schools.The Severn & Wye Railwaygranted this request but limited to Sundays only. The vicarage was sold in 1961 due to extensive repairs needed. The house now serves as a Bed and Breakfast establishment under the name 'The Old Vicarage'. A new house was purchased, 'Mirey Stock' in 1962, 3/4-mile south of the church. This served as the second vicarage. Its distance from the church in severe weather proved impracticable, hence the building of the present vicarage in 1975. The patronage (or the right to present a priest for appointment as vicar) originally belonged jointly to the Crown andQueen's College, Oxford. The two patrons took turns in presenting new vicars. In 1884 the alternate right of patronage was transferred from Queen's College to the Bishop of Gloucester. In 1961 the Crown transferred its interest in the patronage to the Bishop, leaving the Bishop of the Diocese as the sole patron. Although legally, the", "legally, the Bishop has the right to appoint, advice has to be sought from representatives of the parochial church council. Railways Lydbrook Junctionwas a former station on theRoss and Monmouth RailwaybetweenRoss-on-WyeandMonmouth Troyrunning through the scenicWye Valleywhich ran from 1873 to 1959. The station was constructed in the hamlet of Stowfield approximately half a mile from Lydbrook and itsviaducton theSevern and Wye Railway. It was located approximately 4 miles and 34chainsalong the railway fromRoss-on-Wye station. In 1874 theSevern and Wye Railwayopened a branch from Serridge Junction andCinderford, passenger services commenced in 1875. All passenger trains along the S&W branch were withdrawn from 1929. See also References External links", "Stow-on-the-Wold Stow-on-the-Woldis amarket townandcivil parishinGloucestershire, England, on top of an 800-foot (244 m) hill at the junction of main roads through theCotswolds, including theFosse Way(A429), which is of Roman origin. The town was founded byNormanlords to absorb trade from the roads converging there.Fairshave been held by royal charter since 1330; a horse fair is still held on the edge of town nearest to Oddington in May and October each year. History Early Stow-on-the-Wold, originally called Stow St Edward or Edwardstow after the town's patron saint Edward, probablyEdward the Martyr,is said to have originated as anIron Ageforton this defensive position on a hill. Indeed, there are many sites of similar forts in the area, andStone AgeandBronze Ageburial moundsare common throughout the area. It is likely thatMaugersburywas the primary settlement of the parish before Stow was built as a marketplace on the hilltop nearer to the crossroads, to take advantage of passing trade. Originally the small", "the small settlement was controlled byabbotsfrom the localabbey, and when the first weekly market was set up in 1107 byHenry I, he decreed that the proceeds go toEvesham Abbey. In 1330, a royal charter byEdward IIIset up an annual 7-day market to be held in August. The royal charter granted a fair where sheep and horses were allowed to be sold.In 1476,Edward IVreplaced that with two 5-day fairs, two days before and two days after the feast ofSt PhilipandSt Jamesin May, and similarly in October on the feast ofEdward the Confessor(the saint associated with the town). The aim of the annualcharter fairswas to establish Stow as a place to trade and alleviate the unpredictability of the passing trade. These fairs were located in thesquare, which is still the town centre. Civil war Stow played a role in theEnglish Civil War. A number of engagements took place in the area, the local church of St Edward being damaged in one skirmish. On 21 March 1646, theRoyalists, commanded by SirJacob Astley, were defeated at", "were defeated at theBattle of Stow-on-the-Wold, with hundreds of prisoners being confined for some time in St Edwards.This battle took place one mile north of Stow-on-the-Wold. After initial royalist success, the superiority of the parliamentary forces overwhelmed and routed the royalist forces. Fleeing the field, the royalists fought a running fight back into the streets of Stow, where the final action took place, culminating in surrender in the market square. Modern As the fairs grew in fame and importance, so did the town. Traders dealing inlivestockadded many handmade goods, and thewool tradewas always prominent.Daniel Defoe reported in the 18th century that 20,000 sheep were sold in one day.Many alleys known as 'tures' that run between buildings into the market square were used in herding sheep to be sold.From the mid-19th century, theTalbot Hotelwas the venue for corn merchants carrying out their trade. Most of the buildings around the market square dated from the 18th to 19th century including St", "including St Edward's Hall (the present-day library). As the wool trade declined, people began to trade in horses. The practice continues, although the fair has been moved from the square to a large field near the village ofMaugersburyevery May and October. It remains popular, with roads around Stow blocked by the extra traffic for many hours. However, there has been controversy surrounding Stow Fair. The many visitors and traders have attracted more vendors not dealing in horses. Local businesses used to profit from the increased custom, but in recent years most pubs and shops close for 2–3 miles around due to the risks of theft or vandalism. Governance The town belongs to the Stowelectoral ward, which covers the parishes of Stow-on-the-Wold,MaugersburyandSwell. In 2010 these parishes had a total population of 2,594. Stow-on-the-Wold has an active Parish Council with 10 members. Stow-on-the-Wold ward is represented onCotswold District Councilby theLiberal DemocratCouncillor Dilys Neill, who was first", "who was first elected in the 2016 local elections.The Stow Division is represented onGloucestershire County Councilby theConservativeCouncillor Mark Mackenzie-Charrington. Stow Ward Gloucestershire County Council Economy Scotts of Stow, a mail order company, also has two shops in the town. Media Local news and television programmes are provided byBBC SouthandITV Meridian. Television signals are received from theOxfordand local relay transmitters. Local radio stations areBBC Radio Gloucestershire,Heart West,Greatest Hits Radio South Westand Cotswolds Radio, community based radio station The town is served by the local newspaper, Cotswold Journal. Popular culture Stow-on-the-Wold, Where the wind blows cold. Where horses young and old are sold,Where farmers come to spend their gold,Where men are fools and women are bold,And many a wicked tale is told. High on the freezing Cotswold. Transport The following roads pass through the town: From 1881 until 1962, the town was served byStow-on-the-Wold railway stationon", "railway stationon theGreat Western Railway'sBanbury and Cheltenham Direct Railway. The nearest station is now atMoreton-in-Marsh, which is 4 miles (6.4 km) away, on theCotswold LinebetweenHerefordandLondon Paddington; services are provided byGreat Western Railway. An alternative is atKingham, 5 miles (8.0 km) away from Stow on the same line. Local bus services are operated predominantly by Pulhams Coaches; key routes that serve the town lead toMoreton-in-Marsh,Hook NortonandBourton-on-the-Water. Notable people References External links", "Witney Witneyis a market town on theRiver WindrushinWest Oxfordshirein the county ofOxfordshire, England. It is 12 miles (19 km) west ofOxford. History Theplace-name\"Witney\" is derived from theOld Englishfor \"Witta's island\".The earliest known record of it is asWyttannigein a Saxon charter of 969. TheDomesday Bookof 1086 records it asWitenie,in the ancienthundredof Bampton. TheChurch of England parish churchof St Mary the Virgin was originallyNorman. The north porch and northaislewere added in this style late in the 12th century, and survived a major rebuilding in about 1243. In this rebuilding the presentchancel,transepts,towerandspirewere added and thenavewas remodelled, all in theEarly Englishstyle. In the 14th century a number of side chapels and some of the present windows were added in theDecoratedstyle. In the 15th century the south transept was extended and the present west window of the nave were added in thePerpendicularstyle.The tower has apealof eight bells.The tower of the church is 69 feet (21", "is 69 feet (21 metres) high, topped by a tall and slender spire, which brings the total height of the church to 154 feet (47 metres). Holy Trinity Church, Wood Green, was built in 1849 in a Gothic Revival rendition ofEarly English Gothic. St Mary the Virgin and Holy Trinity are now members of a single team parish. TheFriends Meeting Housein Wood Green was built in the 18th century. Since 1997Quakersin Witney have met at theCorn Exchange.TheMethodistchurch in the High Street was built in 1850.It is now one of five Methodist churches and chapels in Witney.The Roman Catholic parish of Our Lady andSaint Hughwas founded in 1913.It originally used a chapel in West End built in 1881but now has its own modern building.The old chapel in West End is nowElim Christian Fellowship.Witney High Street still has several older buildings, which are protected by the Witney and Cogges conservation area. Witney Market began in theMiddle Ages. Thursday is the traditional market day but there is also a market on Saturday.", "market on Saturday. Thebuttercrossin themarket squareis so called because people from neighbouring towns would gather there to buy butter and eggs. It was built in about 1600 and its clock was added in 1683.Witney Town Hall, which is arcaded on the ground floor and has an assembly room on the first floor, was completed in 1786.Witney has long been an important crossing over theRiver Windrush. The architectThomas Wyattrebuilt the bridge in Bridge Street in 1822. Witneyworkhousewas on Razor Hill (now Tower Hill). It was designed by the architectGeorge Wilkinsonand built in 1835–36. It had four wings radiating from anoctagonalcentral building, similar to theChipping Nortonworkhouse, which also was built by Wilkinson. His younger brotherWilliam Wilkinsonadded a separate chapel to Witney Workhouse in 1860.In the First World War the workhouse heldprisoners of war. In 1940 the workhouse was converted into Crawford Colletsengineering factory under the direction of Leonard Frank Eve. The chapel was made the factory", "made the factory canteen. In 1979 Crawford Collets had the main buildings demolished and replaced with a modern factory, but preserved the entrance gate and former chapel. In 2004 the modern factory was demolished for redevelopment. The gate and chapel have again been preserved and the former chapel converted into offices. Industry Witney has been famous for its woollenblanketssince the Middle Ages.The water for the production of these blankets is drawn from theRiver Windrush, which was believed to be the secret of Witney's high-quality blankets. The cloth industry dominated life in Witney where one 17th-century observer noted that \"almost 3,000 people from 8 years old to old age worked\" in the manufacture of blankets.Mops were also traditionally made by the blanket manufacturers; at one time every ship in the Royal Navy had Witney mops aboard. The Blanket Hall in High Street was built in 1721 for weighing and measuring blankets.At one time there were five blanket factories in the town but with the closure", "with the closure of the largest blanket maker Early's, in 2002, the town's blanket industry completely ceased production. Early's factory, once a vital and important part of the town's history, has now been demolished, and is the site of several new housing estates. One of the oldest mill sites in the town, New Mill, where there has been a mill since theDomesday Book, now houses the head office ofAudley Travel. For many years Witney had its own brewery andmaltings:J.W. Clinch and Co, which founded the Eagle Maltings in 1841. In 1961,Couragebought Clinch's for its pub estate and closed down the brewery. Paddy Glenny founded the Glenny Brewery at the former Clinch's site in 1983, but it was renamed toWychwood Breweryin 1990.Wychwood brewedreal ales, includingHobgoblin, itsflagship brand. Refresh UK, a subsidiary ofMarston's Brewery, took over the brewery in 2002,and Marston's bought Refresh UK and Wychwood Brewery outright in 2008.Marston's brewing operations, including Wychwood Brewery,were merged into", "merged into Carlsberg Marston’s Brewing Company in 2020, and Wychwood Brewery was shut down in November 2023, its brands continuing to be brewed elsewhere in the CMBC network. Railways TheWitney RailwayopenedWitney's first stationin 1861, linking the town toYarntonwhere the line joined theOxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway. In 1873 the East Gloucestershire Railway opened from a new station, linking Witney withLechladeandFairford. TheGreat Western Railwayoperated services on both lines and eventually took them over. In 1962British Railwaysclosed the EGR completely and withdrew passenger services from the Witney Railway. In 1970 British Railways closed the Witney Railway completely and it was dismantled. Reopening proposal In 2015 Witney Oxford Transport Group (WOT) proposed the reopening of the railway, with a station at Witney, as an alternative to improvements to theA40 roadproposed byOxfordshire County Council.In 2016 WOT and West Oxfordshire Green Party cited chronic traffic congestion on roads", "congestion on roads linking Witney with Oxford as a reason to reopen the railway.In 2021 WOT Group submitted a bid to the Department for Transport's 'Restoring Your Railway' Ideas Fund for a grant to develop the case for a new railway in the A40 corridor 'Building a better-connected West Oxfordshire, transforming the wider Oxford economic region' as part of an Oxford Metro advocated byRailfuture. Museums Witney has four museums.Cogges Manor Farm Museum, in the 13th-century manor houseand farm ofCogges, represents farming and countryside history. Witney and District Museum has many artefacts and documents representing the history of the town. Witney Blanket Hall, built in the 18th century, showcases both the history of the Hall and of Witney's blanket industry and has Witney blankets for sale. The Wychwood Brewery has a museum open at weekends. Education Witney has three county secondary schools:Henry Box School,Wood Green Schooland Springfield School. In 1660 Henry Box founded WitneyGrammar School. In 1968", "School. In 1968 it became thecomprehensiveHenry Box School.In 1970 new school buildings were added to the original 17th-century premises beside Church Green.Wood Green Schoolwas founded in 1954 and is at the top of Woodstock Road. Springfield Schoolwas founded in 1967 and is aspecial-needsschool for pupils with severelearning difficulties. Springfield School senior section is a self-contained unit, with some shared facilities, within the grounds of Wood Green School. Wood Green was substantially expanded from 2000 to 2004; an additional block with 15 teaching rooms was added, together with a purpose-builtsixth formcentre, school restaurant and newAstroTurfpitch. 2009 saw part of the old Lower School being remodelled to provide new changing and shower facilities for the AstroTurf pitch and its many users from local community sports clubs. The King's Schoolis independent of OxfordshireLocal Education Authority. It was founded by Oxfordshire Community Churches,anevangelicalChristian organisation, in", "organisation, in 1984.Cokethorpe Schoolis an independent secondary school, founded in 1957. St. Mary's School beside Church Green was established in 1813. It was aChurch of Englandprimary school but in 1953 it became a Church of England controlled School for Infant children, and the Junior children transferred to the Batt School premises.Witney now has two Church of England primary schools: The Batt Schoolin Corn Street and The Blake Schoolin Cogges Hill Road. Our Lady ofLourdesCatholic Primary Schoolis a Roman Catholic school founded in 1958. Witney has fivecommunity primary schools: Madley Park Community Primary School,Queen's Dyke Primary School,Tower Hill Community Primary School,West Witney Primary Schooland Witney Community Primary School.It also has one SEN primary school, Springfield School, which is part of the same school as Springfield secondary School. Springfield school (Primary) shares a building with Madley Brook Primary, but aside from sharing a building, some resources and integration, the", "integration, the schools run independently of one another. The former Witney Technical College is now part ofAbingdon and Witney College.A complete rebuilding of its premises began in September 2008. Sports Witney United Football Club, formerly known as Witney Town and nicknamed the Blanketmen, played in theHellenic LeaguePremier Division, until they dissolved in the 2012–2013 season.Witney and District Leagueis a local association football league with about 32 clubs in five divisions. Witney Rugby Football Clubfirst XV plays in theRFUSouth West 1 East.Wychwood LadiesHockeyClub's first team play in the Trysport Hockey League Division 1; Witney Hockey Clubmen's first XI plays in theEngland HockeyMen's Conference East divisionand its ladies' first XI plays in South Clubs' Women's Hockey League Division 3A.Witney Swifts Cricket Clubfirst XI plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association Division Three.Witney Wolves Basketball Club plays in the Oxford and Chiltern Basketball League. TheToleman Group Motorsportracing", "Motorsportracing team was once based in Witney until it was rebrandedBenetton Formulain 1986. The team itself stayed in Witney until 1992 when they moved toEnstoneeventually being rebranded in 2002 as Renault F1 when the team was purchased by the FrenchRenaultcar company. The team competed as Renault F1 until 2011, when it was again rebranded this time under the \"Lotus Renault GP\" name after forging a partnership with the BritishLotus Carscompany. The subsequent year the team becameLotus F1after they dropped the Renault name. The team was later re-purchased by Renault in late 2015 to become theRenault Sport F1 Teamfor 2016. Politics Witneywas, until recently, asafe seatfor theConservative Party. Former Foreign SecretaryDouglas Hurdand former leader of the Conservatives and Prime MinisterDavid Cameronwere both MPs for Witney. In the1997 General Election,Shaun Woodwardstood and won the seat as a Conservative, after Hurd retired. Woodward switched to theLabour Partyin 1999. In the2001 General ElectionWoodward", "ElectionWoodward stood as the Labour candidate in theSt Helens Southconstituency, and David Cameron retook Witney for the Conservatives. He became Prime Minister in coalition with theLiberal Democratsin May 2010 and continued after the 2015 election, in which the Conservative Party gained a majority, but retired to the backbenches after the referendum that rejected his government's recommendation to remain in the European Union. He stood down as an MP soon afterwards, triggering aby-electionheld on 20 October 2016, in whichRobert Courtswas elected for the Conservatives. Courts was re-elected in 2017. For elections toOxfordshire County CouncilWitney is covered by the electoral wards of 'Witney North and East' and 'Witney South and Central'. The west of the town is included in the ward of 'Witney West and Bampton' which includes villages ofBamptonandDucklington.The wards were created in 2013, with the new Witney South and Central won by the Labour Party and the other two wards won by the Conservatives.At", "Conservatives.At the2021 Oxfordshire County Council electionLabour held Witney South and Central and gained Witney North and East from the Conservatives. For elections toWest Oxfordshire District CouncilWitney is divided into the wards of Witney Central, Witney East, Witney North, Witney South and Witney West electing a total of 12 district councillors.As of 2023 the majority of Witney town councillors represent The Labour Party.The Mayor of Witney for 2023 is The Labour Party's Owen Collins, along with Deputy Mayor Georgia Meadows. Twinning Witney istwinnedwith: Floods In July 2007 Witney saw its worst flooding in more than 50 years. Homes and businesses were evacuated and Bridge Street, a major road into the town and the only road across theWindrush, was closed. About 200 properties in central Witney were flooded, with areas around Bridge Street, Mill Street and West End the worst affected. The new and incomplete housing development Aquarius also suffered substantial flooding. In 2008 further flooding", "further flooding contributed to the death of a 17-year-old boy who drowned in a culvert. Climate Witney has a maritime climate type typical to the British Isles, with evenly spread rainfall, a narrow temperature range, and comparatively low sunshine totals. The nearest official weather station isBrize Norton, about 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest of Witney. The absolute maximum recorded was 35.4c(95.7f)in August 1990, although in a typical year the warmest day should only reach 29.5c(85.1f)with an average of 14.6 daysreporting a maximum temperature of 25.1c(77.2f) or above. The absolute minimum is −20.7c(−5.3f),recorded in January 1982. In a more typical year the annual minimum temperature should be −8.1c(17.4f),although a total of 47.1 nightsshould report an air frost. Rainfall averages slightly under 644mmper year with more than 1mm of rain falling on just under 115 daysof the year. Media The town receives its television signals from theOxford TV transmitter. In May 2010, WitneyTV was launched as a non-profit", "as a non-profit online broadcaster with a weekly show that features local news and upcoming events within West Oxfordshire for the benefit of the community. An archive of videos featuring local attractions, clubs, organisations and previous shows is also available. A small-scale music festival, Witney Music festival, is held annually on The Leys Recreation Ground. While mostly hosting smaller local artists andtribute bands, it has previously hosted acts such asEMF,The FarmandN-Trance. Witney has a number of recording studios, including The Witney Music Roomsand GreenRoomStudios.There are also several small venues for music, including Fat Lil's, a music and comedy venue, Langdale Hall, a function venue that regularly hosts music acts, and Studio Se7en, a live music venue sited at GreenRoomStudios. Witney has an independentrecord shopwhich was established in 2004 as Rapture. In 2011, Rapture's owner, Gary Smith, collaborated withTruck Festivalco-founder Robin Bennett to open Truck Store, a sister store", "a sister store onCowley Road in Oxford.Rapture adopted the Oxford store's name and branding in 2022 and now operates as Truck Witney. Local radio stations areBBC Radio Oxfordon 95.2 FM,Heart Southon 102.6 FM, andGreatest Hits Radio Southon 106.4 FM. On 30 November 2012 Witney Radio was launched, providing hyper-local news, music and current affairs to the people of Witney and West Oxfordshire. A licence to broadcast on FM radio was granted in April 2016 by the licensing authorityOfcom. On 14 July 2017 Witney Radio began to broadcast on 99.9fm to Witney and West Oxfordshire. The station broadcasts 24 hours a day, 7 days a week with over 30 presenters from the local area. The station also broadcasts online for listeners online viaTuneIn. AnInternet radiostation, Windrush Radio, was established in 2018. It broadcasts mostly pop and electronic music in the daytime, but has a number of hosts that present specific genres, including a showcase of local artists.Windrush Radio has announced plans to broadcast overDAB", "broadcast overDAB radio, and a small-scale radio multiplex license has been submitted to Ofcom. The local newspapers are theOxford Times,Oxfordshire GuardianandWitney Gazette. Notable people Notable people associated with Witney include: See also References Sources and further reading External links", "London Londonis thecapitalandlargest cityof bothEnglandand theUnited Kingdom, with a population of 8,866,180 in 2022.Thewider metropolitan areais the largest inWestern Europe, with a population of 14.9 million.London stands on theRiver Thamesin southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km)estuarydown to theNorth Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years.Its ancient core andfinancial centre, theCity of London, was founded by theRomansasLondiniumand has retained its medieval boundaries.TheCity of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host ofthe national governmentandparliament. London grew rapidlyin the 19th century, becoming the world'slargest city at the time. Since the 19th century,the name \"London\" has referred to themetropolisaround the City of London, historically split between thecountiesofMiddlesex,Essex,Surrey,Kent, andHertfordshire,which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area ofGreater London, governed by33 local", "governed by33 local authoritiesand theGreater London Authority. As one of the world's majorglobal cities,London exerts a strong influence on worldart, entertainment,fashion, commerce, finance,education,healthcare,media, science, technology,tourism,transport, and communications.Despite a post-Brexitexodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,London remains Europe's most economically powerful cityandone of the world's major financial centres. It hosts Europe's largest concentration ofhigher education institutions,some of which are the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world:Imperial College Londoninnaturalandapplied sciences, theLondon School of Economicsinsocial sciences, and the comprehensiveUniversity College London.It is themost visited cityin Europe and has the world'sbusiest city airport system.TheLondon Undergroundis the world's oldestrapid transitsystem. London's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages.The 2023 population of Greater London of just under 10 millionmade it", "10 millionmade it Europe'sthird-most populous city,accounting for 13.4% of the United Kingdom's populationand over 16% of England's population. TheGreater London Built-up Areais thefourth-most populousin Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011.The London metropolitan area is thethird-most populousin Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants as of 2016, making London amegacity. FourWorld Heritage Sitesare located in London:Kew Gardens; theTower of London; the site featuring thePalace of Westminster,Church of St. Margaret, andWestminster Abbey; and the historic settlement inGreenwichwhere theRoyal Observatorydefines theprime meridian(0°longitude) andGreenwich Mean Time.Other landmarks includeBuckingham Palace, theLondon Eye,Piccadilly Circus,St Paul's Cathedral,Tower Bridge, andTrafalgar Square. The city has the mostmuseums, art galleries, libraries, and cultural venues in the UK, including theBritish Museum,National Gallery,Natural History Museum,Tate Modern,British Library, and numerousWest", "and numerousWest Endtheatres.Importantsporting events held in Londoninclude theFA Cup Final, theWimbledon Tennis Championships, and theLondon Marathon. It became the first city to host threeSummer Olympic Gamesupon hosting the2012 Summer Olympics. Toponymy Londonis an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in theLatinisedformLondinium.Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources:Latin(usuallyLondinium),Old English(usuallyLunden), andWelsh(usuallyLlundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages fromCommon Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as*Londonjonor something similar. This was then adapted into Latin asLondiniumand borrowed into Old English. Until 1889, the name \"London\" applied officially only to theCity of London, but since then it has also referred to theCounty of", "to theCounty of Londonand toGreater London. History Prehistory In 1993, remains of aBronze Agebridge were found on the south River Thames foreshore, upstream fromVauxhall Bridge.Two of the timbers wereradiocarbon datedto 1750–1285 BC.In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC,were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge.Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-undergroundRiver Effraflows into the Thames. Roman London Despite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by theRomansaround 47 AD,about four years after their invasion of 43 AD.This only lasted until about 61 AD, when theIcenitribe led byQueen Boudicastormed it and burnt it to the ground. The next planned incarnation ofLondiniumprospered, supersedingColchesteras the principal city of theRoman provinceofBritanniain 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.", "of about 60,000. Anglo-Saxon and Viking-period London With the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, althoughRoman civilisationcontinued aroundSt Martin-in-the-Fieldsuntil about 450.From about 500, anAnglo-Saxonsettlement known asLundenwicdeveloped slightly west of the old Roman city.By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeatedVikingassaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed. The Vikings appliedDanelawover much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London toChesteras an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by theDanishwarlord,Guthrumand theWest SaxonkingAlfred the Greatin 886. TheAnglo-Saxon Chroniclerecords that Alfred \"refounded\" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of", "abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the oldRoman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950. By the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England.Westminster Abbey, rebuilt inRomanesquestyle by KingEdward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe.Winchesterhad been the capital ofAnglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view ofFrank Stenton: \"It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to anational capital.\" Middle Ages After winning theBattle of Hastings,William, Duke of Normandywas crownedKing of Englandin newly completedWestminster Abbeyon Christmas Day 1066.William built theTower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants.In 1097,William IIbegan buildingWestminster Hall,", "Hall, near the abbey. It became the basis of a newPalace of Westminster. In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes atWestminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in theTower. While theCity of Westminsterdeveloped into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, theCity of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, theCorporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.With theBlack Deathin the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population.London was the focus of thePeasants' Revoltin 1381. London was a centre of England'sJewish populationbefore theirexpulsionbyEdward Iin 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their", "had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.In 1264 during theSecond Barons' War,Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts. Early modern During theTudor period, theReformationproduced a gradual shift toProtestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.In 1475, theHanseatic Leagueset up a main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called theStalhoforSteelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities ofLübeck,BremenandHamburgsold the property toSouth Eastern Railway.Woollencloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of theLow Countries. Yet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas ofnorth-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and theMediterraneanwas normally throughAntwerpand over theAlps; any ships passing through theStrait of Gibraltarto or from England were likely to", "were likely to be Italian orRagusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity.TheRoyal Exchangewas founded.Mercantilismgrew and monopoly traders such as theEast India Companywere founded as trade expanded to theNew World. London became the mainNorth Seaport, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605. In the 16th century,William Shakespeareand his contemporaries lived in London duringEnglish Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare'sGlobe Theatrewas constructed in 1599 inSouthwark. Stage performances came to a halt in London whenPuritanauthoritiesshut down the theatresin the 1640s.The ban on theatre was lifted duringthe Restorationin 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre,Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now theWest Endtheatre district. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt onJames Iin Westminster, in", "Iin Westminster, in theGunpowder Plotof 5 November 1605.In 1637, the government ofCharles Iattempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish theLiberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's \"The Great Refusal\", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of theCity. In theEnglish Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported theParliamentarycause. After an initial advance by theRoyalistsin 1642, culminating in the battles ofBrentfordandTurnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as theLines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.The fortifications failed their only test when theNew", "test when theNew Model Armyentered London in 1647,and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.London wasplaguedby disease in the early 17th century,culminating in theGreat Plagueof 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.TheGreat Fire of Londonbroke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymathRobert Hooke. In 1710,Christopher Wren's masterpiece,St Paul's Cathedral, was completed, replacing its medieval predecessor that burned in the Great Fire of 1666. The dome of St Paul's dominated the London skyline for centuries, inspiring the artworks and writing ofWilliam Blake, with his 1789 poem \"Holy Thursday\" referring to ‘the high dome of Pauls'.During theGeorgian era, new districts such asMayfairwere formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development inSouth London. In the east, thePort of Londonexpanded downstream. London's development as an", "development as an internationalfinancial centrematured for much of the 18th century. In 1762,George IIIacquiredBuckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime,and theBow Street Runnerswere established in 1750 as a professional police force.Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday. Coffee-housesbecame a popular place to debate ideas, as growingliteracyand development of theprinting pressmade news widely available, withFleet Streetbecoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, theRoyal Navybecame the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. Following a fire in 1838, the Royal Exchange was redesigned byWilliam Titeand rebuilt in 1844. The repeal of", "1844. The repeal of theCorn Lawsin 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre. Late modern and contemporary With the onset of theIndustrial Revolutionin Britain, an unprecedented growth inurbanisationtook place, and the number ofHigh Streets(the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew.London was the world'slargest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare).In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such asHarding, Howell & Co.—one of the firstdepartment stores—located onPall Mall, the streets had scores ofstreet sellers.London's overcrowded conditions led tocholeraepidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.Risingtraffic congestionled to the creation of theLondon Underground, the world's firsturban rail network.TheMetropolitan Board of Worksoversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was", "counties; it was abolished in 1889 when theLondon County Councilwas created out of county areas surrounding the capital. From the early years of the 20th century onwards,teashopswere found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, withLyons, who opened the first of theirchainof teashops inPiccadillyin 1894, leading the way.The tearooms, such as theCriterionin Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement.The city was the target of many attacks during thesuffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such asWestminster AbbeyandSt Paul's Cathedralbombed. London wasbombed by the Germansin theFirst World War, and during theSecond World War,the Blitzand other bombings by the GermanLuftwaffekilled over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.The tomb ofthe Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in", "War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920.The Cenotaph, located inWhitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for theNational Service of Remembranceheld annually onRemembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November. The1948 Summer Olympicswere held at the originalWembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war.From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily fromCommonwealthcountries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, theFestival of Britainwas held on theSouth Bank.TheGreat Smogof 1952 led to theClean Air Act 1956, which ended the \"pea soup fogs\" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the \"Big Smoke\". Starting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwideyouth culture, exemplified by theSwinging Londonsub-culture associated with theKing's Road,ChelseaandCarnaby Street.The role of trendsetter revived in thepunkera.In", "in thepunkera.In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a newGreater London Councilwas created.DuringThe Troublesin Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by theProvisional Irish Republican Army.These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with theOld Bailey bombing.Racial inequality was highlighted by the1981 Brixton riot. Greater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.The principal ports for London moved downstream toFelixstoweandTilbury, with theLondon Docklandsarea becoming a focus for regeneration, including theCanary Wharfdevelopment. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s.Located about 2 miles (3 km) east of central London, theThames Barrierwas completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from theNorth Sea. The Greater London Council was", "London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of theGreater London Authority.To mark the 21st century, theMillennium Dome,London EyeandMillennium Bridgewere constructed.On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage theOlympic Gamesthree times.On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in aseries of terrorist attacks. In 2008,Timenamed London alongside New York City and Hong Kong asNylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influentialglobal cities.In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939.During theBrexit referendumin 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave theEuropean Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining.However, Britain'sexit from the EUin early 2020 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre. Administration Local government The", "government The administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by theGreater London Authority(GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.The GLA consists of two elected components: themayor of London, who hasexecutive powers, and theLondon Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional armTransport for London(TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues.The headquarters of the GLA isCity Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has beenSadiq Khan, the firstMuslimmayor of a major Western capital.The mayor'sstatutory planningstrategy is published as theLondon Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011. The local authorities are the", "authorities are the councils of the 32London boroughsand theCity of London Corporation.They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation,social services, local roads and refuse collection.Certain functions, such aswaste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA). TheLondon Fire Brigadeis thestatutoryfire and rescue servicefor Greater London, run by theLondon Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the world.National Health Serviceambulance servicesare provided by theLondon Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world.TheLondon Air Ambulancecharity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required.Her Majesty's Coastguardand theRoyal National Lifeboat", "National Lifeboat Institutionoperate on theRiver Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of thePort of London AuthorityfromTeddington Lockto the sea. National government London is the seat of theGovernment of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as theprime minister'sresidence at10 Downing Street, are based close to thePalace of Westminster, particularly alongWhitehall.There are 75 members ofParliament(MPs) from London; As ofJune 2024, 59 are from theLabour Party, 9 areConservatives, 6 areLiberal Democratsand one constituency is held by anindependent.The ministerial post ofminister for Londonwas created in 1994, however as of 2024, the post has been vacant. Policing and crime Policing in Greater London, with the exception of theCity of London, is provided by theMetropolitan Police(\"The Met\"), overseen by the mayor through theMayor's Office for Policing and Crime(MOPAC).The Met is also referred to asScotland Yardafter the location of its original headquarters in a road calledGreat Scotland", "Scotland Yardin Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – theCity of London Police.First worn by Met police officers in 1863, thecustodian helmethas been called a \"cultural icon\" and a \"symbol of British law enforcement\".Introduced by the Met in 1929, the bluepolice telephone box(basis for theTARDISinDoctor Who) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK. TheBritish Transport Policeare responsible for police services onNational Rail,London Underground,Docklands Light RailwayandTramlinkservices.TheMinistry of Defence Policeis a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public.The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered inThames Houseon the north bank of the River Thames and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered in theSIS Buildingon the south bank. Crime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally atLocal", "nationally atLocal AuthorityandWardlevel.In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.Recorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved.However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the year, and the murder rate in London is much lower thanother major citiesaround the world. Geography Scope London, also known asGreater London, is one of nineregions of Englandand the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. TheCity of Londonat its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, theCorporation of Londonresisted attempts to amalgamate the city with itssuburbs, causing \"London\" to be defined several ways. Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by theLondon post town, in which 'London' forms part of postal", "part of postal addresses.The London telephonearea code(020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has beenaligned to the M25 motorwayin places. Further urban expansion is now prevented by theMetropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately definedGreater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vastLondon commuter belt.Greater London is split for some purposes intoInner LondonandOuter London,and by the River Thames intoNorthandSouth, with an informalcentral Londonarea. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the originalEleanor CrossatCharing Crossnear the junction ofTrafalgar SquareandWhitehall, are about51°30′26″N00°07′39″W / 51.50722°N 0.12750°W /51.50722; -0.12750. Status Within London, both the City of London and theCity of Westminsterhavecity status. The City of London and the remainder of", "the remainder of Greater London are bothcounties for the purposes of lieutenancies.The area ofGreater Londonincludes areas that are part of thehistoric countiesofMiddlesex,Kent,Surrey,EssexandHertfordshire.More recently, Greater London has been defined as aregion of Englandand in this context is known asLondon. It is the capital of the United Kingdom and of England byconventionrather than statute. The capital of England was moved to London fromWinchesteras thePalace of Westminsterdeveloped in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of theroyal court, and thus the political capital of the nation. Topography Greater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a population of 13,709,000", "of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km2). Modern London stands on theThames, its primary geographical feature, anavigableriver which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. TheThames Valleyis aflood plainsurrounded by gently rolling hills includingParliament Hill,Addington Hills, andPrimrose Hill. Historically London grew up at thelowest bridging pointon the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensivemarshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width. Since theVictorian erathe Thames has been extensivelyembanked, and many of its Londontributariesnow flowunderground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise inhigh waterlevel caused byclimate changeand by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result ofpost-glacial rebound. Climate London has a temperateoceanic climate(Köppen:Cfb). Rainfall", "Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began atKew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893.The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm).The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall ofNew York City.Despite relatively low annual precipitation, London receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. London is vulnerable toclimate change, and there is concern amonghydrologicalexperts that households may run out of water before 2050. Temperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981.Records foratmospheric pressurehave been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure", "highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020. Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths.A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard.Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893. Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and", "winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerableurban heat islandeffect,making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. SeeClimate of Londonfor additional climate information. Areas Places within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such asMayfair,Southwark,Wembley, andWhitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes orformer boroughs. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32London boroughsin addition to the ancient City of London.The City of London is the main financial district,andCanary Wharfhas recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in theDocklandsto the east. TheWest Endis London's main entertainment and", "entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.West Londonincludes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.The average price for properties inKensington and Chelseais over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London. TheEast Endis the area closest to the originalPort of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.The surroundingEast Londonarea saw much of London's early industrial development; now,brownfieldsites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of theThames Gatewayincluding theLondon RiversideandLower Lea Valley, which was developed into theOlympic Parkfor the2012 Olympics and Paralympics. Architecture London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as theNational Gallery, are constructed fromPortland stone. Some areas of the", "Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by whitestuccoor whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date theGreat Fireof 1666, these being a few traceRomanremains, theTower of Londonand a few scatteredTudorsurvivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-periodHampton Court Palace. Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches byChristopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as theRoyal Exchangeand theBank of England, to the early 20th centuryOld Baileycourthouse and the 1960sBarbican Estate. The 1939Battersea Power Stationby the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples ofVictorian architecture, most notablySt. PancrasandPaddington.The density of London varies, with high employment density in thecentral areaandCanary Wharf, high residential densities ininner London, and lower densities inOuter London. The Monumentin the City of London provides", "of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating theGreat Fire of London, which originated nearby.Marble ArchandWellington Arch, at the north and south ends ofPark Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do theAlbert MemorialandRoyal Albert HallinKensington.Nelson's Column(built to commemorateAdmiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument inTrafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellowLondon stock brick. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as30 St Mary Axe(dubbed \"The Gherkin\"),Tower 42, theBroadgate TowerandOne Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London andCanary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstructprotected viewsofSt Paul's Cathedraland other historic buildings.This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City", "by the City of London since 1937.Nevertheless, there area number of tall skyscrapersin central London, including the 95-storeyShard London Bridge, thetallest building in the United Kingdomand Western Europe. Other notable modern buildings includeThe Scalpel,20 Fenchurch Street(dubbed \"The Walkie-Talkie\"), the formerCity HallinSouthwark, theArt DecoBBC Broadcasting Houseplus thePostmodernistBritish LibraryinSomers Town/Kings CrossandNo 1 PoultrybyJames Stirling. TheBT Towerstands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top. What was formerly theMillennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue calledthe O2Arena. Natural history TheLondon Natural History Societysuggests that London is \"one of the World's Greenest Cities\" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that thetidal Thamessupports 120 species of fish.They state that over 60 species of", "over 60 species of bird nest incentral Londonand that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London'swetlandareas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38Sites of Special Scientific Interest(SSSIs), twonational nature reservesand 76local nature reserves. Amphibiansare common in the capital, includingsmooth newtsliving by theTate Modern, andcommon frogs,common toads,palmate newtsandgreat crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such asslowworms,common lizards,barred grass snakesandadders, are mostly only seen inOuter London. Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found inGreater Londonarehedgehog,brown rat, mice,rabbit,shrew,vole, andgrey squirrel.In wilder areas of Outer London, such asEpping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, includingEuropean", "includingEuropean hare,badger,field,bankandwater vole,wood mouse,yellow-necked mouse,mole, shrew, andweasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A deadotterwas found at The Highway, inWapping, about a mile from theTower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest:soprano,Nathusius'andcommon pipistrelles,common noctule,serotine,barbastelle,Daubenton's,brown long-eared,Natterer'sandLeisler's. Herds ofredandfallow deerroam freely within much ofRichmondandBushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population ofmelanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary nearTheydon Bois.Muntjac deerare also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such", "to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces. Demography London's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011,while its widermetropolitan areahad a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used.According toEurostat, London is the secondmost populousmetropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001. The region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km2), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km2)more than ten times that of any otherBritish region.In population terms, London is the 19thlargest cityand the 18thlargest metropolitan region. In tenure, 23.1% socially rent within London, 46.8% either own their house outright or with a mortgage or loan and 30% privately rent at the 2021 census.Many", "2021 census.Many Londoner's work from home, 42.9% did so at the 2021 census while 20.6% drive a car to work. The biggest decrease in method of transportation was seen within those who take the train and underground, declining from 22.6% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2021.In qualifications, 46.7% of London had census classified Level 4 qualifications or higher, which is predominately university degrees. 16.2% had no qualifications at all. Age structure and median age London's median age is one of the youngest regions in the UK. It was recorded in 2018 that London's residents were 36.5 years old, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3. Children younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only", "London, but only 9.3% in Inner London. Country of birth The 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population wereforeign-born,making it among the cities with thelargest immigrant populationin terms of absolute numbers and a growth of roughly 3 million since 1971 when the foreign born population was 668,373.13% of the total population were Asian born (32.1% of the total foreign born population), 7.1% are African born (17.5%), 15.5% are Other European born (38.2%) and 4.2% were born in the Americas and Caribbean (10.3%).The 5 largest single countries of origin were respectively India, Romania, Poland, Bangladesh and Pakistan. About 56.8% of children born in London in 2021 were born to a mother who was born abroad.This trend has been increasing in the past two decades when foreign born mothers made up 43.3% of births in 2001 in London, becoming the majority in the middle of the 2000s by 2006 comprising 52.5%. A large degree of the foreign born population who were present at the 2021", "present at the 2021 census had arrived relatively recently. Of the total population, those that arrived between the years of 2011 and 2021 account for 16.6% of London.Those who arrived between 2001 and 2010 are 10.4%, between 1991 and 2001, 5.7%, and prior to 1990, 7.3%. Ethnic groups According to theOffice for National Statistics, based on the 2021 census, 53.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London wereWhite, with 36.8%White British, 1.8%White Irish, 0.1%Gypsy/Irish Traveller, 0.4 Roma and 14.7% classified asOther White.Meanwhile, 22.2% of Londoners were ofAsianor mixed-Asian descent, with 20.8% being of full Asian descents and 1.4% being of mixed-Asian heritage.Indiansaccounted for 7.5% of the population, followed byBangladeshisandPakistanisat 3.7% and 3.3% respectively.Chinesepeople accounted for 1.7%, andArabsfor 1.6%. A further 4.6% were classified as \"Other Asian\".15.9% of London's population were ofBlackor mixed-Black descent. 13.5% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black", "of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.4%.Black Africansaccounted for 7.9% of London's population; 3.9% identified asBlack Caribbean, and 1.7% as \"Other Black\". 5.7% were ofmixed race.This ethnic structure has changed considerably since the 1960s. Estimates for 1961 put the total non-White ethnic minority population at 179,109 comprising 2.3% of the population at the time,having risen since then to 1,346,119 and 20.2% in 1991and 4,068,553 and 46.2% in 2021.Of those of a White British background, estimates for 1971 put the population at 6,500,000 and 87% of the total population,of since fell to 3,239,281 and 36.8% in 2021. As of 2021, the majority of London's school pupils come from ethnic minority backgrounds. 23.9% were White British, 14% Other White, 23.2% Asian, 17.9% Black, 11.3% Mixed, 6.3% Other and 2.3% unclassified.Altogether at the 2021 census, of London's 1,695,741 population aged 0 to 15, 42% were White in total, splitting it down into 30.9% who were White British, 0.5% Irish, 10.6% Other White, 23%", "Other White, 23% Asian, 16.4% Black, 12% Mixed and 6.6% another ethnic group. Languages In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000.At the 2021 census, 78.4% of Londoners spoke English as their first language.The 5 biggest languages outside of English were Romanian, Spanish, Polish, Bengali, and Portuguese. Religion Religion in London (2021) According to the2021 Census, the largest religious groupings wereChristians(40.66%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%),Muslims(15%), no response (8.5%),Hindus(5.15%), Jews (1.65%),Sikhs(1.64%),Buddhists(1.0%) and other (0.8%). London has traditionally beenChristian, and has alarge number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-knownSt Paul's Cathedralin the City andSouthwark Cathedralsouth of the river areAnglicanadministrative centres,while theArchbishop of Canterbury, principal", "principal bishop of theChurch of Englandand worldwideAnglican Communion, has his main residence atLambeth Palacein theLondon Borough of Lambeth. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared betweenSt Paul'sandWestminster Abbey.The Abbey is not to be confused with nearbyWestminster Cathedral, the largestRoman Catholiccathedral inEngland and Wales.Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics. Notable mosques include theEast London Mosquein Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, theLondon Central Mosqueon the edge ofRegent's Parkand theBaitul Futuhof theAhmadiyya Muslim Community. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthyMiddle-EasternArab Muslims based themselves aroundMayfair, Kensington andKnightsbridgein West London.There are largeBengali Muslimcommunities in the eastern boroughs ofTower", "boroughs ofTower HamletsandNewham. Large Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs ofHarrowandBrent, the latter hosting what was until 2006Europe's largestHindu temple,Neasden Temple.London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including theBAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India. The majority ofBritish Jewslive in London, with notable Jewish communities inStamford Hill,Stanmore,Golders Green,Finchley,Hampstead,Hendon, andEdgware, all inNorth London.Bevis Marks Synagoguein theCity of Londonis affiliated to London's historicSephardicJewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years.Stanmore and Canons Park Synagoguehas the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe.TheLondon Jewish Forumwas set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London", "of devolved London Government. Accents Cockneyis an accent heard across London, mainly spoken byworking-classandlower-middle classLondoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older.Some features of Cockney include,Th-fronting(pronouncing \"th\" as \"f\"), \"th\" inside a word is pronounced with a \"v\",H-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accentdrops the \"r\"after a vowel.John Camden Hotten, in hisSlang Dictionaryof 1859, makes reference to Cockney \"use of a peculiar slang language\" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing thecostermongersof the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in thehome counties.This is particularly pronounced in areas like Romford (in the London Borough of Havering) and", "of Havering) and Southend (in Essex) which have received significant inflows of older East End residents in recent decades. Estuary Englishis an intermediate accent between Cockney andReceived Pronunciation.It is widely spoken by people of all classes. Multicultural London English(MLE) is amultiethnolectbecoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence. Received Pronunciation(RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard forBritish English.It has no specific geographical correlate,although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England.It is mainly spoken byupper-classandupper-middle classLondoners. Economy London'sgross regional productin 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter ofUK GDP.London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary", "Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington, and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world. City of London London's finance industry is based in theCity of LondonandCanary Wharf, the two majorbusiness districts. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. This caused many bankers established inAmsterdam(e.g. Hope, Baring I'm), to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century.The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.This economic strength of", "strength of the city was attributed to its diversity. By the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency.As of 2023, London ranks second in the world rankings on theGlobal Financial Centres Index(GFCI),and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index. London's largest industry is finance, and itsfinancial exportsmake it a large contributor to the UK'sbalance of payments. Notwithstanding a post-Brexitexodus of stock listings from theLondon Stock Exchange,London is still one of Europe's most economically powerful cities,and it remains one of the major financial centres of the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy", "London's economy had been affected by thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.Along withprofessional servicesheadquarters, the City of London is home to theBank of England, London Stock Exchange, andLloyd's of Londoninsurance market.Founded in 1690,Barclays, whosebranch in Enfield, north London installed the firstcash machine(ATM) in 1967, is one of theoldest banks in continuous operation. Over half the UK's top 100 listed companies (theFTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent ofFortune 500companies have offices in London.In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, SirAdrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery companyCadbury, produced theCadbury Report, a code of best practice which served", "which served as a basis for reform ofcorporate governancearound the world. Media and technology Media companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.TheBBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters, includingITV,Channel 4,Channel 5, andSky, also have headquarters around the city. Manynational newspapers, includingThe Times, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the termFleet Street(where most national newspapers operated) remains ametonymfor the British national press.The communications companyWPPis the world's largest advertising agency. A large number of technology companies are based in London, notably inEast London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive ageoTLD.In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list byfDi Intelligence.A museum inBletchley Park, whereAlan Turingwas based during", "based during World War II, is inBletchley, 40 miles (64 km) north of central London, as isThe National Museum of Computing. The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed byNational Grid plc,SGNandUK Power Networks. Tourism London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK. In 2015, the top ten most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London (shown with visits per venue): The number of hotel rooms in London in 2023 stood at 155,700 and is expected to grow to 183,600 rooms, the most of any city outside China.Luxury hotels in London includethe Savoy(opened", "Savoy(opened in 1889),Claridge's(opened in 1812 and rebuilt in 1898),the Ritz(opened in 1906) andthe Dorchester(opened in 1931), while budget hotel chains includePremier InnandTravelodge. Transport Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London,but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007, the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form theLondon Overgroundnetwork, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered byTransport for London(TfL). The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when theLondon Passenger Transport BoardorLondon Transportwas created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a", "by a board and a commissioner appointed by theMayor of London. Aviation London is a major international air transport hub with thebusiest city airspacein the world.Eight airports use the wordLondonin their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally,various other airportsalso serve London, catering primarily togeneral aviationflights. Rail Underground and DLR Opened in 1863, theLondon Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longestmetrosystem in the world.The system serves272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, theCity and South London Railway, which opened in 1890. Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the2012 Summer Olympics.TheDocklands Light Railway (DLR), which", "(DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, morelocal metro systemusing smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve theDocklands,GreenwichandLewisham. Suburban There are368 railway stationsin theLondon Travelcard Zoneson an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running intoeighteen terminal stations, with the exception of theThameslinktrains connectingBedfordin the north andBrightonin the south viaLutonandGatwickairports.London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includesWaterloo Eaststation) each year.Clapham Junctionis one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges. With the need for more rail capacity, theElizabeth Line(also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022.It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into theHome", "and into theHome Countieswith a branch toHeathrow Airport.It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost. Inter-city and international London is the centre of theNational Railnetwork, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.King's Cross stationandEuston station, both in London, are the starting points of theEast Coast Main Lineand theWest Coast Main Line– the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns.The Flying Scotsmanis an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service,Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934. Some international railway services toContinental Europewere operated during", "operated during the 20th century asboat trains. The opening of theChannel Tunnelin 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowingEurostarservices to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains linkSt. Pancras InternationalwithLille,Calais, Paris,Disneyland Paris, Brussels,Amsterdamand other European tourist destinations via theHigh Speed 1rail link and theChannel Tunnel.The firsthigh-speed domestictrains started in June 2009, linkingKentto London.There are plans for asecond high speed linelinking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire. Buses, coaches and trams London'sbus networkruns 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops.In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year.Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the worldand from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired", "visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced. An emblem of London, the reddouble-decker busfirst appeared in the city in 1947 with theAEC Regent III RT(predecessor to theAEC Routemaster).London's coach hub isVictoria Coach Station, opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and then purchased by London Transport (nowTransport for London), Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe. London has a modern tram network, known asTramlink. It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink. Cable car London's first and to date only cable car is theLondon Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and linksGreenwich Peninsulawith theRoyal Docksin the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times. Cycling In the Greater London Area,", "London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day,meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of abicycle hire schemein July 2010 was successful and generally well received. Port and river boats ThePort of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.Most of this cargo passes through thePort of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London. London has river boat services on the Thames known asThames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services.At major piers includingCanary Wharf,London Bridge City,Battersea Power StationandLondon Eye(Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times.TheWoolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking theNorthandSouth CircularRoads. Roads Although the majority", "the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. Theinner ring road(around the city centre), theNorthandSouth Circularroads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (theM25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate intoinner London. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long.TheA1andM1connect London toLeeds, andNewcastleandEdinburgh. TheAustin Motor Companybegan makinghackney carriages(London taxis) in 1929, and models includeAustin FX3from 1948,Austin FX4from 1958, with more recent modelsTXIIandTX4manufactured byLondon Taxis International. The BBC states, \"ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions\".Although traditionally black, some are painted in other colours or bear advertising. London is", "London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h).In 2003, acongestion chargewas introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000. Low Traffic Neighbourhoods (LTN)were widely introduced in London, but in 2023 the Department for Transport stopped funding them, even though the benefits outweighed the costs by approximately 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time. Education Tertiary education London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in", "institutes in Europe.According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the worldand its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.A 2014PricewaterhouseCoopersreport termed London the global capital of higher education.A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022QS World University Rankings,Imperial College Londonis ranked No. 6 in the world,University College London(UCL) is ranked 8th, andKing's College London(KCL) is ranked 37th.All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in theResearch Excellence Frameworkranking 2021.TheLondon School of Economics(LSE) has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.TheLondon Business Schoolis considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by", "in the world by theFinancial Times.The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings): theRoyal College of Music(ranking 2nd in the world), theRoyal Academy of Music(ranking 4th) and theGuildhall School of Music and Drama(ranking 6th). With students in London and around 48,000 inUniversity of London Worldwide,the federalUniversity of Londonis the largest contact teaching university in the UK.It includes five multi-faculty universities –City, King's College London,Queen Mary,Royal Hollowayand UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions includingBirkbeck, theCourtauld Institute of Art,Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, theLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, theRoyal Academy of Music, theCentral School of Speech and Drama, theRoyal Veterinary Collegeand theSchool of Oriental and African Studies. Universities in London outside the University of London system", "of London system includeBrunel University,Imperial College London,Kingston University,London Metropolitan University,University of East London,University of West London,University of Westminster,London South Bank University,Middlesex University, andUniversity of the Arts London(the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).In addition, there are three international universities –Regent's University London,Richmond, The American International University in LondonandSchiller International University. London is home tofive major medical schools–Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry(part ofQueen Mary),King's College London School of Medicine(the largest medical school in Europe),Imperial College School of Medicine,UCL Medical SchoolandSt George's, University of London– and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eightacademic health science centresare based in the city", "based in the city –Imperial College Healthcare,King's Health PartnersandUCL Partners(the largest such centre in Europe).Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently inWhite City. Founded by pioneering nurseFlorence NightingaleatSt Thomas' Hospitalin 1860, thefirst nursing schoolis now part of King's College London.It was at King's in 1952 where a team led byRosalind FranklincapturedPhoto 51, the critical evidence in identifying the structure ofDNA.There are a number of business schools in London, including theLondon School of Business and Finance,Cass Business School(part ofCity University London),Hult International Business School,ESCP Europe,European Business School London,Imperial College Business School, theLondon Business Schooland theUCL School of Management. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including esteemed drama schools such asRADA(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art),", "of Dramatic Art), theLondon Academy of Music and Dramatic Art(LAMDA),Drama Studio London,Sylvia Young Theatre School, theRoyal Central School of Speech and Dramaand theGuildhall School of Music and Drama, as well as theLondon College of Contemporary Arts(LCCA),Central School of Ballet,London Contemporary Dance School,National Centre for Circus Arts,Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, theRoyal College of Art, andTrinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. TheBRIT Schoolin the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies. Primary and secondary education The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by theLondon boroughsor otherwise state-funded; leading examples includeAshbourne College,Bethnal Green Academy,Brampton Manor Academy,City and Islington College,City of Westminster College,David Game College,Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College,Leyton Sixth Form College,London Academy of", "Academy of Excellence,Tower Hamlets College, andNewham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such asCity of London School,Harrow(alumni includes seven former British prime ministers),St Paul's School,Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School,University College School,The John Lyon School,Highgate SchoolandWestminster School. Royal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies Founded in 1675, theRoyal ObservatoryinGreenwichwas established to address the problem of calculatinglongitudefor navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royalNevil Maskelyne'sNautical Almanacwhich made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as theprime meridian(0° longitude) in 1884. Important scientificlearned societiesbased in London include theRoyal Society—the UK's nationalacademy of sciencesand the oldest national scientific institution in", "institution in the world—founded in 1660,and theRoyal Institution, founded in 1799. Since 1825, theRoyal Institution Christmas Lectureshave presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included physicist and inventorMichael Faraday, aerospace engineerFrank Whittle, naturalistDavid Attenboroughand evolutionary biologistRichard Dawkins. Culture Leisure and entertainment Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to Londonat 25.6 events per 1000 people.The city is one of the fourfashion capitalsof the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world. Within theCity of Westminster, the entertainment district of theWest Endhas its focus aroundLeicester Square, where London and world filmpremieresare held, andPiccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic", "giant electronic advertisements.London'stheatre districtis here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city'sChinatowndistrict (inSoho), and just to the east isCovent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. In 1881, the West End'sSavoy Theatre, which was built to showcase the plays ofGilbert and Sullivan, was fitted with the incandescent light bulb developed by SirJoseph Swanto become the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electricity.The city is the home ofAndrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century.Agatha Christie'sThe Mousetrap, the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952.TheLaurence Olivier Awards–named afterLaurence Olivier–are given annually by theSociety of London Theatre. TheRoyal Ballet,English National Ballet,Royal Opera, andEnglish National Operaare based in London and perform at theRoyal Opera House, theLondon Coliseum,Sadler's Wells Theatre, and theRoyal", "and theRoyal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country. Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) longUpper Street, extending northwards fromAngel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK.Europe's busiest shopping area isOxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers anddepartment stores, includingSelfridgesflagship store.Knightsbridge, home to the equally renownedHarrodsdepartment store, lies to the south-west. One of the world's largest retail destinations, London frequently ranks at or near the top of retail sales of any city.Opened in 1760 with its flagship store onRegent Streetsince 1881,Hamleysis the oldesttoy storein the world.Madame Tussaudswax museum opened inBaker Streetin 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began. London is home to designersJohn Galliano,Stella McCartney,Manolo Blahnik, andJimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it", "schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion.Mary Quantdesigned theminiskirtin herKing's Roadboutique inSwinging Sixties London.In 2017, London was ranked the top city for luxury store openings.London Fashion Weektakes place twice a year, in February and September; Londoners on the catwalk have includedNaomi Campbell,Kate MossandCara Delevingne. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants ofBrick Laneand theChineserestaurants ofChinatown.There areChinese takeawaysthroughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provideIndian and Anglo-Indian cuisine.Around 1860, the firstfish and chipsshop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, inBow.Thefull English breakfastdates from the Victorian era, and manycafesin London serve a full English throughout the day.London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, includingRestaurant Gordon RamsayinChelsea.Many hotels in London provide a", "in London provide a traditionalafternoon teaservice, such as theOscar Wilde Loungeat theHotel Café Royalin Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example anAlice in Wonderlandthemed afternoon tea served at theEgerton House Hotel, andCharlie and the Chocolate Factorythemed afternoon tea atOne Aldwychin Covent Garden.The nation's most popularbiscuittodunkin tea,chocolate digestiveshave been manufactured byMcVitie'sat theirHarlesdenfactory in north-west London since 1925. There is a variety ofannual events, beginning with the relatively newNew Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at theLondon Eye; the world's second largeststreet party, theNotting Hill Carnival, is held on the lateAugust Bank Holidayeach year. Traditional parades include November'sLord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a newLord Mayor of the City of Londonwith a procession along the streets of the city, and June'sTrooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments", "by regiments of theCommonwealthandBritisharmies to celebrate theKing's Official Birthday.TheBoishakhi Melais aBengali New Yearfestival celebrated by theBritish Bangladeshicommunity. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors.First held in 1862, theRHS Chelsea Flower Show(run by theRoyal Horticultural Society) takes place in May every year. LGBT scene The firstgay barin London in the modern sense wasThe Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just offRegent Street, in 1912 and \"which developed a reputation for sexual freedom and tolerance of same-sex relations.\" While London has been an LGBT tourism destination, afterhomosexuality was decriminalisedin England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970sSoho(and in particularOld Compton Street) became the centre of theLondon LGBT", "of theLondon LGBT community.G-A-Y, previously based at theAstoria, and nowHeaven, is a long-running night club. Wider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence ofglam rockin the UK in the early 1970s, viaMarc BolanandDavid Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musicalThe Rocky Horror Show, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements.TheBlitz Kids(which includedBoy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz inCovent Garden, helping launch theNew Romanticsubcultural movement in the late 1970s.Today, the annualLondon Pride Paradeand theLondon Lesbian and Gay Film Festivalare held in the city. Literature, film and television London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims inGeoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-centuryCanterbury Talesset out forCanterburyfrom London.William Shakespearespent a large part of", "a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporaryBen Jonsonwas also based there, and some of his work, most notably his playThe Alchemist, was set in the city.A Journal of the Plague Year(1722) byDaniel Defoeis a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665Great Plague. The literary centres of London have traditionally been hillyHampsteadand (since the early 20th century)Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diaristSamuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of theGreat Fire;Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of earlyVictorianLondon; andVirginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremostmodernistliterary figures of the 20th century.Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries areArthur Conan Doyle'sSherlock Holmesstories.Robert Louis Stevensonmixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote theStrange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde,", "Jekyll and Mr Hyde, agothicnovella set in Victorian London.In 1898,H. G. Wells' sci-fi novelThe War of the Worldssees London (and southern England) invaded by Martians.Letitia Elizabeth LandonwroteCalendar of the London Seasonsin 1834. Modern writers influenced by the city includePeter Ackroyd, author ofLondon: The Biography, andIain Sinclair, who writes in the genre ofpsychogeography. In the 1940s,George Orwellwrote essays in theLondon Evening Standard, including \"A Nice Cup of Tea\" (method for making tea) and \"The Moon Under Water\" (an idealpub).The WWIIevacuation of children from Londonis depicted inC. S. Lewis' first Narnia bookThe Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe(1950). On Christmas Eve 1925,Winnie-the-Poohdebuted in London'sEvening News, with the character based on a stuffed toyA. A. Milnebought for his sonChristopher Robinin Harrods.In 1958, authorMichael BondcreatedPaddington Bear, a refugee found inPaddington station. A screen adaptation,Paddington(2014), features the calypso song \"London is the", "song \"London is the Place for Me\".Buckingham Palace features inRoald Dahl's 1982 novelThe BFG. London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London includePinewood,Elstree,Ealing,Shepperton,Twickenham, andLeavesden, with theJames BondandHarry Potterseries among many notable films produced here.Working Title Filmshas its headquarters in London. Apost-productioncommunity is centred inSoho, and London houses six of the world's largestvisual effectscompanies, such asFramestore.The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded byAndy Serkis.London has been the setting for films includingOliver Twist(1948),Scrooge(1951),Peter Pan(1953),One Hundred and One Dalmatians(1961),My Fair Lady(1964),Mary Poppins(1964),Blowup(1966),A Clockwork Orange(1971),The Long Good Friday(1980),The Great Mouse Detective(1986),Notting Hill(1999),Love Actually(2003),V for Vendetta(2005),Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street(2008) andThe King's Speech(2010). Notable", "Notable actors and filmmakers from London includeCharlie Chaplin,Alfred Hitchcock,Michael Caine,Julie Andrews,Peter Sellers,David Lean,Julie Christie,Gary Oldman,Emma Thompson,Guy Ritchie,Christopher Nolan,Alan Rickman,Jude Law,Helena Bonham Carter,Idris Elba,Tom Hardy,Daniel Radcliffe,Keira Knightley,Riz Ahmed,Dev Patel,Daniel Kaluuya,Tom HollandandDaniel Day-Lewis. Post-warEaling comediesfeaturedAlec Guinness, from the 1950sHammer HorrorsstarredChristopher Lee, films directed byMichael Powellincluded the London-set earlyslasherPeeping Tom(1960), the 1970s comedy troupeMonty Pythonhad film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990sRichard Curtis's rom-coms have featuredHugh Grant. The largest cinema chain in the country,Odeon Cinemaswas founded in London in 1928 byOscar Deutsch.TheBFI IMAXon theSouth Bankis the largest cinema screen in the UK.TheBritish Academy Film Awards(BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with theBAFTA Fellowshipthe Academy's highest accolade.Founded in 1957, theBFI", "in 1957, theBFI London Film Festivaltakes place over two weeks every October. London is a major centre for television production, with studios includingTelevision Centre,ITV Studios,Sky CampusandFountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows,Pop Idol,The X Factor, andBritain's Got Talent(the latter two created by TV personalitySimon Cowellwho starred as a judge in all three shows), before each format was exported around the world.Formerly a franchise of ITV,Thames Televisionfeatured comedians such asBenny HillandRowan Atkinson(Mr. Beanwas first screened by Thames), whileTalkbackproducedDa Ali G Showwhich featuredSacha Baron CohenasAli G.Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap operaEastEnders. Museums, art galleries and libraries London ishome to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are majortourist attractionsas well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was", "be established was theBritish MuseuminBloomsbury, in 1753.Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, theNational Gallerywas founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position inTrafalgar Square. TheBritish Libraryis thesecond largest libraryin the world, and thenational libraryof the United Kingdom.There are many other research libraries, including theWellcome LibraryandDana Centre, as well asuniversity libraries, including theBritish Library of Political and Economic ScienceatLSE, theAbdus Salam LibraryatImperial, theMaughan LibraryatKing's, and theSenate House Librariesat theUniversity of London. In the latter half of the 19th century the locale ofSouth Kensingtonwas developed as \"Albertopolis\", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: theVictoria and Albert Museum, theNatural History Museum, and", "History Museum, and theScience Museum. TheNational Portrait Gallerywas founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.The national gallery of British art is atTate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved toTate Modern, a new gallery housed in the formerBankside Power Stationwhich is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via theMillennium Bridge. Music London is one of the major classical andpopular musiccapitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such asUniversal Music Group InternationalandWarner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as theBarbican Arts Centre(principal base of theLondon Symphony Orchestraand theLondon Symphony Chorus),", "Symphony Chorus), theSouthbank Centre(London Philharmonic Orchestraand thePhilharmonia Orchestra),Cadogan Hall(Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and theRoyal Albert Hall(The Proms).The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with theLast Night of the Proms. London's two main opera houses are theRoyal Opera Houseand theLondon Coliseum(home to theEnglish National Opera).The UK's largestpipe organis at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells ofSt Clement Danesfeature in the 1744nursery rhyme\"Oranges and Lemons\".Severalconservatoiresare within the city:Royal Academy of Music,Royal College of Music,Guildhall School of Music and DramaandTrinity Laban. The record labelEMIwas formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company,Alan Blumlein, createdstereo soundthat year.Guitar amp engineerJim MarshallfoundedMarshall Amplificationin London in 1962. London has numerous venues for rock", "venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue,the O2Arena,andWembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such asBrixton Academy, theHammersmith Apolloand theShepherd's Bush Empire.Severalmusic festivals, including theWireless Festival,LoveboxandHyde Park'sBritish Summer Time, are held in London. The city is home to the originalHard Rock Cafeand theAbbey Road Studios, wherethe Beatlesrecorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups likeElton John,Pink Floyd,David Bowie,the Rolling Stones,Queen,Eric Clapton,the Who,the Kinks,Cliff Richard,Led Zeppelin,Iron Maiden,Deep Purple,T. Rex,the Police,Elvis Costello,Dire Straits,Cat Stevens,Fleetwood Mac,the Cure,Madness,Culture Club,Dusty Springfield,Phil Collins,Rod Stewart,Status QuoandSade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London. London was instrumental in the development ofpunk music, with groups such as theSex Pistols,the Clashand fashion designerVivienne Westwoodall based in", "based in the city.Other artists to emerge from the London music scene includeGeorge Michael,Kate Bush,Seal,Siouxsie and the Banshees,Bush, theSpice Girls,Jamiroquai,Blur,the Prodigy,Gorillaz,Mumford & Sons,Coldplay,Dido,Amy Winehouse,Adele,Sam Smith,Ed Sheeran,Leona Lewis,Ellie Goulding,Dua LipaandFlorence and the Machine.Artists from London played a prominent role in the development ofsynth-pop, includingGary Numan,Depeche Mode, thePet Shop BoysandEurythmics; the latter's \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods.Artists from London with a Caribbean influence includeHot Chocolate,Billy Ocean,Soul II SoulandEddy Grant, with the latter fusingreggae, soul and samba with rock and pop.London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genresUK garage,drum and bass,dubstepandgrimeevolved in the city from the foreign genres ofhouse,hip hop, and reggae, alongside localdrum and bass. Urban acts from London", "acts from London includeStormzy,M.I.A.,Jay SeanandRita Ora. Music stationBBC Radio 1Xtrawas set up to support the rise of localurban contemporarymusic both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. TheBritish Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, theBrit Awards, are held in London. Recreation Parks and open spaces A 2013 report by theCity of London Corporationsaid that London is the \"greenest city\" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens.The largest parks in thecentral area of Londonare three of the eightRoyal Parks, namelyHyde Parkand its neighbourKensington Gardensin the west, andRegent's Parkto the north.Hyde Park in particular is popular forsportsand sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park containsLondon Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is nearMadame Tussaudswax museum.Primrose Hillis a popular spot from which to view the city skyline. Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks,Green ParkandSt. James's Park.A number of", "Park.A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, includingHampstead Heathand the remaining Royal Parks ofGreenwich Parkto the southeast, andBushy ParkandRichmond Park(the largest) to the southwest.Hampton Court Parkis also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by theHistoric Royal Palaces, unlike the eightRoyal Parks. Close to Richmond Park isKew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on theUNESCOlist ofWorld Heritage Sites.There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, includingVictoria Parkin theEast EndandBattersea Parkin the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, includingHampstead HeathandEpping Forest,both controlled by theCity of London Corporation.Hampstead Heath incorporatesKenwood House, a formerstately homeand a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake.Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor", "for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering.Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks,Thorpe Parknear Staines-upon-Thames,Chessington World of Adventuresin Chessington andLegoland Windsor, are located within 20 miles (32 km) of London. Walking Walking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks includeWimbledon Common,Epping Forest,Hampton Court Park,Hampstead Heath, the eightRoyal Parks,Regents CanalWalk, canals and disused railway tracks.Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of theThames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is withinGreater London, and TheWandle Trailalong theRiver Wandle. Otherlong-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including theCapital Ring, theGreen Chain Walk,London Outer Orbital Path(\"Loop\"),Jubilee Walkway,Lea Valley Walk, and theDiana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk. Sport London has hosted theSummer Olympicsthree", "Olympicsthree times: in1908,1948, and2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times.The city was also the host of theBritish Empire Gamesin1934.In 2017, London hosted theWorld Championships in Athleticsfor the first time. London'smost popular sportisfootball, and it has seven clubs in thePremier Leaguein the2023–24 season:Arsenal,Brentford,Chelsea,Crystal Palace,Fulham,Tottenham Hotspur, andWest Ham United.Other professional men's teams in London areAFC Wimbledon,Barnet,Bromley,Charlton Athletic,Dagenham & Redbridge,Leyton Orient,Millwall,Queens Park RangersandSutton United. Four London-based teams are in theWomen's Super League:Arsenal,Chelsea,TottenhamandWest Ham United. TwoPremiership Rugbyunion teams are based in Greater London:HarlequinsandSaracens.Ealing TrailfindersandLondon Scottishplay in theRFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city includeRichmond,Rosslyn Park,Westcombe ParkandBlackheath.Twickenham Stadiumin south-west London hosts home matches for theEngland", "for theEngland national rugby union team.Whilerugby leagueis more popular in the north of England, the sport has one professional club in London – theLondon Broncoswho play in theSuper League. One of London's best-known annual sports competitions is theWimbledon Tennis Championships, held at theAll England Clubin the south-western suburb ofWimbledonsince 1877.Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious. London has twoTest cricketgrounds which host theEngland cricket team,Lord's(home ofMiddlesex C.C.C.) andthe Oval(home ofSurrey C.C.C.). Lord's has hosted four finals of theCricket World Cupand is known as theHome of Cricket.In golf, theWentworth Clubis located inVirginia Water, Surrey on the south-west fringes of London, while the closest venue to London that is used as one of the courses forthe Open Championship, the oldest major and tournament in golf, isRoyal St George'sin Sandwich, Kent.Alexandra Palacein north London hosts", "north London hosts thePDC World Darts Championshipand theMasterssnookertournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participationLondon Marathonand theUniversity Boat Raceon the Thames contested betweenOxfordandCambridge. Notable people See also Notes References Bibliography External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenna_Lyons", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Real_Housewives_of_New_York_City" ]

[ "Jenna Lyons Jenna Lyons(born June 8, 1968) is an American fashion designer, businesswoman, and television personality. Lyons was the executive creative director and president of retailerJ.Crewfrom 2010 until April 2017, when she announced her departure from the company.Lyons began working for J.Crew in 1990 and held various positions throughout her twenty-seven years at the company.In 2013, Lyons was referred to as the \"Woman Who Dresses America\".She is the CEO and co-founder of LoveSeen, afalse eyelashbeauty brand. She is also known for starring in thereality televisionseriesStylish with Jenna LyonsandThe Real Housewives of New York City, which she joined in the show'sfourteenth season. Early life and education Lyons was born Judith Agar Lyons inBoston,Massachusetts.She moved toPalos Verdes,Californiawhen she was four.Here, she grew up being subjected to heavy bullying, due to her gawkiness and health problems.She suffered fromincontinentia pigmenti, a genetic disorder which scarred her skin, caused her hair to fall out in patches, and caused her teeth to be malformed, which is the reason she wears dentures. Much of Lyons' outlooks and interests stem from her childhood experiences. About her childhood, she states that her genetic condition \"made me introverted, but it was also the reason I lovedfashion, because it can change who you are and how you feel, and that can be magical.\"Her mother was a piano teacher who encouraged her to get involved creatively, leading to her interest in fashion.She loved to rebel against her school uniform,and she learned to sew in seventh grade, which granted her more confidence.One of her personal motivations for success stems from witnessing her parents' divorce and having to never rely on a man to get by. After high school Lyons enrolled atOtis College of Art and Designin Los Angeles, before soon transferring toParsons’ BFA Fashion Design program in New York City. Lyons graduated in 1990, alongside classmate designerDerek Lam.During her senior year at Parsons Lyons interned for fashion designerDonna Karan. Career J.Crew Lyons landed her first job atJ.Crewwhen she was 21.She began as an assistant designer in men's wear,and her first assignment was redesigning men's rugby shirts for the company. By 2003, she wasJ.Crew's Vice President of Women's Design. When former CEO and chairmanMillard Drexlerwas hired in 2003, he and Lyons began to form a close relationship.The two were key players in helpingJ.Crewtriple its revenue from just short of $690 million in 2003 to just shy of $2 billion in 2011.In April 2010, Lyons was appointed executive creative director of J.Crew. In July of that same year she was also appointed president of the company. Lyons has said of her holding both of these roles, \"no financial decision weighs heavier than a creative decision. They are equal.\"In this role, Lyons oversaw the over one hundred designers of J.Crew and directed the layouts, designs, and looks for theJ.Crewcatalog, or as the company calls it, its Style Guide. One of the biggest changes Lyons made at the company was reinventing their Style Guide. Lyons wanted it to have the feel of a fashion magazine, and the amount of editorial content increased drastically.This included a section entitled \"Jenna's Picks\" that looked at her opinions and revealed more about her everyday life. It also highlighted Lyons' personal clothing style, described byThe New York Timesas \"geek-chic quirkiness, which mixed camouflage and sequins for day, and denim and taffeta for evening, all of it layered with big costume jewelry\".Lyons crafted the brand and style ofJ.Crewaround her trademark style.She madeJ.Crewa tastemaker in the industry,though Lyons herself does not like to refer to herself as a tastemaker. While Lyons' work at J. Crew contributed to her fame, she also faced controversy in 2011 when she was featured painting her then 4-year-old son's toenails hot pink. Some called this act \"an attack on masculinity.\"Others, however, viewed it as a breaking from gender norms. Despite it gaining national attention, such as being featured onThe Daily Show with Jon Stewartwhere it was labeled \"Toemaggedon\", both Lyons and J.Crew initially declined to comment. Lyons later stated that her son was watching her paint her nails and simply requested that she paint his as well. Lyons exited J.Crew in April 2017. Her departure was connected to declining sales and financial problems at the company.Her overarching role overseeing all aesthetic aspects of the brand (including store design and marketing) was not maintained, with the new chief design officer, Somsack Sikhounmuong, focusing more narrowly on women's, men's and children's clothing. Television In early 2014, Lyons made her acting debut in the third season of theHBOseriesGirls, where she played the role of aGQeditor that series creatorLena Dunhamsaid was inspired by Lyons. Lyons executive produced and starred inStylish with Jenna Lyons, an unscripted reality competition series where contestants competed for a creative assistant job with Lyons, which debuted onHBO Maxin December 2020.In October 2022, it was announced that Lyons was joining the cast ofBravo'sThe Real Housewives of New York City.Thefourteenth seasonof the series, Lyons's first, premiered on July 16, 2023. Other projects In September 2020, Lyons launched LoveSeen, afalse eyelashbeauty brand. She is co-creator and CEO of the company. Personal life Lyons was married to artist Vincent Mazeau from 2002 until 2011.Together they have a son, Beckett Lyons Mazeau, who was born on October 3, 2006. Lyons is alesbian.During the midst of her divorce from Mazeau in 2011, Lyons wasoutedby theNew York Post. Lyons later recounted that the publication contacted her while she was at work to tell her that they would be running a story about her being in a relationship with a woman, Courtney Crangi. Lyons expressed that the experience was traumatic for her because she wasn't ready to publiclycome outand hadn't even told her friends and family about the relationship at the time.In 2012, Lyons publicly acknowledged Crangi as her girlfriend. Lyons and Crangi split up in December 2017. In 2023, Lyons announced that she is currently in a relationship with photographerCass Bird. Awards and accolades Lyons wonGlamour's2012 Women of the Year award.She is a member of theCouncil of Fashion Designers of AmericaBoard of Directors. In 2013 Lyons was selected for theTime 100list of top 100 most influential people as a Tastemaker, noted for how \"she has made fashion relatable... She understands our zeitgeist. Being fashionable doesn’t mean being trendy; it means having a sense of style.\" References External links", "The Real Housewives of New York City Page version status This is an accepted version of this page The Real Housewives of New York City, abbreviatedRHONY, is an Americanreality televisionseries that premiered onBravoon March 4, 2008. Developed as the second installment ofThe Real Housewivesfranchise, it has aired fifteen seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing inNew York City. The cast of the first season consisted ofBethenny Frankel,Luann de Lesseps, Alex McCord, Ramona Singer, and Jill Zarin. Other housewives that starred in multiple of the first thirteen seasons includeKelly Killoren Bensimon,Sonja Morgan,Carole Radziwill, Heather Thomson,Dorinda MedleyandTinsley Mortimer. The series wasrebootedin its fourteenth season, making it the first series in the franchise to be completely recast. The cast of the current fifteenth season consists of Sai De Silva,Ubah Hassan, Erin Lichy,Jenna Lyons, Jessel Taank, Brynn Whitfield and Racquel Chevremont, with Rebecca Minkoff serving as a \"friend of the housewives\". The success of the show has resulted in three spin-offs:Bethenny Ever After,Bethenny & FredrikandLuann & Sonja: Welcome to Crappie Lake. Production Seasons 1–13: Original series While in pre-production, the show was initially titledManhattan Moms. It was later rebranded to become the second installment of the then-newReal Housewivesfranchise.Thefirst seasonpremiered on March 4, 2008, and starredBethenny Frankel,Luann de Lesseps, Alex McCord,Ramona SingerandJill Zarin.Cast members were paid for their appearances on the series. Bethenny Frankel, for example, was paid $7,250 for the season.Kelly Killoren Bensimonwas added to the cast for thesecond season, which premiered on February 17, 2009.Thethird seasonpremiered March 4, 2010 and saw the addition ofSonja Morganas a main cast member, along with Jennifer Gilbert in a recurring capacity. In August 2010, Frankel left the show in order to expand her Skinnygirl product line.Cindy Barshop replaced Frankel for the show'sfourth season, which premiered on April 7, 2011.After the fourth season, McCord, Zarin, Killoren Bensimon and Barshop were effectively let go from the show. In April 2012, Bravo announced a revamp to the cast for itsfifth season, integratingAviva Drescher,Carole Radziwill, and Heather Thomson into the main cast. The season premiered on June 4, 2012.Production for thesixth seasonwas set to begin on May 8, 2013, but the cast instead chose to go into salary negotiations with Bravo, effectively delaying shooting.Drescher, Morgan, Radziwill, Singer, and Thomson renewed their contract in May 2013, while de Lesseps was demoted to a recurring role.The sixth season premiered on March 11, 2014, a year later than planned with Kristen Taekman as the latest housewife.Drescher was dismissed after the sixth season. Theseventh seasonpremiered on April 7, 2015, featuring the return of Frankel and addition ofDorinda Medley, while de Lesseps returned in a full-time role. Taekman and Thomson exited the series after the season ended.For theeighth season, which premiered on April 6, 2016, Jules Wainstein was added to the cast, while Thomson returned in a guest appearance, Taekman did not return.Wainstein left the show in September 2016 for personal reasons.Theninth seasonpremiered on April 5, 2017.Tinsley Mortimerjoined the cast, while former housewives Thomson and Zarin appeared as guests.Thetenth seasonpremiered on April 4, 2018, with the cast of the ninth season returning. Drescher, Killoren Bensimon, Thomson and Zarin all appeared as guests.It served as Radziwill's final appearance on the show. Theeleventh seasonpremiered on March 6, 2019.Barbara Kavovitjoined as a friend of the housewives, and Zarin appeared as a guest.Frankel departed the series after the season for a second time.Thetwelfth seasonfeaturedLeah McSweeneyjoining the cast, which premiered on April 2, 2020.Zarin and Thomson appeared as guests in the twelfth season. Mortimer and Medley announced their departure from the series in June 2020 and August 2020 respectively.Mortimer coincided her announcement with her relocation to Chicago, to pursue her romantic relationship with Scott Kluth,while Medley later stated she was fired from the show.Thethirteenth seasonpremiered on May 4, 2021, withEboni K. Williamsjoining the series, in addition to Heather Thomson and Bershan Shaw appearing as friends of the housewives.In September 2021, it was confirmed by Bravo that the thirteenth season reunion was officially cancelled. Season 14–present: Rebooted series On March 23, 2022, it was announced that following the thirteenth season's negative reception, the showrunners had made the decision to \"most likely\" recast the show from scratch for the fourteenth season, and create a second version of the show following some of the show's original housewives, referred to asRHONY: LegacyorRHONY: Throwback.Although the series has partially shifted its cast before,this marked the first time that the network had decided to completely replace the cast. As a result, the series’sfourteenth seasonwas billed as aseries reboot, with little to no connections to the original cast of the series.It was later announced that de Lesseps and Morgan would star in their own spin-off series titledLuann & Sonja: Welcome to Crappie Lake.Filming for the spin-off began in July 2022 in the small town ofBenton, Illinois.The series premiered on July 9, 2023.The fifth season ofThe Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip, a spin-off featuring various women fromThe Real Housewivesfranchise, being billed as 'RHONY Legacy' premiered in December 2023 onPeacock.Taking place inSaint Barthélemyin the same villa that was featured in the fifth season, the cast includes Killoren Bensimon, de Lesseps, Medley, Morgan, Singer and Taekman. Sai De Silva,Ubah Hassan, Erin Lichy,Jenna Lyons, Lizzy Savetsky, Jessel Taank and Brynn Whitfield were announced for the cast of the rebooted fourteenth season on October 16, 2022.Savetsky exited the series midway into filming the season on November 16, alleging that she had received anti-Semitic hate across her social media accounts.Thefourteenth seasonpremiered on July 16, 2023.In March 2024, Bravo announced that the show was renewed for a fifteenth season, with all six housewives from the fourteenth season returning.In April 2024, it was announced that Rebecca Minkoff would be joining the series in a friend of capacity.In June 2024, it was announced that Racquel Chevremont would also be joining the fifteenth season of the series as a full-time housewife.Thefifteenth seasonpremiered on October 1, 2024. Cast Timeline of cast members Episodes Critical reception Then-current cast member Frankel stated in 2017 that she would like to see the series \"representNew Yorkmore.\"Writing forThe New York Timesin October 2019, author Tracie Egan Morrissey posed the question, \"If less than half of the city is white, why is 100 percent of the cast ofThe Real Housewives of New York Citywhite?\"Former cast member Heather Thomson also stated that during her time on the series she had pitched several women of color to the show's producers to diversify its cast members due to her concerns about the issue.The women also received backlash for highlighting the class divide in America through the ignorance and mistreatment of staff featured on the show. The announcements of both the reboot and new cast of the show's fourteenth season have been criticized by some long-time viewers of the series, who argued that these were rash and poor decisions on Bravo's part.The reboot's cast has been deemed unappealing by these viewers, many of whom appreciated the franchise's specific focus on established spheres of older, upper-class New York socialites, labeling the choice to fill the new cast with \"influencers\" as a deviation from the show's original subject matter.The decision has been labeled as another move in Bravo's larger attempt to appeal the network to a younger and more social media-oriented audience. In 2022, theJewish Journalnamed Frankel and Zarin as two of \"The Top 10 Jewish Reality TV Stars of All Time.\" Broadcast history The Real Housewives of New York Cityairs regularly onBravoin the United States;most episodes are approximately forty-two minutes in length,and are broadcast instandard definitionandhigh definition.Since its premiere, the series has alternated airing on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday evenings and has been frequently shifted between the 8:00, 9:00, and 10:00 PM timeslots. Other media In July 2012, Bravo released a social networking video game version ofThe Real Housewives of New York Citytitled asReal Housewives: The Game. Following weekly new episodes, a new game was available based on the story. In 2016,On Location Tourshosted an officialThe Real Housewives of New York-themed tour in New York City. The tour is centered around giving passengers an almost four-hour trip to visit numerous places where current and former housewives \"have dined, shopped, dated or had a fight or two,\" and is described as the \"ultimate, one-of-a-kindReal Housewivesexperience.\" References External links" ]

[ "Jenna Lyons Jenna Lyons(born June 8, 1968) is an American fashion designer, businesswoman, and television personality. Lyons was the executive creative director and president of retailerJ.Crewfrom 2010 until April 2017, when she announced her departure from the company.Lyons began working for J.Crew in 1990 and held various positions throughout her twenty-seven years at the company.In 2013, Lyons was referred to as the \"Woman Who Dresses America\".She is the CEO and co-founder of LoveSeen, afalse eyelashbeauty brand. She is also known for starring in thereality televisionseriesStylish with Jenna LyonsandThe Real Housewives of New York City, which she joined in the show'sfourteenth season. Early life and education Lyons was born Judith Agar Lyons inBoston,Massachusetts.She moved toPalos Verdes,Californiawhen she was four.Here, she grew up being subjected to heavy bullying, due to her gawkiness and health problems.She suffered fromincontinentia pigmenti, a genetic disorder which scarred her skin, caused her hair", "caused her hair to fall out in patches, and caused her teeth to be malformed, which is the reason she wears dentures. Much of Lyons' outlooks and interests stem from her childhood experiences. About her childhood, she states that her genetic condition \"made me introverted, but it was also the reason I lovedfashion, because it can change who you are and how you feel, and that can be magical.\"Her mother was a piano teacher who encouraged her to get involved creatively, leading to her interest in fashion.She loved to rebel against her school uniform,and she learned to sew in seventh grade, which granted her more confidence.One of her personal motivations for success stems from witnessing her parents' divorce and having to never rely on a man to get by. After high school Lyons enrolled atOtis College of Art and Designin Los Angeles, before soon transferring toParsons’ BFA Fashion Design program in New York City. Lyons graduated in 1990, alongside classmate designerDerek Lam.During her senior year at Parsons", "year at Parsons Lyons interned for fashion designerDonna Karan. Career J.Crew Lyons landed her first job atJ.Crewwhen she was 21.She began as an assistant designer in men's wear,and her first assignment was redesigning men's rugby shirts for the company. By 2003, she wasJ.Crew's Vice President of Women's Design. When former CEO and chairmanMillard Drexlerwas hired in 2003, he and Lyons began to form a close relationship.The two were key players in helpingJ.Crewtriple its revenue from just short of $690 million in 2003 to just shy of $2 billion in 2011.In April 2010, Lyons was appointed executive creative director of J.Crew. In July of that same year she was also appointed president of the company. Lyons has said of her holding both of these roles, \"no financial decision weighs heavier than a creative decision. They are equal.\"In this role, Lyons oversaw the over one hundred designers of J.Crew and directed the layouts, designs, and looks for theJ.Crewcatalog, or as the company calls it, its Style Guide. One", "Style Guide. One of the biggest changes Lyons made at the company was reinventing their Style Guide. Lyons wanted it to have the feel of a fashion magazine, and the amount of editorial content increased drastically.This included a section entitled \"Jenna's Picks\" that looked at her opinions and revealed more about her everyday life. It also highlighted Lyons' personal clothing style, described byThe New York Timesas \"geek-chic quirkiness, which mixed camouflage and sequins for day, and denim and taffeta for evening, all of it layered with big costume jewelry\".Lyons crafted the brand and style ofJ.Crewaround her trademark style.She madeJ.Crewa tastemaker in the industry,though Lyons herself does not like to refer to herself as a tastemaker. While Lyons' work at J. Crew contributed to her fame, she also faced controversy in 2011 when she was featured painting her then 4-year-old son's toenails hot pink. Some called this act \"an attack on masculinity.\"Others, however, viewed it as a breaking from gender norms.", "from gender norms. Despite it gaining national attention, such as being featured onThe Daily Show with Jon Stewartwhere it was labeled \"Toemaggedon\", both Lyons and J.Crew initially declined to comment. Lyons later stated that her son was watching her paint her nails and simply requested that she paint his as well. Lyons exited J.Crew in April 2017. Her departure was connected to declining sales and financial problems at the company.Her overarching role overseeing all aesthetic aspects of the brand (including store design and marketing) was not maintained, with the new chief design officer, Somsack Sikhounmuong, focusing more narrowly on women's, men's and children's clothing. Television In early 2014, Lyons made her acting debut in the third season of theHBOseriesGirls, where she played the role of aGQeditor that series creatorLena Dunhamsaid was inspired by Lyons. Lyons executive produced and starred inStylish with Jenna Lyons, an unscripted reality competition series where contestants competed for a", "competed for a creative assistant job with Lyons, which debuted onHBO Maxin December 2020.In October 2022, it was announced that Lyons was joining the cast ofBravo'sThe Real Housewives of New York City.Thefourteenth seasonof the series, Lyons's first, premiered on July 16, 2023. Other projects In September 2020, Lyons launched LoveSeen, afalse eyelashbeauty brand. She is co-creator and CEO of the company. Personal life Lyons was married to artist Vincent Mazeau from 2002 until 2011.Together they have a son, Beckett Lyons Mazeau, who was born on October 3, 2006. Lyons is alesbian.During the midst of her divorce from Mazeau in 2011, Lyons wasoutedby theNew York Post. Lyons later recounted that the publication contacted her while she was at work to tell her that they would be running a story about her being in a relationship with a woman, Courtney Crangi. Lyons expressed that the experience was traumatic for her because she wasn't ready to publiclycome outand hadn't even told her friends and family about the", "family about the relationship at the time.In 2012, Lyons publicly acknowledged Crangi as her girlfriend. Lyons and Crangi split up in December 2017. In 2023, Lyons announced that she is currently in a relationship with photographerCass Bird. Awards and accolades Lyons wonGlamour's2012 Women of the Year award.She is a member of theCouncil of Fashion Designers of AmericaBoard of Directors. In 2013 Lyons was selected for theTime 100list of top 100 most influential people as a Tastemaker, noted for how \"she has made fashion relatable... She understands our zeitgeist. Being fashionable doesn’t mean being trendy; it means having a sense of style.\" References External links", "The Real Housewives of New York City Page version status This is an accepted version of this page The Real Housewives of New York City, abbreviatedRHONY, is an Americanreality televisionseries that premiered onBravoon March 4, 2008. Developed as the second installment ofThe Real Housewivesfranchise, it has aired fifteen seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing inNew York City. The cast of the first season consisted ofBethenny Frankel,Luann de Lesseps, Alex McCord, Ramona Singer, and Jill Zarin. Other housewives that starred in multiple of the first thirteen seasons includeKelly Killoren Bensimon,Sonja Morgan,Carole Radziwill, Heather Thomson,Dorinda MedleyandTinsley Mortimer. The series wasrebootedin its fourteenth season, making it the first series in the franchise to be completely recast. The cast of the current fifteenth season consists of Sai De Silva,Ubah Hassan, Erin Lichy,Jenna Lyons, Jessel Taank, Brynn Whitfield and Racquel Chevremont, with Rebecca Minkoff", "Rebecca Minkoff serving as a \"friend of the housewives\". The success of the show has resulted in three spin-offs:Bethenny Ever After,Bethenny & FredrikandLuann & Sonja: Welcome to Crappie Lake. Production Seasons 1–13: Original series While in pre-production, the show was initially titledManhattan Moms. It was later rebranded to become the second installment of the then-newReal Housewivesfranchise.Thefirst seasonpremiered on March 4, 2008, and starredBethenny Frankel,Luann de Lesseps, Alex McCord,Ramona SingerandJill Zarin.Cast members were paid for their appearances on the series. Bethenny Frankel, for example, was paid $7,250 for the season.Kelly Killoren Bensimonwas added to the cast for thesecond season, which premiered on February 17, 2009.Thethird seasonpremiered March 4, 2010 and saw the addition ofSonja Morganas a main cast member, along with Jennifer Gilbert in a recurring capacity. In August 2010, Frankel left the show in order to expand her Skinnygirl product line.Cindy Barshop replaced Frankel", "replaced Frankel for the show'sfourth season, which premiered on April 7, 2011.After the fourth season, McCord, Zarin, Killoren Bensimon and Barshop were effectively let go from the show. In April 2012, Bravo announced a revamp to the cast for itsfifth season, integratingAviva Drescher,Carole Radziwill, and Heather Thomson into the main cast. The season premiered on June 4, 2012.Production for thesixth seasonwas set to begin on May 8, 2013, but the cast instead chose to go into salary negotiations with Bravo, effectively delaying shooting.Drescher, Morgan, Radziwill, Singer, and Thomson renewed their contract in May 2013, while de Lesseps was demoted to a recurring role.The sixth season premiered on March 11, 2014, a year later than planned with Kristen Taekman as the latest housewife.Drescher was dismissed after the sixth season. Theseventh seasonpremiered on April 7, 2015, featuring the return of Frankel and addition ofDorinda Medley, while de Lesseps returned in a full-time role. Taekman and Thomson", "Taekman and Thomson exited the series after the season ended.For theeighth season, which premiered on April 6, 2016, Jules Wainstein was added to the cast, while Thomson returned in a guest appearance, Taekman did not return.Wainstein left the show in September 2016 for personal reasons.Theninth seasonpremiered on April 5, 2017.Tinsley Mortimerjoined the cast, while former housewives Thomson and Zarin appeared as guests.Thetenth seasonpremiered on April 4, 2018, with the cast of the ninth season returning. Drescher, Killoren Bensimon, Thomson and Zarin all appeared as guests.It served as Radziwill's final appearance on the show. Theeleventh seasonpremiered on March 6, 2019.Barbara Kavovitjoined as a friend of the housewives, and Zarin appeared as a guest.Frankel departed the series after the season for a second time.Thetwelfth seasonfeaturedLeah McSweeneyjoining the cast, which premiered on April 2, 2020.Zarin and Thomson appeared as guests in the twelfth season. Mortimer and Medley announced their departure", "their departure from the series in June 2020 and August 2020 respectively.Mortimer coincided her announcement with her relocation to Chicago, to pursue her romantic relationship with Scott Kluth,while Medley later stated she was fired from the show.Thethirteenth seasonpremiered on May 4, 2021, withEboni K. Williamsjoining the series, in addition to Heather Thomson and Bershan Shaw appearing as friends of the housewives.In September 2021, it was confirmed by Bravo that the thirteenth season reunion was officially cancelled. Season 14–present: Rebooted series On March 23, 2022, it was announced that following the thirteenth season's negative reception, the showrunners had made the decision to \"most likely\" recast the show from scratch for the fourteenth season, and create a second version of the show following some of the show's original housewives, referred to asRHONY: LegacyorRHONY: Throwback.Although the series has partially shifted its cast before,this marked the first time that the network had decided to", "had decided to completely replace the cast. As a result, the series’sfourteenth seasonwas billed as aseries reboot, with little to no connections to the original cast of the series.It was later announced that de Lesseps and Morgan would star in their own spin-off series titledLuann & Sonja: Welcome to Crappie Lake.Filming for the spin-off began in July 2022 in the small town ofBenton, Illinois.The series premiered on July 9, 2023.The fifth season ofThe Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip, a spin-off featuring various women fromThe Real Housewivesfranchise, being billed as 'RHONY Legacy' premiered in December 2023 onPeacock.Taking place inSaint Barthélemyin the same villa that was featured in the fifth season, the cast includes Killoren Bensimon, de Lesseps, Medley, Morgan, Singer and Taekman. Sai De Silva,Ubah Hassan, Erin Lichy,Jenna Lyons, Lizzy Savetsky, Jessel Taank and Brynn Whitfield were announced for the cast of the rebooted fourteenth season on October 16, 2022.Savetsky exited the series midway into", "series midway into filming the season on November 16, alleging that she had received anti-Semitic hate across her social media accounts.Thefourteenth seasonpremiered on July 16, 2023.In March 2024, Bravo announced that the show was renewed for a fifteenth season, with all six housewives from the fourteenth season returning.In April 2024, it was announced that Rebecca Minkoff would be joining the series in a friend of capacity.In June 2024, it was announced that Racquel Chevremont would also be joining the fifteenth season of the series as a full-time housewife.Thefifteenth seasonpremiered on October 1, 2024. Cast Timeline of cast members Episodes Critical reception Then-current cast member Frankel stated in 2017 that she would like to see the series \"representNew Yorkmore.\"Writing forThe New York Timesin October 2019, author Tracie Egan Morrissey posed the question, \"If less than half of the city is white, why is 100 percent of the cast ofThe Real Housewives of New York Citywhite?\"Former cast member Heather", "cast member Heather Thomson also stated that during her time on the series she had pitched several women of color to the show's producers to diversify its cast members due to her concerns about the issue.The women also received backlash for highlighting the class divide in America through the ignorance and mistreatment of staff featured on the show. The announcements of both the reboot and new cast of the show's fourteenth season have been criticized by some long-time viewers of the series, who argued that these were rash and poor decisions on Bravo's part.The reboot's cast has been deemed unappealing by these viewers, many of whom appreciated the franchise's specific focus on established spheres of older, upper-class New York socialites, labeling the choice to fill the new cast with \"influencers\" as a deviation from the show's original subject matter.The decision has been labeled as another move in Bravo's larger attempt to appeal the network to a younger and more social media-oriented audience. In 2022,", "audience. In 2022, theJewish Journalnamed Frankel and Zarin as two of \"The Top 10 Jewish Reality TV Stars of All Time.\" Broadcast history The Real Housewives of New York Cityairs regularly onBravoin the United States;most episodes are approximately forty-two minutes in length,and are broadcast instandard definitionandhigh definition.Since its premiere, the series has alternated airing on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday evenings and has been frequently shifted between the 8:00, 9:00, and 10:00 PM timeslots. Other media In July 2012, Bravo released a social networking video game version ofThe Real Housewives of New York Citytitled asReal Housewives: The Game. Following weekly new episodes, a new game was available based on the story. In 2016,On Location Tourshosted an officialThe Real Housewives of New York-themed tour in New York City. The tour is centered around giving passengers an almost four-hour trip to visit numerous places where current and former housewives \"have dined, shopped, dated or had a", "dated or had a fight or two,\" and is described as the \"ultimate, one-of-a-kindReal Housewivesexperience.\" References External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modernist_writers", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" ]

[ "List of modernist writers Literary modernismhas its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America. Modernism is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional styles of poetry and prose. Modernists experimented with literary form and expression, adhering toEzra Pound's maxim to \"Make it new\".The modernist literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of their time.It is debatable when the modernist literary movement began, though some have chosen 1910 as roughly marking the beginning and quotenovelistVirginia Woolf, who declared that human nature underwent a fundamental change \"on or about December 1910.\"But modernism was already stirring by 1899, with works such asJoseph Conrad's (1857–1924)Heart of Darkness, whileAlfred Jarry's (1873–1907)absurdistplay,Ubu Roiappeared even earlier, in 1896.Knut Hamsun's (1859–1952)Hunger(1890) is a groundbreaking modernist novel andMysteries(1892) pioneers moderniststream of consciousnessmethod. When modernism ends is debatable. ThoughThe Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literaturesees Modernism ending by c.1939,with regard to British and American literature, \"When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred\".Clement Greenberg sees Modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts.In fact many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally speaking they were no longer producing major works. The termlate modernismis also sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930.Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 wereWallace Stevens,Gottfried Benn,T. S. Eliot,Anna Akhmatova,William Faulkner,Dorothy Richardson,John Cowper Powys, andEzra Pound.Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poemBriggflattsin 1965. In additionHermann Broch'sThe Death of Virgilwas published in 1945 andThomas Mann'sDoctor Faustusin 1947.Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a \"later modernist\".Beckett is a writer with roots in theexpressionisttradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, includingMolloy(1951),En attendant Godot(1953),Happy Days(1961),Rockaby(1981). The poetsCharles Olson(1910-1970) andJ. H. Prynne(1936- ) are, amongst other writing in the second half of the 20th century, who have been described as late modernists. The following is a list of significant modernist writers: References See also", "James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce(2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet andliterary critic. He contributed to themodernistavant-gardemovement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novelUlysses(1922) is a landmark in which the episodes ofHomer'sOdysseyare paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularlystream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collectionDubliners(1914), and the novelsA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man(1916) andFinnegans Wake(1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism. Joyce was born inDublininto a middle-class family. He attended the JesuitClongowes Wood Collegein County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers–runO'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the JesuitBelvedere Collegeand graduated fromUniversity College Dublinin 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife,Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked inPulaand then moved toTriesteinAustria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce resided there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poemsChamber Musicand his short story collectionDubliners, and he began serially publishingA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the English magazineThe Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived inZürich, Switzerland, and worked onUlysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920, which became his primary residence until 1940. Ulysseswas first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when publication finally became legal. Joyce started his next major work,Finnegans Wake, in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939. Between these years, Joyce travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1931. He made a number of trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter,Lucia. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zürich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer, at age 58. Ulyssesfrequently ranks high in lists of great books, and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use ofinterior monologue,wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there.Ulyssesin particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city. Joyce is quoted as saying, \"For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal.\" Early life Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square,Rathgar,Dublin, Ireland,toJohn Stanislaus Joyceand Mary Jane \"May\" (néeMurray). He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised with the nameJames Augustine Joyceaccording to therites of the Roman Catholic Churchin the nearby St Joseph's Church inTerenureon 5 February 1882 by Rev. John O'Mulloy.His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.John Stanislaus Joyce's family came fromFermoyinCounty Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties inCork City. Ellen's family claimed kinship with the political leaderDaniel O'Connell, who had helped secureCatholic emancipationfor the Irish in 1829. Joyce's father was appointed rate collector byDublin Corporationin 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town ofBray, 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelongfear of dogs.He later developed afear of thunderstorms,which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath. In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem \"Et Tu, Healy\" on the death ofCharles Stewart Parnellthat his father printed and distributed to friends.The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce,who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by theIrish Catholic Church, theIrish Parliamentary Party, and theBritish Liberal Partythat resulted in a collaborative failure to secureIrish Home Rulein theBritish Parliament.This sense of betrayal, particularly by the church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art. That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.John Joyce's name was published inStubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension. Joyce began his education in 1888 atClongowes Wood College, aJesuitboarding school nearClane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.He studied at home and briefly attended theChristian Brothers O'Connell Schoolon North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priestJohn Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brotherStanislausto attend the Jesuits' Dublin school,Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected by his peers to join theSodality of Our Lady.Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in theRatio Studiorum(Plan of Studies).He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two yearsbefore graduating in 1898. University years Joyce enrolled atUniversity Collegein 1898 to study English, French and Italian.While there, he was exposed to thescholasticismofThomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, most notably,George Clancy,Tom KettleandFrancis Sheehy-Skeffington.Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.His first publication—a laudatory review ofHenrik Ibsen'sWhen We Dead Awaken—was printed inThe Fortnightly Reviewin 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegianand wrote a play,A Brilliant Career,which he later destroyed. In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) inClontarf, Dublin.During this year he became friends withOliver St. John Gogarty,the model forBuck MulliganinUlysses.In November, Joyce wrote an article,The Day of the Rabblement, criticising theIrish Literary Theatrefor its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen,Leo Tolstoy, andGerhart Hauptmann.He protested against nostalgic Irishpopulismand argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.Because he mentionedGabriele D'Annunzio's novelIl fuoco(The Flame),which was on theRoman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed.Arthur Griffithdecried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaperUnited Irishman. Joyce graduated from theRoyal University of Irelandin October 1902. He considered studying medicineand began attending lectures at theCatholic University Medical Schoolin Dublin.When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.By the end of January 1903, he had given up plans to study medicinebut he stayed in Paris, often reading late in theBibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,appealing for money his family could ill-afford. Post-university years in Dublin In April 1903, Joyce learned his mother was dyingand immediately returned to Ireland.He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novelStephen Hero.During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make hisconfessionand to takecommunion.She died on 13 August.Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books. Joyce's life began to change when he metNora Barnacleon 10 June 1904. She was a twenty-year-old woman fromGalway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,walking through the Dublin suburb ofRingsend, where Nora masturbated him.This event was commemorated as the date for the action ofUlysses, known in popular culture as \"Bloomsday\" in honour of the novel's main characterLeopold Bloom.This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been carousing with his colleagues,approached a young woman inSt Stephen's Greenand was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist ofUlysses. Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in theFeis Ceoil,an Irishmusic competitionfor promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had tosight readthe third, he refused.Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.After the contest, Palmieri wrote Joyce thatLuigi Denza, the composer of the popular song \"Funiculì, Funiculà\" who was the judge for the contest,spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.Although Joyce did not ultimately pursue a singing career, he would include thousands of musical allusions in his literary works. Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examiningaestheticscalledA Portrait of the Artist,but it was rejected by the intellectual journalDana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he calledStephen Herothat he labored over for years but eventually abandoned.He wrote a satirical poem called \"The Holy Office\",which parodiedW. B. Yeats's poem \"To Ireland in the Coming Times\"and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.It too was rejected for publication; this time for being \"unholy\".He wrote the collection of poemsChamber Musicat this time;which was also rejected.He did publish three poems, one inDanaand two inThe Speaker,andGeorge William Russellpublished three of Joyce's short stories in theIrish Homestead. These stories—\"The Sisters\", \"Eveline\", and \"After the Race\"—were the beginnings ofDubliners. In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into aMartello towernear Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.With the help of funds fromLady Gregoryand a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later. 1904–1906: Zürich, Pula and Trieste Zürich and Pula In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure fundsbefore heading on toZürich. Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at theBerlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.The director of the school sent Joyce on toTrieste,which was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empireuntil the First World War.There was no vacancy there either.The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him inPola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,where he mainly taught English to naval officers.Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story forDubliners, \"Clay\", and worked on his novelStephen Hero.He disliked Pola, calling it a \"back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia\",and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste. First stay in Trieste Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.That June he published the satirical poem \"Holy Office\".After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,on 27 July 1905,He convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and attained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis. During this period Joyce completing 24 chapters ofStephen Heroand all but the final story ofDubliners,but was unable to getDublinerspublished. Although the London publisherGrant Richardshad a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement. Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.Although he would temporarily stay in Rome, travel to Dublin and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for himand played an important role in his development as a writer.He completedDubliners,reworkedStephen HerointoA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published playExilesand decided to makeUlyssesa full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings,working out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced byFuturism.There are even words of the Triestine dialect inFinnegans Wake.Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and would later draw on it in creating the liturgical parodies inUlysses. 1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin Rome In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher forDubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July. Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,but it had a large impact on his writing.Though his new job took up most of his time, he revisedDublinersand worked onStephen Hero.Rome was the birthplace of the idea for \"The Dead\", which would become the final story ofDubliners,and forUlysses,which was originally conceived as a short story.His stay in the city was one of his inspirations forExiles.While there, he read the socialist historianGuglielmo Ferreroin depth.Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jewswould find their way intoUlysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.In London,Elkin MathewspublishedChamber Musicon the recommendation of the British poetArthur Symons.Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.He left Rome after only seven months. Second stay in Trieste Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen nameItalo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.Joyce learned much of what he knew aboutJudaismfrom him.The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block withA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaperPiccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italianirredentistsin Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures at Trieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,as well as onWilliam Shakespeare's playHamlet. In May, Joyce was struck by an attack ofrheumatic fever,which left him incapacitated for weeks.The illness exacerbatedeye problemsthat plagued him for the rest of his life.While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.During his convalescence, he was able to finish \"The Dead\", the last story ofDubliners. Although a heavy drinker,Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.He reworkedStephen Heroas the more concise and interiorA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by Apriland translatedJohn Millington Synge'sRiders to the Seainto Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.He even took singing lessons again.Joyce had been looking for an English publisher forDublinersbut was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned byGeorge Roberts. Visits to Dublin In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at hisalma mater, which had become University College Dublin.He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing theDubliners.He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, theVolta Cinematograph.It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen. From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at theUniversity of Padua.He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication ofDublinerscame to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, \"Gas from a Burner\".He never went to Dublin again. Publication ofDublinersandA Portrait Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publishDubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate inEzra Pound, who was living in London.On the advice of Yeats,Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem fromChamber Music, \"I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land\" in the journalDes Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized. After Pound persuadedDora MarsdentoseriallypublishA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the London literary magazineThe Egoist,Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completedA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manby 1914;resumedExiles, completing it in 1915;started the noveletteGiacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;and began draftingUlysses. In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland. 1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste Zürich Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services. Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from theRoyal Literary Fundin 1915 and a grant from the Britishcivil listthe following year.Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editorHarriet Shaw Weaver, who operatedThe Egoist, and the psychotherapistEdith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying underCarl Jung.Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as \"nervous breakdowns\"and he had to undergo many eye surgeries. Ulysses During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen,where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptorAugust Suterand the painterFrank Budgen.He often used the time spent with them as material forUlysses.He made the acquaintance of the writerStefan Zweig,who organised the premiere ofExilesin Munich in August 1919.He became aware ofDada, which was coming into its own at theCabaret Voltaire.He may have even met theMarxisttheoretician and revolutionaryVladimir Leninat the Cafe Odeon,a place they both frequented. Joyce kept up his interest in music. He metFerruccio Busoni,staged music withOtto Luening, and learned music theory fromPhilipp Jarnach.Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way intoUlysses, particularly the \"Sirens\" section. Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained strict neutrality.He made few comments about the 1916Easter Risingin Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,he disagreed with its violence.He stayed intently focused onUlyssesand the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of \"The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\" inThe Egoisthad been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published byB. W. Huebschin 1916.In 1918, Pound got a commitment fromMargaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazineThe Little Review, to publishUlyssesserially. The English Players Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such asOscar Wilde,George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.For Synge'sRiders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,which he did again whenRobert Browning'sIn a Balconywas staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play,Exiles,but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of theGreat Influenza epidemicof 1918, though the company continued until 1920. Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit.Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role inThe Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich. Third stay in Trieste By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war. Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.Eight months after his return, Joyce went toSirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920. 1920–1941: Paris and Zürich Paris When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.For the first four months, he stayed withLudmila Savitzkyand metSylvia Beach, who ran theRive Gauchebookshop,Shakespeare and Company.Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the internationalmodernistartist community.Joyce metValery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the Frenchand supervised the French translation ofUlysses.Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long. Publication ofUlysses Joyce finished writingUlyssesnear the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyerJohn Quinn,Margaret Anderson and her co-editorJane Heaphad begun serially publishing it inThe Little Reviewin March 1918but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the \"Nausicaa\" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with theNew York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.Thetrial proceedingscontinued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenityand ordered to cease publishingUlysses.Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.Weaver was unable to find an English printer,and the novel wasbannedfor obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936. Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printingUlysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.They were then smuggled into both countries.Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, \"bootleg\" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisherSamuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a courtenjoinedpublication.Ulysseswas not legally published in the United States until 1934 after JudgeJohn M. Woolseyruled inUnited States v. One Book Called Ulyssesthat the book was not obscene. Finnegans Wake In 1923, Joyce began his next work, anexperimental novelthat eventually becameFinnegans Wake.It would take sixteen years to complete.At first, Joyce called itWork in Progress, which was the nameFord Madox Fordused in April 1924 when he published its \"Mamalujo\" episode in his magazine,The Transatlantic Review. In 1926,EugeneandMariaJolas serialised the novel in their magazine,transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—wrote negatively about it,and it was criticised by writers likeSeán Ó Faoláin,Wyndham Lewis, andRebecca West.In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titledOur Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings bySamuel BeckettandWilliam Carlos Williams.An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to marketWork in Progressto a larger audience.Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title asFinnegans Wakein 1939,the same year he completed it. It was published in London byFaber and Faberwith the assistance of T. S. Eliot. Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,but his vision severely declined.By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finishFinnegans Wake, asking the Irish authorJames Stephensto complete it if something should happen. Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.Despite these issues, he publishedPomes Penyeachin 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris. Marriage in London In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more,primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on theelectoral roll, and became liable forjury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at theRegister Office in Kensingtonon 4 July 1931.Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England. In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgeryor for treatment for Lucia,who was diagnosed withschizophrenia.Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written thatUlysseswas similar to schizophrenic writing.Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death. Final return to Zürich In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.After thefall of Francein 1940, Joyce and his family fled fromNazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time. Death On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for aperforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58. His body was buried in theFluntern Cemeteryin Zürich. Swiss tenorMax Meilisang \"Addio terra, addio cielo\" fromMonteverdi'sL'Orfeoat the burial service.Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. WhenJoseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins,chargé d'affairesatBern, Walshe responded, \"Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral.\"Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent \"honour grave\", with a seated portrait statue by American artistMilton Hebaldnearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976. After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomatJohn J. Slocum.In October 2019, a motion was put toDublin City Councilto plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.The proposal immediately became controversial, with theIrish Timescommenting: \"... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read\". Political views Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politicsand in its relationship to British colonialism.He studiedsocialismandanarchism.He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced byBenjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism\".He described his opinions as \"those of a socialist artist\".Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,but his later works still reflect his commitment.He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.Ulysseshas been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British colonialism on the Irish people.Finnegans Wakehas been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,the interrelationship between colonialism and race,and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism. Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport. He wrote about the negative effects of British occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.In 1907, he expressed his support for the earlySinn Féinmovement before the establishment of theIrish Free Statein 1922.However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leaveVichy Francemore easily.His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church. Religious views Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.Firsthand statements by himand Stanislaus,attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Fridayor occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better. Some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.He lapsed from the Church early in lifeand Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.Nevertheless, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.They argue thatUlyssesandFinnegans Wakeare expressions of a Catholic sensibility,insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novel do not represent the views of Joyce the author. Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.He has been compared to the medievalepiscopi vagantes(wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought. Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion ofUlysses, Joyce was asked, \"When did you leave the Catholic Church?\" He answered, \"That's for the Church to say.\" Major works Dubliners Dublinersis a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914,that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters inDublinerslater appear in minor roles in Joyce's novelUlysses.The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novelStephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is aKünstlerroman, a kind ofcoming-of-age noveldepicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonistStephen Dedalusand his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such asstream of consciousness,interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel. Exilesand poetry Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play,Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to \"The Dead\" (the final story inDubliners) and forward toUlysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition. He published three books of poetry.The first full-length collection wasChamber Music(1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in theImagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes \"Gas from a Burner\" (1912),Pomes Penyeach(1927), and \"Ecce Puer\" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by theBlack Sun PressinCollected Poems(1936). Ulysses The action ofUlyssesstarts on 16 June 1904 at 8am and ends sometime after 2am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode inHomer'sOdyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.Ulyssessets the characters and incidents of theOdysseyin 1904 Dublin, representingOdysseus(Ulysses),Penelope, andTelemachusin the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wifeMolly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour–including parody, satire and comedy– to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titlesso the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure. Ulyssescan be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition ofThom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature. Finnegans Wake Finnegans Wakeis an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousnessand literary allusionto their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the wordplay stems from the work being written in peculiar and obscure English, based mainly oncomplex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used byLewis CarrollinJabberwockyand draws on a wide range of languages.The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream. The metaphysics ofGiordano BrunoofNola, who Joyce had read in his youth,plays an important role inFinnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book:Finnegans Wakeopens with the words \"riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs\"and ends \"A way a lone a last a loved a long the\".In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle. Legacy Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.Ulyssesis a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,andFinnegans Wakehas become one of the key texts for Frenchpost-structuralism. The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant reinterpretation.They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions. In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide. Collections, museums, and study centres TheNational Library of Irelandholds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, theMuseum of Literature Ireland,the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include \"Copy No. 1\" ofUlysses.Dedicated centres in Dublin include theJames Joyce CentreinNorth Great George's Street, theJames Joyce Tower and MuseuminSandycoveat the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene inUlysses, and theDublin Writers Museum.University College Londonholds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, many other editions and translations, as well as critical and background literature. Bibliography Novel Series Stephen Dedalus Finnegan Short Stories Poetry collections Play Posthumous Non-fiction Notes References Citations Sources Books Journal articles Online sources External links Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland Electronic editions Resources", "Virginia Woolf Adeline Virginia Woolf(/wʊlf/;néeStephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941) was an English writer. She is considered one of the most importantmodernist20th-century authors. She pioneered the use ofstream of consciousnessas a narrative device. Woolf was born into an affluent household inSouth Kensington, London. She was the seventh child ofJulia Prinsep JacksonandLeslie Stephenin a blended family of eight that included the modernist painterVanessa Bell. She was home-schooled in English classics andVictorian literaturefrom a young age. From 1897 to 1901, she attended the Ladies' Department ofKing's College London. There, she studied classics and history, coming into contact with early reformers of women's higher education and thewomen's rightsmovement. After her father's death in 1904, the Stephen family moved from Kensington to the morebohemianBloomsbury, where, in conjunction with the brothers' intellectual friends, they formed the artistic and literaryBloomsbury Group. In 1912, she marriedLeonard Woolf, and in 1917, the couple founded theHogarth Press, which published much of her work. They rented a home in Sussex and permanently settled there in 1940. Woolf began writing professionally in 1900. During the inter-war period, Woolf was an important part of London's literary and artistic society. In 1915, she published her first novel,The Voyage Out, through her half-brother's publishing house,Gerald Duckworth and Company. Her best-known works include the novelsMrs Dalloway(1925),To the Lighthouse(1927) andOrlando(1928). She is also known for her essays, such asA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement offeminist criticism. Her works, translated into more than 50 languages, have attracted attention and widespread commentary for inspiring feminism. A large body of writing is dedicated to her life and work. She has been the subject of plays, novels, and films. Woolf is commemorated by statues, societies dedicated to her work, and a building at theUniversity of London. Life Early life Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen on 25 January 1882 at 22Hyde Park GateinSouth Kensington, London,toJulia (née Jackson)andSir Leslie Stephen. Her father was a writer, historian, essayist, biographer, and mountaineer,described byHelena Swanwickas a \"gaunt figure with a ragged red brown beard ... a formidable man.\"Her mother was a noted philanthropist, and her side of the family containedJulia Margaret Cameron, a celebrated photographer, andLady Henry Somerset, a campaigner for women's rights.Virginia was named after her aunt Adeline, but because of her aunt's recent death the family decided not to use her first name. Both of the Stephens had children from previous marriages. Julia, from her marriage to barristerHerbert Duckworth, hadGeorge, Stella, andGerald;Leslie had Laura from a marriage to Minny Thackeray, a daughter ofWilliam Makepeace Thackeray.Both former spouses had died suddenly, Duckworth of an abscess and Minny Stephen in childbirth.Leslie and Julia Stephen had four children together:Vanessa,Thoby, Virginia, andAdrian. Virginia lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate until her father's death in 1904.She was, as she described it, \"born into a large connection, born not of rich parents, but of well-to-do parents, born into a very communicative, literate, letter writing, visiting, articulate, late nineteenth century world.\"The house was described as dimly-lit, crowded with furniture and paintings.Within it, the younger Stephens made a close-knit group. Virginia showed an early affinity for writing. By the age of five she was writing letters. A fascination with books helped form a bond between her and her father.From the age of 10, with her sister Vanessa, she began an illustrated family newspaper, theHyde Park Gate News, chronicling life and events within the Stephen family,and modelled on the popular magazineTit-Bits.Virginia would run theHyde Park Gate Newsuntil 1895, a few weeks before her mother's death.In 1897 Virginia began her first diary,which she kept for the next twelve years. Talland House In the spring of 1882, Leslie rented a large white house inSt Ives, Cornwall.The family would spend three months each summer there for the first 13 years of Virginia's life.Although the house had limited amenities, its main attraction was the view overlooking Porthminster Bay towards theGodrevy Lighthouse.The happy summers spent at Talland House would later influence Woolf's novelsJacob's Room,To the LighthouseandThe Waves. Both at Hyde Park Gate and Talland House, the family socialised with much of the country's literary and artistic circles. Frequent guests included literary figures such asHenry JamesandGeorge Meredith, as well asJames Russell Lowell.The family did not return after 1894; a hotel was constructed in front of the house which blocked the sea view, and Julia Stephen died in May the following year. Sexual abuse In the 1939 essay \"A Sketch of the Past\" Woolf first wrote about experiencing sexual abuse by Gerald Duckworth at a young age. There is speculation that this contributed to her mental health issues later in life.There are also suggestions of sexual impropriety from George Duckworth during the period that he was caring for the Stephen sisters. Adolescence Julia Stephen fell ill with influenza in February 1895, and never properly recovered, dying on 5 May, when Virginia was only 13.This precipitated what Virginia later identified as her first \"breakdown\"—for months afterwards she was nervous and agitated, and she wrote very little for the subsequent two years. Stella Duckworth took on a parental role.She married in April 1897, but moved to a house very close to the Stephens to continue to support the family. However, she fell ill on honeymoon and died on 19 July 1897.Subsequently George Duckworth took it upon himself to act as the head of the household, andbring Vanessa and Virginia out into society.This was not a rite of passage that resonated with either girl; Virginia's view was that \"Society in those days was a very competent, perfectly complacent, ruthless machine. A girl had no chance against its fangs. No other desires—say to paint, or to write—could be taken seriously.\"Her priority was her writing;she began a new diary at the start of 1897 and filled notebooks with fragments and literary sketches. Leslie Stephen died in February 1904, which caused Virginia to suffer another period of mental instability from April to September, and led to at least one suicide attempt.Woolf later described the period of 1897–1904 as \"the seven unhappy years.\" Education As was common at the time, Julia Stephen did not believe in formal education for her daughters.Virginia was educated in a piecemeal fashion by her parents: Julia taught her Latin, French, and history, while Leslie taught her mathematics. She also received piano lessons.She also had unrestricted access to her father's vast library, exposing her to much of the literary canon.This resulted in a greater depth of reading than any of her Cambridge contemporaries.Later, Virginia recalled: Even today there may be parents who would doubt the wisdom of allowing a girl of fifteen the free run of a large and quite unexpurgated library. But my father allowed it. There were certain facts – very briefly, very shyly he referred to them. Yet \"Read what you like\", he said, and all his books...were to be had without asking. Another source was the conversation of their father's friends, to whom she was exposed.Leslie Stephen described his circle as \"most of the literary people of mark...clever young writers and barristers, chiefly of the radical persuasion...we used to meet on Wednesday and Sunday evenings, to smoke and drink and discuss the universe and the reform movement\". From 1897 Virginia received private tuition in Latin and Ancient Greek. One of her tutors wasClara Pater, and another wasJanet Case, with whom she formed a lasting friendship and who involved her in thesuffrage movement.Virginia also attended a number of lectures at theKing's CollegeLadies' Department. Although Virginia could not attend Cambridge, she was to be profoundly influenced by her brother Thoby's experiences there. When Thoby went to Trinity in 1899, he befriended a circle of young men, includingClive Bell,Lytton Strachey,Leonard Woolf(whom Virginia would later marry), andSaxon Sydney-Turner, to whom he would introduce his sisters at theTrinity May Ballin 1900.These men formed a reading group they named the Midnight Society, which the Stephen sisters would later be invited to. Bloomsbury (1904–1912) Gordon Square After their father's death, Vanessa and Adrian decided to sell 22 Hyde Park Gate in South Kensington and move toBloomsbury. This was a much cheaper area—they had not inherited much and were unsure about their finances. The Duckworth brothers did not join the Stephens in their new home; Gerald did not wish to, and George got married during the preparations, leaving to live with his new wife.Virginia lived in the house for brief periods in the autumn – she was sent away to Cambridge and Yorkshire for her health – and settled there permanently in December 1904. From March 1905 the Stephens began to entertain their brother Thoby's intellectual friends at Gordon Square. The circle, who were largely members of theCambridge Apostles, includedSaxon Sydney-Turner,Lytton Strachey,Clive BellandDesmond MacCarthy. Their social gatherings, referred to as \"Thursday evenings\", were a vision of recreating Trinity College.This circle formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle of writers and artists known as theBloomsbury Group.Later, it would includeJohn Maynard Keynes,Duncan Grant,E. M. Forster,Roger Fry, Leonard Woolf, andDavid Garnett. Virginia began teaching evening classes on a voluntary basis atMorley College, and would continue intermittently for the next two years. This work would later influence themes of class and education in her novelMrs Dalloway.She made some money from reviews, including some published in church paperThe Guardianand theNational Review, capitalising on her father's literary reputation in order to earn commissions. Vanessa added another event to their calendar with the \"Friday Club\", dedicated to the discussion of the fine arts.This introduced some new people into their circle, including Vanessa's friends from theRoyal Academy of ArtsandSlade School of Fine Art(where she had been studying),such asHenry LambandGwen Darwin, and also the eighteen-year-oldKatherine Laird (\"Ka\") Cox, who was about to attendNewnham College, Cambridge.Cox would become Virginia's intimate friend. These new members brought the Bloomsbury Group into contact with another, slightly younger, group of Cambridge intellectuals who Virginia would refer to as the \"Neo-Pagans\". The Friday Club continued until 1912 or 1913. In the autumn of 1906 the siblings travelled to Greece and Turkey with Violet Dickinson.During the trip Vanessa fell ill withappendicitis. Both Violet and Thoby contractedtyphoid fever; Thoby died on 20 November. Two days after Thoby's death, Vanessa accepted a previous proposal of marriage from Clive Bell.As a couple, their interest inavant-gardeart would have an important influence on Woolf's further development as an author. Fitzroy Square and Brunswick Square After Vanessa's marriage, Virginia and Adrian moved into 29Fitzroy Square, still very close to Gordon Square.The house had previously been occupied byGeorge Bernard Shaw, and the area had been populated by artists since the previous century. Duncan Grant lived there, and Roger Fry would move there in 1913.Virginia resented the wealth that Vanessa's marriage had given her; Virginia and Adrian lived more humbly by comparison. The siblings resumed the Thursday Club at their new home,while Gordon Square became the venue for a play-reading society.During this period, the group began to increasingly explore progressive ideas, with open discussions of members' homosexual inclinations, and nude dancing from Vanessa, who in 1910 went so far as to propose a libertarian society with sexual freedom for all. Virginia appears not to have shown interest in practising the group'sfree loveideology, finding an outlet for her sexual desires only in writing.Around this time she began work on her first novel,Melymbrosia, which eventually becameThe Voyage Out(1915). In November 1911 Virginia and Adrian moved to a larger house at 38Brunswick Square, and invited John Maynard Keynes, Duncan Grant and Leonard Woolf to become lodgers there.Virginia saw it as a new opportunity: \"We are going to try all kinds of experiments\", she toldOttoline Morrell.This arrangement for a single woman living among men was considered scandalous. Dreadnoughthoax Several members of the Bloomsbury Group attained notoriety in 1910 with theDreadnoughthoax, in which they posed as a royalAbyssinianentourage (with Virginia as \"Prince Mendax\") and received a tour of theHMS Dreadnoughtby Virginia's cousinCommander Fisher, who was not aware of the joke.Horace de Vere Cole, who had been one of the masterminds of the hoax along with Adrian, later leaked the story to the press and informed the Foreign Office, leading to general outrage from the establishment. Asham House (1911–1919) During the latter Bloomsbury years Virginia travelled frequently with friends and family, to Dorset and Cornwall as well as further afield to Paris, Italy and Bayreuth. These trips were intended to avoid her suffering exhaustion from extended periods in London.The question arose of Virginia needing a quiet country retreat close to London, for the sake of her still-fragile mental health.In the winter of 1910 she and Adrian stayed atLewesand started exploring the area of Sussex around the town.She soon found a property in nearbyFirle, which she named \"Little Talland House\"; she maintained a relationship with that area for the rest of her life, tending to spend her time either in Sussex or London. In September 1911 she and Leonard Woolf found Asham Housenearby, and Virginia and Vanessa took a joint lease on it.Located at the end of a tree-lined road, the house was in a Regency-Gothic style, \"flat, pale, serene, yellow-washed\", remote, without electricity or water and allegedly haunted.The sisters had two housewarming parties in January 1912. Virginia recorded the events of the weekends and holidays she spent there in herAsham Diary, part of which was later published asA Writer's Diaryin 1953. In terms of creative writing,The Voyage Outwas completed there, and much ofNight and Day.The house itself inspired the short story \"A Haunted House\", published inA Haunted House and Other Short Stories.Asham provided Woolf with much-needed relief from the pace of London life, and was where she found a happiness that she expressed in her diary on 5 May 1919: \"Oh, but how happy we've been at Asheham! It was a most melodious time. Everything went so freely; – but I can't analyse all the sources of my joy\". While at Asham, in 1916 Leonard and Virginia found a farmhouse to let about four miles away, which they thought would be ideal for her sister. Eventually, Vanessa came down to inspect it, and took possession in October of that year, as a summer home for her family. TheCharleston Farmhousewas to become the summer gathering place for the Bloomsbury Group. Marriage and war (1912–1920) Leonard Woolfwas one of Thoby Stephen's friends at Trinity College, Cambridge, and had encountered the Stephen sisters in Thoby's rooms while visiting forMay Weekbetween 1899 and 1904. He recalled that in \"white dresses and large hats, with parasols in their hands, their beauty literally took one's breath away\".In 1904 Leonard Woolf left Britain for a civil service position inCeylon,but returned for a year's leave in 1911 after letters from Lytton Strachey describing Virginia's beauty enticed him back.He and Virginia attended social engagements together, and he moved into Brunswick Square as a tenant in December of that year. Leonard proposed to Virginia on 11 January 1912.Initially she expressed reluctance, but the two continued courting. Leonard decided not to return to Ceylon and resigned his post. On 29 May Virginia declared her love for Leonard,and they married on 10 August atSt Pancras Town Hall. The couple spent their honeymoon first at Asham and theQuantock Hillsbefore travelling to the south of France and on to Spain and Italy. On their return they moved toClifford's Inn,and began to divide their time between London and Asham. Virginia Woolf had completed a penultimate draft of her first novelThe Voyage Outbefore her wedding, but undertook large-scale alterations to the manuscript between December 1912 and March 1913. The work was subsequently accepted by her half-brother Gerald Duckworth's publishing house, and she found the process of reading and correcting the proofs extremely emotionally difficult.This led to one of several breakdowns over the subsequent two years; Woolf attempted suicide on 9 September 1913 with an overdose ofVeronal, being saved with the help of Maynard Keynes' surgeon brotherGeoffrey Keyneswho drove Leonard toSt Bartholomew's Hospitalto fetch a stomach pump.Woolf's illness led to Duckworth delaying the publication ofThe Voyage Outuntil 26 March 1915. In the autumn of 1914 the couple moved to a house onRichmond Green,and in late March 1915 they moved to Hogarth House, also inRichmond, after which they namedtheir publishing housein 1917.The decision to move to London's suburbs was made for the sake of Woolf's health.Many of Woolf's circle of friends were against the war, and Woolf herself opposed it from a standpoint of pacifism and anti-censorship.Leonard was exempted from theintroduction of conscription in 1916on medical grounds.The Woolfs employed two servants at the recommendation ofRoger Fryin 1916; Lottie Hope worked for a number of other Bloomsbury Group members, andNellie Boxallwould stay with them until 1934. The Woolfs spent parts of the period of theFirst World Warin Asham, but were obliged by the owner to leave in 1919.\"In despair\" they purchased the Round House in Lewes, a converted windmill, for £300. No sooner had they bought the Round House, thanMonk's Housein nearbyRodmellcame up for auction, aweatherboardedhouse with oak-beamed rooms, said to date from the 15th or 16th century.The Woolfs sold the Round House and purchased Monk's House for £700.Monk's House also lacked running water, but came with an acre of garden, and had a view across the Ouse towards the hills of theSouth Downs. Leonard Woolf describes this view as being unchanged since the days ofChaucer.The Woolfs would retain Monk's House until the end of Virginia's life; it became their permanent home after their London home was bombed, and it was where she completedBetween the Actsin early 1941, which was followed by her final breakdown and suicide in the nearby River Ouse on 28 March. Further works (1920–1940) Memoir Club 1920 saw a postwar reconstitution of the Bloomsbury Group, under the title of theMemoir Club, which as the name suggests focussed on self-writing, in the manner ofProust'sA La Recherche, and inspired some of the more influential books of the 20th century. The Group, which had been scattered by the war, was reconvened byMary ('Molly') MacCarthywho called them \"Bloomsberries\", and operated under rules derived from theCambridge Apostles, an elite university debating society that a number of them had been members of. These rules emphasised candour and openness. Among the 125 memoirs presented, Virginia contributed three that were published posthumously in 1976, in the autobiographical anthologyMoments of Being. These were22 Hyde Park Gate(1921),Old Bloomsbury(1922) andAm I a Snob?(1936). Vita Sackville-West On 14 December 1922Woolf met the writer and gardenerVita Sackville-West,wife ofHarold Nicolson. This period was to prove fruitful for both authors, Woolf producing three novels,To the Lighthouse(1927),Orlando(1928), andThe Waves(1931) as well as a number of essays, including \"Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown\" (1924) and \"A Letter to a Young Poet\" (1932).The two women remained friends until Woolf's death in 1941. Virginia Woolf also remained close to her surviving siblings, Adrian and Vanessa. Further novels and non-fiction Between 1924 and 1940 the Woolfs returned to Bloomsbury, taking out a ten-year lease at 52Tavistock Square,from where they ran theHogarth Pressfrom the basement, where Virginia also had her writing room. 1925 saw the publication ofMrs Dallowayin May followed by her collapse while at Charleston in August. In 1927, her next novel,To the Lighthouse, was published, and the following year she lectured onWomen & Fictionat Cambridge University and publishedOrlandoin October. Her two Cambridge lectures then became the basis for her major essayA Room of One's Ownin 1929.Virginia wrote only one drama,Freshwater, based on her great-auntJulia Margaret Cameron, and produced at her sister's studio onFitzroy Streetin 1935. 1936 saw the publication ofThe Years, which had its origin in a lecture Woolf gave to the National Society for Women's Service in 1931, an edited version of which would later be published as \"Professions for Women\".Another collapse of her health followed the novel's completionThe Years. The Woolf's final residence in London was at 37Mecklenburgh Square(1939–1940), destroyed duringthe Blitzin September 1940; a month later their previous home on Tavistock Square was also destroyed. After that, they made Sussex their permanent home. Death After completing the manuscript of her last novel (posthumously published),Between the Acts(1941), Woolf fell into a depression similar to one which she had earlier experienced. The onset of the Second World War, the destruction of her London home duringthe Blitz, and the cool reception given toher biographyof her late friendRoger Fryall worsened her condition until she was unable to work.When Leonard enlisted in theHome Guard, Virginia disapproved. She held fast to herpacifismand criticised her husband for wearing what she considered to be \"the silly uniform of the Home Guard\". After the Second World War began, Woolf's diary indicates that she was obsessed with death, which figured more and more as her mood darkened.On 28 March 1941, Woolf drowned herself by walking into the fast-flowingRiver Ousenear her home, after placing a large stone in her pocket.Her body was not found until 18 April.Her husband buried her cremated remains beneath an elm tree in the garden ofMonk's House, their home inRodmell, Sussex. In her suicide note, addressed to her husband, she wrote: Dearest, I feel certain that I am going mad again. I feel we can't go through another of those terrible times. And I shan't recover this time. I begin to hear voices, and I can't concentrate. So I am doing what seems the best thing to do. You have given me the greatest possible happiness. You have been in every way all that anyone could be. I don't think two people could have been happier till this terrible disease came. I can't fight it any longer. I know that I am spoiling your life, that without me you could work. And you will I know. You see I can't even write this properly. I can't read. What I want to say is I owe all the happiness of my life to you. You have been entirely patient with me and incredibly good. I want to say that—everybody knows it. If anybody could have saved me it would have been you. Everything has gone from me but the certainty of your goodness. I can't go on spoiling your life any longer. I don't think two people could have been happier than we have been. V. Mental health Much examination has been made of Woolf's mental health. From the age of 13, following the death of her mother, Woolf suffered periodic mood swings.However,Hermione Leeasserts that Woolf was not \"mad\"; she was merely a woman who suffered from and struggled with illness for much of her life, a woman of \"exceptional courage, intelligence and stoicism\", who made the best use, and achieved the best understanding she could of that illness. Her mother's death in 1895, \"the greatest disaster that could happen\",precipitated a crisis for which their family doctor, Dr Seton, prescribed rest, stopping lessons and writing, and regular walks supervised by Stella.Yet just two years later, Stella too was dead, bringing on Virginia's first expressed wish for death at the age of fifteen. This was a scenario she would later recreate in \"Time Passes\" (To the Lighthouse, 1927). The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse, on 10 May, when she threw herself out a window and she was briefly institutionalisedunder the care of her father's friend, the eminent psychiatristGeorge Savage. She spent time recovering at the house of Stella's friend Violet Dickinson, and at her auntCaroline Emelia Stephen's house in Cambridge,and by January 1905, Savage considered her cured. Her brother Thoby's death in 1906 marked a \"decade of deaths\" that ended her childhood and adolescence. On Savage's recommendation, Virginia spent three short periods in 1910, 1912, and 1913 at Burley House at 15 Cambridge Park,Twickenham, described as \"a private nursing home for women with nervous disorder\" run by Miss Jean Thomas.By the end of February 1910, she was becoming increasingly restless, and Savage suggested being away from London. Vanessa rented Moat House, outside Canterbury, in June, but there was no improvement, so Savage sent her to Burley for a \"rest cure\". This involved partial isolation, deprivation of literature, and force-feeding,and after six weeks she was able to convalesce in Cornwall and Dorset during the autumn. She loathed the experience; writing to her sister on 28 July,she described how she found the religious atmosphere stifling and the institution ugly, and informed Vanessa that to escape \"I shall soon have to jump out of a window\".The threat of being sent back would later lead to her contemplating suicide.Despite her protests, Savage would refer her back in 1912 for insomnia and in 1913 for depression. On emerging from Burley House in September 1913, she sought further opinions from two other physicians on the 13th: Maurice Wright, andHenry Head, who had beenHenry James's physician. Both recommended she return to Burley House. Distraught, she returned home and attempted suicide by taking an overdose of 100grainsofveronal(a barbiturate) and nearly dying. On recovery, she went to Dalingridge Hall, George Duckworth's home inEast Grinstead, Sussex, to convalesce on 30 September,returning toAshamon 18 November. She remained unstable over the next two years, with another incident involving veronal that she claimed was an 'accident', and consulted another psychiatrist in April 1914,Maurice Craig, who explained that she was not sufficiently psychotic to be certified or committed to an institution. The rest of the summer of 1914 went better for her, and they moved to Richmond, but in February 1915, just asThe Voyage Outwas due to be published, she relapsed once more, and remained in poor health for most of that year.Then she began to recover, following 20 years of ill health.Nevertheless, there was a feeling among those around her that she was now permanently changed, and not for the better. Over the rest of her life, she suffered recurrent bouts of depression. In 1940, a number of factors appeared to overwhelm her. Her biography of Roger Fry had been published in July, and she had been disappointed in its reception. The horrors of war depressed her, and their London homes had been destroyed in the Blitz in September and October. Woolf had completedBetween the Acts(published posthumously in 1941) in November, and completing a novel was frequently accompanied by exhaustion.Her health became increasingly a matter of concern, culminating in her decision to end her life on 28 March 1941. She also suffered many physical ailments such as headache, back-ache, fevers and faints, which related closely to her psychological stress. These often lasted for weeks or even months, and impeded her work: \"What a gap! ... for 60 days; & those days spent in wearisome headache, jumping pulse, aching back, frets, fidgets, lying awake, sleeping draughts, sedatives,digitalis, going for a little walk, & plunging back into bed again.\" Though this instability would frequently affect her social life, she was able to continue her literary productivity with few interruptions throughout her life. Woolf herself provides not only a vivid picture of her symptoms in her diaries and letters, but also her response to the demons that haunted her and at times made her long for death:\"But it is always a question whether I wish to avoid these glooms... These 9 weeks give one a plunge into deep waters... One goes down into the well & nothing protects one from the assault of truth.\" Psychiatry had little to offer Woolf, but she recognised that writing was one of the behaviours that enabled her to cope with her illness:\"The only way I keep afloat... is by working... Directly I stop working I feel that I am sinking down, down. And as usual, I feel that if I sink further I shall reach the truth.\"Sinking under water was Woolf's metaphor for both the effects of depression and psychosis— but also for finding truth, and ultimately was her choice of death. Throughout her life, Woolf struggled, without success, to find meaning in her illness: on the one hand, an impediment, on the other, something she visualised as an essential part of who she was, and a necessary condition of her art.Her experiences informed her work, such as the character of Septimus Warren Smith inMrs Dalloway(1925), who, like Woolf, was haunted by the dead, and ultimately takes his own life rather than be admitted to a sanitorium. Leonard Woolf relates how during the 30 years they were married, they consulted many doctors in theHarley Streetarea, and although they were given a diagnosis ofneurasthenia, he felt they had little understanding of the causes or nature. The proposed solution was simple—as long as she lived a quiet life without any physical or mental exertion, she was well. On the other hand, any mental, emotional, or physical strain resulted in a reappearance of her symptoms, beginning with a headache, followed by insomnia and thoughts that started to race. Her remedy was simple: to retire to bed in a darkened room, following which the symptoms slowly subsided. Modern scholars, including her nephew and biographer,Quentin Bell,have suggested her breakdowns and subsequent recurring depressive periods were influenced by the sexual abuse which she and her sister Vanessa were subjected to by their half-brothersGeorgeandGerald Duckworth(which Woolf recalls in her autobiographical essays \"A Sketch of the Past\" and \"22 Hyde Park Gate\"). Biographers point out that when Stella died in 1897, there was no counterbalance to control George's predation, and his nighttime prowling.\"22 Hyde Park Gate\" ends with the sentence \"The old ladies of Kensington and Belgravia never knew that George Duckworth was not only father and mother, brother and sister to those poor Stephen girls; he was their lover also.\" It is likely that other factors also played a part. It has been suggested that they includegenetic predisposition.Virginia's father, Leslie Stephen, suffered from depression, and her half-sister Laura was institutionalised. Many of Virginia's symptoms, including persistent headache, insomnia, irritability, and anxiety, resembled those of her father's.Another factor is the pressure she placed upon herself in her work; for instance, her breakdown of 1913 was at least partly triggered by the need to finishThe Voyage Out. Virginia herself hinted that her illness was related to how she saw the repressed position of women in society when she wroteA Room of One's Own.in a 1930 letter toEthel Smyth: As an experience, madness is terrific I can assure you, and not to be sniffed at; and in its lava I still find most of the things I write about. It shoots out of one everything shaped, final, not in mere driblets, as sanity does. And the six months—not three—that I lay in bed taught me a good deal about what is called oneself. Thomas Caramagnoand others,in discussing her illness, oppose the \"neurotic-genius\" way of looking at mental illness, where creativity and mental illness are conceptualised as linked rather than antithetical.Stephen Trombleydescribes Woolf as having a confrontational relationship with her doctors, and possibly being a woman who is a \"victim of male medicine\", referring to the lack of understanding, particularly at the time, about mental illness. Sexuality The Bloomsbury Group held very progressive views regarding sexuality and rejected the austere strictness of Victorian society. The majority of its members were homosexual or bisexual. Woolf had several affairs with women, the most notable being withVita Sackville-West. The two women developed a deep connection; Vita was arguably one of the few people in Virginia's adult life that she was truly close to. told Ethel that she only really loved three people: Leonard, Vanessa, and myself, which annoyed Ethel but pleased me – Vita Sackville-West's letter to husband Harold Nicolson, dated 28 September 1939 During their relationship, both women saw the peak of their literary careers, with the titular protagonist of Woolf's acclaimedOrlando: A Biographybeing inspired by Sackville-West. The pair remained lovers for a decade and stayed close friends for the rest of Woolf's life.Woolf had said to Sackville-West she disliked masculinity. dislikes the possessiveness and love of domination in men. In fact she dislikes the quality of masculinity ; says that women stimulate her imagination, by their grace & their art of life – Vita Sackville-West's diary, dated 26 September 1928 Among her other notable affairs were those withSibyl Colefax,Lady Ottoline Morrell, andMary Hutchinson.Some surmise that she may have fallen in love with Madge Symonds, the wife of one of her uncles.Madge Symonds was described as one of Woolf's early loves in Sackville-West's diary.She also fell in love with Violet Dickinson, although there is some confusion as to whether the two consummated their relationship. Virginia initially declined marriage proposals from her future husband, Leonard. She even went so far as to tell him that she was not physically attracted to him, but later declared that she did love him, and eventually agreed to marriage.Woolf preferred female lovers to male lovers, and did not seem to be sexually attracted to men. This aversion may have been connected to her experiences of sexual abuse as a child. I sometimes think that if I married you, I could have everything—and then—is it the sexual side of it that comes between us? As I told you brutally the other day, I feel no physical attraction in you. –Letter to Leonard from Virginia dated May 1, 1912 Leonard became the love of her life. Although their sexual relationship was questionable, they loved each other deeply and formed a strong and supportive marriage that led to the formation of their publishing house as well as several of her writings. Though Virginia had affairs with and attractions to women during their marriage, both she and Leonard maintained a mutual love and respect for one another. Work Woolf is considered to be one of the most important 20th-century novelists.Amodernist, she was one of the pioneers of usingstream of consciousnessas anarrative device, alongside contemporaries such asMarcel Proust,Dorothy RichardsonandJames Joyce.Woolf's reputation was at its greatest during the 1930s, but declined considerably following the Second World War. The growth offeminist criticismin the 1970s helped re-establish her reputation. Virginia submitted her first article in 1890, to a competition inTit-Bits. Although it was rejected, this shipboard romance by the 8-year-old would presage her first novel 25 years later, as would contributions to theHyde Park News, such as the model letter \"to show young people the right way to express what is in their hearts\", a subtle commentary on her mother's legendary matchmaking.She transitioned from juvenilia to professional journalism in 1904 at the age of 22. Violet Dickinson introduced her toKathleen Lyttelton, the editor of theWomen's SupplementofThe Guardian, a Church of England newspaper. Invited to submit a 1,500-word article, Virginia sent Lyttelton a review ofWilliam Dean Howells'The Son of Royal Langbirthand an essay about her visit toHaworththat year,Haworth, November 1904.The review was published anonymously on 4 December, and the essay on the 21st.In 1905, Woolf began writing forThe Times Literary Supplement. Woolf would go on to publish novels and essays as a public intellectual to both critical and popular acclaim. Much of her work was self-published through theHogarth Press. \"Virginia Woolf's peculiarities as a fiction writer have tended to obscure her central strength: she is arguably the majorlyricalnovelist in the English language. Her novels are highly experimental: a narrative, frequently uneventful and commonplace, is refracted—and sometimes almost dissolved—in the characters' receptive consciousness. Intense lyricism and stylistic virtuosity fuse to create a world overabundant with auditory and visual impressions.\"\"The intensity of Virginia Woolf's poetic vision elevates the ordinary, sometimes banal settings\"—often wartime environments—\"of most of her novels.\" Though at least one biography of Virginia Woolf appeared in her lifetime, the first authoritative study of her life was published in 1972 by her nephew Quentin Bell.Hermione Lee's 1996 biographyVirginia Woolfprovides a thorough and authoritative examination of Woolf's life and work, which she discussed in an interview in 1997.In 2001,Louise DeSalvoand Mitchell A. Leaska editedThe Letters of Vita Sackville-West and Virginia Woolf. Julia Briggs'sVirginia Woolf: An Inner Life(2005) focuses on Woolf's writing, including her novels and her commentary on the creative process, to illuminate her life. The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu also uses Woolf's literature to understand and analyse gender domination. Woolf biographerGillian Gillnotes that Woolf's traumatic experience of sexual abuse by her half-brothers during her childhood influenced her advocacy of protection of vulnerable children from similar experiences.Biljana Dojčinovićhas discussed the issues surrounding translations of Woolf to Serbian as a \"border-crossing\". Themes Woolf's fiction has been studied for its insight into many themes including war, shell shock, witchcraft, and the role of social class in contemporary modern British society.In the postwarMrs Dalloway(1925), Woolf addresses the moral dilemma of war and its effectsand provides an authentic voice for soldiers returning from the First World War, suffering from shell shock, in the person of Septimus Smith.InA Room of One's Own(1929) Woolf equates historical accusations of witchcraft with creativity and genius among women \"When, however, one reads of a witch being ducked, of a woman possessed by devils...then I think we are on the track of a lost novelist, a suppressed poet, of some mute and inglorious Jane Austen\".Throughout her work Woolf tried to evaluate the degree to which her privileged backgroundframedthe lens through which she viewed class.She both examined her own position as someone who would be considered an elitist snob, but attacked the class structure of Britain as she found it. In her 1936 essayAm I a Snob?she examined her values and those of the privileged circle she existed in. She concluded she was, and subsequent critics and supporters have tried to deal with the dilemma of being both elite and a social critic. The sea is a recurring motif in Woolf's work. Noting Woolf's early memory of listening to waves break in Cornwall, Katharine Smyth writes inThe Paris Reviewthat \"the radiance cresting water would be consecrated again and again in her writing, saturating not only essays, diaries, and letters but alsoJacob's Room,The Waves, andTo the Lighthouse.\"Patrizia A. Muscogiuri explains that \"seascapes, sailing, diving and the sea itself are aspects of nature and of human beings' relationship with it which frequently inspired Virginia Woolf's writing.\"This trope is deeply embedded in her texts' structure and grammar; James Antoniou notes inSydney Morning Heraldhow \"Woolf made a virtue of thesemicolon, the shape and function of which resembles the wave, her most famous motif.\" Despite the considerable conceptual difficulties, given Woolf's idiosyncratic use of language,her works have been translated into over 50 languages.Some writers, such as the BelgianMarguerite Yourcenar, had rather tense encounters with her, while others, such as the ArgentinianJorge Luis Borges, produced versions that were highly controversial. Drama Virginia Woolf researched the life of her great-aunt, the photographerJulia Margaret Cameron, publishing her findings in an essay titled \"Pattledom\" (1925),and later in her introduction to her 1926 edition of Cameron's photographs.She had begun work on a play based on an episode in Cameron's life in 1923, but abandoned it. Finally it was performed on 18 January 1935 at the studio of her sister,Vanessa Bellon Fitzroy Street in 1935.Woolf directed it herself, and the cast were mainly members of the Bloomsbury Group, including herself.Freshwateris a short three act comedy satirising theVictorian era, only performed once in Woolf's lifetime. Beneath the comedic elements, there is an exploration of both generational change and artistic freedom. Both Cameron and Woolf fought against the class and gender dynamics of Victorianismand the play shows links to bothTo the LighthouseandA Room of One's Ownthat would follow. Non-fiction Woolf wrote a body of autobiographical work and more than 500 essays and reviews,some of which, likeA Room of One's Own(1929) were of book length. Not all were published in her lifetime. Shortly after her death, Leonard Woolf produced an edited edition of unpublished essays titledThe Moment and other Essays, published by the Hogarth Press in 1947. Many of these were originally lectures that she gave,and several more volumes of essays followed, such asThe Captain's Death Bed: and other essays(1950). A Room of One's Own Among Woolf's non-fiction works, one of the best known isA Room of One's Own(1929), a book-length essay. Considered a key work of feminist literary criticism, it was written following two lectures she delivered on \"Women and Fiction\" at Cambridge University the previous year. In it, she examines the historical disempowerment women have faced in many spheres, including social, educational and financial. One of her more famous dicta is contained within the book \"A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction\". Much of her argument (\"to show you how I arrived at this opinion about the room and the money\") is developed through the \"unsolved problems\" of women and fiction writing to arrive at her conclusion, although she claimed that was only \"an opinion upon one minor point\".In doing so, she states a good deal about the nature of women and fiction, employing a quasi-fictional style as she examines where women writers failed because of lack of resources and opportunities, examining along the way the experiences of theBrontës,George EliotandGeorge Sand, as well as the fictional character ofShakespeare's sister, equipped with the same genius but not position. She contrasted these women who accepted a deferential status withJane Austen, who wrote entirely as a woman. Hogarth Press Virginia had taken up book-binding as a pastime in October 1901, at the age of 19.The Woolfs had been discussing setting up a publishing house for some time – Leonard intended for it to give Virginia a rest from the strain of writing, and therefore help her fragile mental health. Additionally, publishing her works under their own outfit would save her from the stress of submitting her work to an external company, which contributed to her breakdown during the process of publishing her first novelThe Voyage Out.The Woolfs obtained their own hand-printing press in April 1917 and set it up on their dining room table at Hogarth House, thus beginning theHogarth Press. The first publication wasTwo Storiesin July 1917, consisting of \"The Mark on the Wall\" by Virginia Woolf (which has been described as \"Woolf's first foray into modernism\") and \"Three Jews\" by Leonard Woolf. The accompanying illustrations byDora Carringtonwere a success, leading Virginia to remark that the press was \"specially good at printing pictures, and we see that we must make a practice of always having pictures.\" The process took two and a half months with a production run of 150 copies.Other short short stories followed, includingKew Gardens(1919) with awoodblockby Vanessa Bell asfrontispiece.Subsequently Bell added further illustrations, adorning each page of the text. Unlike its contemporary small printers, who specialised in expensive artisanal reprints, the Woolfs concentrated on living avant-garde authors,and over the subsequent five years printed works by a number of authors includingKatherine Mansfield,T.S. Eliot,E. M. Forster, Clive Bell and Roger Fry. They also produced translations of Russian works withS. S. Koteliansky, and the first translation of the complete works ofSigmund Freud.They acquired a larger press in 1921 and began to sell directly to booksellers.In 1938 Virginia sold her share of the company toJohn Lehmann,who had started working for Hogarth Press seven years previously.The Press eventually became Leonard's only source of income, but his association with it ended in 1946, after publishing 527 titles, and Hogarth is now an imprint ofPenguin Random House. The Press also produced explicitly political works. Pamphlets had fallen out of fashion due to the high production costs and low revenue, but the Hogarth Press produced several series on contemporary issues of international politics, challenging colonialism and critiquing Soviet Russia and Italian fascism.The Woolfs also published political fiction, includingTurbott Wolfe(1926) byWilliam PlomerandIn a Province(1934) byLaurens van der Post, which concern South African racial policies and revolutionary movements respectively.Virginia Woolf saw a link between international politics and feminism, publishing a biography of Indian feminist activistSaroj Nalini Duttand the memoirs ofsuffragetteElizabeth Robins.Scholar Ursula McTaggart argues that the Hogarth Press shaped and represented Woolf's later concept of an \"Outsiders' Society\", a non-organised group of women who would resist \"the patriarchal fascism of war and nationalism\" by exerting influence through private actions, as described inThree Guineas. In this view, the readers and authors form a loose network, with the Press providing the means to exchange ideas. Influences Michel Lackey argues that a major influence on Woolf, from 1912 onward, was Russian literature and Woolf adopted many of its aesthetic conventions.The style ofFyodor Dostoyevskywith his depiction of a fluid mind in operation helped to influence Woolf's writings about a \"discontinuous writing process\", though Woolf objected to Dostoyevsky's obsession with \"psychological extremity\" and the \"tumultuous flux of emotions\" in his characters together with his right-wing, monarchist politics as Dostoyevsky was an ardent supporter of the autocracy of theRussian Empire.In contrast to her objections to Dostoyevsky's \"exaggerated emotional pitch\", Woolf found much to admire in the work ofAnton ChekhovandLeo Tolstoy.Woolf admired Chekhov for his stories of ordinary people living their lives, doing banal things and plots that had no neat endings.From Tolstoy, Woolf drew lessons about how a novelist should depict a character's psychological state and the interior tension within.Lackey notes that, fromIvan Turgenev, Woolf drew the lessons that there are multiple \"I's\" when writing a novel, and the novelist needed to balance those multiple versions of him- or herself to balance the \"mundane facts\" of a story vs. the writer's overarching vision, which required a \"total passion\" for art. The American writerHenry David Thoreaualso influenced Woolf. In a 1917 essay, she praised Thoreau for his statement \"The millions are awake enough for physical labor, but only one in hundreds of millions is awake enough to a poetic or divine life. To be awake is to be alive.\" They both aimed to capture 'the moment'––as Walter Pater says, \"to burn always with this hard, gem-like flame.\"Woolf praised Thoreau for his \"simplicity\" in finding \"a way for setting free the delicate and complicated machinery of the soul\".Like Thoreau, Woolf believed that it was silence that set the mind free to really contemplate and understand the world.Both authors believed in a certain transcendental, mystical approach to life and writing, where even banal things could be capable of generating deep emotions if one had enough silence and the presence of mind to appreciate them.Woolf and Thoreau were both concerned with the difficulty of human relationships in the modern age. Woolf's preface toOrlandocreditsDaniel Defoe,Sir Thomas Browne,Laurence Sterne,Sir Walter Scott,Lord Macaulay,Emily Brontë,Thomas de Quincey, andWalter Pateras influences.Among her contemporaries, Woolf was influenced byMarcel Proust, writing toRoger Fry, \"Oh if I could write like that!\" Virginia Woolf and her mother The intense scrutiny of Virginia Woolf's literary output has led to speculation as to her mother's influence, including psychoanalytic studies of mother and daughter.Her memories of her mother are memories of an obsession,starting with her first major breakdown on her mother's death in 1895, the loss having a profound lifelong effect.In many ways, her mother's profound influence on Virginia Woolf is conveyed in the latter's recollections, \"there she is; beautiful, emphatic ... closer than any of the living are, lighting our random lives as with a burning torch, infinitely noble and delightful to her children\". Woolf's understanding of her mother and family evolved considerably between 1907 and 1940, in which the somewhat distant, yet revered figure, becomes more nuanced and complete.She described her mother as an \"invisible presence\" in her life, and Ellen Rosenman argues that the mother-daughter relationship is a constant in Woolf's writing.She describes how Woolf'smodernismneeds to be viewed in relationship to her ambivalence towards her Victorian mother, the centre of the former's female identity, and her voyage to her own sense of autonomy. To Woolf, \"Saint Julia\" was both a martyr whose perfectionism was intimidating and a source of deprivation, by her absences real and virtual and premature death.Julia's influence and memory pervades Woolf's life and work. \"She has haunted me\", she wrote. Historical feminism According to the 2007 bookFeminism: From Mary Wollstonecraft to Betty Friedanby Bhaskar A. Shukla, \"Recently, studies of Virginia Woolf have focused on feminist and lesbian themes in her work, such as in the 1997 collection of critical essays,Virginia Woolf: Lesbian Readings, edited by Eileen Barrett and Patricia Cramer.\"In 1928, Woolf took a grassroots approach to informing and inspiring feminism. She addressed undergraduate women at the ODTAA Society atGirton College, Cambridge, and the Arts Society at Newnham College, with two papers that eventually becameA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf's best-known nonfiction works,A Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938), examine the difficulties that female writers and intellectuals faced because men held disproportionate legal and economic power, as well as the future of women in education and society.InThe Second Sex(1949),Simone de Beauvoircounts, of all women who ever lived, only three female writers—Emily Brontë, Woolf and \"sometimes\"Katherine Mansfield— have explored \"the given\". Views In her lifetime, Woolf was outspoken on many topics that were considered controversial, some of which are now considered progressive, others regressive.She was an ardentfeministat a time when women's rights were barely recognised, andanti-colonialist, anti-imperialist and apacifistwhenchauvinismwas popular. On the other hand, she has been criticised for views on class and race in her private writings and published works. Like many of her contemporaries, some of her writing is now considered offensive. As a result, she is considered polarising, a revolutionary feminist and socialist hero or a purveyor ofhate speech. Works such asA Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938) are frequently taught as icons of feminist literature in courses that would be very critical of some of her views expressed elsewhere.She has also been the recipient of considerablehomophobicandmisogynistcriticism. Humanist views Virginia Woolf was born into a non-religious family and is regarded, along with fellow members of the Bloomsbury groupE. M. ForsterandG. E. Moore, as ahumanist. Both her parents were prominentagnostic atheists. Her father,Leslie Stephen, had become famous in polite society for his writings which expressed and publicised reasons to doubt the veracity of religion. Stephen was also President of theWest London Ethical Society, an earlyhumanistorganisation, and helped to found theUnion of Ethical Societiesin 1896. Woolf's mother,Julia Stephen, wrote the bookAgnostic Women(1880), which argued that agnosticism (defined here as something more like atheism) could be a highly moral approach to life. Woolf was a critic of Christianity. In a letter toEthel Smyth, she gave a scathing denunciation of the religion, seeing it as self-righteous \"egotism\" and stating \"my Jew has more religion in one toenail—more human love, in one hair\".Woolf stated in her private letters that she thought of herself as an atheist. She thought there were no Gods; no one was to blame; and so she evolved this atheist's religion of doing good for the sake of goodness. Controversies Hermione Leecites a number of extracts from Woolf's writings that many, including Lee, would consider offensive, and these criticisms can be traced back as far as those ofWyndham LewisandQ. D. Leavisin the 1920s and 1930s.Other authors provide more nuanced contextual interpretations, and stress the complexity of her character and the apparent inherent contradictions in analysing her apparent flaws.She could certainly be off-hand, rude and even cruel in her dealings with other authors, translators and biographers, such as her treatment ofRuth Gruber.Some authors, includingDavid Daiches, Brenda Silver, Alison Light and otherpostcolonialfeminists, dismiss her (and modernist authors in general) as privileged, elitist,classist, racist, andantisemitic. Woolf's tendentious expressions, including prejudicial feelings against disabled people, have often been the topic of academic criticism: The first quotation is from a diary entry of September 1920 and runs: \"The fact is the lower classes are detestable.\" The remainder follow the first in reproducing stereotypes standard to upper-class and upper-middle class life in the early 20th century: \"imbeciles should certainly be killed\"; \"Jews\" are greasy; a \"crowd\" is both an ontological \"mass\" and is, again, \"detestable\"; \"Germans\" are akin to vermin; some \"baboon faced intellectuals\" mix with \"sad green dressed negroes and negresses, looking like chimpanzees\" at a peace conference; Kensington High St. revolts one's stomach with its innumerable \"women of incredible mediocrity, drab as dishwater\". Antisemitism Often accused ofantisemitism,the treatment ofJudaismandJewsby Woolf is far from straightforward.She was happily married to an irreligious Jewish man (Leonard Woolf) who had no connection with or knowledge of his people while she generally characterised Jewish characters with negative stereotypes. For instance, she described some of the Jewish characters in her work in terms that suggested they were physically repulsive or dirty. On the other hand, she could criticise her own views: \"How I hated marrying a Jew — how I hated their nasal voices and their oriental jewellery, and their noses and their wattles — what a snob I was: for they have immense vitality, and I think I like that quality best of all\" (Letter to Ethel Smyth 1930).These attitudes have been construed to reflect, not so much antisemitism, but social status; she married outside her social class. Leonard, \"a penniless Jew from Putney\", lacked the material status of the Stephens and their circle. While travelling on a cruise to Portugal, she protested at finding \"a great manyPortuguese Jewson board, and other repulsive objects, but we keep clear of them\".Furthermore, she wrote in her diary: \"I do not like the Jewish voice; I do not like the Jewish laugh.\" Her 1938 short story, written during Hitler's rule, \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" (originally titled \"The Duchess and the Jew\") has been considered antisemitic. Some believe that Woolf and her husband Leonard came to despise and fear the 1930s'fascismand antisemitism. Her 1938 bookThree Guineaswas an indictment of fascism and what Woolf described as a recurring propensity amongpatriarchalsocieties to enforce repressive societal mores by violence.And yet, her 1938 story \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" was so deeply hateful in its depiction of Jews thatHarper's Bazaarasked her to modify it before publication; she reluctantly complied. Legacy Virginia Woolf is known for her contributions to 20th-century literature and her essays, as well as the influence she has had on literary, particularly feminist criticism. A number of authors have stated that their work was influenced by her, includingMargaret Atwood,Michael Cunningham,Gabriel García Márquez,andToni Morrison.Her iconic imageis instantly recognisable from the Beresford portrait of her at twenty (at the top of this page) to the Beck and Macgregor portrait in her mother's dress inVogueat 44 (seeFry (1913)) orMan Ray's cover ofTimemagazine (seeRay (1937)) at 55.More postcards of Woolf are sold by theNational Portrait Gallery, London than of any other person.Her image is ubiquitous, and can be found on products ranging from tea towels to T-shirts. Virginia Woolf is studied around the world, with organisations devoted to her, such as the Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain,and The Virginia Woolf Society of Japan.In addition, trusts—such as the Asham Trust—encourage writers in her honour. Monuments and memorials In 2013, Woolf was honoured by her alma mater of King's College London with the opening of the Virginia Woolf Building onKingsway,together with an exhibit depicting her accompanied by the quotation \"London itself perpetually attracts, stimulates, gives me a play & a story & a poem\" from her 1926 diary.Busts of Virginia Woolf have been erected at her home in Rodmell, Sussex and at Tavistock Square, London, where she lived between 1924 and 1939. In 2014, she was one of the inaugural honorees in theRainbow Honor Walk, awalk of fameinSan Francisco'sCastro neighbourhoodnotingLGBTQpeople who have \"made significant contributions in their fields\". A campaign was launched in 2018 to erect a statue of Woolf in Richmond-upon-Thames, where she lived for 10 years.In November 2022 the statue, created by sculptor Laury Dizengremel, was unveiled. It depicts Woolf on a bench overlooking the River Thames, and is the first full-size statue of Woolf. Portrayals Adaptations Selected works Woolf's most notable works include the following. Novels Essays and essay collections Other Notes References Bibliography Books and theses Biography: Virginia Woolf Mental health Biography: Other Literary commentary Bloomsbury Chapters and contributions Articles Journals Dictionaries and encyclopaedias Newspapers and magazines Websites and documents British Library Virginia Woolf's homes and venues Images Audiovisual media By Woolf Novels Short stories Essays Essay collections Contributions Autobiographical writing Diaries and notebooks Letters External links Written works Archival material Audio media Visual media" ]

[ "List of modernist writers Literary modernismhas its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America. Modernism is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional styles of poetry and prose. Modernists experimented with literary form and expression, adhering toEzra Pound's maxim to \"Make it new\".The modernist literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of their time.It is debatable when the modernist literary movement began, though some have chosen 1910 as roughly marking the beginning and quotenovelistVirginia Woolf, who declared that human nature underwent a fundamental change \"on or about December 1910.\"But modernism was already stirring by 1899, with works such asJoseph Conrad's (1857–1924)Heart of Darkness, whileAlfred Jarry's (1873–1907)absurdistplay,Ubu Roiappeared even earlier, in 1896.Knut Hamsun's (1859–1952)Hunger(1890) is a groundbreaking modernist novel", "modernist novel andMysteries(1892) pioneers moderniststream of consciousnessmethod. When modernism ends is debatable. ThoughThe Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literaturesees Modernism ending by c.1939,with regard to British and American literature, \"When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred\".Clement Greenberg sees Modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts.In fact many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally speaking they were no longer producing major works. The termlate modernismis also sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930.Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 wereWallace Stevens,Gottfried Benn,T. S. Eliot,Anna Akhmatova,William Faulkner,Dorothy Richardson,John Cowper Powys, andEzra Pound.Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poemBriggflattsin 1965.", "1965. In additionHermann Broch'sThe Death of Virgilwas published in 1945 andThomas Mann'sDoctor Faustusin 1947.Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a \"later modernist\".Beckett is a writer with roots in theexpressionisttradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, includingMolloy(1951),En attendant Godot(1953),Happy Days(1961),Rockaby(1981). The poetsCharles Olson(1910-1970) andJ. H. Prynne(1936- ) are, amongst other writing in the second half of the 20th century, who have been described as late modernists. The following is a list of significant modernist writers: References See also", "James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce(2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet andliterary critic. He contributed to themodernistavant-gardemovement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novelUlysses(1922) is a landmark in which the episodes ofHomer'sOdysseyare paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularlystream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collectionDubliners(1914), and the novelsA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man(1916) andFinnegans Wake(1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism. Joyce was born inDublininto a middle-class family. He attended the JesuitClongowes Wood Collegein County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers–runO'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the JesuitBelvedere Collegeand graduated fromUniversity College Dublinin", "College Dublinin 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife,Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked inPulaand then moved toTriesteinAustria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce resided there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poemsChamber Musicand his short story collectionDubliners, and he began serially publishingA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the English magazineThe Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived inZürich, Switzerland, and worked onUlysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920, which became his primary residence until 1940. Ulysseswas first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when", "the mid-1930s, when publication finally became legal. Joyce started his next major work,Finnegans Wake, in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939. Between these years, Joyce travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1931. He made a number of trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter,Lucia. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zürich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer, at age 58. Ulyssesfrequently ranks high in lists of great books, and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use ofinterior monologue,wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his", "spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there.Ulyssesin particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city. Joyce is quoted as saying, \"For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal.\" Early life Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square,Rathgar,Dublin, Ireland,toJohn Stanislaus Joyceand Mary Jane \"May\" (néeMurray). He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised with the nameJames Augustine Joyceaccording to therites of the Roman Catholic Churchin the nearby St Joseph's Church inTerenureon 5 February 1882 by Rev. John O'Mulloy.His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.John Stanislaus Joyce's family came fromFermoyinCounty Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James", "grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties inCork City. Ellen's family claimed kinship with the political leaderDaniel O'Connell, who had helped secureCatholic emancipationfor the Irish in 1829. Joyce's father was appointed rate collector byDublin Corporationin 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town ofBray, 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelongfear of dogs.He later developed afear of thunderstorms,which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath. In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem \"Et Tu, Healy\" on the death ofCharles Stewart Parnellthat his father printed and distributed to friends.The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce,who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by theIrish Catholic Church, theIrish Parliamentary Party, and theBritish Liberal Partythat", "Liberal Partythat resulted in a collaborative failure to secureIrish Home Rulein theBritish Parliament.This sense of betrayal, particularly by the church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art. That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.John Joyce's name was published inStubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension. Joyce began his education in 1888 atClongowes Wood College, aJesuitboarding school nearClane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.He studied at home and briefly attended theChristian Brothers O'Connell Schoolon North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priestJohn Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brotherStanislausto attend the Jesuits' Dublin", "the Jesuits' Dublin school,Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected by his peers to join theSodality of Our Lady.Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in theRatio Studiorum(Plan of Studies).He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two yearsbefore graduating in 1898. University years Joyce enrolled atUniversity Collegein 1898 to study English, French and Italian.While there, he was exposed to thescholasticismofThomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, most notably,George Clancy,Tom KettleandFrancis Sheehy-Skeffington.Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.His first publication—a laudatory review ofHenrik Ibsen'sWhen We", "Ibsen'sWhen We Dead Awaken—was printed inThe Fortnightly Reviewin 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegianand wrote a play,A Brilliant Career,which he later destroyed. In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) inClontarf, Dublin.During this year he became friends withOliver St. John Gogarty,the model forBuck MulliganinUlysses.In November, Joyce wrote an article,The Day of the Rabblement, criticising theIrish Literary Theatrefor its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen,Leo Tolstoy, andGerhart Hauptmann.He protested against nostalgic Irishpopulismand argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.Because he mentionedGabriele D'Annunzio's novelIl fuoco(The Flame),which was on theRoman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and", "print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed.Arthur Griffithdecried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaperUnited Irishman. Joyce graduated from theRoyal University of Irelandin October 1902. He considered studying medicineand began attending lectures at theCatholic University Medical Schoolin Dublin.When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.By the end of January 1903, he had given up plans to study medicinebut he stayed in Paris, often reading late in theBibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,appealing for money his family could ill-afford. Post-university years in Dublin In April 1903, Joyce learned his", "Joyce learned his mother was dyingand immediately returned to Ireland.He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novelStephen Hero.During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make hisconfessionand to takecommunion.She died on 13 August.Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books. Joyce's life began to change when he metNora Barnacleon 10 June 1904. She was a twenty-year-old woman fromGalway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,walking through the Dublin suburb ofRingsend, where Nora masturbated him.This event was commemorated as the date for the action", "date for the action ofUlysses, known in popular culture as \"Bloomsday\" in honour of the novel's main characterLeopold Bloom.This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been carousing with his colleagues,approached a young woman inSt Stephen's Greenand was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist ofUlysses. Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in theFeis Ceoil,an Irishmusic competitionfor promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.For", "of his books.For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had tosight readthe third, he refused.Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.After the contest, Palmieri wrote Joyce thatLuigi Denza, the composer of the popular song \"Funiculì, Funiculà\" who was the judge for the contest,spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.Although Joyce did not ultimately pursue a singing career, he would include thousands of musical allusions in his literary works. Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examiningaestheticscalledA Portrait of the Artist,but it was rejected by the", "was rejected by the intellectual journalDana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he calledStephen Herothat he labored over for years but eventually abandoned.He wrote a satirical poem called \"The Holy Office\",which parodiedW. B. Yeats's poem \"To Ireland in the Coming Times\"and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.It too was rejected for publication; this time for being \"unholy\".He wrote the collection of poemsChamber Musicat this time;which was also rejected.He did publish three poems, one inDanaand two inThe Speaker,andGeorge William Russellpublished three of Joyce's short stories in theIrish Homestead. These stories—\"The Sisters\", \"Eveline\", and \"After the Race\"—were the beginnings ofDubliners. In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into aMartello towernear Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans", "night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.With the help of funds fromLady Gregoryand a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later. 1904–1906: Zürich, Pula and Trieste Zürich and Pula In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure fundsbefore heading on toZürich. Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at theBerlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.The director of the school sent Joyce on toTrieste,which was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empireuntil the First World War.There was no vacancy there either.The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him inPola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,where he mainly taught English to naval officers.Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.Joyce soon became", "soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story forDubliners, \"Clay\", and worked on his novelStephen Hero.He disliked Pola, calling it a \"back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia\",and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste. First stay in Trieste Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.That June he published the satirical poem \"Holy Office\".After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,on 27 July 1905,He convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and attained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis. During this period Joyce completing", "Joyce completing 24 chapters ofStephen Heroand all but the final story ofDubliners,but was unable to getDublinerspublished. Although the London publisherGrant Richardshad a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement. Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.Although he would temporarily stay in Rome, travel to Dublin and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for himand played an important role in his development as a writer.He completedDubliners,reworkedStephen HerointoA Portrait of the", "Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published playExilesand decided to makeUlyssesa full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings,working out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced byFuturism.There are even words of the Triestine dialect inFinnegans Wake.Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and would later draw on it in creating the liturgical parodies inUlysses. 1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin Rome In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher forDubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence", "a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July. Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,but it had a large impact on his writing.Though his new job took up most of his time, he revisedDublinersand worked onStephen Hero.Rome was the birthplace of the idea for \"The Dead\", which would become the final story ofDubliners,and forUlysses,which was originally conceived as a short story.His stay in the city was one of his inspirations forExiles.While there, he read the socialist historianGuglielmo Ferreroin depth.Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jewswould find their way intoUlysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.In London,Elkin MathewspublishedChamber Musicon the recommendation of the British poetArthur Symons.Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he", "and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.He left Rome after only seven months. Second stay in Trieste Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen nameItalo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.Joyce learned much of what he knew aboutJudaismfrom him.The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block withA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaperPiccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italianirredentistsin Trieste. He indirectly", "He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures at Trieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,as well as onWilliam Shakespeare's playHamlet. In May, Joyce was struck by an attack ofrheumatic fever,which left him incapacitated for weeks.The illness exacerbatedeye problemsthat plagued him for the rest of his life.While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.During his convalescence, he was able to finish \"The Dead\", the last story ofDubliners. Although a heavy drinker,Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.He reworkedStephen Heroas the more concise and interiorA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by Apriland translatedJohn Millington Synge'sRiders to the Seainto Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.He even took singing lessons again.Joyce had been looking for an English publisher", "English publisher forDublinersbut was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned byGeorge Roberts. Visits to Dublin In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at hisalma mater, which had become University College Dublin.He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing theDubliners.He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, theVolta Cinematograph.It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.He returned to Trieste in", "to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen. From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at theUniversity of Padua.He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication ofDublinerscame to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an", "he wrote an invective against Roberts, \"Gas from a Burner\".He never went to Dublin again. Publication ofDublinersandA Portrait Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publishDubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate inEzra Pound, who was living in London.On the advice of Yeats,Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem fromChamber Music, \"I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land\" in the journalDes Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized. After Pound persuadedDora MarsdentoseriallypublishA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the London literary magazineThe Egoist,Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completedA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manby 1914;resumedExiles, completing it in 1915;started the", "in 1915;started the noveletteGiacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;and began draftingUlysses. In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland. 1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste Zürich Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and", "the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services. Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from theRoyal Literary Fundin 1915 and a grant from the Britishcivil listthe following year.Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editorHarriet Shaw Weaver, who operatedThe Egoist, and the psychotherapistEdith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying underCarl Jung.Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as \"nervous breakdowns\"and he had to undergo many eye surgeries.", "many eye surgeries. Ulysses During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen,where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptorAugust Suterand the painterFrank Budgen.He often used the time spent with them as material forUlysses.He made the acquaintance of the writerStefan Zweig,who organised the premiere ofExilesin Munich in August 1919.He became aware ofDada, which was coming into its own at theCabaret Voltaire.He may have even met theMarxisttheoretician and revolutionaryVladimir Leninat the Cafe Odeon,a place they both frequented. Joyce kept up his interest in music. He metFerruccio Busoni,staged music withOtto Luening, and learned music theory fromPhilipp Jarnach.Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way intoUlysses, particularly the \"Sirens\" section. Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained strict neutrality.He", "neutrality.He made few comments about the 1916Easter Risingin Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,he disagreed with its violence.He stayed intently focused onUlyssesand the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of \"The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\" inThe Egoisthad been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published byB. W. Huebschin 1916.In 1918, Pound got a commitment fromMargaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazineThe Little Review, to publishUlyssesserially. The English Players Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such asOscar Wilde,George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.For Synge'sRiders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,which he did again", "he did again whenRobert Browning'sIn a Balconywas staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play,Exiles,but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of theGreat Influenza epidemicof 1918, though the company continued until 1920. Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit.Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role inThe Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich. Third stay in Trieste By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war. Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the", "isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.Eight months after his return, Joyce went toSirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920. 1920–1941: Paris and Zürich Paris When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.For the first four months, he stayed withLudmila Savitzkyand metSylvia Beach, who ran theRive Gauchebookshop,Shakespeare and Company.Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the internationalmodernistartist community.Joyce metValery Larbaud, who", "Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the Frenchand supervised the French translation ofUlysses.Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long. Publication ofUlysses Joyce finished writingUlyssesnear the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyerJohn Quinn,Margaret Anderson and her co-editorJane Heaphad begun serially publishing it inThe Little Reviewin March 1918but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the \"Nausicaa\" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with theNew York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.Thetrial proceedingscontinued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenityand ordered to cease publishingUlysses.Huebsch, who had expressed", "who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.Weaver was unable to find an English printer,and the novel wasbannedfor obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936. Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printingUlysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.They were then smuggled into both countries.Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, \"bootleg\" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisherSamuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a courtenjoinedpublication.Ulysseswas not legally published in the United States until 1934 after JudgeJohn M. Woolseyruled inUnited States v. One Book Called", "v. One Book Called Ulyssesthat the book was not obscene. Finnegans Wake In 1923, Joyce began his next work, anexperimental novelthat eventually becameFinnegans Wake.It would take sixteen years to complete.At first, Joyce called itWork in Progress, which was the nameFord Madox Fordused in April 1924 when he published its \"Mamalujo\" episode in his magazine,The Transatlantic Review. In 1926,EugeneandMariaJolas serialised the novel in their magazine,transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—wrote negatively about it,and it was criticised by writers likeSeán Ó Faoláin,Wyndham Lewis, andRebecca West.In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titledOur Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings bySamuel BeckettandWilliam Carlos Williams.An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to marketWork in Progressto a larger", "Progressto a larger audience.Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title asFinnegans Wakein 1939,the same year he completed it. It was published in London byFaber and Faberwith the assistance of T. S. Eliot. Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,but his vision severely declined.By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finishFinnegans Wake, asking the Irish authorJames Stephensto complete it if something should happen. Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.Despite these issues, he publishedPomes Penyeachin 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris. Marriage in London In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence", "a residence in London once more,primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on theelectoral roll, and became liable forjury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at theRegister Office in Kensingtonon 4 July 1931.Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England. In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgeryor for treatment for Lucia,who was diagnosed withschizophrenia.Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written thatUlysseswas similar to schizophrenic writing.Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that", "river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death. Final return to Zürich In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.After thefall of Francein 1940, Joyce and his family fled fromNazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time. Death On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for aperforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58. His body was buried in theFluntern Cemeteryin Zürich. Swiss tenorMax Meilisang \"Addio terra, addio cielo\" fromMonteverdi'sL'Orfeoat the burial service.Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in", "diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. WhenJoseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins,chargé d'affairesatBern, Walshe responded, \"Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral.\"Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent \"honour grave\", with a seated portrait statue by American artistMilton Hebaldnearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976. After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomatJohn J. Slocum.In October 2019, a motion was put toDublin City Councilto plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of", "and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.The proposal immediately became controversial, with theIrish Timescommenting: \"... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read\". Political views Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politicsand in its relationship to British colonialism.He studiedsocialismandanarchism.He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced byBenjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism\".He described his opinions as \"those of a socialist artist\".Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.After leaving", "rule.After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,but his later works still reflect his commitment.He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.Ulysseshas been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British colonialism on the Irish people.Finnegans Wakehas been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,the interrelationship between colonialism and race,and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism. Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport. He wrote about the negative effects of British occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.In 1907, he expressed his support for the earlySinn Féinmovement before the establishment of theIrish Free Statein 1922.However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish", "for an Irish one.When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leaveVichy Francemore easily.His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church. Religious views Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.Firsthand statements by himand Stanislaus,attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Fridayor occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox", "Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better. Some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.He lapsed from the Church early in lifeand Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.Nevertheless, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.They argue thatUlyssesandFinnegans Wakeare expressions of a Catholic sensibility,insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novel do not represent the views of Joyce the author. Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been", "has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.He has been compared to the medievalepiscopi vagantes(wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought. Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion ofUlysses, Joyce was asked, \"When did you leave the Catholic Church?\" He answered, \"That's for the Church to say.\" Major works Dubliners Dublinersis a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914,that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a", "a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters inDublinerslater appear in minor roles in Joyce's novelUlysses.The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novelStephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is aKünstlerroman, a kind ofcoming-of-age noveldepicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonistStephen Dedalusand his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such asstream of consciousness,interior monologue, and references to a", "and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel. Exilesand poetry Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play,Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to \"The Dead\" (the final story inDubliners) and forward toUlysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition. He published three books of poetry.The first full-length collection wasChamber Music(1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in theImagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes \"Gas from a Burner\" (1912),Pomes Penyeach(1927), and \"Ecce Puer\" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by theBlack Sun PressinCollected Poems(1936). Ulysses The action", "Ulysses The action ofUlyssesstarts on 16 June 1904 at 8am and ends sometime after 2am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode inHomer'sOdyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.Ulyssessets the characters and incidents of theOdysseyin 1904 Dublin, representingOdysseus(Ulysses),Penelope, andTelemachusin the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wifeMolly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour–including parody, satire and comedy– to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titlesso the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure. Ulyssescan be read as a study of Dublin in", "study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition ofThom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature. Finnegans Wake Finnegans Wakeis an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousnessand literary allusionto their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms", "writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the wordplay stems from the work being written in peculiar and obscure English, based mainly oncomplex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used byLewis CarrollinJabberwockyand draws on a wide range of languages.The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream. The metaphysics ofGiordano BrunoofNola, who Joyce had read in his youth,plays an important role inFinnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book:Finnegans Wakeopens with the words", "with the words \"riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs\"and ends \"A way a lone a last a loved a long the\".In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle. Legacy Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.Ulyssesis a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,andFinnegans Wakehas become one of the key texts for Frenchpost-structuralism. The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant", "open to constant reinterpretation.They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions. In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide. Collections, museums, and study centres TheNational Library of Irelandholds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, theMuseum of Literature Ireland,the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include \"Copy No. 1\" ofUlysses.Dedicated centres in Dublin include theJames Joyce", "theJames Joyce CentreinNorth Great George's Street, theJames Joyce Tower and MuseuminSandycoveat the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene inUlysses, and theDublin Writers Museum.University College Londonholds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, many other editions and translations, as well as critical and background literature. Bibliography Novel Series Stephen Dedalus Finnegan Short Stories Poetry collections Play Posthumous Non-fiction Notes References Citations Sources Books Journal articles Online sources External links Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland Electronic editions Resources", "Virginia Woolf Adeline Virginia Woolf(/wʊlf/;néeStephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941) was an English writer. She is considered one of the most importantmodernist20th-century authors. She pioneered the use ofstream of consciousnessas a narrative device. Woolf was born into an affluent household inSouth Kensington, London. She was the seventh child ofJulia Prinsep JacksonandLeslie Stephenin a blended family of eight that included the modernist painterVanessa Bell. She was home-schooled in English classics andVictorian literaturefrom a young age. From 1897 to 1901, she attended the Ladies' Department ofKing's College London. There, she studied classics and history, coming into contact with early reformers of women's higher education and thewomen's rightsmovement. After her father's death in 1904, the Stephen family moved from Kensington to the morebohemianBloomsbury, where, in conjunction with the brothers' intellectual friends, they formed the artistic and literaryBloomsbury Group. In 1912, she", "Group. In 1912, she marriedLeonard Woolf, and in 1917, the couple founded theHogarth Press, which published much of her work. They rented a home in Sussex and permanently settled there in 1940. Woolf began writing professionally in 1900. During the inter-war period, Woolf was an important part of London's literary and artistic society. In 1915, she published her first novel,The Voyage Out, through her half-brother's publishing house,Gerald Duckworth and Company. Her best-known works include the novelsMrs Dalloway(1925),To the Lighthouse(1927) andOrlando(1928). She is also known for her essays, such asA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement offeminist criticism. Her works, translated into more than 50 languages, have attracted attention and widespread commentary for inspiring feminism. A large body of writing is dedicated to her life and work. She has been the subject of plays, novels, and films. Woolf is commemorated by statues, societies dedicated to her", "dedicated to her work, and a building at theUniversity of London. Life Early life Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen on 25 January 1882 at 22Hyde Park GateinSouth Kensington, London,toJulia (née Jackson)andSir Leslie Stephen. Her father was a writer, historian, essayist, biographer, and mountaineer,described byHelena Swanwickas a \"gaunt figure with a ragged red brown beard ... a formidable man.\"Her mother was a noted philanthropist, and her side of the family containedJulia Margaret Cameron, a celebrated photographer, andLady Henry Somerset, a campaigner for women's rights.Virginia was named after her aunt Adeline, but because of her aunt's recent death the family decided not to use her first name. Both of the Stephens had children from previous marriages. Julia, from her marriage to barristerHerbert Duckworth, hadGeorge, Stella, andGerald;Leslie had Laura from a marriage to Minny Thackeray, a daughter ofWilliam Makepeace Thackeray.Both former spouses had died suddenly, Duckworth of an abscess", "of an abscess and Minny Stephen in childbirth.Leslie and Julia Stephen had four children together:Vanessa,Thoby, Virginia, andAdrian. Virginia lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate until her father's death in 1904.She was, as she described it, \"born into a large connection, born not of rich parents, but of well-to-do parents, born into a very communicative, literate, letter writing, visiting, articulate, late nineteenth century world.\"The house was described as dimly-lit, crowded with furniture and paintings.Within it, the younger Stephens made a close-knit group. Virginia showed an early affinity for writing. By the age of five she was writing letters. A fascination with books helped form a bond between her and her father.From the age of 10, with her sister Vanessa, she began an illustrated family newspaper, theHyde Park Gate News, chronicling life and events within the Stephen family,and modelled on the popular magazineTit-Bits.Virginia would run theHyde Park Gate Newsuntil 1895, a few weeks before her mother's", "before her mother's death.In 1897 Virginia began her first diary,which she kept for the next twelve years. Talland House In the spring of 1882, Leslie rented a large white house inSt Ives, Cornwall.The family would spend three months each summer there for the first 13 years of Virginia's life.Although the house had limited amenities, its main attraction was the view overlooking Porthminster Bay towards theGodrevy Lighthouse.The happy summers spent at Talland House would later influence Woolf's novelsJacob's Room,To the LighthouseandThe Waves. Both at Hyde Park Gate and Talland House, the family socialised with much of the country's literary and artistic circles. Frequent guests included literary figures such asHenry JamesandGeorge Meredith, as well asJames Russell Lowell.The family did not return after 1894; a hotel was constructed in front of the house which blocked the sea view, and Julia Stephen died in May the following year. Sexual abuse In the 1939 essay \"A Sketch of the Past\" Woolf first wrote about", "first wrote about experiencing sexual abuse by Gerald Duckworth at a young age. There is speculation that this contributed to her mental health issues later in life.There are also suggestions of sexual impropriety from George Duckworth during the period that he was caring for the Stephen sisters. Adolescence Julia Stephen fell ill with influenza in February 1895, and never properly recovered, dying on 5 May, when Virginia was only 13.This precipitated what Virginia later identified as her first \"breakdown\"—for months afterwards she was nervous and agitated, and she wrote very little for the subsequent two years. Stella Duckworth took on a parental role.She married in April 1897, but moved to a house very close to the Stephens to continue to support the family. However, she fell ill on honeymoon and died on 19 July 1897.Subsequently George Duckworth took it upon himself to act as the head of the household, andbring Vanessa and Virginia out into society.This was not a rite of passage that resonated with either", "with either girl; Virginia's view was that \"Society in those days was a very competent, perfectly complacent, ruthless machine. A girl had no chance against its fangs. No other desires—say to paint, or to write—could be taken seriously.\"Her priority was her writing;she began a new diary at the start of 1897 and filled notebooks with fragments and literary sketches. Leslie Stephen died in February 1904, which caused Virginia to suffer another period of mental instability from April to September, and led to at least one suicide attempt.Woolf later described the period of 1897–1904 as \"the seven unhappy years.\" Education As was common at the time, Julia Stephen did not believe in formal education for her daughters.Virginia was educated in a piecemeal fashion by her parents: Julia taught her Latin, French, and history, while Leslie taught her mathematics. She also received piano lessons.She also had unrestricted access to her father's vast library, exposing her to much of the literary canon.This resulted in a", "resulted in a greater depth of reading than any of her Cambridge contemporaries.Later, Virginia recalled: Even today there may be parents who would doubt the wisdom of allowing a girl of fifteen the free run of a large and quite unexpurgated library. But my father allowed it. There were certain facts – very briefly, very shyly he referred to them. Yet \"Read what you like\", he said, and all his books...were to be had without asking. Another source was the conversation of their father's friends, to whom she was exposed.Leslie Stephen described his circle as \"most of the literary people of mark...clever young writers and barristers, chiefly of the radical persuasion...we used to meet on Wednesday and Sunday evenings, to smoke and drink and discuss the universe and the reform movement\". From 1897 Virginia received private tuition in Latin and Ancient Greek. One of her tutors wasClara Pater, and another wasJanet Case, with whom she formed a lasting friendship and who involved her in thesuffrage movement.Virginia", "movement.Virginia also attended a number of lectures at theKing's CollegeLadies' Department. Although Virginia could not attend Cambridge, she was to be profoundly influenced by her brother Thoby's experiences there. When Thoby went to Trinity in 1899, he befriended a circle of young men, includingClive Bell,Lytton Strachey,Leonard Woolf(whom Virginia would later marry), andSaxon Sydney-Turner, to whom he would introduce his sisters at theTrinity May Ballin 1900.These men formed a reading group they named the Midnight Society, which the Stephen sisters would later be invited to. Bloomsbury (1904–1912) Gordon Square After their father's death, Vanessa and Adrian decided to sell 22 Hyde Park Gate in South Kensington and move toBloomsbury. This was a much cheaper area—they had not inherited much and were unsure about their finances. The Duckworth brothers did not join the Stephens in their new home; Gerald did not wish to, and George got married during the preparations, leaving to live with his new", "live with his new wife.Virginia lived in the house for brief periods in the autumn – she was sent away to Cambridge and Yorkshire for her health – and settled there permanently in December 1904. From March 1905 the Stephens began to entertain their brother Thoby's intellectual friends at Gordon Square. The circle, who were largely members of theCambridge Apostles, includedSaxon Sydney-Turner,Lytton Strachey,Clive BellandDesmond MacCarthy. Their social gatherings, referred to as \"Thursday evenings\", were a vision of recreating Trinity College.This circle formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle of writers and artists known as theBloomsbury Group.Later, it would includeJohn Maynard Keynes,Duncan Grant,E. M. Forster,Roger Fry, Leonard Woolf, andDavid Garnett. Virginia began teaching evening classes on a voluntary basis atMorley College, and would continue intermittently for the next two years. This work would later influence themes of class and education in her novelMrs Dalloway.She made some money from", "some money from reviews, including some published in church paperThe Guardianand theNational Review, capitalising on her father's literary reputation in order to earn commissions. Vanessa added another event to their calendar with the \"Friday Club\", dedicated to the discussion of the fine arts.This introduced some new people into their circle, including Vanessa's friends from theRoyal Academy of ArtsandSlade School of Fine Art(where she had been studying),such asHenry LambandGwen Darwin, and also the eighteen-year-oldKatherine Laird (\"Ka\") Cox, who was about to attendNewnham College, Cambridge.Cox would become Virginia's intimate friend. These new members brought the Bloomsbury Group into contact with another, slightly younger, group of Cambridge intellectuals who Virginia would refer to as the \"Neo-Pagans\". The Friday Club continued until 1912 or 1913. In the autumn of 1906 the siblings travelled to Greece and Turkey with Violet Dickinson.During the trip Vanessa fell ill withappendicitis. Both Violet and", "Both Violet and Thoby contractedtyphoid fever; Thoby died on 20 November. Two days after Thoby's death, Vanessa accepted a previous proposal of marriage from Clive Bell.As a couple, their interest inavant-gardeart would have an important influence on Woolf's further development as an author. Fitzroy Square and Brunswick Square After Vanessa's marriage, Virginia and Adrian moved into 29Fitzroy Square, still very close to Gordon Square.The house had previously been occupied byGeorge Bernard Shaw, and the area had been populated by artists since the previous century. Duncan Grant lived there, and Roger Fry would move there in 1913.Virginia resented the wealth that Vanessa's marriage had given her; Virginia and Adrian lived more humbly by comparison. The siblings resumed the Thursday Club at their new home,while Gordon Square became the venue for a play-reading society.During this period, the group began to increasingly explore progressive ideas, with open discussions of members' homosexual inclinations, and", "inclinations, and nude dancing from Vanessa, who in 1910 went so far as to propose a libertarian society with sexual freedom for all. Virginia appears not to have shown interest in practising the group'sfree loveideology, finding an outlet for her sexual desires only in writing.Around this time she began work on her first novel,Melymbrosia, which eventually becameThe Voyage Out(1915). In November 1911 Virginia and Adrian moved to a larger house at 38Brunswick Square, and invited John Maynard Keynes, Duncan Grant and Leonard Woolf to become lodgers there.Virginia saw it as a new opportunity: \"We are going to try all kinds of experiments\", she toldOttoline Morrell.This arrangement for a single woman living among men was considered scandalous. Dreadnoughthoax Several members of the Bloomsbury Group attained notoriety in 1910 with theDreadnoughthoax, in which they posed as a royalAbyssinianentourage (with Virginia as \"Prince Mendax\") and received a tour of theHMS Dreadnoughtby Virginia's cousinCommander Fisher,", "Fisher, who was not aware of the joke.Horace de Vere Cole, who had been one of the masterminds of the hoax along with Adrian, later leaked the story to the press and informed the Foreign Office, leading to general outrage from the establishment. Asham House (1911–1919) During the latter Bloomsbury years Virginia travelled frequently with friends and family, to Dorset and Cornwall as well as further afield to Paris, Italy and Bayreuth. These trips were intended to avoid her suffering exhaustion from extended periods in London.The question arose of Virginia needing a quiet country retreat close to London, for the sake of her still-fragile mental health.In the winter of 1910 she and Adrian stayed atLewesand started exploring the area of Sussex around the town.She soon found a property in nearbyFirle, which she named \"Little Talland House\"; she maintained a relationship with that area for the rest of her life, tending to spend her time either in Sussex or London. In September 1911 she and Leonard Woolf found", "Leonard Woolf found Asham Housenearby, and Virginia and Vanessa took a joint lease on it.Located at the end of a tree-lined road, the house was in a Regency-Gothic style, \"flat, pale, serene, yellow-washed\", remote, without electricity or water and allegedly haunted.The sisters had two housewarming parties in January 1912. Virginia recorded the events of the weekends and holidays she spent there in herAsham Diary, part of which was later published asA Writer's Diaryin 1953. In terms of creative writing,The Voyage Outwas completed there, and much ofNight and Day.The house itself inspired the short story \"A Haunted House\", published inA Haunted House and Other Short Stories.Asham provided Woolf with much-needed relief from the pace of London life, and was where she found a happiness that she expressed in her diary on 5 May 1919: \"Oh, but how happy we've been at Asheham! It was a most melodious time. Everything went so freely; – but I can't analyse all the sources of my joy\". While at Asham, in 1916 Leonard and", "in 1916 Leonard and Virginia found a farmhouse to let about four miles away, which they thought would be ideal for her sister. Eventually, Vanessa came down to inspect it, and took possession in October of that year, as a summer home for her family. TheCharleston Farmhousewas to become the summer gathering place for the Bloomsbury Group. Marriage and war (1912–1920) Leonard Woolfwas one of Thoby Stephen's friends at Trinity College, Cambridge, and had encountered the Stephen sisters in Thoby's rooms while visiting forMay Weekbetween 1899 and 1904. He recalled that in \"white dresses and large hats, with parasols in their hands, their beauty literally took one's breath away\".In 1904 Leonard Woolf left Britain for a civil service position inCeylon,but returned for a year's leave in 1911 after letters from Lytton Strachey describing Virginia's beauty enticed him back.He and Virginia attended social engagements together, and he moved into Brunswick Square as a tenant in December of that year. Leonard proposed to", "Leonard proposed to Virginia on 11 January 1912.Initially she expressed reluctance, but the two continued courting. Leonard decided not to return to Ceylon and resigned his post. On 29 May Virginia declared her love for Leonard,and they married on 10 August atSt Pancras Town Hall. The couple spent their honeymoon first at Asham and theQuantock Hillsbefore travelling to the south of France and on to Spain and Italy. On their return they moved toClifford's Inn,and began to divide their time between London and Asham. Virginia Woolf had completed a penultimate draft of her first novelThe Voyage Outbefore her wedding, but undertook large-scale alterations to the manuscript between December 1912 and March 1913. The work was subsequently accepted by her half-brother Gerald Duckworth's publishing house, and she found the process of reading and correcting the proofs extremely emotionally difficult.This led to one of several breakdowns over the subsequent two years; Woolf attempted suicide on 9 September 1913 with an", "1913 with an overdose ofVeronal, being saved with the help of Maynard Keynes' surgeon brotherGeoffrey Keyneswho drove Leonard toSt Bartholomew's Hospitalto fetch a stomach pump.Woolf's illness led to Duckworth delaying the publication ofThe Voyage Outuntil 26 March 1915. In the autumn of 1914 the couple moved to a house onRichmond Green,and in late March 1915 they moved to Hogarth House, also inRichmond, after which they namedtheir publishing housein 1917.The decision to move to London's suburbs was made for the sake of Woolf's health.Many of Woolf's circle of friends were against the war, and Woolf herself opposed it from a standpoint of pacifism and anti-censorship.Leonard was exempted from theintroduction of conscription in 1916on medical grounds.The Woolfs employed two servants at the recommendation ofRoger Fryin 1916; Lottie Hope worked for a number of other Bloomsbury Group members, andNellie Boxallwould stay with them until 1934. The Woolfs spent parts of the period of theFirst World Warin Asham, but", "Warin Asham, but were obliged by the owner to leave in 1919.\"In despair\" they purchased the Round House in Lewes, a converted windmill, for £300. No sooner had they bought the Round House, thanMonk's Housein nearbyRodmellcame up for auction, aweatherboardedhouse with oak-beamed rooms, said to date from the 15th or 16th century.The Woolfs sold the Round House and purchased Monk's House for £700.Monk's House also lacked running water, but came with an acre of garden, and had a view across the Ouse towards the hills of theSouth Downs. Leonard Woolf describes this view as being unchanged since the days ofChaucer.The Woolfs would retain Monk's House until the end of Virginia's life; it became their permanent home after their London home was bombed, and it was where she completedBetween the Actsin early 1941, which was followed by her final breakdown and suicide in the nearby River Ouse on 28 March. Further works (1920–1940) Memoir Club 1920 saw a postwar reconstitution of the Bloomsbury Group, under the title of", "under the title of theMemoir Club, which as the name suggests focussed on self-writing, in the manner ofProust'sA La Recherche, and inspired some of the more influential books of the 20th century. The Group, which had been scattered by the war, was reconvened byMary ('Molly') MacCarthywho called them \"Bloomsberries\", and operated under rules derived from theCambridge Apostles, an elite university debating society that a number of them had been members of. These rules emphasised candour and openness. Among the 125 memoirs presented, Virginia contributed three that were published posthumously in 1976, in the autobiographical anthologyMoments of Being. These were22 Hyde Park Gate(1921),Old Bloomsbury(1922) andAm I a Snob?(1936). Vita Sackville-West On 14 December 1922Woolf met the writer and gardenerVita Sackville-West,wife ofHarold Nicolson. This period was to prove fruitful for both authors, Woolf producing three novels,To the Lighthouse(1927),Orlando(1928), andThe Waves(1931) as well as a number of essays,", "a number of essays, including \"Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown\" (1924) and \"A Letter to a Young Poet\" (1932).The two women remained friends until Woolf's death in 1941. Virginia Woolf also remained close to her surviving siblings, Adrian and Vanessa. Further novels and non-fiction Between 1924 and 1940 the Woolfs returned to Bloomsbury, taking out a ten-year lease at 52Tavistock Square,from where they ran theHogarth Pressfrom the basement, where Virginia also had her writing room. 1925 saw the publication ofMrs Dallowayin May followed by her collapse while at Charleston in August. In 1927, her next novel,To the Lighthouse, was published, and the following year she lectured onWomen & Fictionat Cambridge University and publishedOrlandoin October. Her two Cambridge lectures then became the basis for her major essayA Room of One's Ownin 1929.Virginia wrote only one drama,Freshwater, based on her great-auntJulia Margaret Cameron, and produced at her sister's studio onFitzroy Streetin 1935. 1936 saw the publication", "saw the publication ofThe Years, which had its origin in a lecture Woolf gave to the National Society for Women's Service in 1931, an edited version of which would later be published as \"Professions for Women\".Another collapse of her health followed the novel's completionThe Years. The Woolf's final residence in London was at 37Mecklenburgh Square(1939–1940), destroyed duringthe Blitzin September 1940; a month later their previous home on Tavistock Square was also destroyed. After that, they made Sussex their permanent home. Death After completing the manuscript of her last novel (posthumously published),Between the Acts(1941), Woolf fell into a depression similar to one which she had earlier experienced. The onset of the Second World War, the destruction of her London home duringthe Blitz, and the cool reception given toher biographyof her late friendRoger Fryall worsened her condition until she was unable to work.When Leonard enlisted in theHome Guard, Virginia disapproved. She held fast to herpacifismand", "to herpacifismand criticised her husband for wearing what she considered to be \"the silly uniform of the Home Guard\". After the Second World War began, Woolf's diary indicates that she was obsessed with death, which figured more and more as her mood darkened.On 28 March 1941, Woolf drowned herself by walking into the fast-flowingRiver Ousenear her home, after placing a large stone in her pocket.Her body was not found until 18 April.Her husband buried her cremated remains beneath an elm tree in the garden ofMonk's House, their home inRodmell, Sussex. In her suicide note, addressed to her husband, she wrote: Dearest, I feel certain that I am going mad again. I feel we can't go through another of those terrible times. And I shan't recover this time. I begin to hear voices, and I can't concentrate. So I am doing what seems the best thing to do. You have given me the greatest possible happiness. You have been in every way all that anyone could be. I don't think two people could have been happier till this", "happier till this terrible disease came. I can't fight it any longer. I know that I am spoiling your life, that without me you could work. And you will I know. You see I can't even write this properly. I can't read. What I want to say is I owe all the happiness of my life to you. You have been entirely patient with me and incredibly good. I want to say that—everybody knows it. If anybody could have saved me it would have been you. Everything has gone from me but the certainty of your goodness. I can't go on spoiling your life any longer. I don't think two people could have been happier than we have been. V. Mental health Much examination has been made of Woolf's mental health. From the age of 13, following the death of her mother, Woolf suffered periodic mood swings.However,Hermione Leeasserts that Woolf was not \"mad\"; she was merely a woman who suffered from and struggled with illness for much of her life, a woman of \"exceptional courage, intelligence and stoicism\", who made the best use, and achieved the", "and achieved the best understanding she could of that illness. Her mother's death in 1895, \"the greatest disaster that could happen\",precipitated a crisis for which their family doctor, Dr Seton, prescribed rest, stopping lessons and writing, and regular walks supervised by Stella.Yet just two years later, Stella too was dead, bringing on Virginia's first expressed wish for death at the age of fifteen. This was a scenario she would later recreate in \"Time Passes\" (To the Lighthouse, 1927). The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse, on 10 May, when she threw herself out a window and she was briefly institutionalisedunder the care of her father's friend, the eminent psychiatristGeorge Savage. She spent time recovering at the house of Stella's friend Violet Dickinson, and at her auntCaroline Emelia Stephen's house in Cambridge,and by January 1905, Savage considered her cured. Her brother Thoby's death in 1906 marked a \"decade of deaths\" that ended her childhood and adolescence. On", "and adolescence. On Savage's recommendation, Virginia spent three short periods in 1910, 1912, and 1913 at Burley House at 15 Cambridge Park,Twickenham, described as \"a private nursing home for women with nervous disorder\" run by Miss Jean Thomas.By the end of February 1910, she was becoming increasingly restless, and Savage suggested being away from London. Vanessa rented Moat House, outside Canterbury, in June, but there was no improvement, so Savage sent her to Burley for a \"rest cure\". This involved partial isolation, deprivation of literature, and force-feeding,and after six weeks she was able to convalesce in Cornwall and Dorset during the autumn. She loathed the experience; writing to her sister on 28 July,she described how she found the religious atmosphere stifling and the institution ugly, and informed Vanessa that to escape \"I shall soon have to jump out of a window\".The threat of being sent back would later lead to her contemplating suicide.Despite her protests, Savage would refer her back in", "refer her back in 1912 for insomnia and in 1913 for depression. On emerging from Burley House in September 1913, she sought further opinions from two other physicians on the 13th: Maurice Wright, andHenry Head, who had beenHenry James's physician. Both recommended she return to Burley House. Distraught, she returned home and attempted suicide by taking an overdose of 100grainsofveronal(a barbiturate) and nearly dying. On recovery, she went to Dalingridge Hall, George Duckworth's home inEast Grinstead, Sussex, to convalesce on 30 September,returning toAshamon 18 November. She remained unstable over the next two years, with another incident involving veronal that she claimed was an 'accident', and consulted another psychiatrist in April 1914,Maurice Craig, who explained that she was not sufficiently psychotic to be certified or committed to an institution. The rest of the summer of 1914 went better for her, and they moved to Richmond, but in February 1915, just asThe Voyage Outwas due to be published, she", "be published, she relapsed once more, and remained in poor health for most of that year.Then she began to recover, following 20 years of ill health.Nevertheless, there was a feeling among those around her that she was now permanently changed, and not for the better. Over the rest of her life, she suffered recurrent bouts of depression. In 1940, a number of factors appeared to overwhelm her. Her biography of Roger Fry had been published in July, and she had been disappointed in its reception. The horrors of war depressed her, and their London homes had been destroyed in the Blitz in September and October. Woolf had completedBetween the Acts(published posthumously in 1941) in November, and completing a novel was frequently accompanied by exhaustion.Her health became increasingly a matter of concern, culminating in her decision to end her life on 28 March 1941. She also suffered many physical ailments such as headache, back-ache, fevers and faints, which related closely to her psychological stress. These often", "stress. These often lasted for weeks or even months, and impeded her work: \"What a gap! ... for 60 days; & those days spent in wearisome headache, jumping pulse, aching back, frets, fidgets, lying awake, sleeping draughts, sedatives,digitalis, going for a little walk, & plunging back into bed again.\" Though this instability would frequently affect her social life, she was able to continue her literary productivity with few interruptions throughout her life. Woolf herself provides not only a vivid picture of her symptoms in her diaries and letters, but also her response to the demons that haunted her and at times made her long for death:\"But it is always a question whether I wish to avoid these glooms... These 9 weeks give one a plunge into deep waters... One goes down into the well & nothing protects one from the assault of truth.\" Psychiatry had little to offer Woolf, but she recognised that writing was one of the behaviours that enabled her to cope with her illness:\"The only way I keep afloat... is by", "afloat... is by working... Directly I stop working I feel that I am sinking down, down. And as usual, I feel that if I sink further I shall reach the truth.\"Sinking under water was Woolf's metaphor for both the effects of depression and psychosis— but also for finding truth, and ultimately was her choice of death. Throughout her life, Woolf struggled, without success, to find meaning in her illness: on the one hand, an impediment, on the other, something she visualised as an essential part of who she was, and a necessary condition of her art.Her experiences informed her work, such as the character of Septimus Warren Smith inMrs Dalloway(1925), who, like Woolf, was haunted by the dead, and ultimately takes his own life rather than be admitted to a sanitorium. Leonard Woolf relates how during the 30 years they were married, they consulted many doctors in theHarley Streetarea, and although they were given a diagnosis ofneurasthenia, he felt they had little understanding of the causes or nature. The proposed", "The proposed solution was simple—as long as she lived a quiet life without any physical or mental exertion, she was well. On the other hand, any mental, emotional, or physical strain resulted in a reappearance of her symptoms, beginning with a headache, followed by insomnia and thoughts that started to race. Her remedy was simple: to retire to bed in a darkened room, following which the symptoms slowly subsided. Modern scholars, including her nephew and biographer,Quentin Bell,have suggested her breakdowns and subsequent recurring depressive periods were influenced by the sexual abuse which she and her sister Vanessa were subjected to by their half-brothersGeorgeandGerald Duckworth(which Woolf recalls in her autobiographical essays \"A Sketch of the Past\" and \"22 Hyde Park Gate\"). Biographers point out that when Stella died in 1897, there was no counterbalance to control George's predation, and his nighttime prowling.\"22 Hyde Park Gate\" ends with the sentence \"The old ladies of Kensington and Belgravia never", "and Belgravia never knew that George Duckworth was not only father and mother, brother and sister to those poor Stephen girls; he was their lover also.\" It is likely that other factors also played a part. It has been suggested that they includegenetic predisposition.Virginia's father, Leslie Stephen, suffered from depression, and her half-sister Laura was institutionalised. Many of Virginia's symptoms, including persistent headache, insomnia, irritability, and anxiety, resembled those of her father's.Another factor is the pressure she placed upon herself in her work; for instance, her breakdown of 1913 was at least partly triggered by the need to finishThe Voyage Out. Virginia herself hinted that her illness was related to how she saw the repressed position of women in society when she wroteA Room of One's Own.in a 1930 letter toEthel Smyth: As an experience, madness is terrific I can assure you, and not to be sniffed at; and in its lava I still find most of the things I write about. It shoots out of one", "shoots out of one everything shaped, final, not in mere driblets, as sanity does. And the six months—not three—that I lay in bed taught me a good deal about what is called oneself. Thomas Caramagnoand others,in discussing her illness, oppose the \"neurotic-genius\" way of looking at mental illness, where creativity and mental illness are conceptualised as linked rather than antithetical.Stephen Trombleydescribes Woolf as having a confrontational relationship with her doctors, and possibly being a woman who is a \"victim of male medicine\", referring to the lack of understanding, particularly at the time, about mental illness. Sexuality The Bloomsbury Group held very progressive views regarding sexuality and rejected the austere strictness of Victorian society. The majority of its members were homosexual or bisexual. Woolf had several affairs with women, the most notable being withVita Sackville-West. The two women developed a deep connection; Vita was arguably one of the few people in Virginia's adult life that", "adult life that she was truly close to. told Ethel that she only really loved three people: Leonard, Vanessa, and myself, which annoyed Ethel but pleased me – Vita Sackville-West's letter to husband Harold Nicolson, dated 28 September 1939 During their relationship, both women saw the peak of their literary careers, with the titular protagonist of Woolf's acclaimedOrlando: A Biographybeing inspired by Sackville-West. The pair remained lovers for a decade and stayed close friends for the rest of Woolf's life.Woolf had said to Sackville-West she disliked masculinity. dislikes the possessiveness and love of domination in men. In fact she dislikes the quality of masculinity ; says that women stimulate her imagination, by their grace & their art of life – Vita Sackville-West's diary, dated 26 September 1928 Among her other notable affairs were those withSibyl Colefax,Lady Ottoline Morrell, andMary Hutchinson.Some surmise that she may have fallen in love with Madge Symonds, the wife of one of her uncles.Madge", "of her uncles.Madge Symonds was described as one of Woolf's early loves in Sackville-West's diary.She also fell in love with Violet Dickinson, although there is some confusion as to whether the two consummated their relationship. Virginia initially declined marriage proposals from her future husband, Leonard. She even went so far as to tell him that she was not physically attracted to him, but later declared that she did love him, and eventually agreed to marriage.Woolf preferred female lovers to male lovers, and did not seem to be sexually attracted to men. This aversion may have been connected to her experiences of sexual abuse as a child. I sometimes think that if I married you, I could have everything—and then—is it the sexual side of it that comes between us? As I told you brutally the other day, I feel no physical attraction in you. –Letter to Leonard from Virginia dated May 1, 1912 Leonard became the love of her life. Although their sexual relationship was questionable, they loved each other deeply", "each other deeply and formed a strong and supportive marriage that led to the formation of their publishing house as well as several of her writings. Though Virginia had affairs with and attractions to women during their marriage, both she and Leonard maintained a mutual love and respect for one another. Work Woolf is considered to be one of the most important 20th-century novelists.Amodernist, she was one of the pioneers of usingstream of consciousnessas anarrative device, alongside contemporaries such asMarcel Proust,Dorothy RichardsonandJames Joyce.Woolf's reputation was at its greatest during the 1930s, but declined considerably following the Second World War. The growth offeminist criticismin the 1970s helped re-establish her reputation. Virginia submitted her first article in 1890, to a competition inTit-Bits. Although it was rejected, this shipboard romance by the 8-year-old would presage her first novel 25 years later, as would contributions to theHyde Park News, such as the model letter \"to show", "letter \"to show young people the right way to express what is in their hearts\", a subtle commentary on her mother's legendary matchmaking.She transitioned from juvenilia to professional journalism in 1904 at the age of 22. Violet Dickinson introduced her toKathleen Lyttelton, the editor of theWomen's SupplementofThe Guardian, a Church of England newspaper. Invited to submit a 1,500-word article, Virginia sent Lyttelton a review ofWilliam Dean Howells'The Son of Royal Langbirthand an essay about her visit toHaworththat year,Haworth, November 1904.The review was published anonymously on 4 December, and the essay on the 21st.In 1905, Woolf began writing forThe Times Literary Supplement. Woolf would go on to publish novels and essays as a public intellectual to both critical and popular acclaim. Much of her work was self-published through theHogarth Press. \"Virginia Woolf's peculiarities as a fiction writer have tended to obscure her central strength: she is arguably the majorlyricalnovelist in the English", "in the English language. Her novels are highly experimental: a narrative, frequently uneventful and commonplace, is refracted—and sometimes almost dissolved—in the characters' receptive consciousness. Intense lyricism and stylistic virtuosity fuse to create a world overabundant with auditory and visual impressions.\"\"The intensity of Virginia Woolf's poetic vision elevates the ordinary, sometimes banal settings\"—often wartime environments—\"of most of her novels.\" Though at least one biography of Virginia Woolf appeared in her lifetime, the first authoritative study of her life was published in 1972 by her nephew Quentin Bell.Hermione Lee's 1996 biographyVirginia Woolfprovides a thorough and authoritative examination of Woolf's life and work, which she discussed in an interview in 1997.In 2001,Louise DeSalvoand Mitchell A. Leaska editedThe Letters of Vita Sackville-West and Virginia Woolf. Julia Briggs'sVirginia Woolf: An Inner Life(2005) focuses on Woolf's writing, including her novels and her commentary on", "her commentary on the creative process, to illuminate her life. The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu also uses Woolf's literature to understand and analyse gender domination. Woolf biographerGillian Gillnotes that Woolf's traumatic experience of sexual abuse by her half-brothers during her childhood influenced her advocacy of protection of vulnerable children from similar experiences.Biljana Dojčinovićhas discussed the issues surrounding translations of Woolf to Serbian as a \"border-crossing\". Themes Woolf's fiction has been studied for its insight into many themes including war, shell shock, witchcraft, and the role of social class in contemporary modern British society.In the postwarMrs Dalloway(1925), Woolf addresses the moral dilemma of war and its effectsand provides an authentic voice for soldiers returning from the First World War, suffering from shell shock, in the person of Septimus Smith.InA Room of One's Own(1929) Woolf equates historical accusations of witchcraft with creativity and genius among women", "genius among women \"When, however, one reads of a witch being ducked, of a woman possessed by devils...then I think we are on the track of a lost novelist, a suppressed poet, of some mute and inglorious Jane Austen\".Throughout her work Woolf tried to evaluate the degree to which her privileged backgroundframedthe lens through which she viewed class.She both examined her own position as someone who would be considered an elitist snob, but attacked the class structure of Britain as she found it. In her 1936 essayAm I a Snob?she examined her values and those of the privileged circle she existed in. She concluded she was, and subsequent critics and supporters have tried to deal with the dilemma of being both elite and a social critic. The sea is a recurring motif in Woolf's work. Noting Woolf's early memory of listening to waves break in Cornwall, Katharine Smyth writes inThe Paris Reviewthat \"the radiance cresting water would be consecrated again and again in her writing, saturating not only essays, diaries,", "essays, diaries, and letters but alsoJacob's Room,The Waves, andTo the Lighthouse.\"Patrizia A. Muscogiuri explains that \"seascapes, sailing, diving and the sea itself are aspects of nature and of human beings' relationship with it which frequently inspired Virginia Woolf's writing.\"This trope is deeply embedded in her texts' structure and grammar; James Antoniou notes inSydney Morning Heraldhow \"Woolf made a virtue of thesemicolon, the shape and function of which resembles the wave, her most famous motif.\" Despite the considerable conceptual difficulties, given Woolf's idiosyncratic use of language,her works have been translated into over 50 languages.Some writers, such as the BelgianMarguerite Yourcenar, had rather tense encounters with her, while others, such as the ArgentinianJorge Luis Borges, produced versions that were highly controversial. Drama Virginia Woolf researched the life of her great-aunt, the photographerJulia Margaret Cameron, publishing her findings in an essay titled \"Pattledom\"", "titled \"Pattledom\" (1925),and later in her introduction to her 1926 edition of Cameron's photographs.She had begun work on a play based on an episode in Cameron's life in 1923, but abandoned it. Finally it was performed on 18 January 1935 at the studio of her sister,Vanessa Bellon Fitzroy Street in 1935.Woolf directed it herself, and the cast were mainly members of the Bloomsbury Group, including herself.Freshwateris a short three act comedy satirising theVictorian era, only performed once in Woolf's lifetime. Beneath the comedic elements, there is an exploration of both generational change and artistic freedom. Both Cameron and Woolf fought against the class and gender dynamics of Victorianismand the play shows links to bothTo the LighthouseandA Room of One's Ownthat would follow. Non-fiction Woolf wrote a body of autobiographical work and more than 500 essays and reviews,some of which, likeA Room of One's Own(1929) were of book length. Not all were published in her lifetime. Shortly after her death,", "after her death, Leonard Woolf produced an edited edition of unpublished essays titledThe Moment and other Essays, published by the Hogarth Press in 1947. Many of these were originally lectures that she gave,and several more volumes of essays followed, such asThe Captain's Death Bed: and other essays(1950). A Room of One's Own Among Woolf's non-fiction works, one of the best known isA Room of One's Own(1929), a book-length essay. Considered a key work of feminist literary criticism, it was written following two lectures she delivered on \"Women and Fiction\" at Cambridge University the previous year. In it, she examines the historical disempowerment women have faced in many spheres, including social, educational and financial. One of her more famous dicta is contained within the book \"A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction\". Much of her argument (\"to show you how I arrived at this opinion about the room and the money\") is developed through the \"unsolved problems\" of women and", "of women and fiction writing to arrive at her conclusion, although she claimed that was only \"an opinion upon one minor point\".In doing so, she states a good deal about the nature of women and fiction, employing a quasi-fictional style as she examines where women writers failed because of lack of resources and opportunities, examining along the way the experiences of theBrontës,George EliotandGeorge Sand, as well as the fictional character ofShakespeare's sister, equipped with the same genius but not position. She contrasted these women who accepted a deferential status withJane Austen, who wrote entirely as a woman. Hogarth Press Virginia had taken up book-binding as a pastime in October 1901, at the age of 19.The Woolfs had been discussing setting up a publishing house for some time – Leonard intended for it to give Virginia a rest from the strain of writing, and therefore help her fragile mental health. Additionally, publishing her works under their own outfit would save her from the stress of submitting", "of submitting her work to an external company, which contributed to her breakdown during the process of publishing her first novelThe Voyage Out.The Woolfs obtained their own hand-printing press in April 1917 and set it up on their dining room table at Hogarth House, thus beginning theHogarth Press. The first publication wasTwo Storiesin July 1917, consisting of \"The Mark on the Wall\" by Virginia Woolf (which has been described as \"Woolf's first foray into modernism\") and \"Three Jews\" by Leonard Woolf. The accompanying illustrations byDora Carringtonwere a success, leading Virginia to remark that the press was \"specially good at printing pictures, and we see that we must make a practice of always having pictures.\" The process took two and a half months with a production run of 150 copies.Other short short stories followed, includingKew Gardens(1919) with awoodblockby Vanessa Bell asfrontispiece.Subsequently Bell added further illustrations, adorning each page of the text. Unlike its contemporary small", "contemporary small printers, who specialised in expensive artisanal reprints, the Woolfs concentrated on living avant-garde authors,and over the subsequent five years printed works by a number of authors includingKatherine Mansfield,T.S. Eliot,E. M. Forster, Clive Bell and Roger Fry. They also produced translations of Russian works withS. S. Koteliansky, and the first translation of the complete works ofSigmund Freud.They acquired a larger press in 1921 and began to sell directly to booksellers.In 1938 Virginia sold her share of the company toJohn Lehmann,who had started working for Hogarth Press seven years previously.The Press eventually became Leonard's only source of income, but his association with it ended in 1946, after publishing 527 titles, and Hogarth is now an imprint ofPenguin Random House. The Press also produced explicitly political works. Pamphlets had fallen out of fashion due to the high production costs and low revenue, but the Hogarth Press produced several series on contemporary issues of", "issues of international politics, challenging colonialism and critiquing Soviet Russia and Italian fascism.The Woolfs also published political fiction, includingTurbott Wolfe(1926) byWilliam PlomerandIn a Province(1934) byLaurens van der Post, which concern South African racial policies and revolutionary movements respectively.Virginia Woolf saw a link between international politics and feminism, publishing a biography of Indian feminist activistSaroj Nalini Duttand the memoirs ofsuffragetteElizabeth Robins.Scholar Ursula McTaggart argues that the Hogarth Press shaped and represented Woolf's later concept of an \"Outsiders' Society\", a non-organised group of women who would resist \"the patriarchal fascism of war and nationalism\" by exerting influence through private actions, as described inThree Guineas. In this view, the readers and authors form a loose network, with the Press providing the means to exchange ideas. Influences Michel Lackey argues that a major influence on Woolf, from 1912 onward, was Russian", "onward, was Russian literature and Woolf adopted many of its aesthetic conventions.The style ofFyodor Dostoyevskywith his depiction of a fluid mind in operation helped to influence Woolf's writings about a \"discontinuous writing process\", though Woolf objected to Dostoyevsky's obsession with \"psychological extremity\" and the \"tumultuous flux of emotions\" in his characters together with his right-wing, monarchist politics as Dostoyevsky was an ardent supporter of the autocracy of theRussian Empire.In contrast to her objections to Dostoyevsky's \"exaggerated emotional pitch\", Woolf found much to admire in the work ofAnton ChekhovandLeo Tolstoy.Woolf admired Chekhov for his stories of ordinary people living their lives, doing banal things and plots that had no neat endings.From Tolstoy, Woolf drew lessons about how a novelist should depict a character's psychological state and the interior tension within.Lackey notes that, fromIvan Turgenev, Woolf drew the lessons that there are multiple \"I's\" when writing a", "when writing a novel, and the novelist needed to balance those multiple versions of him- or herself to balance the \"mundane facts\" of a story vs. the writer's overarching vision, which required a \"total passion\" for art. The American writerHenry David Thoreaualso influenced Woolf. In a 1917 essay, she praised Thoreau for his statement \"The millions are awake enough for physical labor, but only one in hundreds of millions is awake enough to a poetic or divine life. To be awake is to be alive.\" They both aimed to capture 'the moment'––as Walter Pater says, \"to burn always with this hard, gem-like flame.\"Woolf praised Thoreau for his \"simplicity\" in finding \"a way for setting free the delicate and complicated machinery of the soul\".Like Thoreau, Woolf believed that it was silence that set the mind free to really contemplate and understand the world.Both authors believed in a certain transcendental, mystical approach to life and writing, where even banal things could be capable of generating deep emotions if one", "emotions if one had enough silence and the presence of mind to appreciate them.Woolf and Thoreau were both concerned with the difficulty of human relationships in the modern age. Woolf's preface toOrlandocreditsDaniel Defoe,Sir Thomas Browne,Laurence Sterne,Sir Walter Scott,Lord Macaulay,Emily Brontë,Thomas de Quincey, andWalter Pateras influences.Among her contemporaries, Woolf was influenced byMarcel Proust, writing toRoger Fry, \"Oh if I could write like that!\" Virginia Woolf and her mother The intense scrutiny of Virginia Woolf's literary output has led to speculation as to her mother's influence, including psychoanalytic studies of mother and daughter.Her memories of her mother are memories of an obsession,starting with her first major breakdown on her mother's death in 1895, the loss having a profound lifelong effect.In many ways, her mother's profound influence on Virginia Woolf is conveyed in the latter's recollections, \"there she is; beautiful, emphatic ... closer than any of the living are, lighting", "are, lighting our random lives as with a burning torch, infinitely noble and delightful to her children\". Woolf's understanding of her mother and family evolved considerably between 1907 and 1940, in which the somewhat distant, yet revered figure, becomes more nuanced and complete.She described her mother as an \"invisible presence\" in her life, and Ellen Rosenman argues that the mother-daughter relationship is a constant in Woolf's writing.She describes how Woolf'smodernismneeds to be viewed in relationship to her ambivalence towards her Victorian mother, the centre of the former's female identity, and her voyage to her own sense of autonomy. To Woolf, \"Saint Julia\" was both a martyr whose perfectionism was intimidating and a source of deprivation, by her absences real and virtual and premature death.Julia's influence and memory pervades Woolf's life and work. \"She has haunted me\", she wrote. Historical feminism According to the 2007 bookFeminism: From Mary Wollstonecraft to Betty Friedanby Bhaskar A.", "Bhaskar A. Shukla, \"Recently, studies of Virginia Woolf have focused on feminist and lesbian themes in her work, such as in the 1997 collection of critical essays,Virginia Woolf: Lesbian Readings, edited by Eileen Barrett and Patricia Cramer.\"In 1928, Woolf took a grassroots approach to informing and inspiring feminism. She addressed undergraduate women at the ODTAA Society atGirton College, Cambridge, and the Arts Society at Newnham College, with two papers that eventually becameA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf's best-known nonfiction works,A Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938), examine the difficulties that female writers and intellectuals faced because men held disproportionate legal and economic power, as well as the future of women in education and society.InThe Second Sex(1949),Simone de Beauvoircounts, of all women who ever lived, only three female writers—Emily Brontë, Woolf and \"sometimes\"Katherine Mansfield— have explored \"the given\". Views In her lifetime, Woolf was outspoken on many", "outspoken on many topics that were considered controversial, some of which are now considered progressive, others regressive.She was an ardentfeministat a time when women's rights were barely recognised, andanti-colonialist, anti-imperialist and apacifistwhenchauvinismwas popular. On the other hand, she has been criticised for views on class and race in her private writings and published works. Like many of her contemporaries, some of her writing is now considered offensive. As a result, she is considered polarising, a revolutionary feminist and socialist hero or a purveyor ofhate speech. Works such asA Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938) are frequently taught as icons of feminist literature in courses that would be very critical of some of her views expressed elsewhere.She has also been the recipient of considerablehomophobicandmisogynistcriticism. Humanist views Virginia Woolf was born into a non-religious family and is regarded, along with fellow members of the Bloomsbury groupE. M.", "groupE. M. ForsterandG. E. Moore, as ahumanist. Both her parents were prominentagnostic atheists. Her father,Leslie Stephen, had become famous in polite society for his writings which expressed and publicised reasons to doubt the veracity of religion. Stephen was also President of theWest London Ethical Society, an earlyhumanistorganisation, and helped to found theUnion of Ethical Societiesin 1896. Woolf's mother,Julia Stephen, wrote the bookAgnostic Women(1880), which argued that agnosticism (defined here as something more like atheism) could be a highly moral approach to life. Woolf was a critic of Christianity. In a letter toEthel Smyth, she gave a scathing denunciation of the religion, seeing it as self-righteous \"egotism\" and stating \"my Jew has more religion in one toenail—more human love, in one hair\".Woolf stated in her private letters that she thought of herself as an atheist. She thought there were no Gods; no one was to blame; and so she evolved this atheist's religion of doing good for the sake", "good for the sake of goodness. Controversies Hermione Leecites a number of extracts from Woolf's writings that many, including Lee, would consider offensive, and these criticisms can be traced back as far as those ofWyndham LewisandQ. D. Leavisin the 1920s and 1930s.Other authors provide more nuanced contextual interpretations, and stress the complexity of her character and the apparent inherent contradictions in analysing her apparent flaws.She could certainly be off-hand, rude and even cruel in her dealings with other authors, translators and biographers, such as her treatment ofRuth Gruber.Some authors, includingDavid Daiches, Brenda Silver, Alison Light and otherpostcolonialfeminists, dismiss her (and modernist authors in general) as privileged, elitist,classist, racist, andantisemitic. Woolf's tendentious expressions, including prejudicial feelings against disabled people, have often been the topic of academic criticism: The first quotation is from a diary entry of September 1920 and runs: \"The fact is", "runs: \"The fact is the lower classes are detestable.\" The remainder follow the first in reproducing stereotypes standard to upper-class and upper-middle class life in the early 20th century: \"imbeciles should certainly be killed\"; \"Jews\" are greasy; a \"crowd\" is both an ontological \"mass\" and is, again, \"detestable\"; \"Germans\" are akin to vermin; some \"baboon faced intellectuals\" mix with \"sad green dressed negroes and negresses, looking like chimpanzees\" at a peace conference; Kensington High St. revolts one's stomach with its innumerable \"women of incredible mediocrity, drab as dishwater\". Antisemitism Often accused ofantisemitism,the treatment ofJudaismandJewsby Woolf is far from straightforward.She was happily married to an irreligious Jewish man (Leonard Woolf) who had no connection with or knowledge of his people while she generally characterised Jewish characters with negative stereotypes. For instance, she described some of the Jewish characters in her work in terms that suggested they were", "suggested they were physically repulsive or dirty. On the other hand, she could criticise her own views: \"How I hated marrying a Jew — how I hated their nasal voices and their oriental jewellery, and their noses and their wattles — what a snob I was: for they have immense vitality, and I think I like that quality best of all\" (Letter to Ethel Smyth 1930).These attitudes have been construed to reflect, not so much antisemitism, but social status; she married outside her social class. Leonard, \"a penniless Jew from Putney\", lacked the material status of the Stephens and their circle. While travelling on a cruise to Portugal, she protested at finding \"a great manyPortuguese Jewson board, and other repulsive objects, but we keep clear of them\".Furthermore, she wrote in her diary: \"I do not like the Jewish voice; I do not like the Jewish laugh.\" Her 1938 short story, written during Hitler's rule, \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" (originally titled \"The Duchess and the Jew\") has been considered antisemitic. Some", "antisemitic. Some believe that Woolf and her husband Leonard came to despise and fear the 1930s'fascismand antisemitism. Her 1938 bookThree Guineaswas an indictment of fascism and what Woolf described as a recurring propensity amongpatriarchalsocieties to enforce repressive societal mores by violence.And yet, her 1938 story \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" was so deeply hateful in its depiction of Jews thatHarper's Bazaarasked her to modify it before publication; she reluctantly complied. Legacy Virginia Woolf is known for her contributions to 20th-century literature and her essays, as well as the influence she has had on literary, particularly feminist criticism. A number of authors have stated that their work was influenced by her, includingMargaret Atwood,Michael Cunningham,Gabriel García Márquez,andToni Morrison.Her iconic imageis instantly recognisable from the Beresford portrait of her at twenty (at the top of this page) to the Beck and Macgregor portrait in her mother's dress inVogueat 44 (seeFry", "44 (seeFry (1913)) orMan Ray's cover ofTimemagazine (seeRay (1937)) at 55.More postcards of Woolf are sold by theNational Portrait Gallery, London than of any other person.Her image is ubiquitous, and can be found on products ranging from tea towels to T-shirts. Virginia Woolf is studied around the world, with organisations devoted to her, such as the Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain,and The Virginia Woolf Society of Japan.In addition, trusts—such as the Asham Trust—encourage writers in her honour. Monuments and memorials In 2013, Woolf was honoured by her alma mater of King's College London with the opening of the Virginia Woolf Building onKingsway,together with an exhibit depicting her accompanied by the quotation \"London itself perpetually attracts, stimulates, gives me a play & a story & a poem\" from her 1926 diary.Busts of Virginia Woolf have been erected at her home in Rodmell, Sussex and at Tavistock Square, London, where she lived between 1924 and 1939. In 2014, she was one of the inaugural", "of the inaugural honorees in theRainbow Honor Walk, awalk of fameinSan Francisco'sCastro neighbourhoodnotingLGBTQpeople who have \"made significant contributions in their fields\". A campaign was launched in 2018 to erect a statue of Woolf in Richmond-upon-Thames, where she lived for 10 years.In November 2022 the statue, created by sculptor Laury Dizengremel, was unveiled. It depicts Woolf on a bench overlooking the River Thames, and is the first full-size statue of Woolf. Portrayals Adaptations Selected works Woolf's most notable works include the following. Novels Essays and essay collections Other Notes References Bibliography Books and theses Biography: Virginia Woolf Mental health Biography: Other Literary commentary Bloomsbury Chapters and contributions Articles Journals Dictionaries and encyclopaedias Newspapers and magazines Websites and documents British Library Virginia Woolf's homes and venues Images Audiovisual media By Woolf Novels Short stories Essays Essay collections Contributions", "Contributions Autobiographical writing Diaries and notebooks Letters External links Written works Archival material Audio media Visual media" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shizuoka_Prefecture", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshinobu_Ishikawa" ]

[ "Shizuoka Prefecture Shizuoka Prefecture(静岡県,Shizuoka-ken)is aprefectureofJapanlocated in theChūbu regionofHonshu.As of September 2023,Shizuoka Prefecture has a population of 3,555,818 and has a geographic area of 7,777.42 km2(3,002.88 sq mi). Shizuoka Prefecture bordersKanagawa Prefectureto the east,Yamanashi Prefectureto the northeast,Nagano Prefectureto the north, andAichi Prefectureto the west. Shizuokais the capital andHamamatsuis the largest city in Shizuoka Prefecture, with other major cities includingFuji,Numazu, andIwata.Shizuoka Prefecture is located on Japan'sPacific Oceancoast and featuresSuruga Bayformed by theIzu Peninsula, andLake Hamanawhich is considered to be one of Japan's largest lakes.Mount Fuji, the tallestvolcanoin Japan andcultural iconof the country, is partially located in Shizuoka Prefecture on the border with Yamanashi Prefecture. Shizuoka Prefecture has a significantmotoringheritage as the founding location ofHonda,Suzuki, andYamaha, and is home to theFuji International Speedway. History Shizuoka Prefecture was established from the formerTōtōmi,SurugaandIzuprovinces. The area was the home of the firstTokugawa shōgun.Tokugawa Ieyasuheld the region until he conquered the lands of theHōjō clanin theKantō regionand placed land under the stewardship ofToyotomi Hideyoshi. After becomingshōgun, Tokugawa took the land back for his family and put the area around modern-day Shizuoka City under the direct supervision of the shogunate. With the creation of the Shizuoka han from theSunpu Domainin 1868, it once again became the residence of the Tokugawa family. Geography Shizuoka Prefecture is an elongated region following the coast of thePacific Oceanat theSuruga Bay. In the west, the prefecture extends deep into theJapan Alps. In the east, it becomes a narrower coast bounded in the north byMount Fuji, until it comes to theIzu Peninsula, a popular resort area pointing south into the Pacific. As of April 2012,11% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated asnatural parks, namely theFuji-Hakone-IzuandMinami AlpsNational Parks;Tenryū-Okumikawa Quasi-National Park; and four Prefectural Natural Parks. Climate In Shizuoka prefecture, thetemperature, over the course of the year, typically varies from 34 °F to 87 °F and is rarely below 28 °F or above 93 °F. The summers in Shizuoka are warm, oppressive, and mostly cloudy; the winters are very cold, windy, and mostly clear. Disaster On 15 March 2011, Shizuoka Prefecture was hit witha magnitude 6.2 earthquakeapproximately 42 km (26 mi) NNE ofShizuoka City. It is said, that throughout history, Shizuoka area has experienced a large earthquake every 100 to 150 years. Demographics 3,635,220 people live in Shizuoka Prefecture, according to the 2020 census. Municipalities Since 2010, Shizuoka has consisted of 35municipalities: 23citiesand 12towns. Mergers After the introduction of modern municipalities in 1889, Shizuoka consisted of 337 municipalities: 1 (by definition: district-independent) city and 23 districts with 31 towns and 305villages. The Great Shōwa mergers of the 1950s reduced the total from 281 to 97 between 1953 and 1960, including 18 cities by then. The Great Heisei mergers of the 2000s combined the 74 remaining municipalities in the year 2000 into the current 35 by 2010. List of governors of Shizuoka (since 1947) Industry Motorcycles Shizuoka-based companies are world leaders in several major industrial sectors.Honda,Yamaha, andSuzukiall have their roots in Shizuoka prefecture and are still manufacturing here. Thanks to this, Shizuoka pref. accounts for 28% of Japanesemotorcycleexports. Musical instruments YamahaandKawaiare both globalpianobrands. Yamaha has the largest share in the global piano market. Kawai has the second largest share. They both got their start in Shizuoka pref. in the early twentieth century. YamahaandRolandare major brand forelectronic musical instruments. In theelectronic pianoworld market, Yamaha has the world's largest share. Roland and Kawai have the second and third place share. Roland and Yamaha also manufacture high-qualitysynthesizersanddrum machinesfor professional musicians. In addition, various instruments such aswind instrumentsandguitarsare manufactured in this prefecture. There are about 200 companies that manufacture musical instruments, in this prefecture. Most of these musical instruments are especially produced inHamamatsuCity. Transportation Rail Roads Expressways Toll roads National highways Airports Ports Education Universities National universities Public universities Private universities Senior high schools Sports The sports teams listed below are based in Shizuoka. Basketball Motorsport Rugby Football Volleyball Tourism Museums Theme parks Festivals and events Notable people Motoo Kimura(木村 資生, 1924–1994), biologist and theoretical population geneticist, died in Shizuoka Prefecture Notes References External links", "Yoshinobu Ishikawa Yoshinobu Ishikawa(石川 嘉延,Ishikawa Yoshinobu, born November 24, 1940)was thegovernorofShizuoka Prefecturein Japan, first elected in 1993. A native ofKakegawa, Shizuoka, formerly known asDaitō, Shizuoka, and graduate of theUniversity of Tokyo, Department of Law, he had worked at theMinistry of Home Affairssince 1964 before being elected governor. Early career After graduating from theUniversity of Tokyo, Department of Law in 1964, he joined theMinistry of Home Affairsand began work in the government bureaucracy. He worked within the ministry for 20 years before being given a position as Head of theShizuoka PrefectureHome Affairs Office. Following a two-year stint there, he climbed the ladder of the Ministry, was briefly transferred to theNational Land Agency, and eventually became Head of the Civil Servant Department in the Home Affairs Ministry in 1992. Only a year after, he decided to run for governor of his home prefecture ofShizuokaand resigned from the ministry in June 1993. He was elected for his first of four terms in August 1993. Resignation Due to repeated delays in the opening ofShizuoka Airport, Governor Ishikawa announced at a news conference on March 25, 2009 that he would resign. The airport was the largest construction project in the prefecture at the time but the opening was delayed until June 2009. The main cause of the delay was due to the flawed original survey for the runway. The original survey placed the runway near some trees that were too high and could not be removed. It was decided in March 2009 that the runway would be shortened and therefore, the airport would not open on time. References" ]

[ "Shizuoka Prefecture Shizuoka Prefecture(静岡県,Shizuoka-ken)is aprefectureofJapanlocated in theChūbu regionofHonshu.As of September 2023,Shizuoka Prefecture has a population of 3,555,818 and has a geographic area of 7,777.42 km2(3,002.88 sq mi). Shizuoka Prefecture bordersKanagawa Prefectureto the east,Yamanashi Prefectureto the northeast,Nagano Prefectureto the north, andAichi Prefectureto the west. Shizuokais the capital andHamamatsuis the largest city in Shizuoka Prefecture, with other major cities includingFuji,Numazu, andIwata.Shizuoka Prefecture is located on Japan'sPacific Oceancoast and featuresSuruga Bayformed by theIzu Peninsula, andLake Hamanawhich is considered to be one of Japan's largest lakes.Mount Fuji, the tallestvolcanoin Japan andcultural iconof the country, is partially located in Shizuoka Prefecture on the border with Yamanashi Prefecture. Shizuoka Prefecture has a significantmotoringheritage as the founding location ofHonda,Suzuki, andYamaha, and is home to theFuji International Speedway.", "Speedway. History Shizuoka Prefecture was established from the formerTōtōmi,SurugaandIzuprovinces. The area was the home of the firstTokugawa shōgun.Tokugawa Ieyasuheld the region until he conquered the lands of theHōjō clanin theKantō regionand placed land under the stewardship ofToyotomi Hideyoshi. After becomingshōgun, Tokugawa took the land back for his family and put the area around modern-day Shizuoka City under the direct supervision of the shogunate. With the creation of the Shizuoka han from theSunpu Domainin 1868, it once again became the residence of the Tokugawa family. Geography Shizuoka Prefecture is an elongated region following the coast of thePacific Oceanat theSuruga Bay. In the west, the prefecture extends deep into theJapan Alps. In the east, it becomes a narrower coast bounded in the north byMount Fuji, until it comes to theIzu Peninsula, a popular resort area pointing south into the Pacific. As of April 2012,11% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated asnatural parks,", "asnatural parks, namely theFuji-Hakone-IzuandMinami AlpsNational Parks;Tenryū-Okumikawa Quasi-National Park; and four Prefectural Natural Parks. Climate In Shizuoka prefecture, thetemperature, over the course of the year, typically varies from 34 °F to 87 °F and is rarely below 28 °F or above 93 °F. The summers in Shizuoka are warm, oppressive, and mostly cloudy; the winters are very cold, windy, and mostly clear. Disaster On 15 March 2011, Shizuoka Prefecture was hit witha magnitude 6.2 earthquakeapproximately 42 km (26 mi) NNE ofShizuoka City. It is said, that throughout history, Shizuoka area has experienced a large earthquake every 100 to 150 years. Demographics 3,635,220 people live in Shizuoka Prefecture, according to the 2020 census. Municipalities Since 2010, Shizuoka has consisted of 35municipalities: 23citiesand 12towns. Mergers After the introduction of modern municipalities in 1889, Shizuoka consisted of 337 municipalities: 1 (by definition: district-independent) city and 23 districts with 31", "districts with 31 towns and 305villages. The Great Shōwa mergers of the 1950s reduced the total from 281 to 97 between 1953 and 1960, including 18 cities by then. The Great Heisei mergers of the 2000s combined the 74 remaining municipalities in the year 2000 into the current 35 by 2010. List of governors of Shizuoka (since 1947) Industry Motorcycles Shizuoka-based companies are world leaders in several major industrial sectors.Honda,Yamaha, andSuzukiall have their roots in Shizuoka prefecture and are still manufacturing here. Thanks to this, Shizuoka pref. accounts for 28% of Japanesemotorcycleexports. Musical instruments YamahaandKawaiare both globalpianobrands. Yamaha has the largest share in the global piano market. Kawai has the second largest share. They both got their start in Shizuoka pref. in the early twentieth century. YamahaandRolandare major brand forelectronic musical instruments. In theelectronic pianoworld market, Yamaha has the world's largest share. Roland and Kawai have the second and third", "second and third place share. Roland and Yamaha also manufacture high-qualitysynthesizersanddrum machinesfor professional musicians. In addition, various instruments such aswind instrumentsandguitarsare manufactured in this prefecture. There are about 200 companies that manufacture musical instruments, in this prefecture. Most of these musical instruments are especially produced inHamamatsuCity. Transportation Rail Roads Expressways Toll roads National highways Airports Ports Education Universities National universities Public universities Private universities Senior high schools Sports The sports teams listed below are based in Shizuoka. Basketball Motorsport Rugby Football Volleyball Tourism Museums Theme parks Festivals and events Notable people Motoo Kimura(木村 資生, 1924–1994), biologist and theoretical population geneticist, died in Shizuoka Prefecture Notes References External links", "Yoshinobu Ishikawa Yoshinobu Ishikawa(石川 嘉延,Ishikawa Yoshinobu, born November 24, 1940)was thegovernorofShizuoka Prefecturein Japan, first elected in 1993. A native ofKakegawa, Shizuoka, formerly known asDaitō, Shizuoka, and graduate of theUniversity of Tokyo, Department of Law, he had worked at theMinistry of Home Affairssince 1964 before being elected governor. Early career After graduating from theUniversity of Tokyo, Department of Law in 1964, he joined theMinistry of Home Affairsand began work in the government bureaucracy. He worked within the ministry for 20 years before being given a position as Head of theShizuoka PrefectureHome Affairs Office. Following a two-year stint there, he climbed the ladder of the Ministry, was briefly transferred to theNational Land Agency, and eventually became Head of the Civil Servant Department in the Home Affairs Ministry in 1992. Only a year after, he decided to run for governor of his home prefecture ofShizuokaand resigned from the ministry in June 1993. He was", "June 1993. He was elected for his first of four terms in August 1993. Resignation Due to repeated delays in the opening ofShizuoka Airport, Governor Ishikawa announced at a news conference on March 25, 2009 that he would resign. The airport was the largest construction project in the prefecture at the time but the opening was delayed until June 2009. The main cause of the delay was due to the flawed original survey for the runway. The original survey placed the runway near some trees that were too high and could not be removed. It was decided in March 2009 that the runway would be shortened and therefore, the airport would not open on time. References" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_by_prominence", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauna_Kea", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klyuchevskaya_Sopka" ]

[ "List of mountain peaks by prominence This is a list ofmountainpeaks ordered by theirtopographic prominence. Terminology The prominence of a peak is the minimum height of climb to the summit on any route from a higher peak, or from sea level if there is no higher peak. The lowest point on that route is thecol. For full definitions and explanations oftopographic prominence,key col, andparent, seetopographic prominence. In particular, the different definitions of the parent of a peak are addressed at length in that article.Heighton the other hand simply means elevation of the summit above sea level. Regarding parents, theprominence parentof peak A can be found by dividing the island or region in question into territories, by tracing the runoff from the key col (mountain pass) of every peak that is more prominent than peak A. The parent is the peak whose territory peak A resides in. Theencirclement parentis found by tracing the contour below peak A's key col and picking the highest mountain in that region. This is easier to determine than the prominence parent; however, it tends to give non-intuitive results for peaks with very low cols such as Jabal Shams which is #110 in the list. Either sort of parent of a typical very high-prominence peak such asDenaliwill lie far away from the peak itself, reflecting the independence of the peak. Most sources (and the table below) define no parent for island and landmass highpoints; others treat Mount Everest as the parent of every such peak with theworld oceanas the \"key col\". Prominence table Download coordinates as: The following table lists the Earth's 125 most topographically prominent summits. Of these,Indonesiahas the most, with 13. Close behind it areChinaand theUnited Stateswith 12. 27°59′17″N86°55′30″E / 27.98806°N 86.92500°E /27.98806; 86.92500 (1. Mount Everest (8848.86 m)) 32°39′11″S70°0′42″W / 32.65306°S 70.01167°W /-32.65306; -70.01167 (2. Aconcagua (6961 m)) 63°4′10″N151°0′26″W / 63.06944°N 151.00722°W /63.06944; -151.00722 (3. Denali (6155 m)) 3°4′0″S37°21′33″E / 3.06667°S 37.35917°E /-3.06667; 37.35917 (4. Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m)) 10°50′18″N73°41′12″W / 10.83833°N 73.68667°W /10.83833; -73.68667 (5. Pico Cristóbal Colón (5509 m)) 60°34′2″N140°24′10″W / 60.56722°N 140.40278°W /60.56722; -140.40278 (6. Mount Logan (5250 m)) 19°1′48″N97°16′12″W / 19.03000°N 97.27000°W /19.03000; -97.27000 (7. Citlaltepetl (4922 m)) 78°31′32″S85°37′2″W / 78.52556°S 85.61722°W /-78.52556; -85.61722 (8. Vinson Massif (4892 m)) 4°5′S137°11′E / 4.083°S 137.183°E /-4.083; 137.183 (9. Puncak Jaya (4884 m)) 43°21′9.144″N42°26′16.350″E / 43.35254000°N 42.43787500°E /43.35254000; 42.43787500 (10. Mount Elbrus (4741 m)) 45°49′58″N6°51′54″E / 45.83278°N 6.86500°E /45.83278; 6.86500 (11. Mont Blanc ( m)) 35°57′19″N52°6′33″E / 35.95528°N 52.10917°E /35.95528; 52.10917 (12. Damavand (4667 m)) 56°4′N160°38′E / 56.067°N 160.633°E /56.067; 160.633 (13. Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4649 m)) 35°14′21″N74°35′24″E / 35.23917°N 74.59000°E /35.23917; 74.59000 (14. Nanga Parbat (4608 m)) 19°49′14″N155°28′5″W / 19.82056°N 155.46806°W /19.82056; -155.46806 (15. Mauna Kea (4207.3 m)) 42°2′5″N80°7′43″E / 42.03472°N 80.12861°E /42.03472; 80.12861 (16. Jengish Chokusu (4148 m)) 43°48′6″N88°20′6″E / 43.80167°N 88.33500°E /43.80167; 88.33500 (17. Bogda Peak (4122 m)) 1°28′9″S78°49′3″W / 1.46917°S 78.81750°W /-1.46917; -78.81750 (18. Chimborazo (4122 m)) 29°37′50″N95°3′19″E / 29.63056°N 95.05528°E /29.63056; 95.05528 (19. Namcha Barwa (4106 m)) 6°4′30″N116°33′31″E / 6.07500°N 116.55861°E /6.07500; 116.55861 (20. Mount Kota Kinabalu (4095 m)) 46°51′11″N121°45′38″W / 46.85306°N 121.76056°W /46.85306; -121.76056 (21. Mount Rainier (4023 m)) 35°52′52″N76°30′48″E / 35.88111°N 76.51333°E /35.88111; 76.51333 (22. K2 (4020 m)) 13°14′12″N38°22′21″E / 13.23667°N 38.37250°E /13.23667; 38.37250 (23. Ras Dashen (3997 m)) 15°2′N91°54′W / 15.033°N 91.900°W /15.033; -91.900 (24. Volcán Tajumulco (3980 m)) 8°32′27.1″N71°2′47.4″W / 8.540861°N 71.046500°W /8.540861; -71.046500 (25. Pico Bolívar (3957 m)) 58°54′23″N137°31′36″W / 58.90639°N 137.52667°W /58.90639; -137.52667 (26. Mount Fairweather (3955 m)) 23°28′12.00″N120°57′26.16″E / 23.4700000°N 120.9572667°E /23.4700000; 120.9572667 (27. Yushan Main Peak (3952 m)) 0°23′9″N29°52′18″E / 0.38583°N 29.87167°E /0.38583; 29.87167 (28. Mount Stanley ( m)) 27°42′0.00″N88°7′59.99″E / 27.7000000°N 88.1333306°E /27.7000000; 88.1333306 (29. Kanchenjunga (3922 m)) 36°14′45″N71°50′38″E / 36.24583°N 71.84389°E /36.24583; 71.84389 (30. Terich Mir (3908 m)) 4°13′0″N9°10′21″E / 4.21667°N 9.17250°E /4.21667; 9.17250 (31. Mount Cameroon (3901 m)) 0°6′S37°12′E / 0.100°S 37.200°E /-0.100; 37.200 (32. Mount Kenya (3825 m)) 1°41′48.998″S101°15′51.998″E / 1.69694389°S 101.26444389°E /-1.69694389; 101.26444389 (33. Mount Kerinci (3805 m)) 77°32′S167°17′E / 77.533°S 167.283°E /-77.533; 167.283 (34. Mount Erebus (3794 m)) 35°21′38″N138°43′39″E / 35.36056°N 138.72750°E /35.36056; 138.72750 (35. Mount Fuji ( m)) 31°3′43″N7°54′58″W / 31.06194°N 7.91611°W /31.06194; -7.91611 (36. Jbel Toubkal (3756 m)) 9°29′3″N83°29′19″W / 9.48417°N 83.48861°W /9.48417; -83.48861 (37. Cerro Chirripó (3727 m)) 8°25′0″S116°28′0″E / 8.41667°S 116.46667°E /-8.41667; 116.46667 (38. Rinjani (3726 m)) 43°35′42″S170°8′31″E / 43.59500°S 170.14194°E /-43.59500; 170.14194 (39. Aoraki / Mount Cook (3724 m)) 28°16′21.5″N16°38′37.0″W / 28.272639°N 16.643611°W /28.272639; -16.643611 (40. Teide (3715 m)) 5°48′S146°6′E / 5.800°S 146.100°E /-5.800; 146.100 (41. Finisterre Range (3709 m)) 46°35′42″S73°20′45″W / 46.59500°S 73.34583°W /-46.59500; -73.34583 (42. Monte San Valentin (3696 m)) 68°55′10.20″N29°53′54.72″W / 68.9195000°N 29.8985333°W /68.9195000; -29.8985333 (43. Gunnbjørn Fjeld (3694 m)) 27°6′34″S68°32′32″W / 27.10944°S 68.54222°W /-27.10944; -68.54222 (44. Ojos del Salado (3688 m)) 8°6′0″S112°55′0″E / 8.10000°S 112.91667°E /-8.10000; 112.91667 (45. Semeru (3676 m)) 6°29′39″N72°17′51″W / 6.49417°N 72.29750°W /6.49417; -72.29750 (46. Ritacuba Blanco (3645 m)) 29°35′45″N101°52′45″E / 29.59583°N 101.87917°E /29.59583; 101.87917 (47. Mount Gongga (3642 m)) 39°42′0″N44°18′0″E / 39.70000°N 44.30000°E /39.70000; 44.30000 (48. Mount Ararat (3611 m)) 38°35′38″N75°18′48″E / 38.59389°N 75.31333°E /38.59389; 75.31333 (49. Kongur Tagh (3585 m)) 61°43′54″N143°25′59″W / 61.73167°N 143.43306°W /61.73167; -143.43306 (50. Mount Blackburn (3535 m)) 63°37′15″N146°42′54″W / 63.62083°N 146.71500°W /63.62083; -146.71500 (51. Mount Hayes (3501 m)) 3°23′6″S120°1′27″E / 3.38500°S 120.02417°E /-3.38500; 120.02417 (52. Buntu Rantemario (3478 m)) 60°17′36″N140°55′46″W / 60.29333°N 140.92944°W /60.29333; -140.92944 (53. Mount Saint Elias (3448 m)) 37°45′3.00424″N14°59′35.59304″E / 37.7508345111°N 14.9932202889°E /37.7508345111; 14.9932202889 (59. Mount Etna (3357 m)) 38°56′34″N72°0′55″E / 38.94278°N 72.01528°E /38.94278; 72.01528 (54. Ismoil Somoni Peak (3402 m)) 28°41′48″N83°29′24″E / 28.69667°N 83.49000°E /28.69667; 83.49000 (55. Dhaulagiri (3357 m)) 31°58′44″S70°6′46″W / 31.97889°S 70.11278°W /-31.97889; -70.11278 (56. Mercedario (1482 m)) 49°1′8.4″S73°30′14.4″W / 49.019000°S 73.504000°W /-49.019000; -73.504000 (57. Lautaro ( m)) 49°48′25″N86°35′23″E / 49.80694°N 86.58972°E /49.80694; 86.58972 (58. Belukha Mountain (3343 m)) 47°35′30″S72°18′24″W / 47.59167°S 72.30667°W /-47.59167; -72.30667 (60. Monte San Lorenzo (3319 m)) 1°30′S29°27′E / 1.500°S 29.450°E /-1.500; 29.450 (61. Mount Karisimbi (3312 m)) 15°16′45″N43°58′33″E / 15.27917°N 43.97583°E /15.27917; 43.97583 (62. Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb (3311 m)) 51°22′25″N125°15′48″W / 51.37361°N 125.26333°W /51.37361; -125.26333 (63. Mount Waddington (3289 m)) 37°3′12″N3°18′41″W / 37.05333°N 3.31139°W /37.05333; -3.31139 (64. Mulhacén (3285 m)) 7°14′20.40″S109°13′12.00″E / 7.2390000°S 109.2200000°E /-7.2390000; 109.2200000 (65. Gunung Slamet (3284 m)) 38°16′1″N47°50′13″E / 38.26694°N 47.83694°E /38.26694; 47.83694 (66. Sabalan (3283 m)) 61°26′16″N147°45′4″W / 61.43778°N 147.75111°W /61.43778; -147.75111 (67. Mount Marcus Baker (3269 m)) 47°2′57″N85°34′0″E / 47.04917°N 85.56667°E /47.04917; 85.56667 (68. Sauyr Zhotasy (3252 m)) 27°12′51″S66°5′39″W / 27.21417°S 66.09417°W /-27.21417; -66.09417 (69. Cerro del Bolsón (3252 m)) 43°4′24″N94°20′48″E / 43.07333°N 94.34667°E /43.07333; 94.34667 (70. Tomort (3243 m)) 27°5′54″N100°10′30″E / 27.09833°N 100.17500°E /27.09833; 100.17500 (71. Jade Dragon Snow Mountain (3202 m)) 3°14′48.41″S36°45′36.90″E / 3.2467806°S 36.7602500°E /-3.2467806; 36.7602500 (72. Mount Meru (3170 m)) 56°39′13.08″N161°21′46.68″E / 56.6536333°N 161.3629667°E /56.6536333; 161.3629667 (73. Shiveluch (3168 m)) 30°22′26″N79°58′15″E / 30.37389°N 79.97083°E /30.37389; 79.97083 (74. Nanda Devi (3139 m)) 55°40′40″N157°43′18″E / 55.67778°N 157.72167°E /55.67778; 157.72167 (75. Ichinsky (3125 m)) 7°37′30″S111°11′30″E / 7.62500°S 111.19167°E /-7.62500; 111.19167 (76. Lawu Mountain (3118 m)) 36°30′36″N74°31′21″E / 36.51000°N 74.52250°E /36.51000; 74.52250 (77. Batura Sar (3118 m)) 73°26′S126°40′W / 73.433°S 126.667°W /-73.433; -126.667 (78. Mount Siple (3110 m)) 19°1′59″N71°0′19″W / 19.03306°N 71.00528°W /19.03306; -71.00528 (79. Pico Duarte (3101 m)) 28°33′0″N84°33′35″E / 28.55000°N 84.55972°E /28.55000; 84.55972 (80. Manaslu (3092 m)) 36°34′43″N118°17′31″W / 36.57861°N 118.29194°W /36.57861; -118.29194 (81. Mount Whitney (3073 m)) 21°5′56″S55°28′44″E / 21.09889°S 55.47889°E /-21.09889; 55.47889 (82. Piton des Neiges (3070 m)) 8°7′30″S114°2′30″E / 8.12500°S 114.04167°E /-8.12500; 114.04167 (83. Gunung Raung (3069 m)) 42°15′42″N80°53′24″E / 42.26167°N 80.89000°E /42.26167; 80.89000 (84. Xuelian Feng (3068 m)) 20°42′48″N156°15′27″W / 20.71333°N 156.25750°W /20.71333; -156.25750 (85. Haleakalā (3055 m)) 61°1′24″N140°27′56″W / 61.02333°N 140.46556°W /61.02333; -140.46556 (86. Mount Lucania (3046 m)) 8°20′31″S115°30′28″E / 8.34194°S 115.50778°E /-8.34194; 115.50778 (87. Mount Agung (3031 m)) 3°10′24″S129°27′18″E / 3.17333°S 129.45500°E /-3.17333; 129.45500 (88. Gunung Binaiya (3027 m)) 19°1′19.99″N98°37′40.01″W / 19.0222194°N 98.6277806°W /19.0222194; -98.6277806 (89. Popocatépetl (3020 m)) 3°35′0″N8°46′0″E / 3.58333°N 8.76667°E /3.58333; 8.76667 (90. Pico Basilé (3011 m)) 53°19′N158°41′E / 53.317°N 158.683°E /53.317; 158.683 (91. Koryaksky (2999 m)) 28°2′49″N90°27′18″E / 28.04694°N 90.45500°E /28.04694; 90.45500 (92. Gangkhar Puensum (2995 m)) 69°49′S69°43′W / 69.817°S 69.717°W /-69.817; -69.717 (93. Mount Stephenson (2987 m)) 28°35′46″N83°49′26″E / 28.59611°N 83.82389°E /28.59611; 83.82389 (94. Annapurna I (2984 m)) 43°7′4.22″N77°20′28.80″E / 43.1178389°N 77.3413333°E /43.1178389; 77.3413333 (95. Pik Talgar (2982 m)) 41°24′33.11″N122°11′41.60″W / 41.4091972°N 122.1948889°W /41.4091972; -122.1948889 (96. Mount Shasta (2977 m)) 5°48′0″S145°2′0″E / 5.80000°S 145.03333°E /-5.80000; 145.03333 (97. Mount Wilhelm (2969 m)) 8°54′24″S125°29′36″E / 8.90667°S 125.49333°E /-8.90667; 125.49333 (98. Tatamailau (2963 m)) 6°59′15″N125°16′15″E / 6.98750°N 125.27083°E /6.98750; 125.27083 (99. Mount Apo (2954 m)) 29°48′51″N94°58′6″E / 29.81417°N 94.96833°E /29.81417; 94.96833 (100. Gyala Peri (2942 m)) 3°47′51″N97°13′9″E / 3.79750°N 97.21917°E /3.79750; 97.21917 (101. Gunung Leuser (2941 m)) 54°26′27″S36°33′19″W / 54.44083°S 36.55528°W /-54.44083; -36.55528 (102. Mount Paget (2934 m)) 38°51′57″N75°6′30″E / 38.86583°N 75.10833°E /38.86583; 75.10833 (103. Chakragil (2934 m)) 19°47′22″N18°33′4″E / 19.78944°N 18.55111°E /19.78944; 18.55111 (104. Emi Koussi (2934 m)) 51°53′58″N125°52′33″W / 51.89944°N 125.87583°W /51.89944; -125.87583 (105. Monarch Mountain (2930 m)) 9°40′9″S149°0′39″E / 9.66917°S 149.01083°E /-9.66917; 149.01083 (106. Mount Suckling (2925 m)) 16°35′1″N120°53′1″E / 16.58361°N 120.88361°E /16.58361; 120.88361 (107. Mount Pulag (2922 m)) 28°52′3″S67°7′39″W / 28.86750°S 67.12750°W /-28.86750; -67.12750 (108. El Mela (2907 m)) 28°36′N61°8′E / 28.600°N 61.133°E /28.600; 61.133 (109. Mount Taftan (2901 m)) 23°14′14.5975″N57°15′49.6573″E / 23.237388194°N 57.263793694°E /23.237388194; 57.263793694 (110. Jebel Shams (2818 m)) 28°21′8″N85°46′47″E / 28.35222°N 85.77972°E /28.35222; 85.77972 (111. Shishapangma (2897 m)) 0°48′19.78″N66°0′19.29″W / 0.8054944°N 66.0053583°W /0.8054944; -66.0053583 (112. Pico da Neblina (2886 m)) 25°44′N95°2′E / 25.733°N 95.033°E /25.733; 95.033 (113. Mount Saramati (2885 m)) 14°1′22″S48°57′57″E / 14.02278°S 48.96583°E /-14.02278; 48.96583 (114. Maromokotro (2876 m)) 54°45′N163°58′W / 54.750°N 163.967°W /54.750; -163.967 (115. Mount Shishaldin (2869 m)) 5°20′48.04465″S119°55′53.99951″E / 5.3466790694°S 119.9316665306°E /-5.3466790694; 119.9316665306 (116. Moncong Lompobatang (2857 m)) 36°9′15″N72°19′39″E / 36.15417°N 72.32750°E /36.15417; 72.32750 (117. Buni Zom (2845 m)) 36°10′45″N70°59′0″E / 36.17917°N 70.98333°E /36.17917; 70.98333 (118. Kuh-e Bandaka (2834 m)) 53°6′38″N119°9′24″W / 53.11056°N 119.15667°W /53.11056; -119.15667 (119. Mount Robson (2829 m)) 14°56′57.37″N24°20′25.33″W / 14.9492694°N 24.3403694°W /14.9492694; -24.3403694 (120. Pico do Fogo (2829 m)) 30°55′12″N79°35′36″E / 30.92000°N 79.59333°E /30.92000; 79.59333 (121. Kamet (2825 m)) 36°8′33″N74°29′21″E / 36.14250°N 74.48917°E /36.14250; 74.48917 (122. Rakaposhi (2818 m)) 42°37′51.57″N0°39′24.07″E / 42.6309917°N 0.6566861°E /42.6309917; 0.6566861 (123. Aneto (2812 m)) 7°45′54″S112°35′23″E / 7.76500°S 112.58972°E /-7.76500; 112.58972 (124. Arjuno-Welirang (2812 m)) 31°32′36″N103°51′12″E / 31.54333°N 103.85333°E /31.54333; 103.85333 (125. Jiuding Shan (2808 m)) Additional peaks The list of peaks that follows is not complete, but the peaks are all notable. Island high points (whose prominence is equal to their elevation) can be found at theList of islands by highest point; hence most are not included below. Some well-known peaks listed here do not score highly by prominence. All peaks with a prominence of more than 1,500 metres rank as anUltra. For a complete listing of all 1,524 peaks with prominence greater than this level, see thelists of Ultras. In the table, the prominence parent is marked \"1\", and the encirclement parent \"2\". Where a single parent is listed, the different definitions agree. See also Notes *.^By convention, cols created by human activity are not counted. Therefore, theSuez,Panamaand other canals are ignored in these calculations. Cuts that lower the natural elevations of mountain passes are also ignored.Towers, monuments and similar on the peaks are also ignored. References External links", "Mauna Kea Mauna Kea(/ˌmɔːnəˈkeɪə,ˌmaʊnə-/,Hawaiian:; abbreviation forMauna a Wākea)is a dormantshieldvolcanoon theisland of Hawaiʻi.Its peak is 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level, making it thehighest point in Hawaiiandthe island with the second highest high point, behind New Guinea, the world's largest tropical island with multiple peaks that are higher. The peak is about 38 m (125 ft) higher thanMauna Loa, its more massive neighbor. Mauna Kea is unusuallytopographically prominentfor its height: its prominence from sea level isfifteenth in the worldamong mountains, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft); its prominence from under the ocean is 9,330 m (30,610 ft), rivaled only byMount Everest. Thisdry prominenceis greater than Everest's height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), and some authorities have labeled Mauna Kea the tallest mountain in the world, from its underwater base.Mauna Kea is ranked 8th bytopographic isolation. It is about one million years old and thus passed the most activeshield stageof life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its currentpost-shieldstate, its lava is moreviscous, resulting in a steeper profile. Latevolcanismhas also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes due to construction ofcinder cones, decentralization of itsrift zones,glaciationon its peak, and weathering by the prevailingtrade winds. Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now thought to bedormant. InHawaiian religion, the peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred. An ancient law allowed only high-rankingaliʻito visit its peak.Ancient Hawaiiansliving on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, and quarried the dense volcano-glacialbasaltson its flanks fortool production. When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep, and game animals, many of which becameferaland began to damage the volcano's ecological balance. Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections: analpine climateat its summit, aSophora chrysophylla–Myoporum sandwicense(or māmane–naio) forest on its flanks, and anAcacia koa–Metrosideros polymorpha(or koa–ʻōhiʻa) forest, now mostly cleared bythe former sugar industry, at its base. In recent years, concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced theHawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resourcesto work towards eradicating all feral species on the volcano. With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation. Since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit. TheMauna Kea Observatoriesare used for scientific research across theelectromagnetic spectrumand comprise the largest such facility in the world. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to bea topic of debate to this day. Topographic prominence Mauna Kea is unusuallytopographically prominentfor its height, with a wet prominencefifteenth in the worldamong mountains, and a dry prominencesecond in the world, after onlyMount Everest.It is the highest peak on its island, so its wet prominence matches its height above sea level, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft).Because theHawaiian Islandsslope deep into the ocean, Mauna Kea has a dry prominence of 9,330 m (30,610 ft).This dry prominence is taller than Mount Everest's height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), so Everest would have to include whole continents in its foothills to exceed Mauna Kea's dry prominence. Given how much Mauna Kea protrudes from theHawaiian Trough, some authorities have called it the tallest (as opposed tohighest) mountain in the world, as measured from base to peak.Unlike prominence, base is loosely defined, which has resulted in numbers ranging from 9,966 m (32,696 ft)(roughly to the deepest point in the Hawaiian Trough) to 17,205 m (56,447 ft)(to the root of the mountain deep underground). Those calculations have produced rivaling claims for other mountains, such as higher climb from base forMount Lamlam(11,528 m (37,820 ft), starting from nearbyChallenger Deep),and the tremendously deep roots of theHimalayan Mountains.Greater rises could be measured from theAtacama Trenchto theAndes Mountains, for example, the bottom of Richard's Deep (8,065 m (26,460 ft) deep) to the peak of the nearbyLlullaillaco(6,739 m (22,110 ft) high) is 14,804 m (48,570 ft).Neither Mount Lamlam nor Llullaillaco have the dry prominence of Mauna Kea, because they do not extend into trenches in every direction. Geology Mauna Kea is one offive volcanoesthat form theisland of Hawaiʻi, the largest and youngest island of theHawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.Of these fivehotspot volcanoes, Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active.It began as apreshieldvolcano driven by theHawaiʻi hotspotaround one million years ago, and became exceptionally active during itsshield stageuntil 500,000 years ago.Mauna Kea entered its quieterpost-shield stage250,000 to 200,000 years ago,and is currently active, having last erupted between 4,500 and 6,000 years ago.Mauna Kea does not have a visible summitcaldera, but contains a number of smallcinderandpumicecones near its summit. A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits. Mauna Kea is over 32,000 km3(7,680 cu mi) in volume, so massive that it and its neighbor,Mauna Loa, depress theocean crustbeneath it by 6 km (4 mi). The volcano continues toslipand flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than 0.2 mm (0.01 in) per year. Much of its mass lies east of its present summit. It stands 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level,about 38 m (125 ft) higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa,and is thehighest point in the state of Hawaii. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Kea has been created as thePacific tectonic platehas moved over theHawaiian hotspotin the Earth's underlyingmantle.The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Hawaiian Ridge–Emperor seamount chain.The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that thehotspothas been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much, if not all of theCenozoicEra.However, while Hawaiian volcanism is well understood and extensively studied, there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect. Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth. Most prominently, Mauna Kea is built upon older flows fromKohalato the northwest, and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south.The original eruptive fissures (rift zones) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post-shield volcanism.Hilo Ridge, a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea, was once believed to be a part of the volcano; however, it is now understood to be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows. The shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the volcano aretholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Loa, created through the mixing of primarymagmaandsubductedoceanic crust.They are covered by the oldest exposedrock strataon Mauna Kea, the post-shieldalkali basaltsof theHāmākua Volcanics, which erupted between 250,000 and 70–65,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic flows arehawaiitesandmugearites: they are the post-shieldLaupāhoehoe Volcanics, erupted between 65,000 and 4,000 years ago.These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit, which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy. The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain morevolatilesthan the earlier tholeiitic basalts; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea's flanks. In addition,explosive eruptionshave builtcinder conesnear the summit.These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea. Its present summit is dominated bylava domesand cinder cones up to 1.5 km (0.9 mi) in diameter and hundreds of meters tall. Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence ofglaciation.Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa, but have been covered by later lava flows.Despite Hawaii's tropical location, during several pastice agesa drop of a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the volcano's summit through summer, triggering the formation of anice cap.There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180,000 years: thePōhakuloa(180–130ka),Wāihu(80–60 ka) andMākanaka(40–13 ka) series. These have extensively sculpted the summit, depositingmorainesand a circular ring oftilland gravel along the volcano's upper flanks.Subglacial eruptionsbuilt cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation,most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action. The most recent cones were built between 9,000 and 4,500 years ago, atop the glacial deposits,although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3,600 years ago. At their maximum extent, the glaciers extended from the summit down to between 3,200 and 3,800 m (10,500 and 12,500 ft) of elevation.A small body ofpermafrost, less than 25 m (80 ft) across, was found at the summit of Mauna Kea before 1974, and may still be present.Small gullies etch the summit, formed by rain- and snow-fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers.On the windward side of the volcano,stream erosiondriven bytrade windshas accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala. Mauna Kea is home toLake Waiau, the highest lake in thePacific Basin.At an altitude of 3,969 m (13,022 ft), it lies within the Puʻu Waiau cinder cone and is the onlyalpine lakein Hawaii. The lake is very small and shallow, with a surface area of 0.73 ha (1.80 acres) and a depth of 3 m (10 ft) when fullest.Radiocarbon datingof samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12,600 years ago. Hawaiian lava types are typicallypermeable, preventing lake formation due toinfiltration. Either sulfur-bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low-permeability clays, or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water duringphreatic eruptionsformed exceptionally fine ash that reduced the permeability of the lake bed. No artesian water was known on the island of Hawaiʻi until 1993 when drilling by theUniversity of Hawaiʻitapped anartesian aquifermore than 300 m (980 ft) below sea level, that extended more than 100 m (330 ft) of theborehole's total depth. The borehole had drilled through a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of Mauna Loa had encroached upon the exposed Mauna Kea surface and had subsequently been subsided below sea level. Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at higher than 2,000 m (6,600 ft) above mean sea level. The aquifer's presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea's basal lens. Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea's freshwaterlensthan current models may indicate.Two more boreholes were drilled on Mauna Kea in 2012, with water being found at much higher elevations and shallower depths than expected. Donald Thomas, director of the University of Hawaiʻi's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and occupancy of the higher elevation areas, stating: \"Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that, in most cases, must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo — an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels.\" Future activity The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4,600 years ago (about 2600 BC);because of this inactivity, Mauna Kea is assigned aUnited States Geological Surveyhazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks, out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 (which is given to theextinct volcanoKohala). Since 8000 BC lava flows have covered 20% of the volcano's summit and virtually none of its flanks. Despite its dormancy, Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again. Based on earlier eruptions, such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano's upper flanks and would likely produce long lava flows, mostly ofʻaʻā, 15–25 km (9–16 mi) long. Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source. Although not likely in the next few centuries, such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure. Human history Native history The firstAncient Hawaiiansto arrive on Hawaiʻi island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful. Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa – Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting, collecting stone material, and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations.The mountain's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source. Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species. Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals, and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion.The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the prevailing cause of forestecosystem collapseand avian extinction on Hawaiʻi appears to have been the introduction of thePolynesian (or Pacific) rat. The five volcanoes of Hawaiʻi are revered assacred mountains; and Mauna Kea's summit, the highest, is the most sacred.For this reason, akapu(ancient Hawaiian law) restricted visitor rights to high-ranking aliʻi. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. InHawaiian mythology, the summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the \"region of the gods\", a place where benevolent spirits reside.Poliʻahu, deity of snow, also resides there.\"Mauna Kea\" is an abbreviation for Mauna aWākeaand means \"white mountain,\" in reference to its seasonally snow-capped summit. Around AD 1100, natives establishedadzequarrieshigh up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely densebasalt(generated by the quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice duringsubglacial eruptions) to make tools.Volcanic glassandgabbrowere collected for blades and fishing gear, andmāmanewood was preferred for the handles. At peak quarry activity after AD 1400, there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting; shelters with food, water, and wood to sustain the workers; and workshops creating the finished product. Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers. Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water, to give them the strength of the mountain. Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans. As part of the ritual associated with quarrying, the workers erected shrines to their gods; these and other quarry artifacts remain at the sites, most of which lie within what is now theMauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. This early era was followed by cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for the immediate needs of the populace. Theseahupuaʻagenerally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast. Mauna Kea's summit was encompassed in the ahupuaʻa of Kaʻohe, with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humuʻula. Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane–naioforest of its upper slopes, which provided them with vegetation and bird life. Bird species hunted included theʻuaʻu(Pterodroma sandwichensis),nēnē(Branta sandvicensis), andpalila(Loxioides bailleui). The lowerkoa–ʻōhiʻaforest gave the natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration. Modern era There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaiʻi before the arrival ofJames Cook, in 1778.However, the earliest Western depictions of the isle, including Mauna Kea, were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents. Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases; port cities includingHilo,Kealakekua, andKailuagrew with the establishment of trade; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools. In 1793, cattle were brought byGeorge Vancouveras a tribute to KingKamehameha I. By the early 19th century, they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely, greatly damaging its ecosystem. In 1809John Palmer Parkerarrived and befriended Kamehameha I, who put him in charge of cattle management on the island. With an additionalland grantin 1845, Parker establishedParker Ranchon the northern slope of Mauna Kea, a large cattleranchthat is still in operation today.Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the lower native forest forsugarcaneplantations and houses. TheSaddle Road, named for its crossing of the saddle-shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, was completed in 1943, and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably. ThePohakuloa Training Areaon the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaiʻi. The 108,863-acre (44,055 ha) base extends from the volcano's lower flanks to 2,070 m (6,790 ft) elevation, on state land leased to the US Army since 1956. There are 15 threatened and endangered plants, three endangered birds, and one endangered bat species in the area. Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s. Approximately 27 percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000, identifying 76 shrines, 4 adze manufacturing workshops, 3 other markers, 1 positively identified burial site, and 4 possible burial sites.By 2009, the total number of identified sites had risen to 223, and archaeological research on the volcano's upper flanks is ongoing.It has been suggested that the shrines, which are arranged around the volcano's summit along what may be an ancientsnow line, are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea. Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history, few sites have been confirmed. The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting the volcano may be because they were reserved for burial. Ascents In pre-contact times, natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails, as no evidence of trails has been found. It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead. Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea's slopes to visit family-maintained shrines near its summit, and traditions related to ascending the mountain exist to this day. However, very few natives reached the summit, because of the strictkapuplaced on it. In the early 19th century, the earliest notablerecordedascents of Mauna Kea included the following: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed, often by the movement of game herds, that could be traveled on horseback.However, vehicular access to the summit was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964, and it continues to be restricted.Today, multiple trails to the summit exist, in various states of use. Ecology Background Hawaiʻi'sgeographical isolationstrongly influences its ecology. Remote islands like Hawaiʻi have a large number of species that are found nowhere else (seeEndemism in the Hawaiian Islands).The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated theseendemic speciesfrom external biotic influence, and also makes them especially vulnerable toextinctionand the effects ofinvasive species. In addition the ecosystems of Hawaiʻi are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture; an estimated third of the island's endemic species have already been wiped out. Because of its elevation, Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation.These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation:alpine–subalpine,montane, andbasal forest. Contact with Americans and Europeans in the early 19th century brought more settlers to the island, and had a lasting negative ecological effect. On lower slopes, vast tracts of koa–ʻōhiʻa forest were converted to farmland. Higher up,feralanimals that escaped from ranches found refuge in, and damaged extensively, Mauna Kea's native māmane–naio forest.Non-native plants are the other serious threat; there are over 4,600 introduced species on the island, whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1,000. Alpine environment The summit of Mauna Kea lies above thetree line, and consists of mostly lava rock andalpine tundra. An area of heavy snowfall, it is inhospitable to vegetation, and is known as theHawaiian tropical high shrublands. Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures, a short growing season, low rainfall, and snow during winter months. A lack of soil also retards root growth, makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from the ground, and gives the area a very lowwater retention capacity. Plant species found at this elevation includeStyphelia tameiameiae,Taraxacum officinale,Tetramolopiumhumile,Agrostissandwicensis,Anthoxanthum odoratum,Trisetumglomeratum,Poa annua,Sonchus oleraceus, andCoprosmaernodiodes. One notable species isMauna Kea silversword(Argyroxiphium sandwicensevar.sandwicense), a highlyendangeredendemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea's high elevation cinder deserts. At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants,Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone, but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock, and can grow at lower elevations as well. TheMauna Kea Ice Age Reserveon the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea was established in 1981. The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock, including areas ofaeolian desertand Lake Waiau.This ecosystem is a likely haven for thethreatenedʻuaʻu(Pterodroma sandwichensis) and also the center of a study onwēkiu bugs(Nysius wekiuicola). Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks. This is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genusNysius, which consists of predominantly seed-eating insects. They can survive at extreme elevations of up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft)because ofnatural antifreezein their blood. They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time. Their conservation status is unclear, but the species is no longer a candidate for theEndangered Species List; studies on the welfare of the species began in 1980. The closely relatedNysius aalives on Mauna Loa.Wolf spiders(Lycosidae) andforest tent caterpillar mothshave also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem; the former survive by hiding under heat-absorbing rocks, and the latter through cold-resistant chemicals in their bodies.Several native moths are also present near the summit includingAgrotis helelaandAgrotis kuamauna. Māmane–naio forest Theforested zoneon the volcano, at an elevation of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft), is dominated by māmane (Sophora chrysophylla) and naio (Myoporum sandwicense), both endemic tree species, and is thus known as māmane–naio forest. Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone, especially thepalila(Loxioides bailleui). The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, andHualālai, but is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea—only 10% of its former range—and has been declaredcritically endangered. The largest threat to the ecosystem isgrazingby feral sheep, cattle (Bos primigenius),and goats (Capra hircus) introduced to the island in the late 18th century. Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as the late 1920s,and continued through to 1949. One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence ofherbaceousandwoodyplants, both endemic and introduced, that were resistant to browsing.The feral animals were almost eradicated, and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s. However, an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued asgame animals, and in 1959 theHawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources, the governing body in charge of conservation and land use management, changed its policy to a sustained-control program designed to facilitate the sport. Mouflon(Ovis aries orientalis) was introduced from 1962 to 1964,and a plan to releaseaxis deer(Axis axis) in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry, who said that they would damage crops and spread disease. The hunting industry fought back, and the back-and-forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern. With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing, conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea's ecosystem. A plan was proposed to fence 25% of the forests for protection, and manage the remaining 75% for game hunting. Despite opposition from conservationists the plan was put into action. While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence. In the midst of this wrangling theEndangered Species Actwas passed; theNational Audubon SocietyandSierra Club Legal Defense Fundfiled a lawsuit against theHawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources, claiming that they were violating federal law, in the landmark casePalila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources(1978). The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld the precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife. Having violated the Endangered Species Act, Hawaiʻi state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside.This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981. A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals,at least temporarily. An active control program is in place,though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of the māmane-naio ecosystem.There are many other species and ecosystems on the island, and on Mauna Kea, that remain threatened by human development and invasive species. The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects 52,500 acres (212 km2) of māmane-naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources.Ungulatehunting is allowed year-round.A small part of the māmane–naio forest is encompassed by theMauna Kea State Recreation Area. Lower environment A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea's lower slopes was formerlyAcacia koa–Metrosideros polymorpha(koa-ʻōhiʻa) forest.Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century, as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes. Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations. Most of the houses on the island were built of koa, and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes. The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880, and by 1900, logging interests had shifted toKonaand the island ofMaui.With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s, much of this land liesfallowbut portions are used for cattle grazing, small-scale farming and the cultivation ofeucalyptusforwood pulp. TheHakalau Forest National Wildlife Refugeis a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea's windward slope. It was established in 1985, covering 32,733 acres (13,247 ha) of ecosystem remnant. Eight endangered bird species, twelve endangered plants, and the endangeredHawaiian hoary bat(Lasiurus cinereus semotus) have been observed in the area, in addition to many other rare biota. The reserve has been the site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989.Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem,as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland. Bird species native to the acacia koa–ʻōhiʻa forest include theHawaiian crow(Corvus hawaiiensis), theʻakepa(Loxops coccineus),Hawaii creeper(Oreomystis mana),ʻakiapōlāʻau(Hemignathus munroi), andHawaiian hawk(Buteo solitarius), all of which are endangered, threatened, or near threatened; the Hawaiian crow in particular isextinct in the wild, but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve. Summit observatories Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world forastronomical observationdue to favorable observing conditions.The arid conditions are important forsubmillimeterandinfraredastronomy for this region of theelectromagnetic spectrum. The summit is above theinversion layer, keeping mostcloud coverbelow the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free ofatmospheric pollution. The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lackingturbulencefor some of the world's bestastronomical seeing. The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizeslight pollutionfrom the surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faintastronomical objects.These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing. In the early 1960s, the Hawaiʻi IslandChamber of Commerceencouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea, as economic stimulus; this coincided withUniversity of ArizonaastronomerGerard Kuiper's search for sites to use newly improved detectors ofinfrared light. Site testing by Kuiper's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed the summit's outstanding suitability. An intense three-way competition forNASAfunds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper,Harvard University, and theUniversity of Hawaiʻi(UH), which only had experience in solar astronomy. This culminated in funds being awarded to the \"upstart\" UH proposal.UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a newInstitute for Astronomy, and in 1968 the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65-year lease for all land within a 4 km (2.5 mi) radius of its telescope, essentially that above 11,500 ft (3,505 m).On its completion in 1970, theUH 88 in (2.2 m)was the seventh largest optical/infrared telescope in the world. By 1970, two 24 in (0.6 m) telescopes had been constructed by theUS Air ForceandLowell Observatory. In 1973, Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6 mCFHTon Mauna Kea.However, local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory. This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan, drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980. In January 1982, the UHBoard of Regentsapproved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site.In 1998, 2,033 acres (823 ha) were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020: it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management,designated 525 acres (212 ha) for astronomy, and shifted the remaining 10,763 acres (4,356 ha) to \"natural and cultural preservation\". This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown toward the cultural values of the mountain. Today the Mauna Kea Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities, each funded by as many as 11 countries.There are nine telescopes working in the visible and infrared spectrum, three in the submillimeter spectrum, and one in the radio spectrum, with mirrors or dishes ranging from 0.9 to 25 m (3 to 82 ft).In comparison, theHubble Space Telescopehas a 2.4 m (7.9 ft) mirror, similar in size to the UH88, now the second smallest telescope on the mountain. A \"Save Mauna Kea\" movement believes development of the mountain to be sacrilegious.Native Hawaiian non-profit groups such as Kahea, concerned with cultural heritage and the environment, also oppose development for cultural and religious reasons.The multi-telescope \"outrigger\" proposed in 2006 was eventually canceled.A planned new telescope, theThirty Meter Telescope(TMT), has attracted controversy andprotests.The TMT was approved in April 2013.In October 2014, the groundbreaking ceremony for the telescope was interrupted by protesters causing the project to temporarily halt.In late March 2015, demonstrators blocked access of the road to the summit again.On April 2, 2015, 300 protestors were gathered near the visitor's center when 12 people were arrested with 11 more arrested at the summit.Among the concerns of the protest groups are the land appraisals and Native Hawaiians consultation.Construction was halted on April 7, 2015, after protests expanded over the state.After several halts, the project has been voluntarily postponed. Governor Ige announced substantial changes to the management of Mauna Kea in the future but stated the project can move forward.TheSupreme Court of Hawaiʻiapproved the resumption of construction on October 31, 2018.Protestors have posted online petitions as a reaction against the Thirty Meter Telescope. The online petition titled \"The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT Telescope\" was posted toChange.orgon July 14, 2019. The online petition has currently gathered over 278,057 signatures worldwide.Some protesters have also called for the impeachment of Hawaiian GovernorDavid Igebecause of his support for the Thirty Meter Telescope. On July 18, 2019, an online petition titled \"Impeach Governor David Ige\" had been posted to Change.org and has currently gathered over 62,562 signatures. As of late 2021, construction plans are currently on hold due to the ongoing effects of theCOVID-19 pandemicand a shift in funding for the project that may see federal funds made available through theNational Science Foundation.The controversy surrounding construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope continues. Independent polls commissioned by local media organizationsshow consistent support for the project in the islands with over two thirds of local residents supporting the project. These same polls indicate Native Hawaiian community support remains split with about half of Hawaiian respondents supporting construction of the new telescope. A July 2022 state law responds to the protests by shifting control over the master land lease from the University of Hawaii to the new Mauna Kea Stewardship and Oversight Authority (MKSOA).The MKSOA is a 12-member board (11 voting members and 1 non-voting member) which includes representatives from the university, astronomers and native Hawaiiansand it was created with the aim of finding a balance between the conflicting interests of astronomers and native Hawaiians. It is placed within theHawaii department of land and natural resourcesand will be the principal authority for the management of state-managed lands within the Mauna Kea lands after a 5-year transition period from the university starting on July 1, 2023.During the transition period, the MKSOA and the university will jointly manage the land while the authority develops a management plan to govern land uses, human activities, and overall operations.Once the transition period is up in 2028, the authority's responsibilities will include issuing new land use permits which will be important as the current master lease ends in 2033, and any observatories which don't come up with new leases by the time of its expiration will be decommissioned. Climate Mauna Kea has analpine climate(ET). Due to the influence of its tropical latitude, temperature swings are very low. Frosts are common year round, but the average monthly temperature remains above freezing throughout the year. Snow may fall at an altitude of 11,000 ft (3,353 m) and above in any month, but occurs most often from October to April. A weather station was operated from 1972 to 1982; however, only 33 months within this period have temperature records; many years only have data for two months. The temperatures presented below aresmoothed averages, not the raw numbers recorded by NOAA. Recreation Mauna Kea's coastline is dominated by theHamakuaCoast, an area of rugged terrain created by frequent slumps and landslides on the volcano's flank.The area includes several recreation parks includingKalopa State Recreation Area,Wailuku River State ParkandAkaka Falls State Park. There are over 3,000 registered hunters on Hawaii island, and hunting, for both recreation and sustenance, is a common activity on Mauna Kea. A public hunting program is used to control the numbers of introduced animals including pigs, sheep, goats, turkey,pheasants, andquail.TheMauna Kea State Recreation Areafunctions as a base camp for the sport.Birdwatchingis also common at lower levels on the mountain.A popular site isKīpuka Puʻu Huluhulu, akīpukaon Mauna Kea's flank that formed when lava flows isolated the forest on a hill. Mauna Kea's great height and the steepness of its flanks provide a better view and a shorter hike than the adjacent Mauna Loa. The height with its risk ofaltitude sickness, weather concerns, steep road grade, and overall inaccessibility make the volcano dangerous and summit trips difficult. Until the construction of roads in the mid-20th century, only the hardy visited Mauna Kea's upper slopes; hunters tracked game animals, and hikers traveled up the mountain. These travelers used stone cabins constructed by theCivilian Conservation Corpsin the 1930s as base camps, and it is from these facilities that the modern mid-levelOnizuka Center for International Astronomytelescope support complex is derived. The first Mauna Kea summit road was built in 1964, making the peak accessible to more people. Today, multiple hiking trails exist, including theMauna Kea Trail, and by 2007 over 100,000 tourists and 32,000 vehicles were going each year to the Visitor Information Station (VIS) adjacent to the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy. The Mauna Kea Access Road is paved up to the Center at 2,804 m (9,199 ft).One study reported that around a third of visitors and two-thirds of professional astronomers working on the mountain have experienced symptoms of acute altitude sickness.Visitors to the mountain should prepare ahead of time by acclimating at a lower elevation or using a prescription medicine like Diamox.It is strongly recommended to use afour-wheel drivevehicle to drive all the way to the top. Brakes often overheat on the way down and there is no fuel available on Mauna Kea.A free Star Gazing Program was previously held at the VIS every night from 6-10 pm, with the program canceled due to both a change in operating hours and closure due to the ongoingCOVID-19 pandemic.Between 5,000 and 6,000 people visit the summit of Mauna Kea each year, and to help ensure safety, and protect the integrity of the mountain, aranger programwas implemented in 2001. See also Footnotes References Further reading External links", "Klyuchevskaya Sopka Klyuchevskaya Sopka(Russian:Ключевская сопка; also known asKlyuchevskoi,Russian:Ключевской) is astratovolcano, the highestmountainofSiberiaand the highestactive volcanoofEurasia. Its steep, symmetrical cone towers about 100 kilometres (60 mi) from theBering Sea. The volcano is part of the naturalVolcanoes of KamchatkaUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Klyuchevskaya Sopka is ranked 15th in the world bytopographic isolation. Klyuchevskaya appeared 7,000 years ago.Its first recorded eruption occurred in 1697,and it has been almost continuously active ever since, as have many of its neighboring volcanoes. It was first climbed in 1788 by Daniel Gauss and two other members of theBillings Expedition.No other ascents were recorded until 1931, when several climbers were killed by flying lava on the descent. As similar dangers still exist today, few ascents are made. Eruptions Klyuchevskaya Sopka has erupted 110 times during theHoloceneEpoch. 2007 eruption Beginning in early January 2007, Klyuchevskaya Sopka began another eruption cycle. Students from theUniversity of Alaska Fairbanksand scientists of theAlaska Volcano Observatorytraveled to Kamchatka in the spring to monitor the eruption. On 28 June 2007, the volcano began to experience the largest explosions so far recorded in this eruption cycle. An ash plume from the eruption reached a height of 10 km (33,000 ft) before drifting eastward, disrupting air traffic between the United States and Asia and causing ashfalls on Alaska'sUnimak Island. 2010 eruption As early as 27 February 2010, gas plumes had erupted from Klyuchevskaya Sopka, reaching elevations of 7,000 m (22,966 ft). During the first week of March 2010, both explosive ash eruptions and effusive lava eruptions occurred until March 9th; the ash cloud was reported to have reached an elevation of 6,000 m (19,685 ft). As well, significant thermal anomalies have been reported, and gas-steam plumes extended roughly 50 km (31 mi) to the north-east from the volcano beginning on March 3rd. 2012 eruptions On 15 October 2012, the volcano had a weak eruption that stopped the following day. A weak thermal eruption occurred on 29 November 2012, then stopped again, as all of its neighboring volcanoesBezymianny,Karymsky,Kizimen,Shiveluch, andTolbachikerupted more actively and continuously, taking a major magma supply load off of Klyuchevskaya Sopka. 2013 eruptions On 25 January 2013, the volcano had a weakStrombolian eruptionthat stopped the following day. During January 2013, all volcanoes in the eastern part of Kamchatka—Bezymianny, Karymsky, Kizimen, Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Shiveluch, and Tolbachik—erupted, with the exception ofKamen. On 15 August 2013, the volcano had another weak Strombolian eruption with some slight lava flow that put on an excellent fireworks display before stopping on 21 August 2013, whenGorelyVolcano woke up and started erupting again in relief of Klyuchevskaya Sopka. On 12 October, Klyuchevskaya Sopka had another three days of on-and-off eruptions with anomalies and a short ash plume, possibly indicating Strombolian and weak Vulcanian activity. An explosion from a new cinder cone low on Kliuchevskoi's southwest flank occurred on 12 October. An ash plume rose to altitudes of 6–7 km (20,000–23,000 ft), and drifted eastward. The eruptions weakened and paused by 16 October 2013. On 19 November, a strong explosion occurred, and observers reported that ash plumes rose to altitudes of 10–12 km (33,000–39,000 ft) and drifted southeast. The Aviation Color Code was raised to Red. Later that day, the altitudes of the ash plumes were lower and the eruptions weakened and stopped again. On 7 December, activity at Kliuchevskoi significantly increased, having continued during 29 November – 7 December, promptingKVERTto raise the Alert Level to Red. Ash plumes rose to altitudes of 5.5–6 km (18,000–20,000 ft) abovesea leveland drifted more than 212 km (132 mi) northeast and over 1,000 km (621 mi) east. According to a news article, a warning to aircraft was issued for the area around the volcanoes. Video showed gas-and-steam activity, and satellite images detected a daily weak thermal anomaly. On 9 December, the Alert Level was lowered to Green when the eruptions abruptly stopped. 2015 eruptions On 2 January 2015, after a one-year period of inactivity, the volcano had a Strombolian eruption which stopped on 16 January 2015. Minor eruptions resumed on 10 March 2015 and stopped on 24 March 2015. On 27 August 2015, the volcano had another Strombolian eruption which ended 16 hours later. 2019 eruptions Kluchevskaya Sopka saw renewed eruption activity beginning in 2019.On 25 October 2019, the volcano had another weak Strombolian eruption which ended some 30 hours later. 2020 eruption A volcanic eruption occurred on 9 December 2020. 2022 eruption A volcanic eruption started on 20 November 2022. 2023 eruptions A volcanic eruption started on 22 June 2023.The June eruption follows nearby eruptions on 11 April 2023 in other volcanoes in the area.A significant eruptive event occurred as part of ongoing activity on 1 November 2023, sending ash as high as 13 km (8.1 mi) above sea level and causing flight delays as far away as Vancouver, BC, on 4–5 November 2023. 2022 climbing accidents In September 2022, nine people died while climbing Kluchevskaya Sopka. They were part of a 12-strong group of Russian nationals, which included two guides. Five climbers were killed after a fall at about 4,000 meters. Another four, including a guide, died on the mountainside afterwards. A rescue helicopter managed to land at 1,663 meters at the fourth attempt, bringing rescuers who faced a two-day climb to reach a volcanologists' hut at 3,300 meters where the three survivors were sheltering. Images See also References External links" ]

[ "List of mountain peaks by prominence This is a list ofmountainpeaks ordered by theirtopographic prominence. Terminology The prominence of a peak is the minimum height of climb to the summit on any route from a higher peak, or from sea level if there is no higher peak. The lowest point on that route is thecol. For full definitions and explanations oftopographic prominence,key col, andparent, seetopographic prominence. In particular, the different definitions of the parent of a peak are addressed at length in that article.Heighton the other hand simply means elevation of the summit above sea level. Regarding parents, theprominence parentof peak A can be found by dividing the island or region in question into territories, by tracing the runoff from the key col (mountain pass) of every peak that is more prominent than peak A. The parent is the peak whose territory peak A resides in. Theencirclement parentis found by tracing the contour below peak A's key col and picking the highest mountain in that region. This", "that region. This is easier to determine than the prominence parent; however, it tends to give non-intuitive results for peaks with very low cols such as Jabal Shams which is #110 in the list. Either sort of parent of a typical very high-prominence peak such asDenaliwill lie far away from the peak itself, reflecting the independence of the peak. Most sources (and the table below) define no parent for island and landmass highpoints; others treat Mount Everest as the parent of every such peak with theworld oceanas the \"key col\". Prominence table Download coordinates as: The following table lists the Earth's 125 most topographically prominent summits. Of these,Indonesiahas the most, with 13. Close behind it areChinaand theUnited Stateswith 12. 27°59′17″N86°55′30″E / 27.98806°N 86.92500°E /27.98806; 86.92500 (1. Mount Everest (8848.86 m)) 32°39′11″S70°0′42″W / 32.65306°S 70.01167°W /-32.65306; -70.01167 (2. Aconcagua (6961 m)) 63°4′10″N151°0′26″W / 63.06944°N 151.00722°W /63.06944; -151.00722 (3.", "-151.00722 (3. Denali (6155 m)) 3°4′0″S37°21′33″E / 3.06667°S 37.35917°E /-3.06667; 37.35917 (4. Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m)) 10°50′18″N73°41′12″W / 10.83833°N 73.68667°W /10.83833; -73.68667 (5. Pico Cristóbal Colón (5509 m)) 60°34′2″N140°24′10″W / 60.56722°N 140.40278°W /60.56722; -140.40278 (6. Mount Logan (5250 m)) 19°1′48″N97°16′12″W / 19.03000°N 97.27000°W /19.03000; -97.27000 (7. Citlaltepetl (4922 m)) 78°31′32″S85°37′2″W / 78.52556°S 85.61722°W /-78.52556; -85.61722 (8. Vinson Massif (4892 m)) 4°5′S137°11′E / 4.083°S 137.183°E /-4.083; 137.183 (9. Puncak Jaya (4884 m)) 43°21′9.144″N42°26′16.350″E / 43.35254000°N 42.43787500°E /43.35254000; 42.43787500 (10. Mount Elbrus (4741 m)) 45°49′58″N6°51′54″E / 45.83278°N 6.86500°E /45.83278; 6.86500 (11. Mont Blanc ( m)) 35°57′19″N52°6′33″E / 35.95528°N 52.10917°E /35.95528; 52.10917 (12. Damavand (4667 m)) 56°4′N160°38′E / 56.067°N 160.633°E /56.067; 160.633 (13. Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4649 m)) 35°14′21″N74°35′24″E /", "/ 35.23917°N 74.59000°E /35.23917; 74.59000 (14. Nanga Parbat (4608 m)) 19°49′14″N155°28′5″W / 19.82056°N 155.46806°W /19.82056; -155.46806 (15. Mauna Kea (4207.3 m)) 42°2′5″N80°7′43″E / 42.03472°N 80.12861°E /42.03472; 80.12861 (16. Jengish Chokusu (4148 m)) 43°48′6″N88°20′6″E / 43.80167°N 88.33500°E /43.80167; 88.33500 (17. Bogda Peak (4122 m)) 1°28′9″S78°49′3″W / 1.46917°S 78.81750°W /-1.46917; -78.81750 (18. Chimborazo (4122 m)) 29°37′50″N95°3′19″E / 29.63056°N 95.05528°E /29.63056; 95.05528 (19. Namcha Barwa (4106 m)) 6°4′30″N116°33′31″E / 6.07500°N 116.55861°E /6.07500; 116.55861 (20. Mount Kota Kinabalu (4095 m)) 46°51′11″N121°45′38″W / 46.85306°N 121.76056°W /46.85306; -121.76056 (21. Mount Rainier (4023 m)) 35°52′52″N76°30′48″E / 35.88111°N 76.51333°E /35.88111; 76.51333 (22. K2 (4020 m)) 13°14′12″N38°22′21″E / 13.23667°N 38.37250°E /13.23667; 38.37250 (23. Ras Dashen (3997 m)) 15°2′N91°54′W / 15.033°N 91.900°W /15.033; -91.900 (24. Volcán Tajumulco (3980", "Tajumulco (3980 m)) 8°32′27.1″N71°2′47.4″W / 8.540861°N 71.046500°W /8.540861; -71.046500 (25. Pico Bolívar (3957 m)) 58°54′23″N137°31′36″W / 58.90639°N 137.52667°W /58.90639; -137.52667 (26. Mount Fairweather (3955 m)) 23°28′12.00″N120°57′26.16″E / 23.4700000°N 120.9572667°E /23.4700000; 120.9572667 (27. Yushan Main Peak (3952 m)) 0°23′9″N29°52′18″E / 0.38583°N 29.87167°E /0.38583; 29.87167 (28. Mount Stanley ( m)) 27°42′0.00″N88°7′59.99″E / 27.7000000°N 88.1333306°E /27.7000000; 88.1333306 (29. Kanchenjunga (3922 m)) 36°14′45″N71°50′38″E / 36.24583°N 71.84389°E /36.24583; 71.84389 (30. Terich Mir (3908 m)) 4°13′0″N9°10′21″E / 4.21667°N 9.17250°E /4.21667; 9.17250 (31. Mount Cameroon (3901 m)) 0°6′S37°12′E / 0.100°S 37.200°E /-0.100; 37.200 (32. Mount Kenya (3825 m)) 1°41′48.998″S101°15′51.998″E / 1.69694389°S 101.26444389°E /-1.69694389; 101.26444389 (33. Mount Kerinci (3805 m)) 77°32′S167°17′E / 77.533°S 167.283°E /-77.533; 167.283 (34. Mount Erebus (3794 m))", "Erebus (3794 m)) 35°21′38″N138°43′39″E / 35.36056°N 138.72750°E /35.36056; 138.72750 (35. Mount Fuji ( m)) 31°3′43″N7°54′58″W / 31.06194°N 7.91611°W /31.06194; -7.91611 (36. Jbel Toubkal (3756 m)) 9°29′3″N83°29′19″W / 9.48417°N 83.48861°W /9.48417; -83.48861 (37. Cerro Chirripó (3727 m)) 8°25′0″S116°28′0″E / 8.41667°S 116.46667°E /-8.41667; 116.46667 (38. Rinjani (3726 m)) 43°35′42″S170°8′31″E / 43.59500°S 170.14194°E /-43.59500; 170.14194 (39. Aoraki / Mount Cook (3724 m)) 28°16′21.5″N16°38′37.0″W / 28.272639°N 16.643611°W /28.272639; -16.643611 (40. Teide (3715 m)) 5°48′S146°6′E / 5.800°S 146.100°E /-5.800; 146.100 (41. Finisterre Range (3709 m)) 46°35′42″S73°20′45″W / 46.59500°S 73.34583°W /-46.59500; -73.34583 (42. Monte San Valentin (3696 m)) 68°55′10.20″N29°53′54.72″W / 68.9195000°N 29.8985333°W /68.9195000; -29.8985333 (43. Gunnbjørn Fjeld (3694 m)) 27°6′34″S68°32′32″W / 27.10944°S 68.54222°W /-27.10944; -68.54222 (44. Ojos del Salado (3688 m))", "Salado (3688 m)) 8°6′0″S112°55′0″E / 8.10000°S 112.91667°E /-8.10000; 112.91667 (45. Semeru (3676 m)) 6°29′39″N72°17′51″W / 6.49417°N 72.29750°W /6.49417; -72.29750 (46. Ritacuba Blanco (3645 m)) 29°35′45″N101°52′45″E / 29.59583°N 101.87917°E /29.59583; 101.87917 (47. Mount Gongga (3642 m)) 39°42′0″N44°18′0″E / 39.70000°N 44.30000°E /39.70000; 44.30000 (48. Mount Ararat (3611 m)) 38°35′38″N75°18′48″E / 38.59389°N 75.31333°E /38.59389; 75.31333 (49. Kongur Tagh (3585 m)) 61°43′54″N143°25′59″W / 61.73167°N 143.43306°W /61.73167; -143.43306 (50. Mount Blackburn (3535 m)) 63°37′15″N146°42′54″W / 63.62083°N 146.71500°W /63.62083; -146.71500 (51. Mount Hayes (3501 m)) 3°23′6″S120°1′27″E / 3.38500°S 120.02417°E /-3.38500; 120.02417 (52. Buntu Rantemario (3478 m)) 60°17′36″N140°55′46″W / 60.29333°N 140.92944°W /60.29333; -140.92944 (53. Mount Saint Elias (3448 m)) 37°45′3.00424″N14°59′35.59304″E / 37.7508345111°N 14.9932202889°E /37.7508345111; 14.9932202889 (59. Mount Etna", "(59. Mount Etna (3357 m)) 38°56′34″N72°0′55″E / 38.94278°N 72.01528°E /38.94278; 72.01528 (54. Ismoil Somoni Peak (3402 m)) 28°41′48″N83°29′24″E / 28.69667°N 83.49000°E /28.69667; 83.49000 (55. Dhaulagiri (3357 m)) 31°58′44″S70°6′46″W / 31.97889°S 70.11278°W /-31.97889; -70.11278 (56. Mercedario (1482 m)) 49°1′8.4″S73°30′14.4″W / 49.019000°S 73.504000°W /-49.019000; -73.504000 (57. Lautaro ( m)) 49°48′25″N86°35′23″E / 49.80694°N 86.58972°E /49.80694; 86.58972 (58. Belukha Mountain (3343 m)) 47°35′30″S72°18′24″W / 47.59167°S 72.30667°W /-47.59167; -72.30667 (60. Monte San Lorenzo (3319 m)) 1°30′S29°27′E / 1.500°S 29.450°E /-1.500; 29.450 (61. Mount Karisimbi (3312 m)) 15°16′45″N43°58′33″E / 15.27917°N 43.97583°E /15.27917; 43.97583 (62. Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb (3311 m)) 51°22′25″N125°15′48″W / 51.37361°N 125.26333°W /51.37361; -125.26333 (63. Mount Waddington (3289 m)) 37°3′12″N3°18′41″W / 37.05333°N 3.31139°W /37.05333; -3.31139 (64. Mulhacén (3285 m))", "Mulhacén (3285 m)) 7°14′20.40″S109°13′12.00″E / 7.2390000°S 109.2200000°E /-7.2390000; 109.2200000 (65. Gunung Slamet (3284 m)) 38°16′1″N47°50′13″E / 38.26694°N 47.83694°E /38.26694; 47.83694 (66. Sabalan (3283 m)) 61°26′16″N147°45′4″W / 61.43778°N 147.75111°W /61.43778; -147.75111 (67. Mount Marcus Baker (3269 m)) 47°2′57″N85°34′0″E / 47.04917°N 85.56667°E /47.04917; 85.56667 (68. Sauyr Zhotasy (3252 m)) 27°12′51″S66°5′39″W / 27.21417°S 66.09417°W /-27.21417; -66.09417 (69. Cerro del Bolsón (3252 m)) 43°4′24″N94°20′48″E / 43.07333°N 94.34667°E /43.07333; 94.34667 (70. Tomort (3243 m)) 27°5′54″N100°10′30″E / 27.09833°N 100.17500°E /27.09833; 100.17500 (71. Jade Dragon Snow Mountain (3202 m)) 3°14′48.41″S36°45′36.90″E / 3.2467806°S 36.7602500°E /-3.2467806; 36.7602500 (72. Mount Meru (3170 m)) 56°39′13.08″N161°21′46.68″E / 56.6536333°N 161.3629667°E /56.6536333; 161.3629667 (73. Shiveluch (3168 m)) 30°22′26″N79°58′15″E / 30.37389°N 79.97083°E /30.37389; 79.97083 (74.", "79.97083 (74. Nanda Devi (3139 m)) 55°40′40″N157°43′18″E / 55.67778°N 157.72167°E /55.67778; 157.72167 (75. Ichinsky (3125 m)) 7°37′30″S111°11′30″E / 7.62500°S 111.19167°E /-7.62500; 111.19167 (76. Lawu Mountain (3118 m)) 36°30′36″N74°31′21″E / 36.51000°N 74.52250°E /36.51000; 74.52250 (77. Batura Sar (3118 m)) 73°26′S126°40′W / 73.433°S 126.667°W /-73.433; -126.667 (78. Mount Siple (3110 m)) 19°1′59″N71°0′19″W / 19.03306°N 71.00528°W /19.03306; -71.00528 (79. Pico Duarte (3101 m)) 28°33′0″N84°33′35″E / 28.55000°N 84.55972°E /28.55000; 84.55972 (80. Manaslu (3092 m)) 36°34′43″N118°17′31″W / 36.57861°N 118.29194°W /36.57861; -118.29194 (81. Mount Whitney (3073 m)) 21°5′56″S55°28′44″E / 21.09889°S 55.47889°E /-21.09889; 55.47889 (82. Piton des Neiges (3070 m)) 8°7′30″S114°2′30″E / 8.12500°S 114.04167°E /-8.12500; 114.04167 (83. Gunung Raung (3069 m)) 42°15′42″N80°53′24″E / 42.26167°N 80.89000°E /42.26167; 80.89000 (84. Xuelian Feng (3068 m)) 20°42′48″N156°15′27″W /", "/ 20.71333°N 156.25750°W /20.71333; -156.25750 (85. Haleakalā (3055 m)) 61°1′24″N140°27′56″W / 61.02333°N 140.46556°W /61.02333; -140.46556 (86. Mount Lucania (3046 m)) 8°20′31″S115°30′28″E / 8.34194°S 115.50778°E /-8.34194; 115.50778 (87. Mount Agung (3031 m)) 3°10′24″S129°27′18″E / 3.17333°S 129.45500°E /-3.17333; 129.45500 (88. Gunung Binaiya (3027 m)) 19°1′19.99″N98°37′40.01″W / 19.0222194°N 98.6277806°W /19.0222194; -98.6277806 (89. Popocatépetl (3020 m)) 3°35′0″N8°46′0″E / 3.58333°N 8.76667°E /3.58333; 8.76667 (90. Pico Basilé (3011 m)) 53°19′N158°41′E / 53.317°N 158.683°E /53.317; 158.683 (91. Koryaksky (2999 m)) 28°2′49″N90°27′18″E / 28.04694°N 90.45500°E /28.04694; 90.45500 (92. Gangkhar Puensum (2995 m)) 69°49′S69°43′W / 69.817°S 69.717°W /-69.817; -69.717 (93. Mount Stephenson (2987 m)) 28°35′46″N83°49′26″E / 28.59611°N 83.82389°E /28.59611; 83.82389 (94. Annapurna I (2984 m)) 43°7′4.22″N77°20′28.80″E / 43.1178389°N 77.3413333°E /43.1178389; 77.3413333", "77.3413333 (95. Pik Talgar (2982 m)) 41°24′33.11″N122°11′41.60″W / 41.4091972°N 122.1948889°W /41.4091972; -122.1948889 (96. Mount Shasta (2977 m)) 5°48′0″S145°2′0″E / 5.80000°S 145.03333°E /-5.80000; 145.03333 (97. Mount Wilhelm (2969 m)) 8°54′24″S125°29′36″E / 8.90667°S 125.49333°E /-8.90667; 125.49333 (98. Tatamailau (2963 m)) 6°59′15″N125°16′15″E / 6.98750°N 125.27083°E /6.98750; 125.27083 (99. Mount Apo (2954 m)) 29°48′51″N94°58′6″E / 29.81417°N 94.96833°E /29.81417; 94.96833 (100. Gyala Peri (2942 m)) 3°47′51″N97°13′9″E / 3.79750°N 97.21917°E /3.79750; 97.21917 (101. Gunung Leuser (2941 m)) 54°26′27″S36°33′19″W / 54.44083°S 36.55528°W /-54.44083; -36.55528 (102. Mount Paget (2934 m)) 38°51′57″N75°6′30″E / 38.86583°N 75.10833°E /38.86583; 75.10833 (103. Chakragil (2934 m)) 19°47′22″N18°33′4″E / 19.78944°N 18.55111°E /19.78944; 18.55111 (104. Emi Koussi (2934 m)) 51°53′58″N125°52′33″W / 51.89944°N 125.87583°W /51.89944; -125.87583 (105. Monarch Mountain (2930 m))", "Mountain (2930 m)) 9°40′9″S149°0′39″E / 9.66917°S 149.01083°E /-9.66917; 149.01083 (106. Mount Suckling (2925 m)) 16°35′1″N120°53′1″E / 16.58361°N 120.88361°E /16.58361; 120.88361 (107. Mount Pulag (2922 m)) 28°52′3″S67°7′39″W / 28.86750°S 67.12750°W /-28.86750; -67.12750 (108. El Mela (2907 m)) 28°36′N61°8′E / 28.600°N 61.133°E /28.600; 61.133 (109. Mount Taftan (2901 m)) 23°14′14.5975″N57°15′49.6573″E / 23.237388194°N 57.263793694°E /23.237388194; 57.263793694 (110. Jebel Shams (2818 m)) 28°21′8″N85°46′47″E / 28.35222°N 85.77972°E /28.35222; 85.77972 (111. Shishapangma (2897 m)) 0°48′19.78″N66°0′19.29″W / 0.8054944°N 66.0053583°W /0.8054944; -66.0053583 (112. Pico da Neblina (2886 m)) 25°44′N95°2′E / 25.733°N 95.033°E /25.733; 95.033 (113. Mount Saramati (2885 m)) 14°1′22″S48°57′57″E / 14.02278°S 48.96583°E /-14.02278; 48.96583 (114. Maromokotro (2876 m)) 54°45′N163°58′W / 54.750°N 163.967°W /54.750; -163.967 (115. Mount Shishaldin (2869 m))", "(2869 m)) 5°20′48.04465″S119°55′53.99951″E / 5.3466790694°S 119.9316665306°E /-5.3466790694; 119.9316665306 (116. Moncong Lompobatang (2857 m)) 36°9′15″N72°19′39″E / 36.15417°N 72.32750°E /36.15417; 72.32750 (117. Buni Zom (2845 m)) 36°10′45″N70°59′0″E / 36.17917°N 70.98333°E /36.17917; 70.98333 (118. Kuh-e Bandaka (2834 m)) 53°6′38″N119°9′24″W / 53.11056°N 119.15667°W /53.11056; -119.15667 (119. Mount Robson (2829 m)) 14°56′57.37″N24°20′25.33″W / 14.9492694°N 24.3403694°W /14.9492694; -24.3403694 (120. Pico do Fogo (2829 m)) 30°55′12″N79°35′36″E / 30.92000°N 79.59333°E /30.92000; 79.59333 (121. Kamet (2825 m)) 36°8′33″N74°29′21″E / 36.14250°N 74.48917°E /36.14250; 74.48917 (122. Rakaposhi (2818 m)) 42°37′51.57″N0°39′24.07″E / 42.6309917°N 0.6566861°E /42.6309917; 0.6566861 (123. Aneto (2812 m)) 7°45′54″S112°35′23″E / 7.76500°S 112.58972°E /-7.76500; 112.58972 (124. Arjuno-Welirang (2812 m)) 31°32′36″N103°51′12″E / 31.54333°N 103.85333°E /31.54333; 103.85333 (125.", "103.85333 (125. Jiuding Shan (2808 m)) Additional peaks The list of peaks that follows is not complete, but the peaks are all notable. Island high points (whose prominence is equal to their elevation) can be found at theList of islands by highest point; hence most are not included below. Some well-known peaks listed here do not score highly by prominence. All peaks with a prominence of more than 1,500 metres rank as anUltra. For a complete listing of all 1,524 peaks with prominence greater than this level, see thelists of Ultras. In the table, the prominence parent is marked \"1\", and the encirclement parent \"2\". Where a single parent is listed, the different definitions agree. See also Notes *.^By convention, cols created by human activity are not counted. Therefore, theSuez,Panamaand other canals are ignored in these calculations. Cuts that lower the natural elevations of mountain passes are also ignored.Towers, monuments and similar on the peaks are also ignored. References External links", "Mauna Kea Mauna Kea(/ˌmɔːnəˈkeɪə,ˌmaʊnə-/,Hawaiian:; abbreviation forMauna a Wākea)is a dormantshieldvolcanoon theisland of Hawaiʻi.Its peak is 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level, making it thehighest point in Hawaiiandthe island with the second highest high point, behind New Guinea, the world's largest tropical island with multiple peaks that are higher. The peak is about 38 m (125 ft) higher thanMauna Loa, its more massive neighbor. Mauna Kea is unusuallytopographically prominentfor its height: its prominence from sea level isfifteenth in the worldamong mountains, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft); its prominence from under the ocean is 9,330 m (30,610 ft), rivaled only byMount Everest. Thisdry prominenceis greater than Everest's height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), and some authorities have labeled Mauna Kea the tallest mountain in the world, from its underwater base.Mauna Kea is ranked 8th bytopographic isolation. It is about one million years old and thus passed the most activeshield stageof life", "stageof life hundreds of thousands of years ago. In its currentpost-shieldstate, its lava is moreviscous, resulting in a steeper profile. Latevolcanismhas also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes due to construction ofcinder cones, decentralization of itsrift zones,glaciationon its peak, and weathering by the prevailingtrade winds. Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now thought to bedormant. InHawaiian religion, the peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred. An ancient law allowed only high-rankingaliʻito visit its peak.Ancient Hawaiiansliving on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food, and quarried the dense volcano-glacialbasaltson its flanks fortool production. When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century, settlers introduced cattle, sheep, and game animals, many of which becameferaland began to damage the volcano's ecological balance. Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections: analpine climateat its summit,", "its summit, aSophora chrysophylla–Myoporum sandwicense(or māmane–naio) forest on its flanks, and anAcacia koa–Metrosideros polymorpha(or koa–ʻōhiʻa) forest, now mostly cleared bythe former sugar industry, at its base. In recent years, concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced theHawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resourcesto work towards eradicating all feral species on the volcano. With its high elevation, dry environment, and stable airflow, Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation. Since the creation of an access road in 1964, thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit. TheMauna Kea Observatoriesare used for scientific research across theelectromagnetic spectrumand comprise the largest such facility in the world. Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to bea topic of debate to this day. Topographic prominence Mauna Kea is", "Mauna Kea is unusuallytopographically prominentfor its height, with a wet prominencefifteenth in the worldamong mountains, and a dry prominencesecond in the world, after onlyMount Everest.It is the highest peak on its island, so its wet prominence matches its height above sea level, at 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft).Because theHawaiian Islandsslope deep into the ocean, Mauna Kea has a dry prominence of 9,330 m (30,610 ft).This dry prominence is taller than Mount Everest's height above sea level of 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft), so Everest would have to include whole continents in its foothills to exceed Mauna Kea's dry prominence. Given how much Mauna Kea protrudes from theHawaiian Trough, some authorities have called it the tallest (as opposed tohighest) mountain in the world, as measured from base to peak.Unlike prominence, base is loosely defined, which has resulted in numbers ranging from 9,966 m (32,696 ft)(roughly to the deepest point in the Hawaiian Trough) to 17,205 m (56,447 ft)(to the root of the mountain deep", "the mountain deep underground). Those calculations have produced rivaling claims for other mountains, such as higher climb from base forMount Lamlam(11,528 m (37,820 ft), starting from nearbyChallenger Deep),and the tremendously deep roots of theHimalayan Mountains.Greater rises could be measured from theAtacama Trenchto theAndes Mountains, for example, the bottom of Richard's Deep (8,065 m (26,460 ft) deep) to the peak of the nearbyLlullaillaco(6,739 m (22,110 ft) high) is 14,804 m (48,570 ft).Neither Mount Lamlam nor Llullaillaco have the dry prominence of Mauna Kea, because they do not extend into trenches in every direction. Geology Mauna Kea is one offive volcanoesthat form theisland of Hawaiʻi, the largest and youngest island of theHawaiian–Emperor seamount chain.Of these fivehotspot volcanoes, Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active.It began as apreshieldvolcano driven by theHawaiʻi hotspotaround one million years ago, and became exceptionally active during itsshield stageuntil 500,000", "stageuntil 500,000 years ago.Mauna Kea entered its quieterpost-shield stage250,000 to 200,000 years ago,and is currently active, having last erupted between 4,500 and 6,000 years ago.Mauna Kea does not have a visible summitcaldera, but contains a number of smallcinderandpumicecones near its summit. A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits. Mauna Kea is over 32,000 km3(7,680 cu mi) in volume, so massive that it and its neighbor,Mauna Loa, depress theocean crustbeneath it by 6 km (4 mi). The volcano continues toslipand flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than 0.2 mm (0.01 in) per year. Much of its mass lies east of its present summit. It stands 4,207.3 m (13,803 ft) above sea level,about 38 m (125 ft) higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa,and is thehighest point in the state of Hawaii. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Kea has been created as thePacific tectonic platehas moved over theHawaiian hotspotin the Earth's underlyingmantle.The Hawaii island", "Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Hawaiian Ridge–Emperor seamount chain.The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that thehotspothas been largely stationary within the planet's mantle for much, if not all of theCenozoicEra.However, while Hawaiian volcanism is well understood and extensively studied, there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect. Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth. Most prominently, Mauna Kea is built upon older flows fromKohalato the northwest, and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south.The original eruptive fissures (rift zones) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post-shield volcanism.Hilo Ridge, a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea, was once believed to be a part of the volcano; however, it is now understood to be a rift zone of", "be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows. The shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the volcano aretholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Loa, created through the mixing of primarymagmaandsubductedoceanic crust.They are covered by the oldest exposedrock strataon Mauna Kea, the post-shieldalkali basaltsof theHāmākua Volcanics, which erupted between 250,000 and 70–65,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic flows arehawaiitesandmugearites: they are the post-shieldLaupāhoehoe Volcanics, erupted between 65,000 and 4,000 years ago.These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit, which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy. The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain morevolatilesthan the earlier tholeiitic basalts; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea's flanks. In addition,explosive eruptionshave builtcinder conesnear the", "conesnear the summit.These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea. Its present summit is dominated bylava domesand cinder cones up to 1.5 km (0.9 mi) in diameter and hundreds of meters tall. Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence ofglaciation.Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa, but have been covered by later lava flows.Despite Hawaii's tropical location, during several pastice agesa drop of a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the volcano's summit through summer, triggering the formation of anice cap.There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180,000 years: thePōhakuloa(180–130ka),Wāihu(80–60 ka) andMākanaka(40–13 ka) series. These have extensively sculpted the summit, depositingmorainesand a circular ring oftilland gravel along the volcano's upper flanks.Subglacial eruptionsbuilt cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation,most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action. The most recent cones were built", "cones were built between 9,000 and 4,500 years ago, atop the glacial deposits,although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3,600 years ago. At their maximum extent, the glaciers extended from the summit down to between 3,200 and 3,800 m (10,500 and 12,500 ft) of elevation.A small body ofpermafrost, less than 25 m (80 ft) across, was found at the summit of Mauna Kea before 1974, and may still be present.Small gullies etch the summit, formed by rain- and snow-fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers.On the windward side of the volcano,stream erosiondriven bytrade windshas accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala. Mauna Kea is home toLake Waiau, the highest lake in thePacific Basin.At an altitude of 3,969 m (13,022 ft), it lies within the Puʻu Waiau cinder cone and is the onlyalpine lakein Hawaii. The lake is very small and shallow, with a surface area of 0.73 ha (1.80 acres) and a depth of 3 m (10 ft) when fullest.Radiocarbon datingof", "datingof samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12,600 years ago. Hawaiian lava types are typicallypermeable, preventing lake formation due toinfiltration. Either sulfur-bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low-permeability clays, or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water duringphreatic eruptionsformed exceptionally fine ash that reduced the permeability of the lake bed. No artesian water was known on the island of Hawaiʻi until 1993 when drilling by theUniversity of Hawaiʻitapped anartesian aquifermore than 300 m (980 ft) below sea level, that extended more than 100 m (330 ft) of theborehole's total depth. The borehole had drilled through a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of Mauna Loa had encroached upon the exposed Mauna Kea surface and had subsequently been subsided below sea level. Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at higher than 2,000 m (6,600 ft) above", "m (6,600 ft) above mean sea level. The aquifer's presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea's basal lens. Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea's freshwaterlensthan current models may indicate.Two more boreholes were drilled on Mauna Kea in 2012, with water being found at much higher elevations and shallower depths than expected. Donald Thomas, director of the University of Hawaiʻi's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and occupancy of the higher elevation areas, stating: \"Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that, in most cases, must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo — an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels.\" Future activity The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4,600 years ago (about 2600 BC);because of this inactivity, Mauna Kea is assigned aUnited States Geological Surveyhazard listing", "listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks, out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 (which is given to theextinct volcanoKohala). Since 8000 BC lava flows have covered 20% of the volcano's summit and virtually none of its flanks. Despite its dormancy, Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again. Based on earlier eruptions, such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano's upper flanks and would likely produce long lava flows, mostly ofʻaʻā, 15–25 km (9–16 mi) long. Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source. Although not likely in the next few centuries, such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure. Human history Native history The firstAncient Hawaiiansto arrive on Hawaiʻi island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful. Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa – Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting,", "used for hunting, collecting stone material, and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations.The mountain's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source. Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species. Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals, and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion.The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the prevailing cause of forestecosystem collapseand avian extinction on Hawaiʻi appears to have been the introduction of thePolynesian (or Pacific) rat. The five volcanoes of Hawaiʻi are revered assacred mountains; and Mauna Kea's summit, the highest, is the most sacred.For this reason, akapu(ancient Hawaiian", "Hawaiian law) restricted visitor rights to high-ranking aliʻi. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. InHawaiian mythology, the summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the \"region of the gods\", a place where benevolent spirits reside.Poliʻahu, deity of snow, also resides there.\"Mauna Kea\" is an abbreviation for Mauna aWākeaand means \"white mountain,\" in reference to its seasonally snow-capped summit. Around AD 1100, natives establishedadzequarrieshigh up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely densebasalt(generated by the quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice duringsubglacial eruptions) to make tools.Volcanic glassandgabbrowere collected for blades and fishing gear, andmāmanewood was preferred for the handles. At peak quarry activity after AD 1400, there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting; shelters with food, water, and wood to sustain the workers; and workshops creating the finished product. Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers.", "for the workers. Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water, to give them the strength of the mountain. Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans. As part of the ritual associated with quarrying, the workers erected shrines to their gods; these and other quarry artifacts remain at the sites, most of which lie within what is now theMauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. This early era was followed by cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for the immediate needs of the populace. Theseahupuaʻagenerally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast. Mauna Kea's summit was encompassed in the ahupuaʻa of Kaʻohe, with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humuʻula. Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane–naioforest of its upper slopes, which provided them with vegetation and", "with vegetation and bird life. Bird species hunted included theʻuaʻu(Pterodroma sandwichensis),nēnē(Branta sandvicensis), andpalila(Loxioides bailleui). The lowerkoa–ʻōhiʻaforest gave the natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration. Modern era There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaiʻi before the arrival ofJames Cook, in 1778.However, the earliest Western depictions of the isle, including Mauna Kea, were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents. Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases; port cities includingHilo,Kealakekua, andKailuagrew with the establishment of trade; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools. In 1793, cattle were brought byGeorge Vancouveras a tribute to KingKamehameha I. By the early 19th century, they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely, greatly damaging its ecosystem. In 1809John", "In 1809John Palmer Parkerarrived and befriended Kamehameha I, who put him in charge of cattle management on the island. With an additionalland grantin 1845, Parker establishedParker Ranchon the northern slope of Mauna Kea, a large cattleranchthat is still in operation today.Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the lower native forest forsugarcaneplantations and houses. TheSaddle Road, named for its crossing of the saddle-shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, was completed in 1943, and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably. ThePohakuloa Training Areaon the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaiʻi. The 108,863-acre (44,055 ha) base extends from the volcano's lower flanks to 2,070 m (6,790 ft) elevation, on state land leased to the US Army since 1956. There are 15 threatened and endangered plants, three endangered birds, and one endangered bat species in the area. Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s. Approximately 27 percent", "27 percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000, identifying 76 shrines, 4 adze manufacturing workshops, 3 other markers, 1 positively identified burial site, and 4 possible burial sites.By 2009, the total number of identified sites had risen to 223, and archaeological research on the volcano's upper flanks is ongoing.It has been suggested that the shrines, which are arranged around the volcano's summit along what may be an ancientsnow line, are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea. Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history, few sites have been confirmed. The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting the volcano may be because they were reserved for burial. Ascents In pre-contact times, natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails, as no evidence of trails has been found. It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead. Individuals likely", "Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea's slopes to visit family-maintained shrines near its summit, and traditions related to ascending the mountain exist to this day. However, very few natives reached the summit, because of the strictkapuplaced on it. In the early 19th century, the earliest notablerecordedascents of Mauna Kea included the following: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed, often by the movement of game herds, that could be traveled on horseback.However, vehicular access to the summit was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964, and it continues to be restricted.Today, multiple trails to the summit exist, in various states of use. Ecology Background Hawaiʻi'sgeographical isolationstrongly influences its ecology. Remote islands like Hawaiʻi have a large number of species that are found nowhere else (seeEndemism in the Hawaiian Islands).The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated theseendemic", "theseendemic speciesfrom external biotic influence, and also makes them especially vulnerable toextinctionand the effects ofinvasive species. In addition the ecosystems of Hawaiʻi are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture; an estimated third of the island's endemic species have already been wiped out. Because of its elevation, Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation.These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation:alpine–subalpine,montane, andbasal forest. Contact with Americans and Europeans in the early 19th century brought more settlers to the island, and had a lasting negative ecological effect. On lower slopes, vast tracts of koa–ʻōhiʻa forest were converted to farmland. Higher up,feralanimals that escaped from ranches found refuge in, and damaged", "in, and damaged extensively, Mauna Kea's native māmane–naio forest.Non-native plants are the other serious threat; there are over 4,600 introduced species on the island, whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1,000. Alpine environment The summit of Mauna Kea lies above thetree line, and consists of mostly lava rock andalpine tundra. An area of heavy snowfall, it is inhospitable to vegetation, and is known as theHawaiian tropical high shrublands. Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures, a short growing season, low rainfall, and snow during winter months. A lack of soil also retards root growth, makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from the ground, and gives the area a very lowwater retention capacity. Plant species found at this elevation includeStyphelia tameiameiae,Taraxacum officinale,Tetramolopiumhumile,Agrostissandwicensis,Anthoxanthum odoratum,Trisetumglomeratum,Poa annua,Sonchus oleraceus, andCoprosmaernodiodes. One notable species isMauna Kea", "species isMauna Kea silversword(Argyroxiphium sandwicensevar.sandwicense), a highlyendangeredendemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea's high elevation cinder deserts. At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants,Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone, but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock, and can grow at lower elevations as well. TheMauna Kea Ice Age Reserveon the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea was established in 1981. The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock, including areas ofaeolian desertand Lake Waiau.This ecosystem is a likely haven for thethreatenedʻuaʻu(Pterodroma sandwichensis) and also the center of a study onwēkiu bugs(Nysius wekiuicola). Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks. This is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genusNysius, which consists of predominantly seed-eating insects. They can survive at extreme", "survive at extreme elevations of up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft)because ofnatural antifreezein their blood. They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time. Their conservation status is unclear, but the species is no longer a candidate for theEndangered Species List; studies on the welfare of the species began in 1980. The closely relatedNysius aalives on Mauna Loa.Wolf spiders(Lycosidae) andforest tent caterpillar mothshave also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem; the former survive by hiding under heat-absorbing rocks, and the latter through cold-resistant chemicals in their bodies.Several native moths are also present near the summit includingAgrotis helelaandAgrotis kuamauna. Māmane–naio forest Theforested zoneon the volcano, at an elevation of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft), is dominated by māmane (Sophora chrysophylla) and naio (Myoporum sandwicense), both endemic tree species, and is thus known as māmane–naio forest. Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone,", "birds in this zone, especially thepalila(Loxioides bailleui). The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, andHualālai, but is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea—only 10% of its former range—and has been declaredcritically endangered. The largest threat to the ecosystem isgrazingby feral sheep, cattle (Bos primigenius),and goats (Capra hircus) introduced to the island in the late 18th century. Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as the late 1920s,and continued through to 1949. One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence ofherbaceousandwoodyplants, both endemic and introduced, that were resistant to browsing.The feral animals were almost eradicated, and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s. However, an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued asgame animals, and in 1959 theHawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources, the governing body in charge of", "body in charge of conservation and land use management, changed its policy to a sustained-control program designed to facilitate the sport. Mouflon(Ovis aries orientalis) was introduced from 1962 to 1964,and a plan to releaseaxis deer(Axis axis) in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry, who said that they would damage crops and spread disease. The hunting industry fought back, and the back-and-forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern. With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing, conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea's ecosystem. A plan was proposed to fence 25% of the forests for protection, and manage the remaining 75% for game hunting. Despite opposition from conservationists the plan was put into action. While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence. In the midst of this wrangling theEndangered Species Actwas passed; theNational Audubon", "theNational Audubon SocietyandSierra Club Legal Defense Fundfiled a lawsuit against theHawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources, claiming that they were violating federal law, in the landmark casePalila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources(1978). The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld the precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife. Having violated the Endangered Species Act, Hawaiʻi state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside.This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981. A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals,at least temporarily. An active control program is in place,though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of the māmane-naio ecosystem.There are many other species and ecosystems on the island, and on Mauna Kea, that remain threatened by human development and invasive species. The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects 52,500 acres (212 km2) of māmane-naio forest", "māmane-naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources.Ungulatehunting is allowed year-round.A small part of the māmane–naio forest is encompassed by theMauna Kea State Recreation Area. Lower environment A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea's lower slopes was formerlyAcacia koa–Metrosideros polymorpha(koa-ʻōhiʻa) forest.Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century, as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes. Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations. Most of the houses on the island were built of koa, and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes. The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880, and by 1900, logging interests had shifted toKonaand the island ofMaui.With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s, much of this land liesfallowbut portions are", "portions are used for cattle grazing, small-scale farming and the cultivation ofeucalyptusforwood pulp. TheHakalau Forest National Wildlife Refugeis a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea's windward slope. It was established in 1985, covering 32,733 acres (13,247 ha) of ecosystem remnant. Eight endangered bird species, twelve endangered plants, and the endangeredHawaiian hoary bat(Lasiurus cinereus semotus) have been observed in the area, in addition to many other rare biota. The reserve has been the site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989.Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem,as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland. Bird species native to the acacia koa–ʻōhiʻa forest include theHawaiian crow(Corvus hawaiiensis), theʻakepa(Loxops coccineus),Hawaii creeper(Oreomystis mana),ʻakiapōlāʻau(Hemignathus munroi), andHawaiian hawk(Buteo solitarius), all of which are endangered, threatened, or near threatened; the Hawaiian crow in", "Hawaiian crow in particular isextinct in the wild, but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve. Summit observatories Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world forastronomical observationdue to favorable observing conditions.The arid conditions are important forsubmillimeterandinfraredastronomy for this region of theelectromagnetic spectrum. The summit is above theinversion layer, keeping mostcloud coverbelow the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free ofatmospheric pollution. The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lackingturbulencefor some of the world's bestastronomical seeing. The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizeslight pollutionfrom the surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faintastronomical objects.These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing. In the early 1960s, the Hawaiʻi IslandChamber of", "IslandChamber of Commerceencouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea, as economic stimulus; this coincided withUniversity of ArizonaastronomerGerard Kuiper's search for sites to use newly improved detectors ofinfrared light. Site testing by Kuiper's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed the summit's outstanding suitability. An intense three-way competition forNASAfunds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper,Harvard University, and theUniversity of Hawaiʻi(UH), which only had experience in solar astronomy. This culminated in funds being awarded to the \"upstart\" UH proposal.UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a newInstitute for Astronomy, and in 1968 the Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65-year lease for all land within a 4 km (2.5 mi) radius of its telescope, essentially that above 11,500 ft (3,505 m).On its completion in 1970, theUH 88 in (2.2 m)was the seventh largest optical/infrared telescope in the world. By 1970, two 24 in (0.6 m) telescopes had", "m) telescopes had been constructed by theUS Air ForceandLowell Observatory. In 1973, Canada and France agreed to build the 3.6 mCFHTon Mauna Kea.However, local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory. This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan, drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980. In January 1982, the UHBoard of Regentsapproved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site.In 1998, 2,033 acres (823 ha) were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve. The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020: it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management,designated 525 acres (212 ha) for astronomy, and shifted the remaining 10,763 acres (4,356 ha) to \"natural and cultural preservation\". This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown", "was being shown toward the cultural values of the mountain. Today the Mauna Kea Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities, each funded by as many as 11 countries.There are nine telescopes working in the visible and infrared spectrum, three in the submillimeter spectrum, and one in the radio spectrum, with mirrors or dishes ranging from 0.9 to 25 m (3 to 82 ft).In comparison, theHubble Space Telescopehas a 2.4 m (7.9 ft) mirror, similar in size to the UH88, now the second smallest telescope on the mountain. A \"Save Mauna Kea\" movement believes development of the mountain to be sacrilegious.Native Hawaiian non-profit groups such as Kahea, concerned with cultural heritage and the environment, also oppose development for cultural and religious reasons.The multi-telescope \"outrigger\" proposed in 2006 was eventually canceled.A planned new telescope, theThirty Meter Telescope(TMT), has attracted controversy andprotests.The TMT was approved in April 2013.In October 2014, the groundbreaking ceremony for the", "ceremony for the telescope was interrupted by protesters causing the project to temporarily halt.In late March 2015, demonstrators blocked access of the road to the summit again.On April 2, 2015, 300 protestors were gathered near the visitor's center when 12 people were arrested with 11 more arrested at the summit.Among the concerns of the protest groups are the land appraisals and Native Hawaiians consultation.Construction was halted on April 7, 2015, after protests expanded over the state.After several halts, the project has been voluntarily postponed. Governor Ige announced substantial changes to the management of Mauna Kea in the future but stated the project can move forward.TheSupreme Court of Hawaiʻiapproved the resumption of construction on October 31, 2018.Protestors have posted online petitions as a reaction against the Thirty Meter Telescope. The online petition titled \"The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT Telescope\" was posted toChange.orgon July 14, 2019. The online petition has", "online petition has currently gathered over 278,057 signatures worldwide.Some protesters have also called for the impeachment of Hawaiian GovernorDavid Igebecause of his support for the Thirty Meter Telescope. On July 18, 2019, an online petition titled \"Impeach Governor David Ige\" had been posted to Change.org and has currently gathered over 62,562 signatures. As of late 2021, construction plans are currently on hold due to the ongoing effects of theCOVID-19 pandemicand a shift in funding for the project that may see federal funds made available through theNational Science Foundation.The controversy surrounding construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope continues. Independent polls commissioned by local media organizationsshow consistent support for the project in the islands with over two thirds of local residents supporting the project. These same polls indicate Native Hawaiian community support remains split with about half of Hawaiian respondents supporting construction of the new telescope. A July 2022", "A July 2022 state law responds to the protests by shifting control over the master land lease from the University of Hawaii to the new Mauna Kea Stewardship and Oversight Authority (MKSOA).The MKSOA is a 12-member board (11 voting members and 1 non-voting member) which includes representatives from the university, astronomers and native Hawaiiansand it was created with the aim of finding a balance between the conflicting interests of astronomers and native Hawaiians. It is placed within theHawaii department of land and natural resourcesand will be the principal authority for the management of state-managed lands within the Mauna Kea lands after a 5-year transition period from the university starting on July 1, 2023.During the transition period, the MKSOA and the university will jointly manage the land while the authority develops a management plan to govern land uses, human activities, and overall operations.Once the transition period is up in 2028, the authority's responsibilities will include issuing new", "include issuing new land use permits which will be important as the current master lease ends in 2033, and any observatories which don't come up with new leases by the time of its expiration will be decommissioned. Climate Mauna Kea has analpine climate(ET). Due to the influence of its tropical latitude, temperature swings are very low. Frosts are common year round, but the average monthly temperature remains above freezing throughout the year. Snow may fall at an altitude of 11,000 ft (3,353 m) and above in any month, but occurs most often from October to April. A weather station was operated from 1972 to 1982; however, only 33 months within this period have temperature records; many years only have data for two months. The temperatures presented below aresmoothed averages, not the raw numbers recorded by NOAA. Recreation Mauna Kea's coastline is dominated by theHamakuaCoast, an area of rugged terrain created by frequent slumps and landslides on the volcano's flank.The area includes several recreation parks", "recreation parks includingKalopa State Recreation Area,Wailuku River State ParkandAkaka Falls State Park. There are over 3,000 registered hunters on Hawaii island, and hunting, for both recreation and sustenance, is a common activity on Mauna Kea. A public hunting program is used to control the numbers of introduced animals including pigs, sheep, goats, turkey,pheasants, andquail.TheMauna Kea State Recreation Areafunctions as a base camp for the sport.Birdwatchingis also common at lower levels on the mountain.A popular site isKīpuka Puʻu Huluhulu, akīpukaon Mauna Kea's flank that formed when lava flows isolated the forest on a hill. Mauna Kea's great height and the steepness of its flanks provide a better view and a shorter hike than the adjacent Mauna Loa. The height with its risk ofaltitude sickness, weather concerns, steep road grade, and overall inaccessibility make the volcano dangerous and summit trips difficult. Until the construction of roads in the mid-20th century, only the hardy visited Mauna", "hardy visited Mauna Kea's upper slopes; hunters tracked game animals, and hikers traveled up the mountain. These travelers used stone cabins constructed by theCivilian Conservation Corpsin the 1930s as base camps, and it is from these facilities that the modern mid-levelOnizuka Center for International Astronomytelescope support complex is derived. The first Mauna Kea summit road was built in 1964, making the peak accessible to more people. Today, multiple hiking trails exist, including theMauna Kea Trail, and by 2007 over 100,000 tourists and 32,000 vehicles were going each year to the Visitor Information Station (VIS) adjacent to the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy. The Mauna Kea Access Road is paved up to the Center at 2,804 m (9,199 ft).One study reported that around a third of visitors and two-thirds of professional astronomers working on the mountain have experienced symptoms of acute altitude sickness.Visitors to the mountain should prepare ahead of time by acclimating at a lower elevation", "a lower elevation or using a prescription medicine like Diamox.It is strongly recommended to use afour-wheel drivevehicle to drive all the way to the top. Brakes often overheat on the way down and there is no fuel available on Mauna Kea.A free Star Gazing Program was previously held at the VIS every night from 6-10 pm, with the program canceled due to both a change in operating hours and closure due to the ongoingCOVID-19 pandemic.Between 5,000 and 6,000 people visit the summit of Mauna Kea each year, and to help ensure safety, and protect the integrity of the mountain, aranger programwas implemented in 2001. See also Footnotes References Further reading External links", "Klyuchevskaya Sopka Klyuchevskaya Sopka(Russian:Ключевская сопка; also known asKlyuchevskoi,Russian:Ключевской) is astratovolcano, the highestmountainofSiberiaand the highestactive volcanoofEurasia. Its steep, symmetrical cone towers about 100 kilometres (60 mi) from theBering Sea. The volcano is part of the naturalVolcanoes of KamchatkaUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Klyuchevskaya Sopka is ranked 15th in the world bytopographic isolation. Klyuchevskaya appeared 7,000 years ago.Its first recorded eruption occurred in 1697,and it has been almost continuously active ever since, as have many of its neighboring volcanoes. It was first climbed in 1788 by Daniel Gauss and two other members of theBillings Expedition.No other ascents were recorded until 1931, when several climbers were killed by flying lava on the descent. As similar dangers still exist today, few ascents are made. Eruptions Klyuchevskaya Sopka has erupted 110 times during theHoloceneEpoch. 2007 eruption Beginning in early January 2007, Klyuchevskaya", "2007, Klyuchevskaya Sopka began another eruption cycle. Students from theUniversity of Alaska Fairbanksand scientists of theAlaska Volcano Observatorytraveled to Kamchatka in the spring to monitor the eruption. On 28 June 2007, the volcano began to experience the largest explosions so far recorded in this eruption cycle. An ash plume from the eruption reached a height of 10 km (33,000 ft) before drifting eastward, disrupting air traffic between the United States and Asia and causing ashfalls on Alaska'sUnimak Island. 2010 eruption As early as 27 February 2010, gas plumes had erupted from Klyuchevskaya Sopka, reaching elevations of 7,000 m (22,966 ft). During the first week of March 2010, both explosive ash eruptions and effusive lava eruptions occurred until March 9th; the ash cloud was reported to have reached an elevation of 6,000 m (19,685 ft). As well, significant thermal anomalies have been reported, and gas-steam plumes extended roughly 50 km (31 mi) to the north-east from the volcano beginning on", "beginning on March 3rd. 2012 eruptions On 15 October 2012, the volcano had a weak eruption that stopped the following day. A weak thermal eruption occurred on 29 November 2012, then stopped again, as all of its neighboring volcanoesBezymianny,Karymsky,Kizimen,Shiveluch, andTolbachikerupted more actively and continuously, taking a major magma supply load off of Klyuchevskaya Sopka. 2013 eruptions On 25 January 2013, the volcano had a weakStrombolian eruptionthat stopped the following day. During January 2013, all volcanoes in the eastern part of Kamchatka—Bezymianny, Karymsky, Kizimen, Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Shiveluch, and Tolbachik—erupted, with the exception ofKamen. On 15 August 2013, the volcano had another weak Strombolian eruption with some slight lava flow that put on an excellent fireworks display before stopping on 21 August 2013, whenGorelyVolcano woke up and started erupting again in relief of Klyuchevskaya Sopka. On 12 October, Klyuchevskaya Sopka had another three days of on-and-off eruptions with", "eruptions with anomalies and a short ash plume, possibly indicating Strombolian and weak Vulcanian activity. An explosion from a new cinder cone low on Kliuchevskoi's southwest flank occurred on 12 October. An ash plume rose to altitudes of 6–7 km (20,000–23,000 ft), and drifted eastward. The eruptions weakened and paused by 16 October 2013. On 19 November, a strong explosion occurred, and observers reported that ash plumes rose to altitudes of 10–12 km (33,000–39,000 ft) and drifted southeast. The Aviation Color Code was raised to Red. Later that day, the altitudes of the ash plumes were lower and the eruptions weakened and stopped again. On 7 December, activity at Kliuchevskoi significantly increased, having continued during 29 November – 7 December, promptingKVERTto raise the Alert Level to Red. Ash plumes rose to altitudes of 5.5–6 km (18,000–20,000 ft) abovesea leveland drifted more than 212 km (132 mi) northeast and over 1,000 km (621 mi) east. According to a news article, a warning to aircraft was", "to aircraft was issued for the area around the volcanoes. Video showed gas-and-steam activity, and satellite images detected a daily weak thermal anomaly. On 9 December, the Alert Level was lowered to Green when the eruptions abruptly stopped. 2015 eruptions On 2 January 2015, after a one-year period of inactivity, the volcano had a Strombolian eruption which stopped on 16 January 2015. Minor eruptions resumed on 10 March 2015 and stopped on 24 March 2015. On 27 August 2015, the volcano had another Strombolian eruption which ended 16 hours later. 2019 eruptions Kluchevskaya Sopka saw renewed eruption activity beginning in 2019.On 25 October 2019, the volcano had another weak Strombolian eruption which ended some 30 hours later. 2020 eruption A volcanic eruption occurred on 9 December 2020. 2022 eruption A volcanic eruption started on 20 November 2022. 2023 eruptions A volcanic eruption started on 22 June 2023.The June eruption follows nearby eruptions on 11 April 2023 in other volcanoes in the area.A", "in the area.A significant eruptive event occurred as part of ongoing activity on 1 November 2023, sending ash as high as 13 km (8.1 mi) above sea level and causing flight delays as far away as Vancouver, BC, on 4–5 November 2023. 2022 climbing accidents In September 2022, nine people died while climbing Kluchevskaya Sopka. They were part of a 12-strong group of Russian nationals, which included two guides. Five climbers were killed after a fall at about 4,000 meters. Another four, including a guide, died on the mountainside afterwards. A rescue helicopter managed to land at 1,663 meters at the fourth attempt, bringing rescuers who faced a two-day climb to reach a volcanologists' hut at 3,300 meters where the three survivors were sheltering. Images See also References External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Maryland", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Cardin", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Cardin" ]

[ "List of states and territories of the United States TheUnited States of Americais afederal republicconsisting of 50states, afederal district(Washington, D.C., thecapital cityof the United States), five majorterritories, and variousminor islands.Both the states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.TheTenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionallows states to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Each state has its ownconstitutionand government, and all states and their residents are represented in the federalCongress, abicamerallegislature consisting of theSenateand theHouse of Representatives. Each state elects two senators, while representatives aredistributedamong the states inproportionto the most recentconstitutionallymandated decennialcensus.Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in theElectoral College, the body that elects thepresident of the United States, equal to the total of representatives and senators in Congress from that state.The federal district does not have representatives in the Senate, but has a non-votingdelegatein the House, and it is also entitled to electors in the Electoral College. Congress canadmitmore states, but it cannot create a new state from territory of an existing state or merge two or more states into one without the consent of all states involved, and each new state is admitted on anequal footingwith the existing states. The United States has control over fourteen territories. Five of them (American Samoa,Guam, theNorthern Mariana Islands,Puerto Rico, and theUnited States Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them (the United States Minor Outlying Islands) do not. With the exception ofNavassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in theCaribbean, all territories are located in thePacific Ocean. One territory,Palmyra Atoll, is considered to beincorporated, meaning the full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories areunincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to beunorganized, meaning they have not had anorganic actenacted by Congress; the four other territories areorganized, meaning an organic act has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents cannot vote in federal elections, although all are represented by non-voting delegates in the House. The largest state by population isCalifornia, with a population of 39,538,223 people, while the smallest isWyoming, with a population of 576,851 people; the federal district has a larger population (689,545) than both Wyoming andVermont. The largest state by area isAlaska, encompassing 665,384 square miles (1,723,340 km2), while the smallest isRhode Island, encompassing 1,545 square miles (4,000 km2). The most recent states to be admitted, Alaska andHawaii, were admitted in 1959. The largest territory by population is Puerto Rico, with a population of 3,285,874 people (larger than 21 states), while the smallest is the Northern Mariana Islands, with a population of 47,329 people. Puerto Rico is the largest territory by area, encompassing 5,325 square miles (13,790 km2); the smallest territory,Kingman Reef, encompasses only 0.005 square miles (0.013 km2). States Federal district Territories Inhabited territories Uninhabited territories Disputed territories See also Explanatory notes References External links", "List of United States senators from Maryland This is a list ofUnited States senatorsfromMaryland, which ratified theUnited States ConstitutionApril 28, 1788, becoming the seventh state to do so.To provide for continuity of government, the framers divided senators into staggered classes that serve six-year terms, and Maryland's senators are in the first and third classes.Before the passage of theSeventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1913, which allowed for direct election of senators, Maryland's senators were chosen by theMaryland General Assembly, which ratified the amendment on April 1, 2010. Until the assembly appointedGeorge L. WellingtonofCumberlandin 1897, senators in class 3 were chosen from theEastern Shorewhile senators in class 1 were chosen from the remainder of the state.Barbara Mikulskihas been Maryland's longest-serving senator (1987–2017). List of senators See also References", "Ben Cardin Benjamin Louis Cardin(born October 5, 1943) is an American lawyer and politician serving as theseniorUnited States senatorfromMaryland, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of theDemocratic Party, he was theU.S. representativeforMaryland's 3rd congressional districtfrom 1987 to 2007. Cardin served in theMaryland House of Delegatesfrom 1967 to 1987 and asits speakerfrom 1979 to 1987. Cardin has never lost an election in his entire political career. Cardin was elected as U.S. senator to succeedPaul Sarbanesin2006, defeatingRepublicanMichael Steele, thelieutenant governor of Maryland, by a margin of 54% to 44%. He was reelected in2012taking 56% of the vote.He became Maryland's senior U.S. senator on January 3, 2017, uponBarbara Mikulski's retirement. Cardin won reelection to a third term in2018, taking 65% of the vote. Cardin will retire rather than run for reelection in 2024. Early life and career Benjamin Louis Cardin was born inBaltimore,Maryland.The family name was originally \"Kardonsky\", before it was changed to \"Cardin\". Cardin's grandparents wereRussian Jewish immigrants. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Green, operated a neighborhoodgrocery storethat later turned into awholesalefood distributioncompany.His mother Dora was a schoolteacher and his father,Meyer Cardin, served in theMaryland House of Delegates(1935–1937) and later sat on the Baltimore City Supreme Bench (1961–1977). Cardin and his family attended theModern OrthodoxBeth Tfiloh Congregationnear their home, with which the family had been affiliated for three generations. Cardin attendedBaltimore City College, graduating in 1961. In 1964, he earned aBachelor of Arts degreecum laudefrom theUniversity of Pittsburgh,where he was a member of thePi Lambda Phifraternity. He earned aJuris Doctorfrom theUniversity of Maryland School of Lawin 1967, graduating first in his class.Cardin was admitted to theMaryland Barthat same year, and joined the private practice of Rosen and Esterson until 1978. Early political career Maryland House of Delegates While still in law school, Cardin was elected to theMaryland House of Delegatesin November 1966.He held the seat once held by his uncle, Maurice Cardin, who had decided to not run for re-election so that his nephew could instead pursue the seat. He waschairmanof theWays & Means Committeefrom 1974 to 1979, then served as the 103rdSpeaker of the Houseuntil he left office.At age 35, he was the youngest Speaker in Maryland history at the time.As Speaker, he was involved with reform efforts involving Maryland's property tax system, school financing formula, and ethical standards for elected officials. U.S. House of Representatives In 1986, with CongresswomanBarbara Mikulskimounting what would be a successful bid for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by retiring SenatorCharles Mathias, Cardin ran for Mikulski's seat representing the3rd congressional district, which covered a large slice of inner Baltimore, as well as several close-in suburbs. Cardin won the Democratic nomination with 82 percent of the vote—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district. He won the general election with 79 percent of the vote against aperennial candidate,RepublicanRoss Z. Pierpont. Cardin served as one of theHouse impeachment managersthat successfully prosecuted the case in the 1989impeachment trialof JudgeWalter Nixon. Cardin was reelected nine times, rarely facing serious opposition and even running unopposed in 1992. In the 2000 round ofredistricting, his district was redrawn to add significant portions ofAnne Arundel County, including the state capital ofAnnapolis. His last two opponents hailed from Anne Arundel and nearly carried the district's portion of that county. In the House, Cardin was involved with fiscal issues, pension reform, and health care. His legislation to increase the amount individuals can store in their401kplans andIRAswas passed in 2001. His bill to expandMedicareto include preventive benefits such ascolorectal,prostate,mammogram, andosteoporosisscreening was also enacted. He also authored legislation to provide a Medicare prescription drug benefit for chronic illnesses; fund graduate medical education; and guarantee coverage for emergency services. Cardin has also advocated, via proposed legislation,welfarereform. His bill to increase education and support services forfosterchildren between ages 18 and 21 was signed into law in 1999.He authored bills to expand child support, improve thewelfare-to-workprogram, and increase the child care tax credit. In 1998, Cardin was appointed chairman of the Special Study Commission on Maryland Public Ethics Law by theMaryland General Assembly. In 1997, he co-chaired the Bipartisan Ethics Task Force in an effort to reform ethics procedures in the House of Representatives. He also held leadership positions on the Organization, Study and Review Committee and theSteering Committeeof theHouse Democratic Caucus, and served as Senior DemocraticWhip. Cardin has been commended for his work with fiscal policy. He has been honored byWorthmagazine and byTreasury and Risk Managementfor his work protectingretirement plansand government-supported medical care for the elderly. He has also received scores of 100 percent from theLeague of Conservation Votersand theNAACP, indicating stances that are in favor of environmental protection andcivil rights. Cardin was also one of 133 members of Congress to vote against the 2002Iraq Resolution. House committee assignments As of May 2006, Cardin served on the followingHouse committees: U.S. Senate Elections 2006 On April 26, 2005, Cardin announced that he would seek theU.S. Senateseat of long-standing senatorPaul Sarbanes(D-MD), following the announcement by Sarbanes that he would not be running for re-election in 2006. On September 12, 2006, Cardin faced a challenging primary battle with other Maryland Democrats, includingAllan Lichtman,Josh Rales,Dennis F. Rasmussen, and his former House colleagueKweisi Mfume. Cardin won, however, with 44 percent of the vote, compared to 40 percent for Mfume, five percent for Rales, and two percent for Rasmussen. Cardin won election on November 7, 2006, defeating Republican challengerMichael Steele54 percent to 44 percent.Cardin became the third consecutive Representative from Maryland's 3rd congressional district to be elected senator (following Sarbanes and Mikulski).John Sarbanes, Paul's son, succeeded Cardin in the 3rd district. 2012 Cardin ran for re-election to a second term in 2012. He turned back a primary challenge from State SenatorC. Anthony Muse, defeating him 74% to 16%, with seven other candidates taking the remaining 10%. In the general election, he faced RepublicanDan Bongino, a formerUnited States Secret Serviceagent, IndependentRob Sobhani, an economist and businessman, and LibertarianImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, President of theMinaret of Freedom Institute. Cardin easily won the election, taking 56% of the vote to Bongino's 26.3%, Sobhani's 16.4% and Ahmad's 1%. 2018 Cardin was re-elected for a third term in 2018. 2024 On May 1, 2023, Cardin announced that he would retire and not seek re-election in2024. Tenure Cardin was participating in the certification of the2021 United States Electoral College vote countwhen theJanuary 6 United States Capitol attackhappened. Cardin was on the Senate chamber floor when the rioters breached the Capitol. He was \"ushered quickly — and I do mean quickly — away from the Capitol\" after Vice PresidentMike Pencewas removed from the chambers.During the attack, while Cardin hid with other senators in a safe location, he tweeted, blaming PresidentDonald Trumpfor encouraging the rioters. He called for Trump to stop the protestors so the event would end \"peacefully.\"Cardin also compared the police involvement during the attack to that seen duringBlack Lives Matterprotests, calling it a \"stark contrast.\"After the Capitol was secure, Cardin joined Congress to certify the count. After, he said that Trump should be held accountable for the insurrection and called for Republican leaders to tell Trump that he needs to resign.Two days later, on January 8, Cardin called for the invocation of theTwenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitutionor impeachment to remove Trump. In 2024, Cardin advocated for the federal government to fund the reconstruction of theFrancis Scott Key BridgeinBaltimoreafter it collapsed when a ship crashed into it. Senate committee assignments Source: Cardin was selected by Majority LeaderChuck Schumerto fill in forDianne Feinsteinon the Judiciary Committee until she returned. In 2015, Cardin became theranking Democratic memberon theSenate Foreign Relations Committeeafter the departure ofSenator Robert Menendezas ranking Democrat and chairman.Two weeks after Menendez departure, Cardin was credited with facilitating achievement of a unanimous committee vote in favor of themarkupfor the bill on the USA's involvement in thenegotiationswithIranon nuclear technology.Senator Menendez returned to chair the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 2021. Caucus membership Legislation sponsored The following is an incomplete list of legislation that Cardin has sponsored: International experience Cardin has been a Commissioner on theCommission on Security and Cooperation in Europe(the U.S. Helsinki Commission) since 1993, serving as Ranking Member from 2003 to 2006.He subsequently served two terms as co-chair of the commission, from 2007 to 2008, and 2011 to 2012; and also two terms as chair, from 2009 to 2010, and 2013 to 2014.From 2015 to 2016 he was again ranking member.In 2006 he was elected vice president of theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly, and served through 2014. Honors Cardin holds honorary degrees from several institutions, including theUniversity of Baltimore School of Law(1990);University of Maryland, Baltimore(1993);Baltimore Hebrew University(1994);Goucher College(1996); and Villa Julie College (2007). As of 2016Cardin sits on the board of visitors of theUniversity of Maryland School of Law, his law school alma mater. From 1988 to 1995, he chaired the Maryland Legal Services Corp. Through much of his political career, he has continued to work with law policy. From 1988 to 1999, Cardin served on theSt. Mary's College of Marylandboard of trustees, and in 2002, he was appointed to the St. Mary's Advisory Board for the Study of Democracy. In 1999, he was appointed to theGoucher Collegeboard of trustees. Cardin has been awarded the following foreign honor: Political positions On a list byCongressional Quarterlyof the members of Congress who were most supportive of PresidentBarack Obama's legislative agenda in 2009, Cardin was tied for fifth most supportive senator with five other senators.In 2013,National Journalrated him as tied with six other Democratic senators for fifth most liberal senator.TheAmerican Conservative Uniongave him a 4% lifetime conservative rating in 2020. Agriculture In June 2019, Cardin and eighteen other Democratic senators sent a letter to USDA Inspector General (IG) Phyllis K. Fong with the request that the IG investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making and asserted that not conducting an investigation would mean these \"actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists.\" Death penalty Senator Cardin is a supporter of the death penalty but says it should only be applied to the \"worst of the worst\". Economy In March 2019, Cardin was one of six senators to sign a letter to theFederal Trade Commissionrequesting it \"use its rulemaking authority, along with other tools, in order to combat the scourge of non-compete clauses rigging our economy against workers\" and espousing the view that such provisions \"harm employees by limiting their ability to find alternate work, which leaves them with little leverage to bargain for better wages or working conditions with their immediate employer.\" The senators furthered that the FTC had the responsibility of protecting both consumers and workers and needed to \"act decisively\" to address their concerns over \"serious anti-competitive harms from the proliferation of non-competes in the economy.\" Education In 2007, Cardin supported theUnited States Public Service AcademyAct. The Act would serve to create \"an undergraduate institution devoted to developing civilian leaders.\" Like the Military Academies, this would give students 4 years of tuition-free education in exchange for 5 years of public service upon graduation. Environment Liberal environmentalists criticized Cardin for compromising too much while working with conservative James Inhofe on an amendment to Cardin's Chesapeake Bay legislation.Josh Saks, senior legislative representative for water resources campaigns with the National Wildlife Federation, praised Cardin as \"the lead voice for clean water and the restoration of America's great waters in Congress.\" In November 2018, Cardin was one of twenty-five Democratic senators to cosponsor a resolution specifying key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change report and National Climate Assessment. The resolution affirmed the senators' acceptance of the findings and their support for bold action towardaddressing climate change. In March 2019, Cardin was one of eleven senators to sponsor the Climate Security Act of 2019, legislation forming a new group within the State Department that would have the responsibility for developing strategies to integrate climate science and data into operations of national security as well as restoring the post of special envoy for the Arctic, which had been dismantled by President Trump in 2017. The proposed envoy would advise the president and the administration on the potential effects of climate on national security and be responsible for facilitating all interagency communication between federal science and security agencies. Elections In October 2018, Cardin cosponsored, together withChris Van HollenandSusan Collins, a bipartisan bill that if passed would block \"any persons from foreign adversaries from owning or having control over vendors administering U.S. elections.\" Protect Our Elections Act would make companies involved in administering elections reveal foreign owners, and informing local, state and federal authorities if said ownership changes. Companies failing to comply would face fines of $100,000. Equal Rights Amendment Cardin has sponsored legislation in support of theEqual Rights Amendment. Gun control Cardin has an \"F\" rating from theNRA Political Victory Fund. In 2013, he co-sponsored the Large Capacity Ammunition Feeding Device Act in an effort to ban large-capacity ammunition. In response to theOrlando nightclub shooting, Cardin questioned the legality of military style assault weapons stating that \"in my observations in Maryland, I don't know too many people who need to have that type of weapon in order to do hunting in my state or to keep themselves safe.\" Cardin opposed the 2016 sale of approximately 26,000 assault rifles to the national police of the Philippines. His opposition led to the U.S. State Department halting the sale. In the wake of the2017 Las Vegas shooting, Cardin stated thatthoughts and prayerswere not going to save more people from dying in mass shootings.He also made a call for action to change gun laws, stating onTwitterthat \"Automatic weapons aren't needed to hunt deer or ducks; they're meant to kill people.\"In response to the shooting, Cardin sponsoredDianne Feinstein's proposal to banbump stocks, which were used by the shooter to kill 58 individuals and injure over 500. Journalism In July 2019, Cardin andRob Portmanintroduced the Fallen Journalists Memorial Act, a bill that would create a new memorial that would be privately funded and constructed on federal lands within Washington, D.C. in order to honor journalists, photographers, and broadcasters that have died in the line of duty. Healthcare In the 111th Congress, Cardin helped secure dental benefits in the State Children's Health Insurance Plan. In August 2019, Cardin was one of nineteen senators to sign a letter toUnited States Secretary of the TreasurySteve MnuchinandUnited States Secretary of Health and Human ServicesAlex Azarrequesting data from the Trump administration in order to aid in the comprehension of states and Congress on potential consequences in the event that the Texas v. United States Affordable Care Act (ACA) lawsuit prevailed in courts, citing that an overhaul of the present health care system would form \"an enormous hole in the pocketbooks of the people we serve as well as wreck state budgets\". In October 2019, Cardin was one of twenty-seven senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority LeaderMitch McConnelland Senate Minority LeaderChuck Schumeradvocating for the passage of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it \"would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans.\" Housing In April 2019, Cardin was one of forty-one senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising theUnited States Department of Housing and Urban Development'sSection 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing \"HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country\" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget \"has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development.\" The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020. International policy On October 31, 2011, Cardin endorsed the proposal for theUnited Nations Parliamentary Assembly(UNPA). He is one of only six persons who served as members of the United States Congress ever to do so and is the only one who did so while in office. Cardin has often supported positions that aim to strengthen America's relationship with Israel.In 2017, Cardin sponsored a bill, the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S. 720), that would penalize commercial businesses that wanted to aid International NGOs and/or organizations in boycotting Israel.Cardin has argued that Israel's human rights record should not be considered in regard to sending U.S. military aid to Israel. He supported civilian nuclear cooperation with India. Weeks after the2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaignandUmbrella Movementbroke out which demandsgenuine universal suffrage among other goals, Cardin among bipartisan colleagues joined U.S. senatorSherrod Brownand Rep.Chris Smith's effort to introduceHong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Actwhich would update theUnited States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992and U.S. commitment toHong Kong's freedom and democracy. \"Civil societyanddemocratic freedomsare under attack around the world andHong Kong is on the front lines. The United States has a responsibility to protecthuman rightsand defend againstthese threats,\" Cardin, chairman of theSenate Foreign Relations East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommitteesaid. In July 2017, Cardin voted in favor of theCountering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Actthat placedsanctions on Irantogether withRussiaandNorth Korea.On October 11, 2017, in a joint statement, Cardin and SenatorJohn McCainquestioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill. In October 2017, Cardin condemned thegenocideof theRohingya Muslimminority inMyanmarand called for a stronger response to the crisis. In August 2018, Cardin and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible forhuman rights abusesagainst theUyghurMuslimminority in western China'sXinjiangregion.They wrote: \"The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in 'political reeducation' centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response.\" Cardin condemned PresidentErdoğan's wide-rangingcrackdown on dissentfollowing a failed July 2016 coup in America's NATO allyTurkey. In April 2019, Cardin was one of thirty-four senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America\", asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries. In 2023 Senator Cardin became the chair of theUnited States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.According toJewish Insider, Cardin's office communicated to some activists that it does not have a plan to move theMahsa Amini Human rights and Security Accountability Act (MAHSA Act)forward through the committee, likely killing the bipartisan Iran sanctions bill. Online privacy Cardin supportsNet Neutrality, as shown by his vote during the109th Congressin favor of the Markey Amendment to H.R. 5252 which would add Net Neutrality provisions to the federal telecommunications code.Cardin also supportsCombating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which gives DOJ the tools to target those site owners who are engaged in illegal digital piracy. Taxes Cardin is opposed to eliminating the tax deduction for charitable donations and supports raising taxes on higher-income earners.During a December 20, 2012, interview withMaria BartiromoonCNBC, Cardin stated, \"We're now a few days away from Christmas. The easiest way to get the revenues is to get the rates from the higher income, uh, taxpayers.\"In response to the question, \"Are you prepared to vote to limit the loophole of charitable deductions?\" Cardin responded, \"No.\" Cardin has, on multiple occasions, introduced a bill to adopt a \"Progressive Consumption Tax\", which is a variation of Michael J. Graetz'sCompetitive Tax Plan.This tax reform would abolish income tax for a large portion of American taxpayers, replacing the lost revenue with a 10%value-added tax. As of 2022, the Progressive Consumption Tax has not made it out of committee. Cardin spoke out after thePandora Paperswere revealed in 2021. Cardin said, \"The Pandora Papers are a wake-up call to all who care about the future of democracy. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, it is time for democracies to band together and demand an end to the unprecedented corruption that has come to be the defining feature of the global order. We must purge the dirty money from our systems and deny kleptocrats safe haven.\" Whistleblowers In November 2011, Cardin's intended update of the 1917 Espionage Act upset some public disclosure advocates. They complained that it \"would make it harder for federal employees to expose government fraud and abuse.\" Israel Cardin is a co-sponsor of a Senate resolution expressing objection to theUN Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemnedIsraeli settlement buildingin the occupiedPalestinian territoriesas a violation of international law. Cardin said that \"Congress will take action against efforts at the UN, or beyond, that use Resolution 2334 to target Israel.\" Cardin supported PresidentDonald Trump's decision torecognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: \"Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Israel and the location of the US Embassy should reflect this fact.\" Cardin and SenatorRob Portman(R-Ohio) proposed theIsrael Anti-Boycott Actin late 2018 which would make it illegal for companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in theIsraeli-occupied territories.The bill would expand theExport Administration Act(EAA) to foreign boycotts imposed by international organizations like theEuropean Union,Arab Leagueand theUnited Nations. Cardin and Portman were strongly in promotion of the bill, and worked to integrate it into larger spending legislation to be signed by then-President Trump. In January 2024, Cardin rejectedBernie Sanders' resolution that would have required the State Department to report to Congress on any evidence ofhuman rights violationsby Israel inGaza.In May 2024, Cardin stated that \"Israel has not violated International Humanitarian Law\" and \"military assistance to support Israel's security remains in the U.S. interest and should continue.\" Personal life Cardin married high school sweetheart Myrna Edelman, a teacher,on November 24, 1964. They have a daughter, Deborah. Their son Michael (born 1967 or 1968) died ofsuicideon March 24, 1998,at age 30. In 2002, Cardin's 32-year-old nephew,Jon S. Cardin, was elected as a Delegate representing the 11th district of western Baltimore County. With the 11th legislative district overlapping the 3rd congressional district, there were two Cardins on the ticket in this area in 2002. Present at Jon's swearing in was the oldest living former member of the House of Delegates at 95 years of age, Meyer Cardin, Jon's grandfather and Ben's father. Also in attendance was Cardin, who remarked, \"The next generation's taking over.\" Volunteer service For many years Cardin served on the board of trustees forSt. Mary's College of Maryland. He was very active on the board and also played key roles in the establishment of theCenter for the Study of Democracyat the college, where he also served on the advisory board. Electoral history Notes and references Notes References See also Further reading External links", "Maurice Cardin Maurice Cardin(July 19, 1909 – March 23, 2009) was an American politician who served in theMaryland House of DelegatesfromBaltimoreCity's 5th district from 1951 to 1966.His nephew is current MarylandU.S. SenatorBen Cardin, who took over his seat in the Maryland House of Delegates when he retired from politics. He died of heart failure on March 23, 2009, inLake Worth Beach, Floridaat age 99. References This article about a Maryland politician is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]

[ "List of states and territories of the United States TheUnited States of Americais afederal republicconsisting of 50states, afederal district(Washington, D.C., thecapital cityof the United States), five majorterritories, and variousminor islands.Both the states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.TheTenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionallows states to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Each state has its ownconstitutionand government, and all states and their residents are represented in the federalCongress, abicamerallegislature consisting of theSenateand theHouse of Representatives. Each state elects two senators, while representatives aredistributedamong the states inproportionto the most recentconstitutionallymandated decennialcensus.Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in theElectoral College, the body that elects thepresident of the United States, equal to the total of representatives", "of representatives and senators in Congress from that state.The federal district does not have representatives in the Senate, but has a non-votingdelegatein the House, and it is also entitled to electors in the Electoral College. Congress canadmitmore states, but it cannot create a new state from territory of an existing state or merge two or more states into one without the consent of all states involved, and each new state is admitted on anequal footingwith the existing states. The United States has control over fourteen territories. Five of them (American Samoa,Guam, theNorthern Mariana Islands,Puerto Rico, and theUnited States Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them (the United States Minor Outlying Islands) do not. With the exception ofNavassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in theCaribbean, all territories are located in thePacific Ocean. One territory,Palmyra Atoll, is considered to beincorporated, meaning the full body of the", "full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories areunincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to beunorganized, meaning they have not had anorganic actenacted by Congress; the four other territories areorganized, meaning an organic act has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents cannot vote in federal elections, although all are represented by non-voting delegates in the House. The largest state by population isCalifornia, with a population of 39,538,223 people, while the smallest isWyoming, with a population of 576,851 people; the federal district has a larger population (689,545) than both Wyoming andVermont. The largest state by area isAlaska, encompassing 665,384 square miles (1,723,340 km2), while the smallest isRhode Island, encompassing 1,545 square", "1,545 square miles (4,000 km2). The most recent states to be admitted, Alaska andHawaii, were admitted in 1959. The largest territory by population is Puerto Rico, with a population of 3,285,874 people (larger than 21 states), while the smallest is the Northern Mariana Islands, with a population of 47,329 people. Puerto Rico is the largest territory by area, encompassing 5,325 square miles (13,790 km2); the smallest territory,Kingman Reef, encompasses only 0.005 square miles (0.013 km2). States Federal district Territories Inhabited territories Uninhabited territories Disputed territories See also Explanatory notes References External links", "List of United States senators from Maryland This is a list ofUnited States senatorsfromMaryland, which ratified theUnited States ConstitutionApril 28, 1788, becoming the seventh state to do so.To provide for continuity of government, the framers divided senators into staggered classes that serve six-year terms, and Maryland's senators are in the first and third classes.Before the passage of theSeventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1913, which allowed for direct election of senators, Maryland's senators were chosen by theMaryland General Assembly, which ratified the amendment on April 1, 2010. Until the assembly appointedGeorge L. WellingtonofCumberlandin 1897, senators in class 3 were chosen from theEastern Shorewhile senators in class 1 were chosen from the remainder of the state.Barbara Mikulskihas been Maryland's longest-serving senator (1987–2017). List of senators See also References", "Ben Cardin Benjamin Louis Cardin(born October 5, 1943) is an American lawyer and politician serving as theseniorUnited States senatorfromMaryland, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of theDemocratic Party, he was theU.S. representativeforMaryland's 3rd congressional districtfrom 1987 to 2007. Cardin served in theMaryland House of Delegatesfrom 1967 to 1987 and asits speakerfrom 1979 to 1987. Cardin has never lost an election in his entire political career. Cardin was elected as U.S. senator to succeedPaul Sarbanesin2006, defeatingRepublicanMichael Steele, thelieutenant governor of Maryland, by a margin of 54% to 44%. He was reelected in2012taking 56% of the vote.He became Maryland's senior U.S. senator on January 3, 2017, uponBarbara Mikulski's retirement. Cardin won reelection to a third term in2018, taking 65% of the vote. Cardin will retire rather than run for reelection in 2024. Early life and career Benjamin Louis Cardin was born inBaltimore,Maryland.The family name was originally \"Kardonsky\",", "\"Kardonsky\", before it was changed to \"Cardin\". Cardin's grandparents wereRussian Jewish immigrants. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Green, operated a neighborhoodgrocery storethat later turned into awholesalefood distributioncompany.His mother Dora was a schoolteacher and his father,Meyer Cardin, served in theMaryland House of Delegates(1935–1937) and later sat on the Baltimore City Supreme Bench (1961–1977). Cardin and his family attended theModern OrthodoxBeth Tfiloh Congregationnear their home, with which the family had been affiliated for three generations. Cardin attendedBaltimore City College, graduating in 1961. In 1964, he earned aBachelor of Arts degreecum laudefrom theUniversity of Pittsburgh,where he was a member of thePi Lambda Phifraternity. He earned aJuris Doctorfrom theUniversity of Maryland School of Lawin 1967, graduating first in his class.Cardin was admitted to theMaryland Barthat same year, and joined the private practice of Rosen and Esterson until 1978. Early political career", "political career Maryland House of Delegates While still in law school, Cardin was elected to theMaryland House of Delegatesin November 1966.He held the seat once held by his uncle, Maurice Cardin, who had decided to not run for re-election so that his nephew could instead pursue the seat. He waschairmanof theWays & Means Committeefrom 1974 to 1979, then served as the 103rdSpeaker of the Houseuntil he left office.At age 35, he was the youngest Speaker in Maryland history at the time.As Speaker, he was involved with reform efforts involving Maryland's property tax system, school financing formula, and ethical standards for elected officials. U.S. House of Representatives In 1986, with CongresswomanBarbara Mikulskimounting what would be a successful bid for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by retiring SenatorCharles Mathias, Cardin ran for Mikulski's seat representing the3rd congressional district, which covered a large slice of inner Baltimore, as well as several close-in suburbs. Cardin won the Democratic", "won the Democratic nomination with 82 percent of the vote—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district. He won the general election with 79 percent of the vote against aperennial candidate,RepublicanRoss Z. Pierpont. Cardin served as one of theHouse impeachment managersthat successfully prosecuted the case in the 1989impeachment trialof JudgeWalter Nixon. Cardin was reelected nine times, rarely facing serious opposition and even running unopposed in 1992. In the 2000 round ofredistricting, his district was redrawn to add significant portions ofAnne Arundel County, including the state capital ofAnnapolis. His last two opponents hailed from Anne Arundel and nearly carried the district's portion of that county. In the House, Cardin was involved with fiscal issues, pension reform, and health care. His legislation to increase the amount individuals can store in their401kplans andIRAswas passed in 2001. His bill to expandMedicareto include preventive benefits such ascolorectal,prostate,mammogram,", "andosteoporosisscreening was also enacted. He also authored legislation to provide a Medicare prescription drug benefit for chronic illnesses; fund graduate medical education; and guarantee coverage for emergency services. Cardin has also advocated, via proposed legislation,welfarereform. His bill to increase education and support services forfosterchildren between ages 18 and 21 was signed into law in 1999.He authored bills to expand child support, improve thewelfare-to-workprogram, and increase the child care tax credit. In 1998, Cardin was appointed chairman of the Special Study Commission on Maryland Public Ethics Law by theMaryland General Assembly. In 1997, he co-chaired the Bipartisan Ethics Task Force in an effort to reform ethics procedures in the House of Representatives. He also held leadership positions on the Organization, Study and Review Committee and theSteering Committeeof theHouse Democratic Caucus, and served as Senior DemocraticWhip. Cardin has been commended for his work with fiscal", "work with fiscal policy. He has been honored byWorthmagazine and byTreasury and Risk Managementfor his work protectingretirement plansand government-supported medical care for the elderly. He has also received scores of 100 percent from theLeague of Conservation Votersand theNAACP, indicating stances that are in favor of environmental protection andcivil rights. Cardin was also one of 133 members of Congress to vote against the 2002Iraq Resolution. House committee assignments As of May 2006, Cardin served on the followingHouse committees: U.S. Senate Elections 2006 On April 26, 2005, Cardin announced that he would seek theU.S. Senateseat of long-standing senatorPaul Sarbanes(D-MD), following the announcement by Sarbanes that he would not be running for re-election in 2006. On September 12, 2006, Cardin faced a challenging primary battle with other Maryland Democrats, includingAllan Lichtman,Josh Rales,Dennis F. Rasmussen, and his former House colleagueKweisi Mfume. Cardin won, however, with 44 percent of the", "44 percent of the vote, compared to 40 percent for Mfume, five percent for Rales, and two percent for Rasmussen. Cardin won election on November 7, 2006, defeating Republican challengerMichael Steele54 percent to 44 percent.Cardin became the third consecutive Representative from Maryland's 3rd congressional district to be elected senator (following Sarbanes and Mikulski).John Sarbanes, Paul's son, succeeded Cardin in the 3rd district. 2012 Cardin ran for re-election to a second term in 2012. He turned back a primary challenge from State SenatorC. Anthony Muse, defeating him 74% to 16%, with seven other candidates taking the remaining 10%. In the general election, he faced RepublicanDan Bongino, a formerUnited States Secret Serviceagent, IndependentRob Sobhani, an economist and businessman, and LibertarianImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, President of theMinaret of Freedom Institute. Cardin easily won the election, taking 56% of the vote to Bongino's 26.3%, Sobhani's 16.4% and Ahmad's 1%. 2018 Cardin was re-elected for a", "re-elected for a third term in 2018. 2024 On May 1, 2023, Cardin announced that he would retire and not seek re-election in2024. Tenure Cardin was participating in the certification of the2021 United States Electoral College vote countwhen theJanuary 6 United States Capitol attackhappened. Cardin was on the Senate chamber floor when the rioters breached the Capitol. He was \"ushered quickly — and I do mean quickly — away from the Capitol\" after Vice PresidentMike Pencewas removed from the chambers.During the attack, while Cardin hid with other senators in a safe location, he tweeted, blaming PresidentDonald Trumpfor encouraging the rioters. He called for Trump to stop the protestors so the event would end \"peacefully.\"Cardin also compared the police involvement during the attack to that seen duringBlack Lives Matterprotests, calling it a \"stark contrast.\"After the Capitol was secure, Cardin joined Congress to certify the count. After, he said that Trump should be held accountable for the insurrection and", "insurrection and called for Republican leaders to tell Trump that he needs to resign.Two days later, on January 8, Cardin called for the invocation of theTwenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitutionor impeachment to remove Trump. In 2024, Cardin advocated for the federal government to fund the reconstruction of theFrancis Scott Key BridgeinBaltimoreafter it collapsed when a ship crashed into it. Senate committee assignments Source: Cardin was selected by Majority LeaderChuck Schumerto fill in forDianne Feinsteinon the Judiciary Committee until she returned. In 2015, Cardin became theranking Democratic memberon theSenate Foreign Relations Committeeafter the departure ofSenator Robert Menendezas ranking Democrat and chairman.Two weeks after Menendez departure, Cardin was credited with facilitating achievement of a unanimous committee vote in favor of themarkupfor the bill on the USA's involvement in thenegotiationswithIranon nuclear technology.Senator Menendez returned to chair the Senate Foreign", "the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 2021. Caucus membership Legislation sponsored The following is an incomplete list of legislation that Cardin has sponsored: International experience Cardin has been a Commissioner on theCommission on Security and Cooperation in Europe(the U.S. Helsinki Commission) since 1993, serving as Ranking Member from 2003 to 2006.He subsequently served two terms as co-chair of the commission, from 2007 to 2008, and 2011 to 2012; and also two terms as chair, from 2009 to 2010, and 2013 to 2014.From 2015 to 2016 he was again ranking member.In 2006 he was elected vice president of theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly, and served through 2014. Honors Cardin holds honorary degrees from several institutions, including theUniversity of Baltimore School of Law(1990);University of Maryland, Baltimore(1993);Baltimore Hebrew University(1994);Goucher College(1996); and Villa Julie College (2007). As of 2016Cardin sits on the board of visitors", "board of visitors of theUniversity of Maryland School of Law, his law school alma mater. From 1988 to 1995, he chaired the Maryland Legal Services Corp. Through much of his political career, he has continued to work with law policy. From 1988 to 1999, Cardin served on theSt. Mary's College of Marylandboard of trustees, and in 2002, he was appointed to the St. Mary's Advisory Board for the Study of Democracy. In 1999, he was appointed to theGoucher Collegeboard of trustees. Cardin has been awarded the following foreign honor: Political positions On a list byCongressional Quarterlyof the members of Congress who were most supportive of PresidentBarack Obama's legislative agenda in 2009, Cardin was tied for fifth most supportive senator with five other senators.In 2013,National Journalrated him as tied with six other Democratic senators for fifth most liberal senator.TheAmerican Conservative Uniongave him a 4% lifetime conservative rating in 2020. Agriculture In June 2019, Cardin and eighteen other Democratic", "other Democratic senators sent a letter to USDA Inspector General (IG) Phyllis K. Fong with the request that the IG investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making and asserted that not conducting an investigation would mean these \"actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists.\" Death penalty Senator Cardin is a supporter of the death penalty but says it should only be applied to the \"worst of the worst\". Economy In March 2019, Cardin was one of six senators to sign a letter to theFederal Trade Commissionrequesting it \"use its rulemaking authority, along with other tools, in order to combat the scourge of non-compete clauses rigging our economy against workers\" and espousing the view that such provisions \"harm employees by limiting their ability to find alternate work, which", "work, which leaves them with little leverage to bargain for better wages or working conditions with their immediate employer.\" The senators furthered that the FTC had the responsibility of protecting both consumers and workers and needed to \"act decisively\" to address their concerns over \"serious anti-competitive harms from the proliferation of non-competes in the economy.\" Education In 2007, Cardin supported theUnited States Public Service AcademyAct. The Act would serve to create \"an undergraduate institution devoted to developing civilian leaders.\" Like the Military Academies, this would give students 4 years of tuition-free education in exchange for 5 years of public service upon graduation. Environment Liberal environmentalists criticized Cardin for compromising too much while working with conservative James Inhofe on an amendment to Cardin's Chesapeake Bay legislation.Josh Saks, senior legislative representative for water resources campaigns with the National Wildlife Federation, praised Cardin as \"the", "Cardin as \"the lead voice for clean water and the restoration of America's great waters in Congress.\" In November 2018, Cardin was one of twenty-five Democratic senators to cosponsor a resolution specifying key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change report and National Climate Assessment. The resolution affirmed the senators' acceptance of the findings and their support for bold action towardaddressing climate change. In March 2019, Cardin was one of eleven senators to sponsor the Climate Security Act of 2019, legislation forming a new group within the State Department that would have the responsibility for developing strategies to integrate climate science and data into operations of national security as well as restoring the post of special envoy for the Arctic, which had been dismantled by President Trump in 2017. The proposed envoy would advise the president and the administration on the potential effects of climate on national security and be responsible for facilitating all", "facilitating all interagency communication between federal science and security agencies. Elections In October 2018, Cardin cosponsored, together withChris Van HollenandSusan Collins, a bipartisan bill that if passed would block \"any persons from foreign adversaries from owning or having control over vendors administering U.S. elections.\" Protect Our Elections Act would make companies involved in administering elections reveal foreign owners, and informing local, state and federal authorities if said ownership changes. Companies failing to comply would face fines of $100,000. Equal Rights Amendment Cardin has sponsored legislation in support of theEqual Rights Amendment. Gun control Cardin has an \"F\" rating from theNRA Political Victory Fund. In 2013, he co-sponsored the Large Capacity Ammunition Feeding Device Act in an effort to ban large-capacity ammunition. In response to theOrlando nightclub shooting, Cardin questioned the legality of military style assault weapons stating that \"in my observations in", "my observations in Maryland, I don't know too many people who need to have that type of weapon in order to do hunting in my state or to keep themselves safe.\" Cardin opposed the 2016 sale of approximately 26,000 assault rifles to the national police of the Philippines. His opposition led to the U.S. State Department halting the sale. In the wake of the2017 Las Vegas shooting, Cardin stated thatthoughts and prayerswere not going to save more people from dying in mass shootings.He also made a call for action to change gun laws, stating onTwitterthat \"Automatic weapons aren't needed to hunt deer or ducks; they're meant to kill people.\"In response to the shooting, Cardin sponsoredDianne Feinstein's proposal to banbump stocks, which were used by the shooter to kill 58 individuals and injure over 500. Journalism In July 2019, Cardin andRob Portmanintroduced the Fallen Journalists Memorial Act, a bill that would create a new memorial that would be privately funded and constructed on federal lands within Washington,", "within Washington, D.C. in order to honor journalists, photographers, and broadcasters that have died in the line of duty. Healthcare In the 111th Congress, Cardin helped secure dental benefits in the State Children's Health Insurance Plan. In August 2019, Cardin was one of nineteen senators to sign a letter toUnited States Secretary of the TreasurySteve MnuchinandUnited States Secretary of Health and Human ServicesAlex Azarrequesting data from the Trump administration in order to aid in the comprehension of states and Congress on potential consequences in the event that the Texas v. United States Affordable Care Act (ACA) lawsuit prevailed in courts, citing that an overhaul of the present health care system would form \"an enormous hole in the pocketbooks of the people we serve as well as wreck state budgets\". In October 2019, Cardin was one of twenty-seven senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority LeaderMitch McConnelland Senate Minority LeaderChuck Schumeradvocating for the passage of the Community", "of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it \"would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans.\" Housing In April 2019, Cardin was one of forty-one senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising theUnited States Department of Housing and Urban Development'sSection 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing \"HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country\" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget \"has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development.\" The senators wrote of their hope that the", "their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020. International policy On October 31, 2011, Cardin endorsed the proposal for theUnited Nations Parliamentary Assembly(UNPA). He is one of only six persons who served as members of the United States Congress ever to do so and is the only one who did so while in office. Cardin has often supported positions that aim to strengthen America's relationship with Israel.In 2017, Cardin sponsored a bill, the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S. 720), that would penalize commercial businesses that wanted to aid International NGOs and/or organizations in boycotting Israel.Cardin has argued that Israel's human rights record should not be considered in regard to sending U.S. military aid to Israel. He supported civilian nuclear cooperation with India. Weeks after the2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaignandUmbrella Movementbroke out which demandsgenuine universal suffrage among other goals, Cardin among bipartisan colleagues joined", "colleagues joined U.S. senatorSherrod Brownand Rep.Chris Smith's effort to introduceHong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Actwhich would update theUnited States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992and U.S. commitment toHong Kong's freedom and democracy. \"Civil societyanddemocratic freedomsare under attack around the world andHong Kong is on the front lines. The United States has a responsibility to protecthuman rightsand defend againstthese threats,\" Cardin, chairman of theSenate Foreign Relations East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommitteesaid. In July 2017, Cardin voted in favor of theCountering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Actthat placedsanctions on Irantogether withRussiaandNorth Korea.On October 11, 2017, in a joint statement, Cardin and SenatorJohn McCainquestioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill. In October 2017, Cardin condemned thegenocideof theRohingya Muslimminority inMyanmarand called for a stronger response to the crisis. In August 2018, Cardin and 16 other", "Cardin and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible forhuman rights abusesagainst theUyghurMuslimminority in western China'sXinjiangregion.They wrote: \"The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in 'political reeducation' centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response.\" Cardin condemned PresidentErdoğan's wide-rangingcrackdown on dissentfollowing a failed July 2016 coup in America's NATO allyTurkey. In April 2019, Cardin was one of thirty-four senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America\", asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining", "undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries. In 2023 Senator Cardin became the chair of theUnited States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.According toJewish Insider, Cardin's office communicated to some activists that it does not have a plan to move theMahsa Amini Human rights and Security Accountability Act (MAHSA Act)forward through the committee, likely killing the bipartisan Iran sanctions bill. Online privacy Cardin supportsNet Neutrality, as shown by his vote during the109th Congressin favor of the Markey Amendment to H.R. 5252 which would add Net Neutrality provisions to the federal telecommunications code.Cardin also supportsCombating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which gives DOJ the tools to target", "the tools to target those site owners who are engaged in illegal digital piracy. Taxes Cardin is opposed to eliminating the tax deduction for charitable donations and supports raising taxes on higher-income earners.During a December 20, 2012, interview withMaria BartiromoonCNBC, Cardin stated, \"We're now a few days away from Christmas. The easiest way to get the revenues is to get the rates from the higher income, uh, taxpayers.\"In response to the question, \"Are you prepared to vote to limit the loophole of charitable deductions?\" Cardin responded, \"No.\" Cardin has, on multiple occasions, introduced a bill to adopt a \"Progressive Consumption Tax\", which is a variation of Michael J. Graetz'sCompetitive Tax Plan.This tax reform would abolish income tax for a large portion of American taxpayers, replacing the lost revenue with a 10%value-added tax. As of 2022, the Progressive Consumption Tax has not made it out of committee. Cardin spoke out after thePandora Paperswere revealed in 2021. Cardin said, \"The", "Cardin said, \"The Pandora Papers are a wake-up call to all who care about the future of democracy. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, it is time for democracies to band together and demand an end to the unprecedented corruption that has come to be the defining feature of the global order. We must purge the dirty money from our systems and deny kleptocrats safe haven.\" Whistleblowers In November 2011, Cardin's intended update of the 1917 Espionage Act upset some public disclosure advocates. They complained that it \"would make it harder for federal employees to expose government fraud and abuse.\" Israel Cardin is a co-sponsor of a Senate resolution expressing objection to theUN Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemnedIsraeli settlement buildingin the occupiedPalestinian territoriesas a violation of international law. Cardin said that \"Congress will take action against efforts at the UN, or beyond, that use Resolution 2334 to target Israel.\" Cardin supported PresidentDonald Trump's decision", "Trump's decision torecognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: \"Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Israel and the location of the US Embassy should reflect this fact.\" Cardin and SenatorRob Portman(R-Ohio) proposed theIsrael Anti-Boycott Actin late 2018 which would make it illegal for companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in theIsraeli-occupied territories.The bill would expand theExport Administration Act(EAA) to foreign boycotts imposed by international organizations like theEuropean Union,Arab Leagueand theUnited Nations. Cardin and Portman were strongly in promotion of the bill, and worked to integrate it into larger spending legislation to be signed by then-President Trump. In January 2024, Cardin rejectedBernie Sanders' resolution that would have required the State Department to report to Congress on any evidence ofhuman rights violationsby Israel inGaza.In May 2024, Cardin stated that \"Israel has not violated International Humanitarian Law\" and \"military", "Law\" and \"military assistance to support Israel's security remains in the U.S. interest and should continue.\" Personal life Cardin married high school sweetheart Myrna Edelman, a teacher,on November 24, 1964. They have a daughter, Deborah. Their son Michael (born 1967 or 1968) died ofsuicideon March 24, 1998,at age 30. In 2002, Cardin's 32-year-old nephew,Jon S. Cardin, was elected as a Delegate representing the 11th district of western Baltimore County. With the 11th legislative district overlapping the 3rd congressional district, there were two Cardins on the ticket in this area in 2002. Present at Jon's swearing in was the oldest living former member of the House of Delegates at 95 years of age, Meyer Cardin, Jon's grandfather and Ben's father. Also in attendance was Cardin, who remarked, \"The next generation's taking over.\" Volunteer service For many years Cardin served on the board of trustees forSt. Mary's College of Maryland. He was very active on the board and also played key roles in the", "key roles in the establishment of theCenter for the Study of Democracyat the college, where he also served on the advisory board. Electoral history Notes and references Notes References See also Further reading External links", "Maurice Cardin Maurice Cardin(July 19, 1909 – March 23, 2009) was an American politician who served in theMaryland House of DelegatesfromBaltimoreCity's 5th district from 1951 to 1966.His nephew is current MarylandU.S. SenatorBen Cardin, who took over his seat in the Maryland House of Delegates when he retired from politics. He died of heart failure on March 23, 2009, inLake Worth Beach, Floridaat age 99. References This article about a Maryland politician is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mons_Hansteen", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Hansteen", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Treschow" ]

[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Mons_Hansteen (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93d02f80>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Christopher Hansteen Christopher Hansteen(26 September 1784 – 11 April 1873) was aNorwegiangeophysicist,astronomerandphysicist,best known for his mapping ofEarth's magnetic field. Early life and career Hansteen was born inChristianiaas the son of Johannes Mathias Hansteen (1744–1792) and his wife Anne Cathrine Treschow (1754–1829). He was the younger brother of writerConradine Birgitte Dunker,and through her the uncle ofBernhard DunkerandVilhelmine Ullmann, and granduncle ofMathilde Schjøtt,Ragna NielsenandViggo Ullmann.His mother was a first cousin ofNiels Treschow. The intention was for Hansteen to become a naval officer, but since his father died when Hansteen was young, this plan did not materialize. Instead, he attendedOslo Cathedral Schoolfrom the age of nine. Niels Treschow was the principal of this school. Hansteen took theexamen artiumin 1802, and in 1803 he enrolled at theUniversity of Copenhagen, where he originally studiedlaw. He later took more interest inmathematics, estranged by the lack of universal validity of a country's laws compared to the mathematical laws. He had also been inspired by the lectures ofHans Christian Ørsted. He was hired as the tutor of a young noble, Niels Rosenkrantz von Holstein, who lived atSorø. Here, he also met his future wife Johanne Cathrine Andrea Borch, a daughter of professorCaspar Abraham Borch. In 1806 he was hired as a mathematics teacher in thegymnasiumofFrederiksborg. Academic career In 1807 Hansteen began the inquiries interrestrial magnetismwith which his name is especially associated.His first scientific publication was printed inJournal de Physique, following a contest on magnetic axes created in 1811 by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. In 1813 he was given a research scholarship by the recently established (in 1811)Royal Frederick Universityin Christiania, with a promise of a future academic position. After marrying Johanne Cathrine Andrea Borch in May 1814, they left for Norway in the summer. Due to theSwedish campaign against Norway in 1814, they opted to travel by sea, and was threatened by a Swedishprivateeras well as seized by a Britishfregateen route. Reaching Norway after five days, they settled in the streetPilestredet. Working as a lecturer from 1814, in 1816 Hansteen was promoted to professor of astronomy and applied mathematics. He was the editor of the official Norwegianalmanacfrom 1815, manager of thecity astronomical observatoryfrom the same year and co-director of theNorwegian Mapping Authority(then known asNorges Geografiske Oppmåling) from 1817.In 1819 he published a volume of researches on terrestrial magnetism, which was translated intoGermanunder the title ofUntersuchungen über den Magnetismus der Erde, with a supplement containingBeobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung der Magnetnadeland an atlas. By the rules there framed for the observation of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to accumulate analyses for determining the number and position of themagnetic polesof the Earth.In 1822 he co-founded Norway's first journal on natural sciences,Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne. He sat as editor-in-chief for eight years. In the course of his research he travelled overFinlandand the greater part of his own country; and from 1828 to 1830 he undertook, in company withGeorg Adolf Ermanand with the co-operation ofRussia, a government-funded mission to WesternSiberia. A narrative of the expedition soon appeared (Reise-Erinnerungen aus Siberien, 1854;Souvenirs d’un voyage en Sibérie, 1857); but the chief work was not issued until 1863 (Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen).He did not conclude on the issue at hand, but his work was later completed byCarl Friedrich Gauss. Shortly after the return of the mission, in 1833 Hansteen moved with his family into the observatory, which was created from drawings by the architectChristian Heinrich Grosch.A magnetic observatory was added in 1839. From 1835 to 1838 he published textbooks ongeometryandmechanics,largely a reaction to his former research assistantBernt Michael Holmboe's textbooks. Compared to Holmboe's method of teaching, Hansteen's books were more practically oriented. After Holmboe wrote a review of the first textbook for the newspaperMorgenbladet, in which he advised schools not to use it, a public debate followed, with contributions from other mathematicians. It has been claimed that this was the first debate on the subject of school textbooks in Norway. Holmboe's textbooks proved more lasting, with Hansteen's textbook not being reprinted.In 1842 Hansteen wrote hisDisquisitiones de mutationibus, quas patitur momentum acus magneticae. He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, especiallyMagazin for Naturvidenskaberne. Hansteen was a member of theRoyal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Lettersfrom 1818 and of theNorwegian Academy of Science and Lettersfrom 1857, as well as several learned societies in other countries, including theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences(1822) and a Foreign Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences(1863).He was a member of the board of theRoyal Norwegian Society for Developmentfor many years, and also chaired the board of theNorwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry. Later life For health reasons, Hansteen stopped holding lectures in 1856. In 1861 he retired from active work, but still pursued his studies,hisObservations de l'inclination magnetiqueandSur les variations séculaires du magnetismeappearing in 1865.He left the position as observatory manager in 1861 as well, but continued as editor of the Norwegian almanac until 1863 and as director of the Norwegian Mapping Authority until 1872. His wife died in 1840. Their daughterAasta Hansteenbecame a notable women's rights campaigner. He was the paternal great-grandfather ofKristofer HansteenandEdvard Heiberg Hansteen; trade unionistViggo Hansteenwas a later descendant. Christopher Hansteen died in April 1873 in Christiania, and is buried at Gamle Aker kirkegård. The funeral took place at the University. Awards and legacy Hansteen was appointed a Commander of theRoyal Norwegian Order of St. Olavin 1847, and received the Grand Cross in 1855. He was also appointed a Grand Cross of theOrder of the Dannebrogand a Commander Grand Cross of theOrder of the Polar Star, as well as other foreign orders of knighthood. Abustof Hansteen was raised at his observatory in the 1850s. The craterHansteenand the mountainMons Hansteenon theMoonis named after him.InOslo, the roadChristopher Hansteens veiatBlindernhas been named after Hansteen. In addition, a street atMajorstuenwas namedHansteens gate, but in 1879 it was renamedHolmboes gatein honour of Bernt Michael Holmboe.In theMøhlenprisneighbourhood inBergen, the streetProfessor Hansteens gatewas named after Hansteen in 1881. See also References", "Niels Treschow Niels NicolasTreschow(5 September 1751 – 22 September 1833) was aNorwegianphilosopher,educatorandpolitician. Biography Treschow was born inStrømsø, now part ofDrammeninBuskerud. He was the son of Peter Treschow (1718-1773) who was a merchant. He took his student examation in 1766 and was awarded aMaster's Degreeinphilosophyin 1774. Treschow was rector at theTrondheim Cathedral Schoolfrom 1774-1780 and later served as an educator inOsloandCopenhagen. He became a professor at the newly establishedUniversity of Osloin 1813 and as one of initially only five professors was influential in forming the university during its first period. Today, the main building of the Faculty of Humanities at the University of Oslo bears his name. He served as Minister of Education and Church Affairs 1814–1816, 1817–1819, 1820–1822 and 1823–1825, and member of the Council of State Division inStockholm1816–1817, 1819–1820, and 1822–1823. He was elected a member of theRoyal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Lettersin 1790. In 1825, he was elected a member of theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was decorated with both theCommander's Cross of theOrder of the North Starand the Knight's Cross ofOrder of the Dannebrog. Selected works References Other sources External links" ]

[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Mons_Hansteen (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93d02f80>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Christopher Hansteen Christopher Hansteen(26 September 1784 – 11 April 1873) was aNorwegiangeophysicist,astronomerandphysicist,best known for his mapping ofEarth's magnetic field. Early life and career Hansteen was born inChristianiaas the son of Johannes Mathias Hansteen (1744–1792) and his wife Anne Cathrine Treschow (1754–1829). He was the younger brother of writerConradine Birgitte Dunker,and through her the uncle ofBernhard DunkerandVilhelmine Ullmann, and granduncle ofMathilde Schjøtt,Ragna NielsenandViggo Ullmann.His mother was a first cousin ofNiels Treschow. The intention was for Hansteen to become a naval officer, but since his father died when Hansteen was young, this plan did not materialize. Instead, he attendedOslo Cathedral Schoolfrom the age of nine. Niels Treschow was the principal of this school. Hansteen took theexamen artiumin 1802, and in 1803 he enrolled at theUniversity of Copenhagen, where he originally studiedlaw. He later took more interest inmathematics, estranged by the lack of", "by the lack of universal validity of a country's laws compared to the mathematical laws. He had also been inspired by the lectures ofHans Christian Ørsted. He was hired as the tutor of a young noble, Niels Rosenkrantz von Holstein, who lived atSorø. Here, he also met his future wife Johanne Cathrine Andrea Borch, a daughter of professorCaspar Abraham Borch. In 1806 he was hired as a mathematics teacher in thegymnasiumofFrederiksborg. Academic career In 1807 Hansteen began the inquiries interrestrial magnetismwith which his name is especially associated.His first scientific publication was printed inJournal de Physique, following a contest on magnetic axes created in 1811 by theRoyal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. In 1813 he was given a research scholarship by the recently established (in 1811)Royal Frederick Universityin Christiania, with a promise of a future academic position. After marrying Johanne Cathrine Andrea Borch in May 1814, they left for Norway in the summer. Due to theSwedish campaign", "theSwedish campaign against Norway in 1814, they opted to travel by sea, and was threatened by a Swedishprivateeras well as seized by a Britishfregateen route. Reaching Norway after five days, they settled in the streetPilestredet. Working as a lecturer from 1814, in 1816 Hansteen was promoted to professor of astronomy and applied mathematics. He was the editor of the official Norwegianalmanacfrom 1815, manager of thecity astronomical observatoryfrom the same year and co-director of theNorwegian Mapping Authority(then known asNorges Geografiske Oppmåling) from 1817.In 1819 he published a volume of researches on terrestrial magnetism, which was translated intoGermanunder the title ofUntersuchungen über den Magnetismus der Erde, with a supplement containingBeobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung der Magnetnadeland an atlas. By the rules there framed for the observation of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to accumulate analyses for determining the number and position of themagnetic polesof the Earth.In 1822", "the Earth.In 1822 he co-founded Norway's first journal on natural sciences,Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne. He sat as editor-in-chief for eight years. In the course of his research he travelled overFinlandand the greater part of his own country; and from 1828 to 1830 he undertook, in company withGeorg Adolf Ermanand with the co-operation ofRussia, a government-funded mission to WesternSiberia. A narrative of the expedition soon appeared (Reise-Erinnerungen aus Siberien, 1854;Souvenirs d’un voyage en Sibérie, 1857); but the chief work was not issued until 1863 (Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen).He did not conclude on the issue at hand, but his work was later completed byCarl Friedrich Gauss. Shortly after the return of the mission, in 1833 Hansteen moved with his family into the observatory, which was created from drawings by the architectChristian Heinrich Grosch.A magnetic observatory was added in 1839. From 1835 to 1838 he published textbooks ongeometryandmechanics,largely a reaction to his former", "to his former research assistantBernt Michael Holmboe's textbooks. Compared to Holmboe's method of teaching, Hansteen's books were more practically oriented. After Holmboe wrote a review of the first textbook for the newspaperMorgenbladet, in which he advised schools not to use it, a public debate followed, with contributions from other mathematicians. It has been claimed that this was the first debate on the subject of school textbooks in Norway. Holmboe's textbooks proved more lasting, with Hansteen's textbook not being reprinted.In 1842 Hansteen wrote hisDisquisitiones de mutationibus, quas patitur momentum acus magneticae. He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, especiallyMagazin for Naturvidenskaberne. Hansteen was a member of theRoyal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Lettersfrom 1818 and of theNorwegian Academy of Science and Lettersfrom 1857, as well as several learned societies in other countries, including theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences(1822) and a Foreign", "and a Foreign Honorary Member of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences(1863).He was a member of the board of theRoyal Norwegian Society for Developmentfor many years, and also chaired the board of theNorwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry. Later life For health reasons, Hansteen stopped holding lectures in 1856. In 1861 he retired from active work, but still pursued his studies,hisObservations de l'inclination magnetiqueandSur les variations séculaires du magnetismeappearing in 1865.He left the position as observatory manager in 1861 as well, but continued as editor of the Norwegian almanac until 1863 and as director of the Norwegian Mapping Authority until 1872. His wife died in 1840. Their daughterAasta Hansteenbecame a notable women's rights campaigner. He was the paternal great-grandfather ofKristofer HansteenandEdvard Heiberg Hansteen; trade unionistViggo Hansteenwas a later descendant. Christopher Hansteen died in April 1873 in Christiania, and is buried at Gamle Aker kirkegård. The", "Aker kirkegård. The funeral took place at the University. Awards and legacy Hansteen was appointed a Commander of theRoyal Norwegian Order of St. Olavin 1847, and received the Grand Cross in 1855. He was also appointed a Grand Cross of theOrder of the Dannebrogand a Commander Grand Cross of theOrder of the Polar Star, as well as other foreign orders of knighthood. Abustof Hansteen was raised at his observatory in the 1850s. The craterHansteenand the mountainMons Hansteenon theMoonis named after him.InOslo, the roadChristopher Hansteens veiatBlindernhas been named after Hansteen. In addition, a street atMajorstuenwas namedHansteens gate, but in 1879 it was renamedHolmboes gatein honour of Bernt Michael Holmboe.In theMøhlenprisneighbourhood inBergen, the streetProfessor Hansteens gatewas named after Hansteen in 1881. See also References", "Niels Treschow Niels NicolasTreschow(5 September 1751 – 22 September 1833) was aNorwegianphilosopher,educatorandpolitician. Biography Treschow was born inStrømsø, now part ofDrammeninBuskerud. He was the son of Peter Treschow (1718-1773) who was a merchant. He took his student examation in 1766 and was awarded aMaster's Degreeinphilosophyin 1774. Treschow was rector at theTrondheim Cathedral Schoolfrom 1774-1780 and later served as an educator inOsloandCopenhagen. He became a professor at the newly establishedUniversity of Osloin 1813 and as one of initially only five professors was influential in forming the university during its first period. Today, the main building of the Faculty of Humanities at the University of Oslo bears his name. He served as Minister of Education and Church Affairs 1814–1816, 1817–1819, 1820–1822 and 1823–1825, and member of the Council of State Division inStockholm1816–1817, 1819–1820, and 1822–1823. He was elected a member of theRoyal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Lettersin", "and Lettersin 1790. In 1825, he was elected a member of theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was decorated with both theCommander's Cross of theOrder of the North Starand the Knight's Cross ofOrder of the Dannebrog. Selected works References Other sources External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyatlov_Pass_incident", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil%27s_Pass" ]

[ "Dyatlov Pass incident TheDyatlov Pass incident(Russian:Гибель тургруппы Дятлова,romanized:Gibel turgruppy Dyatlova,lit.'Death of the Dyatlov Hiking Group') is an event in which nineSoviethikers died in the northernUral Mountainsbetween February 1 and 2, 1959, under uncertain circumstances. The experienced trekking group from theUral Polytechnical Institute, led by Igor Dyatlov, had established a camp on the eastern slopes ofKholat Syakhlin theRussian SFSRof theSoviet Union. Overnight, something caused them to cut their way out of their tent and flee the campsite while inadequately dressed for the heavy snowfall and subzero temperatures. After the group's bodies were discovered, an investigation bySoviet authoritiesdetermined that six of them had died fromhypothermiawhile the other three had been killed byphysical trauma. One victim had major skull damage, two had severe chest trauma, and another had asmall crack in his skull. Four of the bodies were found lying in running water in a creek, and three of these four had damagedsoft tissueof the head and face – two of the bodies had missing eyes, one had a missing tongue, and one had missing eyebrows. The investigation concluded that a \"compelling natural force\" had caused the deaths. Numerous theories have been put forward to account for the unexplained deaths, including animal attacks,hypothermia, anavalanche,katabatic winds,infrasound-induced panic,militaryinvolvement, or some combination of these factors. Russiaopened a new investigation into the incident in 2019, and its conclusions were presented in July 2020: that an avalanche had led to the deaths. Survivors of the avalanche had been forced to suddenly leave their camp in low-visibility conditions with inadequate clothing and had died of hypothermia. Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of the regional prosecutor's office, said, \"It was a heroic struggle. There was no panic. But they had no chance to save themselves under the circumstances.\"A study led by scientists fromEPFLandETH Zürich, published in 2021, suggested that a type of avalanche known as aslab avalanchecould explain some of the trekkers' injuries. A mountain pass in the area was later named \"Dyatlov Pass\" in memory of the group. In many languages, the incident is now referred to as the \"Dyatlov Pass incident\". However, the incident occurred about 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) away, on the eastern slope ofKholat Syakhl.A prominent rock outcrop in the area now serves as a memorial to the group. It is located about 500 metres (1,600 ft) to the east-southeast of the actual site of the final camp. Background In 1959, a group was formed for a skiing expedition across the northern Urals inSverdlovsk Oblast,Soviet Union. According to Prosecutor Tempalov, documents that were found in the tent of the expedition suggest that the expedition was named for the21st Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionand was possibly dispatched by the localKomsomolorganization.Igor Dyatlov, a 23-year-old radio engineering student at theUral Polytechnical Institute(nowUral Federal University), the leader, assembled a group of nine others for the trip, most of whom were fellow students and peers at the university.The initial group consisted of eight men and two women, but one member later returned due to health issues. Each member of the group was an experiencedGrade II-hiker with ski tour experience and would be receiving Grade III certification upon their return. At the time, Grade III was the highest certification available in the Soviet Union and required candidates to traverse 300 kilometres (190 mi).The route was designed by Dyatlov's group to reach the far northern regions of the Sverdlovsk Oblast and the upper streams of theLozvariver.The Sverdlovsk city route commission approved the route. This was a division of the Sverdlovsk Committee of Physical Culture and Sport, and they confirmed the group of 10 people on January 8, 1959.The goal of the expedition was to reach Otorten (Отортен), a mountain 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) north of the site where the incident occurred. This route, estimated as Category III, was undertaken in February, the most difficult time to traverse. On 23 January 1959, the Dyatlov group was issued their route book, which listed their course following the No.5 trail. At that time, the Sverdlovsk City Committee of Physical Culture and Sport listed approval for 11 people.The 11th person listed was Semyon Zolotaryov, who was previously certified to go with another expedition of similar difficulty (the Sogrin expedition group).The Dyatlov group left Sverdlovsk city (todayYekaterinburg) on the same day they received the route book. Expedition The group arrived by train atIvdel(Ивдель), a town at the centre of the northern province of Sverdlovsk Oblast in the early morning hours of January 25, 1959.They then took a truck to Vizhai (Вижай), a lorry village that is the last inhabited settlement to the north. On January 27, they began their trek toward Gora Otorten. On January 28, one member, Yuri Yudin, who had several health ailments (includingrheumatismand acongenital heart defect), turned back due to knee and joint pain that made him unable to continue the hike.The remaining nine hikers continued the trek. Diaries and cameras found around their last campsite made it possible to track the group's route up to the day preceding the incident.On 31 January, the group arrived at the edge of a highland area and began to prepare for climbing. In a wooded valley, they cached surplus food and equipment that would be used for the trip back. The next day, the hikers started to move through the pass. It seems they planned to get over the pass and make camp for the next night on the opposite side, but because of worsening weather conditions—snowstorms and decreasing visibility—they lost their direction and deviated west, toward the top ofKholat Syakhl. When they realised their mistake, the group decided to set up camp there on the slope of the mountain, rather than move 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) downhill to a forested area that would have offered some shelter from the weather.Yudin speculated, \"Dyatlov probably did not want to lose the altitude they had gained, or he decided to practice camping on the mountain slope.\" Search and discovery Before leaving, Dyatlov had agreed he would send atelegramto their sports club as soon as the group returned to Vizhai. It was expected that this would happen no later than 12 February, but Dyatlov had told Yudin, before he departed from the group, that he expected it to be longer. When the 12th passed and no messages had been received, there was no immediate reaction, as delays of a few days were common with such expeditions. On 20 February, the travellers' relatives demanded a rescue operation, and the head of the institute sent the first rescue groups, consisting of volunteer students and teachers.Later, the army andmilitsiya(police) forces became involved, with planes and helicopters ordered to join the operation. On 26 February, the searchers found the group's abandoned and badly damaged tent onKholat Syakhl. The campsite baffled the search party. Mikhail Sharavin, the student who found the tent, said \"the tent was half torn down and covered with snow. It was empty, and all the group's belongings and shoes had been left behind.\"Investigators said the tent had been cut open from inside. Nine sets of footprints, left by people wearing only socks or a single shoe or even barefoot, could be followed, leading down to the edge of a nearby wood, on the opposite side of the pass, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) to the north-east.After 500 metres (1,600 ft) these tracks were covered with snow. At the forest's edge, under a largeSiberian pine, the searchers found the visible remains of a small fire. There were the first two bodies, those of Krivonishenko and Doroshenko, shoeless and dressed only in underwear. The branches on the tree were broken up to five meters high, suggesting that one of the hikers had climbed up to look for something, perhaps the camp. Between the pine and the camp, the searchers found three more corpses: Dyatlov, Kolmogorova, and Slobodin, who died in poses suggesting that they were attempting to return to the tent.They were found at distances of 300, 480, and 630 metres (980, 1,570, and 2,070 ft) from the tree. Finding the remaining four travelers took more than two months.They were finally found on 4 May under four metres (13 ft) of snow in a ravine 75 metres (246 ft) further into the woods from the pine tree. Three of the four were better dressed than the others, and there were signs that some clothing of those who had died first had been removed for use by the others. Dubinina was wearing Krivonishenko's burned, torn trousers, and her left foot and shin were wrapped in a torn jacket. Investigation A legal inquest started immediately after the first five bodies were found. A medical examination found no injuries that might have led to their deaths, and it was concluded that they had all died ofhypothermia. Slobodin had a small crack in his skull, but it was not thought to be a fatal wound. An examination of the four bodies found in May shifted the narrative of the incident. Three of the hikers had fatal injuries: Thibeaux-Brignolleshad major skull damage, and Dubinina and Zolotaryov had major chest fractures.According to Boris Vozrozhdenny, the force required to cause such damage would have been extremely high, comparable to that of a car crash. Notably, the bodies had no external wounds associated with the bone fractures, as if they had been subjected to a high level of pressure. All four bodies found at the bottom of the creek in a running stream of water had soft tissue damage to their head and face. For example, Dubinina was missing her tongue, eyes, part of the lips, as well as facial tissue and a fragment of skullbone,while Zolotaryov had his eyeballs missing,and Aleksander Kolevatov his eyebrows.V. A. Vozrozhdenny, the forensic expert performing thepost-mortem examination, judged that these injuries happened post-mortem due to the location of the bodies in a stream. There was initial speculation that the indigenousMansi people, reindeer herders local to the area, had attacked and murdered the group for encroaching upon their lands. Several Mansi were interrogated,but the investigation indicated that the nature of the deaths did not support this hypothesis: only the hikers' footprints were visible, and they showed no sign of hand-to-hand struggle. Although the temperature was very low, around −25 to −30 °C (−13 to −22 °F) with a storm blowing, the dead were only partially dressed. Some had only one shoe, while others wore only socks.Some were found wrapped in snips of ripped clothes that seemed to have been cut from those who were already dead. Journalists reporting on the available parts of the inquest files claim that it states: At the time, the official conclusion was that the group members had died because of a compelling natural force.The inquest officially ceased in May 1959 as a result of the absence of a guilty party. The files were sent to a secret archive. In 1997, it was revealed that the negatives from Krivonishenko's camera were kept in the private archive of one of the investigators, Lev Nikitich Ivanov. The film material was donated by Ivanov's daughter to the Dyatlov Foundation. The diaries of the hiking party fell into Russia'spublic domainin 2009. On 12 April 2018, Zolotaryov's remains were exhumed on the initiative of journalists of the Russian tabloid newspaperKomsomolskaya Pravda. Contradictory results were obtained: one of the experts said that the character of the injuries resembled a person knocked down by a car, and the DNA analysis did not reveal any similarity to the DNA of living relatives. In addition, it turned out that Zolotaryov's name was not on the list of those buried at the Ivanovskoye Cemetery. Nevertheless, the reconstruction of the face from the exhumed skull matched postwar photographs of Zolotaryov, although journalists expressed suspicions that another person was hiding under Zolotaryov's name afterWorld War II. In February 2019, Russian authorities reopened the investigation into the incident, although only three possible explanations were being considered: an avalanche, aslab avalanche, or ahurricane. The possibility of a crime had been discounted. Related reports Aftermath Anatoly Gushchin (Анатолий Гущин) summarized his research in the bookThe Price of State Secrets Is Nine Lives(Цена гостайны – девять жизней, Sverdlovsk, 1990)Some researchers criticised the work for its concentration on the speculative theory of a Soviet secret weapon experiment, but its publication led to public discussion, stimulated by interest in theparanormal. Indeed, many of those who had remained silent for thirty years reported new facts about the accident. One of them was the former police officer, Lev Nikitich Ivanov (Лев Никитич Иванов), who led the official inquest in 1959. In 1990, he published an article that included his admission that the investigation team had no rational explanation for the incident. He also stated that, after his team reported that they had seen flying spheres, he then received direct orders from high-ranking regional officials to dismiss this claim. In 2000, a regional television company produced the documentary filmThe Mystery of Dyatlov Pass(Тайна перевала Дятлова). With the help of the film crew, a Yekaterinburg writer, Anna Matveyeva (Анна Матвеева), published adocudramanovella of the same name.A large part of the book includes broad quotations from the official case, diaries of victims, interviews with searchers and other documentaries collected by the film-makers. The narrative line of the book details the everyday life and thoughts of a modern woman (analter egoof the author herself) who attempts to resolve the case. Despite its fictional narrative, Matveyeva's book remains the largest source of documentary materials ever made available to the public regarding the incident. Also, the pages of the case files and other documentaries (in photocopies and transcripts) are gradually being published on a web forum for enthusiastic researchers. The Dyatlov Foundation was founded in 1999 at Yekaterinburg, with the help of Ural State Technical University, led by Yuri Kuntsevich (Юрий Кунцевич). The foundation's stated aim is to continue investigation of the case and to maintain the Dyatlov Museum to preserve the memory of the dead hikers.On 1 July 2016, a memorial plaque was inaugurated inSolikamskin Ural's Perm Region, dedicated to Yuri Yudin (the sole survivor of the expedition group), who died in 2013. Explanations Avalanche On 11 July 2020, Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of theUrals Federal Districtdirectorate of theProsecutor-General's Office, announced an avalanche to be the \"official cause of death\" for the Dyatlov group in 1959.Later independent computer simulation and analysis by Swiss researchers also suggest avalanche as the cause.Summarizing Kuryakov's report inThe New Yorker,Douglas Prestonwrites, The most appealing aspect of Kuryakov's scenario is that the Dyatlov party's actions no longer seem irrational. The snow slab, according to Greene, would probably have made loud cracks and rumbles as it fell across the tent, making an avalanche seem imminent. Kuryakov noted that although the skiers made an error in the placement of their tent, everything they did subsequently was textbook: they conducted an emergency evacuation to ground that would be safe from an avalanche, they took shelter in the woods, they started a fire, they dug a snow cave. Had they been less experienced, they might have remained near the tent, dug it out, and survived. But avalanches are by far the biggest risk in the mountains in winter, and the more experience you have, the more you fear them. The skiers' expertise doomed them. Original explanation Reviewing asensationalist\"Yeti\" hypothesis, AmericanskepticauthorBenjamin Radfordsuggests an avalanche as more plausible: that the group woke up in a panic (...) and cut their way out the tent either because an avalanche had covered the entrance to their tent or because they were scared that an avalanche was imminent (...) (better to have a potentially repairable slit in a tent than risk being buried alive in it under tons of snow). They were poorly clothed because they had been sleeping, and ran to the safety of the nearby woods where trees would help slow oncoming snow. In the darkness of night, they got separated into two or three groups; one group made a fire (hence the burned hands) while the others tried to return to the tent to recover their clothing since the danger had passed. But it was too cold, and they all froze to death before they could locate their tent in the darkness. At some point, some of the clothes may have been recovered or swapped from the dead, but at any rate, the group of four whose bodies was most severely damaged were caught in an avalanche and buried under 4 meters (13 ft) of snow (more than enough to account for the 'compelling natural force' the medical examiner described). Dubinina's tongue was likely removed by scavengers and ordinary predation. Contradictory evidence Evidence contradicting the avalanche theory includes: Repeated 2015 investigation A review of the 1959 investigation's evidence completed in 2015–2019 by experienced investigators from theInvestigative Committee of the Russian Federation(ICRF) on request of the families confirmed the avalanche with several important details added. First of all, the ICRF investigators (one of them an experiencedalpinist) confirmed that the weather on the night of the tragedy was very harsh, with wind speeds up to hurricane force, 20–30 metres per second (45–67 mph; 72–108 km/h), a snowstorm and temperatures reaching−40 °C(−40 °F). These factors were not considered by the 1959 investigators who arrived at the scene of the accident three weeks later when the weather had much improved and any remains of the snow slide had settled and been covered with fresh snowfall. The harsh weather at the same time played a critical role in the events of the tragic night, which have been reconstructed as follows: According to the ICRF investigators, the factors contributing to the tragedy were extremely bad weather and lack of experience of the group leader in such conditions, which led to the selection of a dangerous camping place. After the snow slide, another mistake of the group was to split up, rather than building a temporary camp down in the forest and trying to survive through the night. Negligence of the 1959 investigators contributed to their report creating more questions than answers, as well as inspiring numerous alternative and conspiracy theories. Support from 2021 model In 2021, a team ofphysicistsand engineers led by Alexander Puzrin and Johan Gaume published a new model inCommunications Earth & Environmentthat demonstrates how even a relatively small slide of snow slab on the Kholat Syakhl slope could cause tent damage and injuries consistent with those suffered by the Dyatlov team. Katabatic wind In 2019, a Swedish-Russian expedition was made to the site, and after investigations, they proposed that a violentkatabatic windwas a plausible explanation for the incident.Katabatic winds are somewhat rare events and can be extremely violent. They were implicated in a 1978 case at Anaris Mountain in Sweden, where eight hikers were killed and one was severely injured.The topography of these locations was noted to be very similar according to the expedition. A sudden katabatic wind would have made it impossible to remain in the tent, and the most rational course of action would have been for the hikers to cover the tent with snow and seek shelter behind the tree line.On top of the tent, there was also a flashlight left turned on, possibly left there intentionally so that the hikers could find their way back to the tent once the winds subsided. The expedition proposed that the group of hikers constructed twobivouac shelters, one of which collapsed, leaving four of the hikers buried with the severe injuries observed. Infrasound Another hypothesis popularised byDonnie Eichar's 2013 bookDead Mountainis that wind going around Kholat Syakal created aKármán vortex street, which can produceinfrasoundcapable of inducingpanic attacksin humans. According to Eichar's theory, the infrasound generated by the wind as it passed over the top of the Holatchahl mountain was responsible for causing physical discomfort and mental distress in the hikers.Eichar claims that, because of their panic, the hikers were driven to leave the tent by whatever means necessary and fled down the slope. By the time they were further down the hill, they would have been out of the infrasound's path and would have regained their composure, but in the darkness would have been unable to return to their shelter.The traumatic injuries suffered by three of the victims were the result of their stumbling over the edge of a ravine in the darkness and landing on the rocks at the bottom. Military tests In one speculation, the campsite fell within the path of a Sovietparachute mineexercise. This theory alleges that the hikers, woken by loud explosions, fled the tent in a shoeless panic and found themselves unable to return for supply retrieval. After some members froze to death attempting to endure the bombardment, others commandeered their clothing only to be fatally injured by subsequent parachute mine concussions. There are indeed records of parachute mines being tested by the Soviet military in the area around the time the hikers were there.Parachute mines detonate while still in the air rather than upon striking the Earth's surface and produce signature injuries similar to those experienced by the hikers: heavy internal damage with relatively little external trauma. The theory coincides with reported sightings of glowing, orange orbs floating or falling in the sky within the general vicinity of the hikers and allegedly photographed by them,potentially military aircraft or descending parachute mines. This theory (among others) uses scavenging animals to explain Dubinina's injuries.Some speculate that the bodies were unnaturally manipulated, on the basis of characteristiclivor mortismarkings discovered during an autopsy, as well as burns to hair and skin. Photographs of the tent allegedly show that it was erected incorrectly, something the experienced hikers were unlikely to have done. A similar theory alleges the testing ofradiological weaponsand is based partly on the discovery of radioactivity on some of the clothing as well as the descriptions of the bodies by relatives as having orange skin and grey hair. However, radioactive dispersal would have affected all, not just some, of the hikers and equipment, and the skin and hair discoloration can be explained by a natural process ofmummificationafter three months of exposure to the cold and wind. The initial suppression by Soviet authorities of files describing the group's disappearance is sometimes mentioned as evidence of a cover-up, but the concealment of information about domestic incidents was standard procedure in the USSR and thus far from peculiar. And by the late 1980s, all Dyatlov files had been released in some manner. Paradoxical undressing International Science Timesposited that the hikers' deaths were caused by hypothermia, which can induce a behavior known asparadoxical undressingin which hypothermic subjects remove their clothes in response to perceived feelings of burning warmth.It is undisputed that six of the nine hikers died of hypothermia. However, others in the group appear to have acquired additional clothing (from those who had already died), which suggests that they were of a sound enough mind to try to add layers. Other Keith McCloskey, who has researched the incident for many years and has appeared in several TV documentaries on the subject, traveled to the Dyatlov Pass in 2015 with Yuri Kuntsevich of the Dyatlov Foundation and a group. At the Dyatlov Pass he noted: McCloskey also noted: Donnie Eichar, who investigated and made a documentary about the incident, evaluated several other theories that are deemed unlikely or have been discredited: See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links", "Devil's Pass Devil's Pass(originally titledThe Dyatlov Pass Incident) is a 2013horror filmdirected byRenny Harlin, written by Vikram Weet, and starring Holly Goss,Matt Stokoe, Luke Albright,Ryan Hawley, andGemma Atkinsonas Americans who investigate theDyatlov Pass incident. It is shot in the style offound footage. Plot FiveOregoncollege students set off to find out what happened to the nine hikers who mysteriously died in theDyatlov Pass incident. Holly and Jensen are co-directors, J.P. and Andy are expert climbers, and Denise is the sound engineer. After the film introduces the characters, Russian-language news,Russia-24, discusses the students' disappearance. TheRussian governmentrecovers video footage but refuses to release it to the public; however, hackers obtain and release the footage, which forms the rest of the film. In Russia, the students first try to contact a member of the initial 1959 expedition who turned back after becoming ill on the first day. However, the man has been hospitalized following a nervous breakdown. The administrators at the hospital claim that he is dead and attempt to turn away the filmmakers. In an upstairs window, the students see a man they assume to be the survivor; he holds up a sign in Russian and is dragged away by orderlies. At a bar, the students recruit Sergei, who translates the sign as a warning to \"stay away\". Undeterred, Sergei introduces them to his aunt, Alya, who was part of the first rescue team. She tells them that a strange machine and eleven bodies were found at the site, not nine, as is commonly reported. The final two bodies had something wrong with them. At their campsite, Holly hears howling. The next morning, the group notices barefoot prints in the snow that start and stop suddenly. Jensen claims the footprints are fromyeti, but the others claim that Holly is messing with them. After hiking further, they again hear howling and find footprints that lead to a weather tower. Inside the weather tower, they find a human tongue. Denise wants to leave, but the others convince her to continue. Jensen reveals that as a teenager he had heard the howling during a bad acid trip that ended with him being arrested while yelling incoherently about demons. Holly attempts to comfort Jensen by relating that she has had recurring dreams about Dyatlov Pass, which she interprets as fate. Unnoticed by the group, two mysterious creatures move through the snow in the distance. The group arrives at Dyatlov Pass unsettlingly ahead of schedule. J.P. and Andy are further spooked when their navigational equipment exhibits strange malfunctions. Using aGeiger counter, Holly and Jensen are led to a bunker that locks from the outside. The door is already unlocked but frozen shut; they manage to open the door. They return to the camp without telling anyone about the bunker. The next morning, the group is awakened by explosions that cause an avalanche. Denise is killed, and Andy suffers a severe fracture. After they fire a flare,Russian soldiersposing as a rescue party arrive, kill Andy, and chase the three survivors to the bunker. J.P. is shot and wounded as they enter. Moving into a tunnel system, a mysterious creature moves through one tunnel while the three enter another. Holly and Jensen leave the wounded J.P. as they explore the bunker. Inside, they discover evidence of teleportation experiments, a dead soldier who is missing his tongue, a camcorder identical to theirs that has footage of their present conversation, dead bodies stacked in a pile, and files relating to thePhiladelphia Experiment. Jensen and Holly hear J.P. screaming, and find him under attack by mutants who seem to be able to teleport. The mutants kill J.P. and chase Jensen and Holly into a sealed room with a strange-looking tunnel that leads further into a natural cave. Jensen theorizes this is awormhole. Unwilling to starve to death or face the mutants, Jensen and Holly choose to step into the wormhole. Since there are no controls, Jensen suggests that they visualize a nearby destination. Holly suggests the bunker entrance, and they enter the wormhole. In 1959,Soviet militarypersonnel discover two bodies near the bunker's entrance. Soldiers chase away a younger version of Sergei's aunt Alya, who had just stumbled across the bodies. They recover their video camera. They drag the bodies inside the bunker, which is fully staffed and operational. The commanding officer orders the bodies to be stripped and hung on meat hooks. As the soldiers leave, the mutated bodies of Jensen and Holly, identified by Holly's neck tattoo, begin to revive. Cast Production Director Renny Harlin spent time inMoscowresearching the government archives. His own theory of what happened at theDyatlov Pass incidentis that a government experiment went wrong. The casting for the film was intentionally kept to unknowns. Shooting took place in northern Russia. Release Devil's Passwas released 23 August 2013.It was released on DVD in the UK 26 August 2013.It was released on DVD in the US 17 December 2013. Reception Rotten Tomatoes, areview aggregator, reports that 48% of 23 surveyed critics gave it a positive review; the average rating is 4.91/10.Metacriticrated it 49/100.Miriam Bale ofThe New York Timescalled the film \"an upgradedBlair Witch Project\" that is hilarious, though it is not clear whether this is intentional or not.Scott Foundas ofVarietycalled it unoriginal yet watchable.SFXrated it 2/5 stars and called it \"a scare-free thriller\" with an underwhelming twist.Shelagh M. Rowan-Legg ofTwitch Filmcalled for a moratorium onfound footagefilms and stated that the film should have been about the real-life incident.Mark Adams ofScreen Dailycalled it \"shrewdly constructed\" and \"smartly made\".Philip FrenchofThe Guardianwrote that it \"adds nothing to a real-life mystery from the Soviet era\" and that the explanation is too outlandish.Bloody Disgustingrated the film 3/5 stars and recommended the film to enthusiasts of the real-life event but warned that the generic story would probably not excite people tired of found footage films.Gareth Jones ofDread Centralrated it 3.5/5 stars and called it \"a thoroughly intriguing mash-up of sci-fi, horror and real-life mystery.\"Matt Glasby ofTotal Filmrated it 3/5 stars and called it a cheesymidnight moviethat requires a forgiving audience.Owen Williams ofEmpirecalled it a \"smartly-executed\" film with a \"satisfyingly circular conclusion\".Nigel Floyd ofTime Out Londonrated it 2/5 stars and wrote that the film becomes more unbelievable and silly as time goes on.Scott Weinberg ofFearnetcalled it a \"simple but crafty little horror tale\" with a payoff that can \"come off as ridiculous or novel\".Chris Holt ofStarburstrated it 7/10 stars and wrote that it is \"a fascinating and gripping film that despite being fundamentally flawed, is well worth your time.\" References External links" ]

[ "Dyatlov Pass incident TheDyatlov Pass incident(Russian:Гибель тургруппы Дятлова,romanized:Gibel turgruppy Dyatlova,lit.'Death of the Dyatlov Hiking Group') is an event in which nineSoviethikers died in the northernUral Mountainsbetween February 1 and 2, 1959, under uncertain circumstances. The experienced trekking group from theUral Polytechnical Institute, led by Igor Dyatlov, had established a camp on the eastern slopes ofKholat Syakhlin theRussian SFSRof theSoviet Union. Overnight, something caused them to cut their way out of their tent and flee the campsite while inadequately dressed for the heavy snowfall and subzero temperatures. After the group's bodies were discovered, an investigation bySoviet authoritiesdetermined that six of them had died fromhypothermiawhile the other three had been killed byphysical trauma. One victim had major skull damage, two had severe chest trauma, and another had asmall crack in his skull. Four of the bodies were found lying in running water in a creek, and three of these", "and three of these four had damagedsoft tissueof the head and face – two of the bodies had missing eyes, one had a missing tongue, and one had missing eyebrows. The investigation concluded that a \"compelling natural force\" had caused the deaths. Numerous theories have been put forward to account for the unexplained deaths, including animal attacks,hypothermia, anavalanche,katabatic winds,infrasound-induced panic,militaryinvolvement, or some combination of these factors. Russiaopened a new investigation into the incident in 2019, and its conclusions were presented in July 2020: that an avalanche had led to the deaths. Survivors of the avalanche had been forced to suddenly leave their camp in low-visibility conditions with inadequate clothing and had died of hypothermia. Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of the regional prosecutor's office, said, \"It was a heroic struggle. There was no panic. But they had no chance to save themselves under the circumstances.\"A study led by scientists fromEPFLandETH Zürich,", "Zürich, published in 2021, suggested that a type of avalanche known as aslab avalanchecould explain some of the trekkers' injuries. A mountain pass in the area was later named \"Dyatlov Pass\" in memory of the group. In many languages, the incident is now referred to as the \"Dyatlov Pass incident\". However, the incident occurred about 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) away, on the eastern slope ofKholat Syakhl.A prominent rock outcrop in the area now serves as a memorial to the group. It is located about 500 metres (1,600 ft) to the east-southeast of the actual site of the final camp. Background In 1959, a group was formed for a skiing expedition across the northern Urals inSverdlovsk Oblast,Soviet Union. According to Prosecutor Tempalov, documents that were found in the tent of the expedition suggest that the expedition was named for the21st Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionand was possibly dispatched by the localKomsomolorganization.Igor Dyatlov, a 23-year-old radio engineering student at theUral", "student at theUral Polytechnical Institute(nowUral Federal University), the leader, assembled a group of nine others for the trip, most of whom were fellow students and peers at the university.The initial group consisted of eight men and two women, but one member later returned due to health issues. Each member of the group was an experiencedGrade II-hiker with ski tour experience and would be receiving Grade III certification upon their return. At the time, Grade III was the highest certification available in the Soviet Union and required candidates to traverse 300 kilometres (190 mi).The route was designed by Dyatlov's group to reach the far northern regions of the Sverdlovsk Oblast and the upper streams of theLozvariver.The Sverdlovsk city route commission approved the route. This was a division of the Sverdlovsk Committee of Physical Culture and Sport, and they confirmed the group of 10 people on January 8, 1959.The goal of the expedition was to reach Otorten (Отортен), a mountain 10 kilometres (6.2 mi)", "kilometres (6.2 mi) north of the site where the incident occurred. This route, estimated as Category III, was undertaken in February, the most difficult time to traverse. On 23 January 1959, the Dyatlov group was issued their route book, which listed their course following the No.5 trail. At that time, the Sverdlovsk City Committee of Physical Culture and Sport listed approval for 11 people.The 11th person listed was Semyon Zolotaryov, who was previously certified to go with another expedition of similar difficulty (the Sogrin expedition group).The Dyatlov group left Sverdlovsk city (todayYekaterinburg) on the same day they received the route book. Expedition The group arrived by train atIvdel(Ивдель), a town at the centre of the northern province of Sverdlovsk Oblast in the early morning hours of January 25, 1959.They then took a truck to Vizhai (Вижай), a lorry village that is the last inhabited settlement to the north. On January 27, they began their trek toward Gora Otorten. On January 28, one member,", "28, one member, Yuri Yudin, who had several health ailments (includingrheumatismand acongenital heart defect), turned back due to knee and joint pain that made him unable to continue the hike.The remaining nine hikers continued the trek. Diaries and cameras found around their last campsite made it possible to track the group's route up to the day preceding the incident.On 31 January, the group arrived at the edge of a highland area and began to prepare for climbing. In a wooded valley, they cached surplus food and equipment that would be used for the trip back. The next day, the hikers started to move through the pass. It seems they planned to get over the pass and make camp for the next night on the opposite side, but because of worsening weather conditions—snowstorms and decreasing visibility—they lost their direction and deviated west, toward the top ofKholat Syakhl. When they realised their mistake, the group decided to set up camp there on the slope of the mountain, rather than move 1.5 kilometres (0.93", "kilometres (0.93 mi) downhill to a forested area that would have offered some shelter from the weather.Yudin speculated, \"Dyatlov probably did not want to lose the altitude they had gained, or he decided to practice camping on the mountain slope.\" Search and discovery Before leaving, Dyatlov had agreed he would send atelegramto their sports club as soon as the group returned to Vizhai. It was expected that this would happen no later than 12 February, but Dyatlov had told Yudin, before he departed from the group, that he expected it to be longer. When the 12th passed and no messages had been received, there was no immediate reaction, as delays of a few days were common with such expeditions. On 20 February, the travellers' relatives demanded a rescue operation, and the head of the institute sent the first rescue groups, consisting of volunteer students and teachers.Later, the army andmilitsiya(police) forces became involved, with planes and helicopters ordered to join the operation. On 26 February, the", "On 26 February, the searchers found the group's abandoned and badly damaged tent onKholat Syakhl. The campsite baffled the search party. Mikhail Sharavin, the student who found the tent, said \"the tent was half torn down and covered with snow. It was empty, and all the group's belongings and shoes had been left behind.\"Investigators said the tent had been cut open from inside. Nine sets of footprints, left by people wearing only socks or a single shoe or even barefoot, could be followed, leading down to the edge of a nearby wood, on the opposite side of the pass, 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) to the north-east.After 500 metres (1,600 ft) these tracks were covered with snow. At the forest's edge, under a largeSiberian pine, the searchers found the visible remains of a small fire. There were the first two bodies, those of Krivonishenko and Doroshenko, shoeless and dressed only in underwear. The branches on the tree were broken up to five meters high, suggesting that one of the hikers had climbed up to look for", "up to look for something, perhaps the camp. Between the pine and the camp, the searchers found three more corpses: Dyatlov, Kolmogorova, and Slobodin, who died in poses suggesting that they were attempting to return to the tent.They were found at distances of 300, 480, and 630 metres (980, 1,570, and 2,070 ft) from the tree. Finding the remaining four travelers took more than two months.They were finally found on 4 May under four metres (13 ft) of snow in a ravine 75 metres (246 ft) further into the woods from the pine tree. Three of the four were better dressed than the others, and there were signs that some clothing of those who had died first had been removed for use by the others. Dubinina was wearing Krivonishenko's burned, torn trousers, and her left foot and shin were wrapped in a torn jacket. Investigation A legal inquest started immediately after the first five bodies were found. A medical examination found no injuries that might have led to their deaths, and it was concluded that they had all died", "they had all died ofhypothermia. Slobodin had a small crack in his skull, but it was not thought to be a fatal wound. An examination of the four bodies found in May shifted the narrative of the incident. Three of the hikers had fatal injuries: Thibeaux-Brignolleshad major skull damage, and Dubinina and Zolotaryov had major chest fractures.According to Boris Vozrozhdenny, the force required to cause such damage would have been extremely high, comparable to that of a car crash. Notably, the bodies had no external wounds associated with the bone fractures, as if they had been subjected to a high level of pressure. All four bodies found at the bottom of the creek in a running stream of water had soft tissue damage to their head and face. For example, Dubinina was missing her tongue, eyes, part of the lips, as well as facial tissue and a fragment of skullbone,while Zolotaryov had his eyeballs missing,and Aleksander Kolevatov his eyebrows.V. A. Vozrozhdenny, the forensic expert performing thepost-mortem", "thepost-mortem examination, judged that these injuries happened post-mortem due to the location of the bodies in a stream. There was initial speculation that the indigenousMansi people, reindeer herders local to the area, had attacked and murdered the group for encroaching upon their lands. Several Mansi were interrogated,but the investigation indicated that the nature of the deaths did not support this hypothesis: only the hikers' footprints were visible, and they showed no sign of hand-to-hand struggle. Although the temperature was very low, around −25 to −30 °C (−13 to −22 °F) with a storm blowing, the dead were only partially dressed. Some had only one shoe, while others wore only socks.Some were found wrapped in snips of ripped clothes that seemed to have been cut from those who were already dead. Journalists reporting on the available parts of the inquest files claim that it states: At the time, the official conclusion was that the group members had died because of a compelling natural force.The", "natural force.The inquest officially ceased in May 1959 as a result of the absence of a guilty party. The files were sent to a secret archive. In 1997, it was revealed that the negatives from Krivonishenko's camera were kept in the private archive of one of the investigators, Lev Nikitich Ivanov. The film material was donated by Ivanov's daughter to the Dyatlov Foundation. The diaries of the hiking party fell into Russia'spublic domainin 2009. On 12 April 2018, Zolotaryov's remains were exhumed on the initiative of journalists of the Russian tabloid newspaperKomsomolskaya Pravda. Contradictory results were obtained: one of the experts said that the character of the injuries resembled a person knocked down by a car, and the DNA analysis did not reveal any similarity to the DNA of living relatives. In addition, it turned out that Zolotaryov's name was not on the list of those buried at the Ivanovskoye Cemetery. Nevertheless, the reconstruction of the face from the exhumed skull matched postwar photographs of", "photographs of Zolotaryov, although journalists expressed suspicions that another person was hiding under Zolotaryov's name afterWorld War II. In February 2019, Russian authorities reopened the investigation into the incident, although only three possible explanations were being considered: an avalanche, aslab avalanche, or ahurricane. The possibility of a crime had been discounted. Related reports Aftermath Anatoly Gushchin (Анатолий Гущин) summarized his research in the bookThe Price of State Secrets Is Nine Lives(Цена гостайны – девять жизней, Sverdlovsk, 1990)Some researchers criticised the work for its concentration on the speculative theory of a Soviet secret weapon experiment, but its publication led to public discussion, stimulated by interest in theparanormal. Indeed, many of those who had remained silent for thirty years reported new facts about the accident. One of them was the former police officer, Lev Nikitich Ivanov (Лев Никитич Иванов), who led the official inquest in 1959. In 1990, he", "1959. In 1990, he published an article that included his admission that the investigation team had no rational explanation for the incident. He also stated that, after his team reported that they had seen flying spheres, he then received direct orders from high-ranking regional officials to dismiss this claim. In 2000, a regional television company produced the documentary filmThe Mystery of Dyatlov Pass(Тайна перевала Дятлова). With the help of the film crew, a Yekaterinburg writer, Anna Matveyeva (Анна Матвеева), published adocudramanovella of the same name.A large part of the book includes broad quotations from the official case, diaries of victims, interviews with searchers and other documentaries collected by the film-makers. The narrative line of the book details the everyday life and thoughts of a modern woman (analter egoof the author herself) who attempts to resolve the case. Despite its fictional narrative, Matveyeva's book remains the largest source of documentary materials ever made available to", "made available to the public regarding the incident. Also, the pages of the case files and other documentaries (in photocopies and transcripts) are gradually being published on a web forum for enthusiastic researchers. The Dyatlov Foundation was founded in 1999 at Yekaterinburg, with the help of Ural State Technical University, led by Yuri Kuntsevich (Юрий Кунцевич). The foundation's stated aim is to continue investigation of the case and to maintain the Dyatlov Museum to preserve the memory of the dead hikers.On 1 July 2016, a memorial plaque was inaugurated inSolikamskin Ural's Perm Region, dedicated to Yuri Yudin (the sole survivor of the expedition group), who died in 2013. Explanations Avalanche On 11 July 2020, Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of theUrals Federal Districtdirectorate of theProsecutor-General's Office, announced an avalanche to be the \"official cause of death\" for the Dyatlov group in 1959.Later independent computer simulation and analysis by Swiss researchers also suggest avalanche as the", "avalanche as the cause.Summarizing Kuryakov's report inThe New Yorker,Douglas Prestonwrites, The most appealing aspect of Kuryakov's scenario is that the Dyatlov party's actions no longer seem irrational. The snow slab, according to Greene, would probably have made loud cracks and rumbles as it fell across the tent, making an avalanche seem imminent. Kuryakov noted that although the skiers made an error in the placement of their tent, everything they did subsequently was textbook: they conducted an emergency evacuation to ground that would be safe from an avalanche, they took shelter in the woods, they started a fire, they dug a snow cave. Had they been less experienced, they might have remained near the tent, dug it out, and survived. But avalanches are by far the biggest risk in the mountains in winter, and the more experience you have, the more you fear them. The skiers' expertise doomed them. Original explanation Reviewing asensationalist\"Yeti\" hypothesis, AmericanskepticauthorBenjamin Radfordsuggests an", "Radfordsuggests an avalanche as more plausible: that the group woke up in a panic (...) and cut their way out the tent either because an avalanche had covered the entrance to their tent or because they were scared that an avalanche was imminent (...) (better to have a potentially repairable slit in a tent than risk being buried alive in it under tons of snow). They were poorly clothed because they had been sleeping, and ran to the safety of the nearby woods where trees would help slow oncoming snow. In the darkness of night, they got separated into two or three groups; one group made a fire (hence the burned hands) while the others tried to return to the tent to recover their clothing since the danger had passed. But it was too cold, and they all froze to death before they could locate their tent in the darkness. At some point, some of the clothes may have been recovered or swapped from the dead, but at any rate, the group of four whose bodies was most severely damaged were caught in an avalanche and buried", "and buried under 4 meters (13 ft) of snow (more than enough to account for the 'compelling natural force' the medical examiner described). Dubinina's tongue was likely removed by scavengers and ordinary predation. Contradictory evidence Evidence contradicting the avalanche theory includes: Repeated 2015 investigation A review of the 1959 investigation's evidence completed in 2015–2019 by experienced investigators from theInvestigative Committee of the Russian Federation(ICRF) on request of the families confirmed the avalanche with several important details added. First of all, the ICRF investigators (one of them an experiencedalpinist) confirmed that the weather on the night of the tragedy was very harsh, with wind speeds up to hurricane force, 20–30 metres per second (45–67 mph; 72–108 km/h), a snowstorm and temperatures reaching−40 °C(−40 °F). These factors were not considered by the 1959 investigators who arrived at the scene of the accident three weeks later when the weather had much improved and any", "improved and any remains of the snow slide had settled and been covered with fresh snowfall. The harsh weather at the same time played a critical role in the events of the tragic night, which have been reconstructed as follows: According to the ICRF investigators, the factors contributing to the tragedy were extremely bad weather and lack of experience of the group leader in such conditions, which led to the selection of a dangerous camping place. After the snow slide, another mistake of the group was to split up, rather than building a temporary camp down in the forest and trying to survive through the night. Negligence of the 1959 investigators contributed to their report creating more questions than answers, as well as inspiring numerous alternative and conspiracy theories. Support from 2021 model In 2021, a team ofphysicistsand engineers led by Alexander Puzrin and Johan Gaume published a new model inCommunications Earth & Environmentthat demonstrates how even a relatively small slide of snow slab on the", "of snow slab on the Kholat Syakhl slope could cause tent damage and injuries consistent with those suffered by the Dyatlov team. Katabatic wind In 2019, a Swedish-Russian expedition was made to the site, and after investigations, they proposed that a violentkatabatic windwas a plausible explanation for the incident.Katabatic winds are somewhat rare events and can be extremely violent. They were implicated in a 1978 case at Anaris Mountain in Sweden, where eight hikers were killed and one was severely injured.The topography of these locations was noted to be very similar according to the expedition. A sudden katabatic wind would have made it impossible to remain in the tent, and the most rational course of action would have been for the hikers to cover the tent with snow and seek shelter behind the tree line.On top of the tent, there was also a flashlight left turned on, possibly left there intentionally so that the hikers could find their way back to the tent once the winds subsided. The expedition proposed", "expedition proposed that the group of hikers constructed twobivouac shelters, one of which collapsed, leaving four of the hikers buried with the severe injuries observed. Infrasound Another hypothesis popularised byDonnie Eichar's 2013 bookDead Mountainis that wind going around Kholat Syakal created aKármán vortex street, which can produceinfrasoundcapable of inducingpanic attacksin humans. According to Eichar's theory, the infrasound generated by the wind as it passed over the top of the Holatchahl mountain was responsible for causing physical discomfort and mental distress in the hikers.Eichar claims that, because of their panic, the hikers were driven to leave the tent by whatever means necessary and fled down the slope. By the time they were further down the hill, they would have been out of the infrasound's path and would have regained their composure, but in the darkness would have been unable to return to their shelter.The traumatic injuries suffered by three of the victims were the result of their", "the result of their stumbling over the edge of a ravine in the darkness and landing on the rocks at the bottom. Military tests In one speculation, the campsite fell within the path of a Sovietparachute mineexercise. This theory alleges that the hikers, woken by loud explosions, fled the tent in a shoeless panic and found themselves unable to return for supply retrieval. After some members froze to death attempting to endure the bombardment, others commandeered their clothing only to be fatally injured by subsequent parachute mine concussions. There are indeed records of parachute mines being tested by the Soviet military in the area around the time the hikers were there.Parachute mines detonate while still in the air rather than upon striking the Earth's surface and produce signature injuries similar to those experienced by the hikers: heavy internal damage with relatively little external trauma. The theory coincides with reported sightings of glowing, orange orbs floating or falling in the sky within the", "the sky within the general vicinity of the hikers and allegedly photographed by them,potentially military aircraft or descending parachute mines. This theory (among others) uses scavenging animals to explain Dubinina's injuries.Some speculate that the bodies were unnaturally manipulated, on the basis of characteristiclivor mortismarkings discovered during an autopsy, as well as burns to hair and skin. Photographs of the tent allegedly show that it was erected incorrectly, something the experienced hikers were unlikely to have done. A similar theory alleges the testing ofradiological weaponsand is based partly on the discovery of radioactivity on some of the clothing as well as the descriptions of the bodies by relatives as having orange skin and grey hair. However, radioactive dispersal would have affected all, not just some, of the hikers and equipment, and the skin and hair discoloration can be explained by a natural process ofmummificationafter three months of exposure to the cold and wind. The initial", "wind. The initial suppression by Soviet authorities of files describing the group's disappearance is sometimes mentioned as evidence of a cover-up, but the concealment of information about domestic incidents was standard procedure in the USSR and thus far from peculiar. And by the late 1980s, all Dyatlov files had been released in some manner. Paradoxical undressing International Science Timesposited that the hikers' deaths were caused by hypothermia, which can induce a behavior known asparadoxical undressingin which hypothermic subjects remove their clothes in response to perceived feelings of burning warmth.It is undisputed that six of the nine hikers died of hypothermia. However, others in the group appear to have acquired additional clothing (from those who had already died), which suggests that they were of a sound enough mind to try to add layers. Other Keith McCloskey, who has researched the incident for many years and has appeared in several TV documentaries on the subject, traveled to the Dyatlov", "to the Dyatlov Pass in 2015 with Yuri Kuntsevich of the Dyatlov Foundation and a group. At the Dyatlov Pass he noted: McCloskey also noted: Donnie Eichar, who investigated and made a documentary about the incident, evaluated several other theories that are deemed unlikely or have been discredited: See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links", "Devil's Pass Devil's Pass(originally titledThe Dyatlov Pass Incident) is a 2013horror filmdirected byRenny Harlin, written by Vikram Weet, and starring Holly Goss,Matt Stokoe, Luke Albright,Ryan Hawley, andGemma Atkinsonas Americans who investigate theDyatlov Pass incident. It is shot in the style offound footage. Plot FiveOregoncollege students set off to find out what happened to the nine hikers who mysteriously died in theDyatlov Pass incident. Holly and Jensen are co-directors, J.P. and Andy are expert climbers, and Denise is the sound engineer. After the film introduces the characters, Russian-language news,Russia-24, discusses the students' disappearance. TheRussian governmentrecovers video footage but refuses to release it to the public; however, hackers obtain and release the footage, which forms the rest of the film. In Russia, the students first try to contact a member of the initial 1959 expedition who turned back after becoming ill on the first day. However, the man has been hospitalized following", "following a nervous breakdown. The administrators at the hospital claim that he is dead and attempt to turn away the filmmakers. In an upstairs window, the students see a man they assume to be the survivor; he holds up a sign in Russian and is dragged away by orderlies. At a bar, the students recruit Sergei, who translates the sign as a warning to \"stay away\". Undeterred, Sergei introduces them to his aunt, Alya, who was part of the first rescue team. She tells them that a strange machine and eleven bodies were found at the site, not nine, as is commonly reported. The final two bodies had something wrong with them. At their campsite, Holly hears howling. The next morning, the group notices barefoot prints in the snow that start and stop suddenly. Jensen claims the footprints are fromyeti, but the others claim that Holly is messing with them. After hiking further, they again hear howling and find footprints that lead to a weather tower. Inside the weather tower, they find a human tongue. Denise wants to", "Denise wants to leave, but the others convince her to continue. Jensen reveals that as a teenager he had heard the howling during a bad acid trip that ended with him being arrested while yelling incoherently about demons. Holly attempts to comfort Jensen by relating that she has had recurring dreams about Dyatlov Pass, which she interprets as fate. Unnoticed by the group, two mysterious creatures move through the snow in the distance. The group arrives at Dyatlov Pass unsettlingly ahead of schedule. J.P. and Andy are further spooked when their navigational equipment exhibits strange malfunctions. Using aGeiger counter, Holly and Jensen are led to a bunker that locks from the outside. The door is already unlocked but frozen shut; they manage to open the door. They return to the camp without telling anyone about the bunker. The next morning, the group is awakened by explosions that cause an avalanche. Denise is killed, and Andy suffers a severe fracture. After they fire a flare,Russian soldiersposing as a", "soldiersposing as a rescue party arrive, kill Andy, and chase the three survivors to the bunker. J.P. is shot and wounded as they enter. Moving into a tunnel system, a mysterious creature moves through one tunnel while the three enter another. Holly and Jensen leave the wounded J.P. as they explore the bunker. Inside, they discover evidence of teleportation experiments, a dead soldier who is missing his tongue, a camcorder identical to theirs that has footage of their present conversation, dead bodies stacked in a pile, and files relating to thePhiladelphia Experiment. Jensen and Holly hear J.P. screaming, and find him under attack by mutants who seem to be able to teleport. The mutants kill J.P. and chase Jensen and Holly into a sealed room with a strange-looking tunnel that leads further into a natural cave. Jensen theorizes this is awormhole. Unwilling to starve to death or face the mutants, Jensen and Holly choose to step into the wormhole. Since there are no controls, Jensen suggests that they visualize", "that they visualize a nearby destination. Holly suggests the bunker entrance, and they enter the wormhole. In 1959,Soviet militarypersonnel discover two bodies near the bunker's entrance. Soldiers chase away a younger version of Sergei's aunt Alya, who had just stumbled across the bodies. They recover their video camera. They drag the bodies inside the bunker, which is fully staffed and operational. The commanding officer orders the bodies to be stripped and hung on meat hooks. As the soldiers leave, the mutated bodies of Jensen and Holly, identified by Holly's neck tattoo, begin to revive. Cast Production Director Renny Harlin spent time inMoscowresearching the government archives. His own theory of what happened at theDyatlov Pass incidentis that a government experiment went wrong. The casting for the film was intentionally kept to unknowns. Shooting took place in northern Russia. Release Devil's Passwas released 23 August 2013.It was released on DVD in the UK 26 August 2013.It was released on DVD in the", "on DVD in the US 17 December 2013. Reception Rotten Tomatoes, areview aggregator, reports that 48% of 23 surveyed critics gave it a positive review; the average rating is 4.91/10.Metacriticrated it 49/100.Miriam Bale ofThe New York Timescalled the film \"an upgradedBlair Witch Project\" that is hilarious, though it is not clear whether this is intentional or not.Scott Foundas ofVarietycalled it unoriginal yet watchable.SFXrated it 2/5 stars and called it \"a scare-free thriller\" with an underwhelming twist.Shelagh M. Rowan-Legg ofTwitch Filmcalled for a moratorium onfound footagefilms and stated that the film should have been about the real-life incident.Mark Adams ofScreen Dailycalled it \"shrewdly constructed\" and \"smartly made\".Philip FrenchofThe Guardianwrote that it \"adds nothing to a real-life mystery from the Soviet era\" and that the explanation is too outlandish.Bloody Disgustingrated the film 3/5 stars and recommended the film to enthusiasts of the real-life event but warned that the generic story would", "generic story would probably not excite people tired of found footage films.Gareth Jones ofDread Centralrated it 3.5/5 stars and called it \"a thoroughly intriguing mash-up of sci-fi, horror and real-life mystery.\"Matt Glasby ofTotal Filmrated it 3/5 stars and called it a cheesymidnight moviethat requires a forgiving audience.Owen Williams ofEmpirecalled it a \"smartly-executed\" film with a \"satisfyingly circular conclusion\".Nigel Floyd ofTime Out Londonrated it 2/5 stars and wrote that the film becomes more unbelievable and silly as time goes on.Scott Weinberg ofFearnetcalled it a \"simple but crafty little horror tale\" with a payoff that can \"come off as ridiculous or novel\".Chris Holt ofStarburstrated it 7/10 stars and wrote that it is \"a fascinating and gripping film that despite being fundamentally flawed, is well worth your time.\" References External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Le_Mans_disaster", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tour_de_France_general_classification_winners" ]

[ "1955 Le Mans disaster The1955 Le Mans disasterwas a major crash that occurred on 11 June 1955 during the24 Hours of Le Mansmotor race atCircuit de la SartheinLe Mans,Sarthe,France. Large pieces of debris flew into the crowd, killing 83 spectators and French driverPierre Levegh, and injuring around 120 more. It was the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history, prompting multiple countries in Europe to ban motorsports nationwide;Switzerlandonly lifted its ban in 2022. The crash started whenJaguardriverMike Hawthornpulled to the right side of the track in front ofAustin-HealeydriverLance Macklinand started braking for hispit stop. Macklin swerved out from behind the slowing Jaguar into the path of Levegh, who was passing on the left in his much fasterMercedes-Benz 300 SLR. Levegh rear-ended Macklin at high speed, overriding Macklin's car and launching his own car through the air. Levegh's car skipped over a protective earthenbermat 200 km/h (125 mph) and made at least two impacts within the spectator area, the last of which caused the car to disintegrate, throwing him onto the track where he was instantly killed. Large pieces of debris, including the Mercedes'engine block,radiator,front suspension, andbonnet(hood), were sent flying into the packed spectator area in front of the grandstand. The rear of Levegh's car landed on the berm and exploded into flames. There was much debate over blame for the disaster. The official inquiry held none of the drivers specifically responsible and criticised the layout of the 30-year-old track, which had not been designed for cars as fast as those involved in the crash. Before the crash There was great anticipation for the1955 24 Hours of Le Mans, asFerrari,Jaguar, andMercedes-Benzhad all won the race previously and all three automakers had arrived with new and improved cars. The Ferraris, current champions at the time, were very fast but fragile and prone to mechanical failure. Jaguar concentrated their racing almost exclusively on Le Mans and had a very experienced driver lineup includingFormula 1(F1) Ferrari driverMike Hawthorn. After conquering F1, Mercedes-Benz had debuted its new300 SLRin that year'sWorld Sportscar Championship, including a record-setting win at theMille MigliaforStirling Moss. The 300 SLR featured a body made of an ultra-lightweightmagnesiumalloy calledElektron. The car lacked the more effective state-of-the-artdisc brakesfeatured on the rivalJaguar D-Type, instead incorporating inboarddrum brakesand a largeair brakebehind the driver that could be raised to increase drag and slow the car. Mercedes team managerAlfred Neubauerassembled a multinational team for the race: pairing his two best driversJuan Manuel FangioandStirling Mossin the lead car, 1952 race winnerKarl Klingwith FrenchmanAndré Simon(both also in the current F1 team), and AmericanJohn Fitchwith one of the elder statesmen of French motor racing,Pierre Levegh. It had been Levegh's unprecedented solo drive in the1952 racethat failed in the last hour, which allowed Mercedes-Benz their first Le Mans victory. Aside from two layout changes to make the circuit shorter, theCircuit de la Sarthewas largely unaltered since the inception of the race in1923, when top speeds of cars were typically in the region of 100 km/h (60 mph). By 1955, top speeds for the leading cars were over 270 km/h (170 mph). That said, the circuit had been resurfaced and widened after theSecond World War. The pits and grandstands had been reconstructed, but there were no barriers between the pit lane and the racing line, and only a 4 ft (1.2 m) earthen bank between the track and the spectators. The cars had noseat belts; the drivers reasoned that it was preferable to be thrown clear in a collision rather than be crushed or trapped in a burning car. The 1955 race began at 4pm on Saturday, and, as predicted, the lead cars ofEugenio Castellotti(Ferrari), Hawthorn (Jaguar), and Fangio (Mercedes-Benz) were at the head of the field in the first hour. The other team cars were being kept on tighter leashes to conserve the cars, but still racing in the top ten. Going into the second hour, Castellotti started dropping back, but Hawthorn and Fangio continued the duel, swapping the lead and dropping the lap record further and further, lapping most of the field. The accident happened at 6:26 pm, at the end of lap 35, when the first pit stops for the leading cars were starting. The Crash Immediate cause On lap 35, Hawthorn and Fangio were racing as hard as ever. In his biography, Hawthorn said he was \"momentarily mesmerized by the legend of the Mercedes superiority ... Then I came to my senses and thought 'Damn it, why should a German car beat a British car.'\"The lap before, Hawthorn's pit crew had signalled for him tocome in the next lap. He had just lapped Levegh (running sixth) after Arnage (one of the corners of the race track) and was determined to keep Fangio at bay for as long as he could.Coming out of the Maison Blanche portion of the course, he rapidly caughtLance Macklinin hisAustin Healey 100S, who had seen him and moved over to the right to let him pass. Putting another lap on Macklin coming up to the main straight, Hawthorn then raised his hand to indicate he was pitting and pulled across to the right (from Hawthorn's testimony).What caught Macklin out though was that Hawthorn, using the Jaguar's advanced disc brakes, braked hard enough to slow his Jaguar from such a speed in time. Collision There were two key factors regarding the track layout at that time – first, there was no designated deceleration lane for cars coming into the pits, and second, that just before the main straight, there was a very slight right-hand kink in the road just after which Hawthorn started braking. Macklin, who also braked hard, ran off the right-hand edge of the track, throwing up dust. Noticing that Hawthorn was slowing down, Macklin swerved left to avoid Hawthorn, whether it was an instinctive reaction, a loss of control from going onto the change of road-surface, or his car's disc brakes operating unevenly. As a result, Macklin's car veered across to the centre of the track, briefly out of control. This put him into the way of Levegh's Mercedes, closing in at over 200 km/h (120 mph), intent on doing another lap and in front of Fangio, who was patiently waiting to pass. Levegh had no time to evade, and with possibly his last action, raised his hand, warning Fangio, thereby probably saving Fangio's life. With his eyes shut, Fangio – with his own quick reflexes – squeezed through the carnage and brushed Hawthorn's then-stationary Jaguar in the pits, allowing him to pass unscathed. Levegh's front-right wheel rode up onto the rear-left corner of Macklin's car, which acted as a ramp and launched Levegh's car into the air, flying over spectators and rolling end over end for 80 metres (260 ft).Levegh was thrown out of his tumbling car and hit the ground, crushing his skull upon impact and killing him instantly. The critical kink in the road put the car on a direct trajectory toward the packed terraces and grandstand. The car landed on the earthen embankment between the spectators and the track, bounced, then slammed into a concrete stairwell structure and disintegrated. The momentum of the heaviest components of the car – theengine block,radiator, andfront suspension– hurtled straight on into the crowd for almost 100 metres (330 ft), crushing all in their path.Thebonnetlid scythed through the air, \"decapitatingtightly jammed spectators like aguillotine\".Spectators who had climbed onto ladders and scaffolding to get a better view of the track, and those crowding to use the underpass to get to the pits, found themselves in the way of the lethal debris. Jaguar driverDuncan Hamilton, watching from the pit wall, recalled, \"The scene on the other side of the road was indescribable. The dead and dying were everywhere; the cries of pain, anguish, and despair screamed catastrophe. I stood as if in a dream, too horrified to even think.\" When the rest of Levegh's car landed on the embankment, the rear-mounted fuel tank exploded. The fuel fire raised the temperature of the remaining Elektron bodywork past its ignition temperature, which was lower than that of other metal alloys due to its high magnesium content. The alloy burst into white-hot flames, showering the track and crowd with magnesium embers, made worse by rescue workers unfamiliar withmagnesium fireswho poured water onto the inferno, greatly intensifying the flames.As a result, the car burned for several hours. Meanwhile, Macklin's car, heavily damaged, rammed the left-side barrier, then veered to the right of the track into the pit lane, narrowly missing Kling's Mercedes-Benz,Roberto Mieres'sMaserati, andDon Beauman's Jaguar, all of which were already in the pits refuelling before the accident. Macklin's car hit the unprotected pit-wall, just short of theCunninghamand Mercedes-Benz pits whereShellandLockheedequipment were stationed, running down a policeman, a photographer and two officials (all seriously injured), then rebounded back across the track again to end up skating down the left-side fence for a second time. Macklin survived the incident without serious injury, jumping out of the wreck and over the bank. Aftermath Following hours Hawthorn had overshot his pits and stopped. Getting out, he was immediately ordered by his team to get back in and do another lap to get away from the total confusion and danger. When he pit stopped during the next lap, he staggered out of the car completely distraught, adamant that he had caused the catastrophe.Ivor BuebandNorman Dewis, both Le Mans debutants, had to step into their respective cars for their first driver stints. Bueb in particular was very reluctant, but given Hawthorn's condition had no choice, as Dewis firmly pointed out to him. John Fitch, Levegh's American co-driver, had suited up and was ready to take over the car at the upcoming pit stop, and was standing with Levegh's wife, Denise Bouillin. They saw the whole catastrophe unfold.Levegh's lifeless body, severely burned, lay in full view on the pavement until agendarmehauled down a banner to cover it. Levegh's wife was inconsolable and Fitch stayed with her until she could be comforted.Half an hour after the crash Fitch realised that news was probably being broadcast on the radio, and he needed to telephone his family to reassure them that he was not the driver of the crashed car.When he got to the media centre to use a telephone, he got his first inkling of the sheer enormity of the disaster, overhearing a reporter filing that 48 deaths were already confirmed.When Fitch returned to his pit, he urged the Mercedes team to withdraw from the race, as continuing to compete would be apublic relationsdisaster for Mercedes-Benz regardless of whether they won or lost.Team manager Alfred Neubauer had already reached the same conclusion, but did not have the authority to make such a decision. Despite expectations for the race to bered-flaggedand stopped entirely, race officials, led by race directorCharles Faroux, kept the race running. In the days after the disaster, several explanations were offered by Faroux for this course of action. They included: After an emergency meeting and vote of Mercedes-Benz company directors by telephone inStuttgart,West Germany, Neubauer finally got the call approving his team's withdrawal just before midnight. Waiting until 1:45 am, when many spectators had left, he stepped onto the track and quietly called his cars into the pits, at the time running first and third.Their retirement was briefly announced over the public address system. The Mercedes trucks were packed up and gone by morning. Chief engineerRudolf Uhlenhauthad gone to the Jaguar pits to ask if the Jaguar team would respond in kind, out of respect for the crash victims. Jaguar team manager\"Lofty\" Englanddeclined. Conclusion of the race Hawthorn and the Jaguar team kept racing. With the Mercedes team withdrawn and the Ferraris all out of commission, Jaguar's main competition had gone. Hawthorn and Bueb won the race by a margin of five laps fromAston Martin. The weather had closed in on Sunday morning and there was no victory celebration. However, a press photograph showed Hawthorn smiling on the podium drinking from the victor's bottle of champagne. The French magazineL'Auto-Journalpublished it with the sarcastic caption, \"À votre santé, Monsieur Hawthorn!\" (In English, \"To your health ('Cheers'), Mr. Hawthorn!\") After the race Accounts put the death toll at 80 to 84 (spectators plus Levegh), either by flying debris or from the fire, with a further 120 to 178 injured. Other observers estimated the toll to be much higher.It has remained the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history. Aspecial Masswas held in the morning in theLe Mans Cathedralfor the first funerals of the victims. The death toll led to an immediate temporary ban on motorsports inFrance,Spain,Switzerland,West Germany, and other nations, until racetracks could be brought to a higher safety standard. In theUnited States, theAmerican Automobile Association(AAA) dissolved theirContest Boardthat had been the primary sanctioning body for motorsport in the US (including theIndianapolis 500) since 1904. It decided that auto racing detracted from its primary goals, and theUnited States Automobile Clubwas formed to take over the race sanctioning and officiating. Most countries lifted their racing bans within a year after the disaster. France in particular, as the host of Le Mans, lifted their complete ban on 14 September 1955. On that date, the Ministry of the Interior released new regulations for racing events and codified the approval process that future racing events would need to follow.In contrast, Switzerland's ban persisted for decades. This forced Swiss racing promoters to organize circuit events in foreign countries including France, Italy, and West Germany. In 2003, theFederal Assembly of Switzerlandstarted a lengthy discussion about whether this ban should be lifted. The discussion focused on traffic policy and environmental questions rather than on safety. On 10 June 2009, theStänderat(upper houseof the Swiss parliament) defeated a proposal to lift the ban for the second time.In 2015, the ban was relaxed forelectric vehiclesonly, such as cars involved inFormula Eelectric racing.The ban was lifted in May 2022. The next round of the World Sportscar Championship at theNürburgringwas cancelled, as was the non-championshipCarrera Panamericana. The rest of the1955 World Sportscar Championship seasonwas completed, with the remaining two races at the BritishRAC Tourist Trophyand the ItalianTarga Florio, although they were not run until September and October, several months after the catastrophe. Mercedes-Benz won both of these events, and was able to secure the constructors championship for the season. Having achieved that, Mercedes withdrew from motorsport. The horror of the crash caused some drivers present, including Americans Fitch (after completing the season with Mercedes),Phil Walters(who had been offered a drive with Ferrari for the rest of the season), andSherwood Johnston, to retire from racing. Macklin also decided to retire after being involved in another fatal crash, during the1955 RAC Tourist Trophyrace atDundrod Circuit. Fangio never raced at Le Mans again. At the Circuit de la Sarthe, the audience stands at the pits were demolished. Much recrimination was directed at Hawthorn, saying that he had suddenly cut in front of Macklin and slammed on the brakes near the entrance to the pits, forcing Macklin to take desperate evasive action into the path of Levegh. This became the semi-official pronouncement of the Mercedes team and Macklin's story.The Jaguar team in turn questioned the fitness and competence of Macklin and Levegh as drivers.The initial media accounts were wildly inaccurate, as shown by subsequent analysis of photographic evidence conducted byRoad & Trackeditor (and 1955 second-place finisher)Paul Frèrein 1975.Additional details emerged when the stills reviewed by Frère were converted to video form. The media also speculated on the violent fire that engulfed the wreck, which intensified when fire marshals poured their water-based extinguishers on the flames. They suggested that Mercedes-Benz had tampered with the official fuel-supply with an explosive additive, but the intensity of the fire was due instead to the magnesium-alloy construction of thechassis. Neubauer got the French authorities to test residual fuel left in the wreck's fuel injection and the result vindicated the company. Opinions differed widely amongst the other drivers as to who was directly to blame for the crash, and such differences remain even today. Macklin claimed that Hawthorn's move to the pits was sudden, causing an emergency that led him to swerve into Levegh's path. Years later Fitch claimed, based on his own recollection and from what he heard from others, that Hawthorn had caused it. Dewis ventured the opinions that Macklin's move around Hawthorn was careless and that Levegh was not competent to meet the demands of driving at the speeds the 300SLR was capable of. Both Jaguar and Mercedes-Benz issued official statements, mainly in self-defence against the accusations levelled against them and their drivers. Neubauer limited himself to suggesting improvements to the pit straight and making pit-stops safer. Macklin, on reading Hawthorn's 1958 autobiography,Challenge Me the Race, was embittered when he found that Hawthorn now disclaimed all responsibility for the crash without identifying who had caused it. With Levegh dead, Macklin presumed that Hawthorn's implication was that he (Macklin) had been responsible, and he began alibelaction. The action was still unresolved when Hawthorn was killed in a non-racing crash on theGuildfordbypass in 1959, coincidentally while overtaking a Mercedes-Benz in his Jaguar. The official government inquiry into the accident called officials, drivers, and team personnel to be questioned and give evidence. The wreckage was examined and tested and, finally, returned to Mercedes-Benz nearly twelve months after the catastrophe.In the end the enquiry ruled that no specific driver was responsible for the crash, and that it was merely a terrible racing incident. The death of the spectators was blamed on inadequate safety standards for the track design.Tony Roltand other drivers had been raising concerns about the pit straight since 1953. Legacy Over the next year, theAutomobile Club de l'Ouest(ACO) set about making extensive track improvements and infrastructure changes at the Circuit de la Sarthe—the pit straight was redesigned and widened to remove the kink just before the start-finish line, and to give room for a deceleration lane. The pits complex was pulled down and rebuilt, giving more room to the teams, but thereby limiting spaces to only 52 starters rather than the previous 60. The grandstand was demolished and rebuilt with new spectator terraces and a wide ditch between them and the racetrack.Track safety technology and practices evolved slowly until F1 driverJackie Stewartorganized a campaign to advocate for better safety measures ten years later. Stewart's campaign gained momentum after the deaths ofLorenzo BandiniandJim Clark. Fitch became a major safety advocate and began active development of safer road cars and racing circuits. He invented traffic safety devices currently in use on highways, including the sand-and-air-filledFitch barrels. Macklin's Austin-Healey 100 was sold to several private buyers before appearing on the public auction block. In 1969, it was bought for£155 (equivalent to £3,222 in 2023).In December 2011, the car, estimated to raise £800,000 before the auction,was sold for £843,000.The car retained the original engine SPL 261-BN,but was reported to be in 'barn find' condition.It was then restored to its original condition. After the accident Mercedes-Benz withdrew from motorsports until 1985, although the withdrawal had already been decided before the race and had not been caused by the accident.After returning tosports car racingin the mid 1980s, initially as an engine supplier, Mercedes went on to win the 1989 Le Mans race in partnership withSauber Motorsport. Mercedes went on to compete in the championship during the 1990s as a works team before withdrawing for a second and final time in 1999, following a series of spectacular but non-fatal crashes of theMercedes-Benz CLR. See also References Citations Bibliography External links", "List of Tour de France general classification winners TheTour de Franceis an annualroad bicycle raceheld over 23 days in July. Established in 1903 by newspaperL'Auto, the Tour is the best-known and most prestigious of cycling's three \"Grand Tours\"; the others are theGiro d'Italiaand theVuelta a España.The race usually covers approximately 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi), passing through France and neighbouring countries such as Belgium.The race is broken into day-long stages. Individual finishing times for each stage are totalled to determine the overall winner at the end of the race. The course changes every year, but has always finished in Paris; since1975, it has finished along theChamps-Élysées. The rider with the lowest aggregate time at the end of each day wears the yellow jersey, representing the leader of thegeneral classification. There are other jerseys as well: the green jersey, worn by the leader of thepoints classification; the polka dot jersey, worn by the leader of themountains classification; and the white jersey, worn by the leader of theyoung rider classification. Jacques Anquetil,Eddy Merckx,Bernard Hinault, andMiguel Indurain, have won the most Tours with five each. Indurain is the only man to win five consecutive Tours.Henri Cornetis the youngest winner; he won in1904, just short of his 20th birthday.Firmin Lambotis the oldest winner, he was 36 years, 4 months old when he won in1922.French cyclists have won the most Tours; 21 cyclists have won 36 Tours among them. Belgian cyclists are second with 18 victories, and Spanish riders are third with 12 wins.The most recent winner is Slovenian riderTadej Pogačar, who won the2024 Tour. After it emerged thatLance Armstronghad usedperformance-enhancing drugs, in October 2012, theUnion Cycliste Internationale(UCI) stripped Armstrong of the seven consecutive Tour general classification titles between1999and2005. History TheTour de Francewas established in 1903 by the newspaperL'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race was won by FrenchmanMaurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose.Henri Cornetbecame the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a point-based system, in which the cyclist who has the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour wasFrançois FaberofLuxembourg, who won in1909. Belgian riders were more successful before and after theFirst World War(which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such asNicolas Frantzwon the Tour with theAlcyonteam. However, when Alcyon cyclistMaurice De Waelewon the Tour in1929while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of theSecond World War, the Tour de France wassuspendedfrom 1940 to 1946. After theSecond World War, no one dominated the Tour untilLouison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from1953to1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.This was bettered by the French cyclistJacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from1961to1964. Anquetil, who also won in1957, became the first to win five Tours.Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclistEddy Merckxwon four successive Tours from1969to1972and the1974Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour. Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in1975, butBernard Thévenetbeat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in1977; however, he was eclipsed in following years by fellow FrenchmanBernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in1978and1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx,Hugo KobletandFausto Coppi) managed to do so.In1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won byJoop Zoetemelk.Hinault returned in1981and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in1985to win his fifth Tour. AmericanGreg LeMondbecame the first non-European to win the Tour in1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.In1991, SpaniardMiguel Indurainwon his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in1996, but was beaten byBjarne Riis, who later admitted to usingErythropoietin.Jan UllrichandMarco Pantaniwon in1997and1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed bydoping scandals. The1999Tour saw the first victory ofLance Armstrong,which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.He was later stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had usedperformance-enhancing drugsthroughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.Floyd Landiswon the Tour in2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of askewed testosterone/epitestosteroneratio.Óscar Pereirowas subsequently awarded the victory.Alberto Contadorwon the2007Tour with theDiscovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred bydoping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in2008, as hisAstanateam was banned for its part in the controversy. Fellow SpaniardCarlos SastreofTeam CSCwon.Contador and Astana returned in2009to regain the title. He won the Tour again in2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-upAndy Schleckwas awarded the victory. Cadel Evansbecame the first Australian to win the Tour in2011.The following year,Bradley Wigginsbecame the first British cyclist to win the Tour.Chris Froomebecame the second successive British winner in2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, withVincenzo Nibaliwinning his first Tour.Froome regained the title in2015and then successfully defended it in2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.Froome won the Tour for a third consecutive year in2017.He was unsuccessful in his attempts to win a fourth Tour in succession in2018 edition, Froome's teammate,Geraint Thomas, was the winner instead.Thomas was unable to win for a second year in succession in2019. He finished second behind his teammateEgan Bernal, who became the first Colombian cyclist to win the Tour. The 2020 Tour was postponed to commence on 29 August, following the French government's extension of a ban on mass gatherings after the worldwideCOVID-19outbreak.This was the first time since the end of World War II that the Tour de France was not held in the month of July.It was won byTadej Pogačar, who became the first Slovenian rider to win the race as well as one of the youngest winners in Tour history. He repeated as champion in the 2021 edition. The following year,Jonas Vingegaardbecame the first Danish rider since 1996 to win the race. Vingegaard won again the following year; he won the 2023 edition by 7 minutes and 29 seconds from Pogačar.Pogačar regained the general classification in 2024 and became the first person to win the Giro and Tour in the same year since Pantani in 1998. Winners Multiple winners The following riders have won the Tour de France on more than one occasion. Alberto Contadorwon three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation. Lance Armstrongwas removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. By nationality See also Footnotes References" ]

[ "1955 Le Mans disaster The1955 Le Mans disasterwas a major crash that occurred on 11 June 1955 during the24 Hours of Le Mansmotor race atCircuit de la SartheinLe Mans,Sarthe,France. Large pieces of debris flew into the crowd, killing 83 spectators and French driverPierre Levegh, and injuring around 120 more. It was the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history, prompting multiple countries in Europe to ban motorsports nationwide;Switzerlandonly lifted its ban in 2022. The crash started whenJaguardriverMike Hawthornpulled to the right side of the track in front ofAustin-HealeydriverLance Macklinand started braking for hispit stop. Macklin swerved out from behind the slowing Jaguar into the path of Levegh, who was passing on the left in his much fasterMercedes-Benz 300 SLR. Levegh rear-ended Macklin at high speed, overriding Macklin's car and launching his own car through the air. Levegh's car skipped over a protective earthenbermat 200 km/h (125 mph) and made at least two impacts within the spectator area,", "the spectator area, the last of which caused the car to disintegrate, throwing him onto the track where he was instantly killed. Large pieces of debris, including the Mercedes'engine block,radiator,front suspension, andbonnet(hood), were sent flying into the packed spectator area in front of the grandstand. The rear of Levegh's car landed on the berm and exploded into flames. There was much debate over blame for the disaster. The official inquiry held none of the drivers specifically responsible and criticised the layout of the 30-year-old track, which had not been designed for cars as fast as those involved in the crash. Before the crash There was great anticipation for the1955 24 Hours of Le Mans, asFerrari,Jaguar, andMercedes-Benzhad all won the race previously and all three automakers had arrived with new and improved cars. The Ferraris, current champions at the time, were very fast but fragile and prone to mechanical failure. Jaguar concentrated their racing almost exclusively on Le Mans and had a very", "Mans and had a very experienced driver lineup includingFormula 1(F1) Ferrari driverMike Hawthorn. After conquering F1, Mercedes-Benz had debuted its new300 SLRin that year'sWorld Sportscar Championship, including a record-setting win at theMille MigliaforStirling Moss. The 300 SLR featured a body made of an ultra-lightweightmagnesiumalloy calledElektron. The car lacked the more effective state-of-the-artdisc brakesfeatured on the rivalJaguar D-Type, instead incorporating inboarddrum brakesand a largeair brakebehind the driver that could be raised to increase drag and slow the car. Mercedes team managerAlfred Neubauerassembled a multinational team for the race: pairing his two best driversJuan Manuel FangioandStirling Mossin the lead car, 1952 race winnerKarl Klingwith FrenchmanAndré Simon(both also in the current F1 team), and AmericanJohn Fitchwith one of the elder statesmen of French motor racing,Pierre Levegh. It had been Levegh's unprecedented solo drive in the1952 racethat failed in the last hour, which", "last hour, which allowed Mercedes-Benz their first Le Mans victory. Aside from two layout changes to make the circuit shorter, theCircuit de la Sarthewas largely unaltered since the inception of the race in1923, when top speeds of cars were typically in the region of 100 km/h (60 mph). By 1955, top speeds for the leading cars were over 270 km/h (170 mph). That said, the circuit had been resurfaced and widened after theSecond World War. The pits and grandstands had been reconstructed, but there were no barriers between the pit lane and the racing line, and only a 4 ft (1.2 m) earthen bank between the track and the spectators. The cars had noseat belts; the drivers reasoned that it was preferable to be thrown clear in a collision rather than be crushed or trapped in a burning car. The 1955 race began at 4pm on Saturday, and, as predicted, the lead cars ofEugenio Castellotti(Ferrari), Hawthorn (Jaguar), and Fangio (Mercedes-Benz) were at the head of the field in the first hour. The other team cars were being", "cars were being kept on tighter leashes to conserve the cars, but still racing in the top ten. Going into the second hour, Castellotti started dropping back, but Hawthorn and Fangio continued the duel, swapping the lead and dropping the lap record further and further, lapping most of the field. The accident happened at 6:26 pm, at the end of lap 35, when the first pit stops for the leading cars were starting. The Crash Immediate cause On lap 35, Hawthorn and Fangio were racing as hard as ever. In his biography, Hawthorn said he was \"momentarily mesmerized by the legend of the Mercedes superiority ... Then I came to my senses and thought 'Damn it, why should a German car beat a British car.'\"The lap before, Hawthorn's pit crew had signalled for him tocome in the next lap. He had just lapped Levegh (running sixth) after Arnage (one of the corners of the race track) and was determined to keep Fangio at bay for as long as he could.Coming out of the Maison Blanche portion of the course, he rapidly caughtLance", "rapidly caughtLance Macklinin hisAustin Healey 100S, who had seen him and moved over to the right to let him pass. Putting another lap on Macklin coming up to the main straight, Hawthorn then raised his hand to indicate he was pitting and pulled across to the right (from Hawthorn's testimony).What caught Macklin out though was that Hawthorn, using the Jaguar's advanced disc brakes, braked hard enough to slow his Jaguar from such a speed in time. Collision There were two key factors regarding the track layout at that time – first, there was no designated deceleration lane for cars coming into the pits, and second, that just before the main straight, there was a very slight right-hand kink in the road just after which Hawthorn started braking. Macklin, who also braked hard, ran off the right-hand edge of the track, throwing up dust. Noticing that Hawthorn was slowing down, Macklin swerved left to avoid Hawthorn, whether it was an instinctive reaction, a loss of control from going onto the change of", "onto the change of road-surface, or his car's disc brakes operating unevenly. As a result, Macklin's car veered across to the centre of the track, briefly out of control. This put him into the way of Levegh's Mercedes, closing in at over 200 km/h (120 mph), intent on doing another lap and in front of Fangio, who was patiently waiting to pass. Levegh had no time to evade, and with possibly his last action, raised his hand, warning Fangio, thereby probably saving Fangio's life. With his eyes shut, Fangio – with his own quick reflexes – squeezed through the carnage and brushed Hawthorn's then-stationary Jaguar in the pits, allowing him to pass unscathed. Levegh's front-right wheel rode up onto the rear-left corner of Macklin's car, which acted as a ramp and launched Levegh's car into the air, flying over spectators and rolling end over end for 80 metres (260 ft).Levegh was thrown out of his tumbling car and hit the ground, crushing his skull upon impact and killing him instantly. The critical kink in the road", "kink in the road put the car on a direct trajectory toward the packed terraces and grandstand. The car landed on the earthen embankment between the spectators and the track, bounced, then slammed into a concrete stairwell structure and disintegrated. The momentum of the heaviest components of the car – theengine block,radiator, andfront suspension– hurtled straight on into the crowd for almost 100 metres (330 ft), crushing all in their path.Thebonnetlid scythed through the air, \"decapitatingtightly jammed spectators like aguillotine\".Spectators who had climbed onto ladders and scaffolding to get a better view of the track, and those crowding to use the underpass to get to the pits, found themselves in the way of the lethal debris. Jaguar driverDuncan Hamilton, watching from the pit wall, recalled, \"The scene on the other side of the road was indescribable. The dead and dying were everywhere; the cries of pain, anguish, and despair screamed catastrophe. I stood as if in a dream, too horrified to even think.\"", "to even think.\" When the rest of Levegh's car landed on the embankment, the rear-mounted fuel tank exploded. The fuel fire raised the temperature of the remaining Elektron bodywork past its ignition temperature, which was lower than that of other metal alloys due to its high magnesium content. The alloy burst into white-hot flames, showering the track and crowd with magnesium embers, made worse by rescue workers unfamiliar withmagnesium fireswho poured water onto the inferno, greatly intensifying the flames.As a result, the car burned for several hours. Meanwhile, Macklin's car, heavily damaged, rammed the left-side barrier, then veered to the right of the track into the pit lane, narrowly missing Kling's Mercedes-Benz,Roberto Mieres'sMaserati, andDon Beauman's Jaguar, all of which were already in the pits refuelling before the accident. Macklin's car hit the unprotected pit-wall, just short of theCunninghamand Mercedes-Benz pits whereShellandLockheedequipment were stationed, running down a policeman, a", "down a policeman, a photographer and two officials (all seriously injured), then rebounded back across the track again to end up skating down the left-side fence for a second time. Macklin survived the incident without serious injury, jumping out of the wreck and over the bank. Aftermath Following hours Hawthorn had overshot his pits and stopped. Getting out, he was immediately ordered by his team to get back in and do another lap to get away from the total confusion and danger. When he pit stopped during the next lap, he staggered out of the car completely distraught, adamant that he had caused the catastrophe.Ivor BuebandNorman Dewis, both Le Mans debutants, had to step into their respective cars for their first driver stints. Bueb in particular was very reluctant, but given Hawthorn's condition had no choice, as Dewis firmly pointed out to him. John Fitch, Levegh's American co-driver, had suited up and was ready to take over the car at the upcoming pit stop, and was standing with Levegh's wife, Denise", "wife, Denise Bouillin. They saw the whole catastrophe unfold.Levegh's lifeless body, severely burned, lay in full view on the pavement until agendarmehauled down a banner to cover it. Levegh's wife was inconsolable and Fitch stayed with her until she could be comforted.Half an hour after the crash Fitch realised that news was probably being broadcast on the radio, and he needed to telephone his family to reassure them that he was not the driver of the crashed car.When he got to the media centre to use a telephone, he got his first inkling of the sheer enormity of the disaster, overhearing a reporter filing that 48 deaths were already confirmed.When Fitch returned to his pit, he urged the Mercedes team to withdraw from the race, as continuing to compete would be apublic relationsdisaster for Mercedes-Benz regardless of whether they won or lost.Team manager Alfred Neubauer had already reached the same conclusion, but did not have the authority to make such a decision. Despite expectations for the race to", "for the race to bered-flaggedand stopped entirely, race officials, led by race directorCharles Faroux, kept the race running. In the days after the disaster, several explanations were offered by Faroux for this course of action. They included: After an emergency meeting and vote of Mercedes-Benz company directors by telephone inStuttgart,West Germany, Neubauer finally got the call approving his team's withdrawal just before midnight. Waiting until 1:45 am, when many spectators had left, he stepped onto the track and quietly called his cars into the pits, at the time running first and third.Their retirement was briefly announced over the public address system. The Mercedes trucks were packed up and gone by morning. Chief engineerRudolf Uhlenhauthad gone to the Jaguar pits to ask if the Jaguar team would respond in kind, out of respect for the crash victims. Jaguar team manager\"Lofty\" Englanddeclined. Conclusion of the race Hawthorn and the Jaguar team kept racing. With the Mercedes team withdrawn and the", "withdrawn and the Ferraris all out of commission, Jaguar's main competition had gone. Hawthorn and Bueb won the race by a margin of five laps fromAston Martin. The weather had closed in on Sunday morning and there was no victory celebration. However, a press photograph showed Hawthorn smiling on the podium drinking from the victor's bottle of champagne. The French magazineL'Auto-Journalpublished it with the sarcastic caption, \"À votre santé, Monsieur Hawthorn!\" (In English, \"To your health ('Cheers'), Mr. Hawthorn!\") After the race Accounts put the death toll at 80 to 84 (spectators plus Levegh), either by flying debris or from the fire, with a further 120 to 178 injured. Other observers estimated the toll to be much higher.It has remained the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history. Aspecial Masswas held in the morning in theLe Mans Cathedralfor the first funerals of the victims. The death toll led to an immediate temporary ban on motorsports inFrance,Spain,Switzerland,West Germany, and other nations,", "and other nations, until racetracks could be brought to a higher safety standard. In theUnited States, theAmerican Automobile Association(AAA) dissolved theirContest Boardthat had been the primary sanctioning body for motorsport in the US (including theIndianapolis 500) since 1904. It decided that auto racing detracted from its primary goals, and theUnited States Automobile Clubwas formed to take over the race sanctioning and officiating. Most countries lifted their racing bans within a year after the disaster. France in particular, as the host of Le Mans, lifted their complete ban on 14 September 1955. On that date, the Ministry of the Interior released new regulations for racing events and codified the approval process that future racing events would need to follow.In contrast, Switzerland's ban persisted for decades. This forced Swiss racing promoters to organize circuit events in foreign countries including France, Italy, and West Germany. In 2003, theFederal Assembly of Switzerlandstarted a lengthy", "a lengthy discussion about whether this ban should be lifted. The discussion focused on traffic policy and environmental questions rather than on safety. On 10 June 2009, theStänderat(upper houseof the Swiss parliament) defeated a proposal to lift the ban for the second time.In 2015, the ban was relaxed forelectric vehiclesonly, such as cars involved inFormula Eelectric racing.The ban was lifted in May 2022. The next round of the World Sportscar Championship at theNürburgringwas cancelled, as was the non-championshipCarrera Panamericana. The rest of the1955 World Sportscar Championship seasonwas completed, with the remaining two races at the BritishRAC Tourist Trophyand the ItalianTarga Florio, although they were not run until September and October, several months after the catastrophe. Mercedes-Benz won both of these events, and was able to secure the constructors championship for the season. Having achieved that, Mercedes withdrew from motorsport. The horror of the crash caused some drivers present,", "drivers present, including Americans Fitch (after completing the season with Mercedes),Phil Walters(who had been offered a drive with Ferrari for the rest of the season), andSherwood Johnston, to retire from racing. Macklin also decided to retire after being involved in another fatal crash, during the1955 RAC Tourist Trophyrace atDundrod Circuit. Fangio never raced at Le Mans again. At the Circuit de la Sarthe, the audience stands at the pits were demolished. Much recrimination was directed at Hawthorn, saying that he had suddenly cut in front of Macklin and slammed on the brakes near the entrance to the pits, forcing Macklin to take desperate evasive action into the path of Levegh. This became the semi-official pronouncement of the Mercedes team and Macklin's story.The Jaguar team in turn questioned the fitness and competence of Macklin and Levegh as drivers.The initial media accounts were wildly inaccurate, as shown by subsequent analysis of photographic evidence conducted byRoad & Trackeditor (and 1955", "(and 1955 second-place finisher)Paul Frèrein 1975.Additional details emerged when the stills reviewed by Frère were converted to video form. The media also speculated on the violent fire that engulfed the wreck, which intensified when fire marshals poured their water-based extinguishers on the flames. They suggested that Mercedes-Benz had tampered with the official fuel-supply with an explosive additive, but the intensity of the fire was due instead to the magnesium-alloy construction of thechassis. Neubauer got the French authorities to test residual fuel left in the wreck's fuel injection and the result vindicated the company. Opinions differed widely amongst the other drivers as to who was directly to blame for the crash, and such differences remain even today. Macklin claimed that Hawthorn's move to the pits was sudden, causing an emergency that led him to swerve into Levegh's path. Years later Fitch claimed, based on his own recollection and from what he heard from others, that Hawthorn had caused it.", "had caused it. Dewis ventured the opinions that Macklin's move around Hawthorn was careless and that Levegh was not competent to meet the demands of driving at the speeds the 300SLR was capable of. Both Jaguar and Mercedes-Benz issued official statements, mainly in self-defence against the accusations levelled against them and their drivers. Neubauer limited himself to suggesting improvements to the pit straight and making pit-stops safer. Macklin, on reading Hawthorn's 1958 autobiography,Challenge Me the Race, was embittered when he found that Hawthorn now disclaimed all responsibility for the crash without identifying who had caused it. With Levegh dead, Macklin presumed that Hawthorn's implication was that he (Macklin) had been responsible, and he began alibelaction. The action was still unresolved when Hawthorn was killed in a non-racing crash on theGuildfordbypass in 1959, coincidentally while overtaking a Mercedes-Benz in his Jaguar. The official government inquiry into the accident called officials,", "called officials, drivers, and team personnel to be questioned and give evidence. The wreckage was examined and tested and, finally, returned to Mercedes-Benz nearly twelve months after the catastrophe.In the end the enquiry ruled that no specific driver was responsible for the crash, and that it was merely a terrible racing incident. The death of the spectators was blamed on inadequate safety standards for the track design.Tony Roltand other drivers had been raising concerns about the pit straight since 1953. Legacy Over the next year, theAutomobile Club de l'Ouest(ACO) set about making extensive track improvements and infrastructure changes at the Circuit de la Sarthe—the pit straight was redesigned and widened to remove the kink just before the start-finish line, and to give room for a deceleration lane. The pits complex was pulled down and rebuilt, giving more room to the teams, but thereby limiting spaces to only 52 starters rather than the previous 60. The grandstand was demolished and rebuilt with new", "rebuilt with new spectator terraces and a wide ditch between them and the racetrack.Track safety technology and practices evolved slowly until F1 driverJackie Stewartorganized a campaign to advocate for better safety measures ten years later. Stewart's campaign gained momentum after the deaths ofLorenzo BandiniandJim Clark. Fitch became a major safety advocate and began active development of safer road cars and racing circuits. He invented traffic safety devices currently in use on highways, including the sand-and-air-filledFitch barrels. Macklin's Austin-Healey 100 was sold to several private buyers before appearing on the public auction block. In 1969, it was bought for£155 (equivalent to £3,222 in 2023).In December 2011, the car, estimated to raise £800,000 before the auction,was sold for £843,000.The car retained the original engine SPL 261-BN,but was reported to be in 'barn find' condition.It was then restored to its original condition. After the accident Mercedes-Benz withdrew from motorsports until", "motorsports until 1985, although the withdrawal had already been decided before the race and had not been caused by the accident.After returning tosports car racingin the mid 1980s, initially as an engine supplier, Mercedes went on to win the 1989 Le Mans race in partnership withSauber Motorsport. Mercedes went on to compete in the championship during the 1990s as a works team before withdrawing for a second and final time in 1999, following a series of spectacular but non-fatal crashes of theMercedes-Benz CLR. See also References Citations Bibliography External links", "List of Tour de France general classification winners TheTour de Franceis an annualroad bicycle raceheld over 23 days in July. Established in 1903 by newspaperL'Auto, the Tour is the best-known and most prestigious of cycling's three \"Grand Tours\"; the others are theGiro d'Italiaand theVuelta a España.The race usually covers approximately 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi), passing through France and neighbouring countries such as Belgium.The race is broken into day-long stages. Individual finishing times for each stage are totalled to determine the overall winner at the end of the race. The course changes every year, but has always finished in Paris; since1975, it has finished along theChamps-Élysées. The rider with the lowest aggregate time at the end of each day wears the yellow jersey, representing the leader of thegeneral classification. There are other jerseys as well: the green jersey, worn by the leader of thepoints classification; the polka dot jersey, worn by the leader of themountains classification; and", "classification; and the white jersey, worn by the leader of theyoung rider classification. Jacques Anquetil,Eddy Merckx,Bernard Hinault, andMiguel Indurain, have won the most Tours with five each. Indurain is the only man to win five consecutive Tours.Henri Cornetis the youngest winner; he won in1904, just short of his 20th birthday.Firmin Lambotis the oldest winner, he was 36 years, 4 months old when he won in1922.French cyclists have won the most Tours; 21 cyclists have won 36 Tours among them. Belgian cyclists are second with 18 victories, and Spanish riders are third with 12 wins.The most recent winner is Slovenian riderTadej Pogačar, who won the2024 Tour. After it emerged thatLance Armstronghad usedperformance-enhancing drugs, in October 2012, theUnion Cycliste Internationale(UCI) stripped Armstrong of the seven consecutive Tour general classification titles between1999and2005. History TheTour de Francewas established in 1903 by the newspaperL'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race", "The first race was won by FrenchmanMaurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose.Henri Cornetbecame the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a point-based system, in which the cyclist who has the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour wasFrançois FaberofLuxembourg, who won in1909. Belgian riders were more successful before and after theFirst World War(which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such asNicolas Frantzwon the Tour with theAlcyonteam. However, when Alcyon cyclistMaurice De Waelewon the Tour in1929while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national", "introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of theSecond World War, the Tour de France wassuspendedfrom 1940 to 1946. After theSecond World War, no one dominated the Tour untilLouison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from1953to1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.This was bettered by the French cyclistJacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from1961to1964. Anquetil, who also won in1957, became the first to win five Tours.Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclistEddy Merckxwon four successive Tours from1969to1972and the1974Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour. Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in1975, butBernard Thévenetbeat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in1977; however, he was eclipsed in following", "in following years by fellow FrenchmanBernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in1978and1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx,Hugo KobletandFausto Coppi) managed to do so.In1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won byJoop Zoetemelk.Hinault returned in1981and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in1985to win his fifth Tour. AmericanGreg LeMondbecame the first non-European to win the Tour in1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.In1991, SpaniardMiguel Indurainwon his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more", "winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in1996, but was beaten byBjarne Riis, who later admitted to usingErythropoietin.Jan UllrichandMarco Pantaniwon in1997and1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed bydoping scandals. The1999Tour saw the first victory ofLance Armstrong,which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.He was later stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had usedperformance-enhancing drugsthroughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.Floyd Landiswon the Tour in2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of askewed testosterone/epitestosteroneratio.Óscar Pereirowas subsequently awarded the victory.Alberto Contadorwon the2007Tour with theDiscovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred bydoping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in2008,", "his title in2008, as hisAstanateam was banned for its part in the controversy. Fellow SpaniardCarlos SastreofTeam CSCwon.Contador and Astana returned in2009to regain the title. He won the Tour again in2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-upAndy Schleckwas awarded the victory. Cadel Evansbecame the first Australian to win the Tour in2011.The following year,Bradley Wigginsbecame the first British cyclist to win the Tour.Chris Froomebecame the second successive British winner in2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, withVincenzo Nibaliwinning his first Tour.Froome regained the title in2015and then successfully defended it in2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.Froome won the Tour for a third consecutive year in2017.He was unsuccessful in his attempts to win a fourth Tour in succession in2018 edition, Froome's teammate,Geraint Thomas, was the winner instead.Thomas was", "instead.Thomas was unable to win for a second year in succession in2019. He finished second behind his teammateEgan Bernal, who became the first Colombian cyclist to win the Tour. The 2020 Tour was postponed to commence on 29 August, following the French government's extension of a ban on mass gatherings after the worldwideCOVID-19outbreak.This was the first time since the end of World War II that the Tour de France was not held in the month of July.It was won byTadej Pogačar, who became the first Slovenian rider to win the race as well as one of the youngest winners in Tour history. He repeated as champion in the 2021 edition. The following year,Jonas Vingegaardbecame the first Danish rider since 1996 to win the race. Vingegaard won again the following year; he won the 2023 edition by 7 minutes and 29 seconds from Pogačar.Pogačar regained the general classification in 2024 and became the first person to win the Giro and Tour in the same year since Pantani in 1998. Winners Multiple winners The following", "The following riders have won the Tour de France on more than one occasion. Alberto Contadorwon three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation. Lance Armstrongwas removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. By nationality See also Footnotes References" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Llorona#Literature", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_House_of_the_Scorpion", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Farmer#Bibliography" ]

[ "La Llorona La Llorona(Latin American Spanish:;'the Crying Woman, the Weeping Woman, the Wailer') is avengeful ghostin Mexican folklore who is said to roam nearbodies of watermourning her children whom she drowned in a jealous rage after discovering her husband was unfaithful to her. Whoever hears her crying either suffers misfortune or death and their life becomes unsuccessful in every field. Origins Known for being Malintzin in her original nomenclature, today, the lore of La Llorona is well known in Mexico and the southwestern United States. The earliest documentation of La Llorona is traced back to 1550 in Mexico City. But there are theories about her story being connected to specific Aztec mythological creation stories. \"The Hungry Woman\" includes a wailing woman constantly crying for food, which has been compared to La Llorona's signature nocturnal wailing for her children.The motherly nature of La Llorona's tragedy has been compared toCihuacoatl, an Aztec goddess deity of motherhood. Her seeking of children to keep for herself is significantly compared toCoatlicue, known as \"Our Lady Mother\" orTonantzin(who's also comparable to theVirgen de Guadalupe, another significant mother figure in Mexican culture), also a monster that devours filth or sin. she was in rage so much that she drowned her children and then was so sad that she drowned herself and now is called the weeping woman. The legend of La Llorona is traditionally told throughoutMexico,Central Americaand northernSouth America.La Lloronais sometimes conflated withLa Malinche,theNahuawoman who served asHernán Cortés' interpreter and also bore his son.La Malincheis considered both the mother of the modern Mexican people and a symbol of national treachery for her role in aiding the Spanish. Stories of weeping female phantoms are common in the folklore of bothIberianandAmerindiancultures. Scholars have pointed out similarities betweenLa Lloronaand theCihuacōātlofAztec mythology,as well asEveandLilithofHebrew mythology.AuthorBen Radford's investigation into the legend ofLa Llorona, published inMysterious New Mexico, found common elements of the story in the German folktale\"Die Weisse Frau\"dating from 1486.La Lloronaalso bears a resemblance to the ancientGreektale of thedemigoddessLamia, in whichHera,Zeus' wife, learned of his affair with Lamia and killed all the children Lamia had with Zeus. Out of jealousy over the loss of her own children, Lamia kills other women's children. TheFlorentine Codexis an important text that originated in late Mexico in 1519, a quote from which is, \"The sixth omen was that many times a woman would be heard going along weeping and shouting. She cried out loudly at night, saying, \"Oh my children, we are about to go forever.\" Sometimes she said, \"Oh my children, where am I to take you?\" While the roots of theLa Lloronalegend appear to be pre-Hispanic,the earliest published reference to the legend is a 19th-century sonnet by Mexican poetManuel Carpio.The poem makes no reference to infanticide, ratherLa Lloronais identified as the ghost of a woman named Rosalia who was murdered by her husband. Regional versions The legend has a wide variety of details and versions. In a typical version of the legend, a beautiful woman named María marries a richranchero/conquistadorto whom she bears two children. One day, María sees her husband with another woman and in a fit of blind rage, she drowns their children in a river, which she immediately regrets. Unable to save them and consumed by guilt,she drowns herself as well but is unable to enter theafterlife, forced to be inpurgatoryand roam this earth until she finds her children.In another version of the story, her children areillegitimate, and she drowns them so that their father cannot take them away to be raised by his new wife.Recurring themes in variations on theLa Lloronamyth include a white, wet dress, nocturnal wailing, and an association with water. Mexico The legend ofLa Lloronais deeply rooted in Mexican popular culture. Her story is told to children to encourage them not to wander off in the dark and near bodies ofwatersuch as rivers and lakes alone. Her spirit is often evoked in artwork,such as that ofAlejandro Colunga.La Cihuacoatle, Leyenda de la Lloronais a yearly waterfront theatrical performance of the legend ofLa Lloronaset in thecanalsof theXochimilcoborough of Mexico City,which was established in 1993 to coincide with theDay of the Dead. Guatemala According to the local legend, inGuatemala Citylived a woman who had an affair with a lover. She became pregnant and gave birth to a child named Juan de la Cruz who she drowned so her husband would not know. The woman was condemned in the afterlife to search for her murdered son in every place where there is a pool of water. She does that by crying out for him—hence hermonikerof the Wailing Woman (La Llorona).It is a popular scary legend that in one iteration or another has been told to generations of children. The terrifying cry of \"Oh, my children!!\" (¡Ay mis hijos!) is well known due to the story. Additionally, one peculiar detail is that when a person hears the cry from afar means that the ghost is nearby, but if the cry is heard nearby, it means the ghost is afar. Someone unlucky enough to face the specter is \"won over\" to the afterlife, never to be seen again.. The legend is deeply rooted in Antigua Guatemala, the former capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala (current Central America and southern state of Chiapas, Mexico) United States In theSouthwestern United States, the story ofLa Lloronais told to scare children into good behavior,sometimes specifically to deter children from playing near dangerous water.Also told to them is that her cries are heard as she walks around the street or near bodies of water to scare children from wandering around, resembling the stories ofEl Cucuy. InChumash mythologyindigenous to Southern California,La Lloronais linked to thenunašɨš, a mythological creature with a cry similar to that of a newborn baby.It is a very popular story. Venezuela The tale ofLa Lloronais set in theVenezuelan Llanosduring the colonial period.La Lloronais said to be the spirit of a woman that died of sorrow after her children were killed, either by herself or by her family.Families traditionally place wooden crosses above their doors to ward off such spirits. Other mythologies InEastern Europe, the modernRusalkais a type ofwater spiritinSlavic mythology. They come to be after a woman drowns due to suicide or murder, especially if they had an unwanted pregnancy. Then they must stay in this world for a period of time. TheGreek legendofJasonandMedeaalso features the motif of a woman who murders her children as an act of revenge against her husband, who has left her for another woman. In popular culture Film The story ofLa Lloronafirst appeared on film in 1933'sLa Llorona, filmed in Mexico.René Cardona's 1960 filmLa Lloronawas also shot in Mexico,as was the 1963 horror filmThe Curse of the Crying Woman,directed byRafael Baledón. In a pivotal scene in the 2001 filmMulholland Drive,Rebekah Del RioplaysLa Llorona de Los Angeles,a mysterious singer who performsLlorando,a Spanish language version ofCryingbyRoy Orbison.In keeping with the legend, the characters who witness this performance suffer severe consequences. The 2008 Mexican horror filmKilometer 31is inspired by the legend ofLa Llorona.Additionally the early 2000s saw a spate of low-budget movies based onLa Llorona, including: La Lloronais the primary antagonist in the 2007 movieJ-ok'el.In the 2011 Mexican animated filmLa Leyenda de la Llorona, she is portrayed as a more sympathetic character, whose children die in an accident rather than at their mother's hands. In the 2017PixarfilmCoco, \"La Llorona\", the Mexican folk song popularized byAndres Henestrosain 1941is sung byAlanna Ubachin her role as Mamá Imelda, joined by Antonio Sol as the singing voice of Ernesto de la Cruz. In July 2019,James Wan,Gary Daubermanand Emilie Gladstone produced a film titledThe Curse of La LloronaforWarner Bros. Pictures. The film was directed byMichael Chavesand starsLinda Cardellini,Raymond Cruz,Patricia Velasquezand Marisol Ramirez as La Llorona. Also in 2019,Jayro Bustamantedirected the Guatemalan filmLa Llorona, starringMaría Mercedes Coroy, which screened in the Contemporary World Cinema section at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Legend of La Lloronawas a film released in January 2022 and starsDanny Trejo,Autumn Reeser, andAntonio Cupo. Theater Mexican playwrightJosefina LópezwroteUnconquered Spirits,which uses the myth ofLa Lloronaas a plot device. The play premiered atCalifornia State University, Northridge's Little Theatre in 1995. Literature Nancy Farmer's 2002science fictionnovel,The House of the Scorpionincludes references toLa Llorona. The legend ofLa Lloronais discussed inJaquira Díaz's 2019 memoir,Ordinary Girls: The scariest part was not that La Llorona was a monster, or that she came when you called her name three times in the dark, or that she could come into your room at night and take you from your bed like she'd done with her own babies. It was that once she'd been a person, a woman, a mother. And then a moment, an instant, a split second later, she was a monster. The novelPaola Santiago and the River of Tears, the first part of a young adult trilogy by Tehlor Kay Mejia, is based on the legend of La Llorona. Rodolfo Anaya's novelBless Me, Ultimareferences La Llorona, describing her as a spirit of the river without mentioning her origins. \"Advice from La Llorona\" byDeborah A. Mirandais a poem exploring grief and loss. In Summer of the Mariposas, byGuadalupe Garcia McCall, she serves as a mentor to the Garza Sisters. Music \"La Llorona\" is a Mexican folk song popularized byAndres Henestrosain 1941.It has since been covered by various musicians, includingChavela Vargas,Joan Baez,Lila Downs,andRosalía. North American singer-songwriterLhasa de Sela's debut albumLa Llorona(1997) explored the dark mysteries of Latin folklore. She combined a variety of musical genres includingklezmer,gypsy jazzand Mexican folk music, all in the Spanish language.The album was certified Platinum in Canada,and it earned her a CanadianJuno Awardfor Best Global Artist in 1998. Manic Hispanic, a rock band from Los Angeles, California, have a song titled \"She Turned Into Llorona\" on their 2003 albumMijo Goes To Jr. College. Television La Lloronais an antagonist in the TV seriesSupernatural, portrayed by Sarah Shahi in thepilot episodeand by Shanae Tomasevich in \"Moriah\" andseason 15. La Lloronais an antagonist ina 2012 second-season episodeof the TV seriesGrimm. La Lloronaappears in theVictor and Valentinoepisode \"The Lonely Haunts 3: La Llorona\" voiced byVanessa Marshall. Contrary to the usual depictions, this version of La Llorona is good and simply lonely and claims to have had twenty kids who had all grown up and left her; implying that she suffers fromEmpty nest syndrome. La Lloronaappears in theCraig of the Creekepisode \"The Legend of the Library\" voiced by Carla Tassara. Craig and the Stump Kids visit their friend Stacks at the local library to get out of the rain. When the power goes out and their fellow Creek Kids begin disappearing, Stacks believes that La Llorona is to blame. In the end, it is revealed that the \"ghost\" was actually Lorraine, the substitute librarian who is very serious about her job. She makes the kids promise to take good care of the library along with a warning, showing a ghostly face at the same time. Whether or not Lorraine was in fact La Llorona or the face was imagined is left ambiguous. La Lloronaappears in theRiverdaleepisode \"Chapter 97: Ghost Stories\". The characters tell ghost stories about people related to them or the town that had died. La Llorona is one. She haunts Sweetwater River and she also manages to possess Toni and take Betty's unborn child away. La Lloronais portrayed by drag queen,Mirage, during the 3rd episode ofSeason 16ofRupaul's Drag Race. During this episode the queens had to show three different looks in the runway and she portrayed La Llorana in the second theme named \"Significant Mother\" where they needed to show an outfit based on a iconic mother. Video games La Lloronaappears as a collectible demon inAtlus'sShin Megami Tenseiseries of role-playing games, making her first appearance in the 1997 installment,Devil Summoner: Soul Hackersfor theSega Saturn. Comics La Lloronais the name of a fictional punk band in thealternativecomic bookLove and Rockets. They are known for their song, 'Two Faces Have I', the title of which is generally misheard as 'Do Vases Have Eyes(?)'. See also References Bibliography", "The House of the Scorpion The House of the Scorpionis a 2002science fictionyoung adult novel byNancy Farmer. It is set in the future and mostly takes place in Opium, a country which separates Aztlán (formerly Mexico) and the United States. The main character, Matteo Alacrán, or Matt, is a young clone of adrug lordof the same name, usually called \"El Patrón\". It is a story about the struggle to survive as a freeindividualand the search for apersonal identity. Background The idea was originally from a short story that Farmer wrote for an anthology, which she withdrew and then expanded after realizing it was too closely tied to her own life.The novel is partly inspired by Farmer's experience of rescuing a Mexican immigrant from dying in the desert,as is evidenced in the theme ofillegal immigration. On her personal website, Farmer says she wrote the novel for her son, who isdyslexic.Also on her website, Farmer notes that swear words were removed from the manuscript before publication, and that she wished the novel were 50 pages longer. Farmer chose thescorpionsymbol because El Patrón, a main character in the novel, is from the Mexican state ofDurango. Farmer based many of the novel's characters on figures from her life, both in childhood and present day. Plot This story is set in the country of Opium, a narrow strip of land betweenMexico(now calledAztlán), and theUnited States, which is ruled by the original Matteo Alacrán, or El Patrón, an incredibly powerful drug lord, who is over 140 years old. Opium consists of severaldrug-producing Farms, the Alacrán estate (which producesopiumpoppies) being the largest and where some of the Alacrán family stay. The protagonist, Matt, is a clone of El Patrón. For the first six years of his life, he lives in a small house on the edge of the poppy fields with Celia, a cook working in El Patrón's mansion. When he is discovered by three children, Emilia, Steven, and Maria, he smashes a window and jumps out of the house. Unaware of the danger of jumping barefoot onto smashed glass, he has to be carried to El Patrón's mansion to be treated for his injuries. Matt is treated kindly until Mr. Alacrán, El Patrón's great-grandson, recognizes him as a clone, which results in a few months of him being locked in a room and treated like an animal. When he finds out, El Patrón is furious and gives Matt clothes and his own room and commands everyone to treat him with respect. Matt is also given a bodyguard, Tam Lin, a reformed terrorist who becomes a father figure to Matt. During the seven years that Matt lives in the house, he befriends María, which gradually blossoms into romance. Matt is kept in the dark about his identity, however, until a cruel joke reveals to him that he is a clone. Matt also discovers that all clones are supposed to be injected when \"harvested\" (born) with a compound that cripples their brains and turns them into little more than thrashing, drooling animals meant to donate organs. In denial, he convinces himself that El Patrón would not hire tutors for him and keep him entertained if he wanted to kill him and that instead, he must be wanted to run the country when El Patrón dies. At Steven and Emilia's wedding, El Patrón has a nearly-fatal heart attack. Matt and María attempt to flee in the ensuing chaos but are betrayed by the newlyweds. María is taken back to the convent in which she studies, and Matt is taken to the hospital, where El Patrón finally confirms that Matt was created only as an organ donor to keep him alive. At that moment, Celia reveals that she has been giving Matt doses ofarsenic, which were not large enough to kill Matt but would be deadly to one as frail as El Patrón. The resulting rage of El Patrón causes him to have a fatal heart attack. Mr. Alacrán calls doctors to take him to emergency surgery, and after El Patrón dies, he orders Tam Lin to dispose of Matt. Tam Lin pretends to comply but gives Matt supplies and sets him on a path to Aztlán. Arriving in Aztlán, Matt comes across a group of orphans, the \"Lost Boys,\" who live in an orphanage operated by the \"Keepers,\" a group of ferventMarxistswho preach the \"Five Principles of Good Citizenship\" and the \"Four Attitudes Leading to Right-Mindfulness\". The Keepers operateplanktonfarms, force the orphans to do manual labor and to subsist on plankton, while they themselves enjoy luxurious quarters and food. At first, Matt is an outcast because the other boys think he is a spoiledaristocrat. However, he becomes a hero when he defies the Keepers and leads the boys in a rebellion. He then is shut up in a closet for the night after the incident, until the next morning. Here, he is dumped in the \"Boneyard\", a dried lake full of whale bones, delicately balanced. After he manages to get free, he and Chacho are rescued by Ton-Ton and Fidelito, who drive the shrimp harvester to San Luis to find María and her mother, the politically powerful Esperanza Mendoza. Esperanza thanks the boys for giving her the ability to take down the Keepers. Matt learns that Opium is in a country-wide lockdown but manages to re-enter the country, only to learn that the entire Alacrán family is dead, and the estate is empty except for servants, including Celia. Those at El Patrón's wake, including Tam Lin, who promised El Patrón, drank poisoned wine, which El Patrón saved to be served at his funeral since he never intended to die and wanted to run the business forever or to have it and everyone else die with him. Matt takes on the role of El Patrón to become the new ruler of Opium, with intentions to dismantle the current regime. Main Characters Matteo (Matt) Alacrán: The protagonist, Matt is the most recent clone of El Patrón. Raised in close proximity to the Alacrán estate, Matt is constantly reminded of his position as a clone, being of equal status to cattle. As such, Matt grows up wanting to prove himself better than anyone else, so they will be forced to acknowledge him.The House of the Scorpionfollows Matt's journey from a young boy growing up in a small house with his caretaker, Celia, to his subsequent realization of his autonomy and self-worth. Throughout much of the book, Matt struggles to find balance between his selfishness and desire to prove himself, with being kind and moral to others. At first, Matt views El Patrón as a very dear man whom he cares about deeply, yet slowly starts to realize the cruel nature of the man. Helped along the way with family and friends, Matt realizes the corrupt nature of Opium and eventually seeks to change the drug-powered land for the better. Matteo (El Patrón) Alacrán: A powerful drug-lord in the land of Opium. El Patrón extends his life by replacing his body parts with those of younger clones. By doing so, he has lived far longer than the average person at 140 years old. He likes to give his clones what he considers a luxurious life, because he lives vicariously through his clones experiencing a life of privilege he never had growing up. When Matt expresses musical talent, he immediately hires a music teacher so he can enjoy the talent he never got to foster. Though he is affectionate to Matt, he is cruel and domineering towards everyone else, including his own family. He is quick to turn people into eejits, the mindless slaves that work his fields and tend to other manual work. He is widely feared for his cruelty and power. Everything, from the land, wealth, power, and people, belongs to him and him alone. When he has a heart attack due to Matt's failure to provide a heart, he poisons his entire family to ensure his empire and all his possessions fall with him. Celia: Matt's caretaker and mother figure, Celia is a kind, caring woman who protects Matt fiercely from any threat. She goes so far to protect him that when she finds out Matt's heart is due to replace El Patrón's, she begins to poison Matt with tiny amounts of arsenic. Not enough to kill Matt, but certainly kill someone with a weaker system. Described as a hardworking woman, Celia always made sure to make time for Matt, carrying him to bed every night, even past the point of exhaustion where she almost collapsed after working all day. Matt grows up in her care learning love despite being treated negatively by others, describing her snores to be a comforting, familiar sound. Tam Lin: Both Matt and El Patrón's body guard, he is described as having curly brown hair, blue eyes, and covered in scars. He has a tough, unfriendly exterior, though he proves on multiple occasions he cares for Matt, such as when he saves him from choking while he is young and later, helping Matt escape into the mountains to avoid a fate of dying as a clone. Tam Lin spends a lot of time at Celia's house with Matt, teaching him survival skills such as cooking and camping. Before working for El Patrón, Tam Lin was a Scottish nationalist, described by others as a terrorist for attempting to blow up a government official. Instead, he accidentally killed 20 children. Deciding to make amends for the wrongs he committed at the end, Tam Lin allows El Patrón to poison and kill him along with the rest of the Alacrán family. Themes The House of the Scorpionis a story about the struggle to survive as a freeindividualand the search for apersonal identity. The novel deals with issues and ethics around humancloning. Technology: Matt wrestles with his status as a clone, as well as what being El Patrón's clone means for his future. Trained as a scientist, Nancy Farmer recognized the positives of modern technology, as well as human's ability to \"pervert\" it, particularly where it concerns cloning drug lords and making powerful bombs and other weapons. Discussing cloning, Nancy Farmer disclosed she has \"consciously not really judged\" cloning humans, so long as it's not for their body parts, and does not mind when animals are cloned. Further, though Matt is a direct clone of El Patrón, he is not a complete duplicate, and possesses qualities unique to an upbringing surrounded by love and certain circumstances. Though clones possess the same DNA and physical appearance, there are certain traits that only appear if they were nurtured. For example, Matt proves to be musically gifted, a talent encouraged by Celia. El Patrón possesses the same talent, yet it \"withered and died\" due to lack of training. Coming of Age: As a clone, Matt's value is in the health of his organs, as to prolong the life of his benefactor, El Patrón. Clones share the same status as cattle, and Matt is \"regarded as property whose value extends only as far as the usefulness of his body parts.\" InThe House of the Scorpion, coming of age for Matt means \"claiming humanity\", and rising above his status as livestock. The book centers around Matt's journey to claim independence, self-worth, and sense of purpose in an environment surrounded by hate. Literary style Though the novel details moral issues involved with human cloning, in his review forThe New York Times, Roger Sutton argued that the novel is only nominally science fiction, and is more often a realistic fiction tale with elements of the adventure story. Reception Reviewing the novel inThe New York Times, Roger Sutton traced the novel's roots back toPinocchio, as both novels feature non-human characters desperate to become human. Sutton called the novel \"a big, ambitious tale.\" Publishers Weekly, in a starred review of the novel, noted that \"Farmer grippingly demonstrates that there are no easy answers. The questions she raises will haunt readers long after the final page.\" Kirkus Reviews, also in a starred review, calledThe House of the Scorpion\"a must-read for SF fans.\" The Lord of Opium AsThe House of the Scorpiondrew on so much of her childhood, Farmer found it difficult to write the sequel,The Lord of Opium.The sequel was published on September 3, 2013. The story begins a few hours after the final events of the first book.Largely centered around Matt's new regime in Opium, it explores the temptation of absolute power and Matt's struggle to not become the same type of ruler as the original El Patrón. As a 15 year-old boy, once a victim of hatred and disdain, he now finds himself in a position of wealth, power, and complete control over people. Farmer discussed her interest in exploring the temptation of power and control Matt struggled with, stating, \"I don't know if that's a particularly popular way for the book to go but it was what interested me.\" Awards It won the U.S.National Book Award for Young People's Literatureand was named aNewbery HonorBookand aMichael L. Printz HonorBook.In thespeculative fictionfield, it was a runner-up for theLocus Awardin the young adult categoryand theMythopoeic Awardin the children's category. Further reading References External links Nancy Farmerat theInternet Speculative Fiction Database", "Nancy Farmer Nancy Farmer(born 1941) is an American writer ofchildren'sand young adult books and science fiction. She has written threeNewbery Honorbooksand won the U.S.National Book Award for Young People's LiteratureforThe House of the Scorpion, published byAtheneum Books for Young Readersin 2002. Biography Farmer was born inPhoenix, Arizona. She earned her B.A. atReed College(1963) and later studied chemistry and entomology at the University of California, Berkeley.She enlisted in thePeace Corps(1963–1965), and subsequently worked inMozambiqueandRhodesia(present-dayZimbabwe), where she studied biological methods of controlling thetsetse flybetween 1975 and 1978. She met her future husband, Harold Farmer, at the University of Rhodesia (now theUniversity of Zimbabwe). They married after a week-long courtship. As of 2010, Farmer lives in Arizona'sChiricahua Mountainswith her husband. They have one son, Daniel. Bibliography Novels The Sea of Trolls trilogy Picture books Short stories Awards \"The Mirror\" (1987) The Ear, the Eye and the Arm(1994) A Girl Named Disaster(1996) The House of the Scorpion(2002) The Land of the Silver Apples(2007) See also References External links" ]

[ "La Llorona La Llorona(Latin American Spanish:;'the Crying Woman, the Weeping Woman, the Wailer') is avengeful ghostin Mexican folklore who is said to roam nearbodies of watermourning her children whom she drowned in a jealous rage after discovering her husband was unfaithful to her. Whoever hears her crying either suffers misfortune or death and their life becomes unsuccessful in every field. Origins Known for being Malintzin in her original nomenclature, today, the lore of La Llorona is well known in Mexico and the southwestern United States. The earliest documentation of La Llorona is traced back to 1550 in Mexico City. But there are theories about her story being connected to specific Aztec mythological creation stories. \"The Hungry Woman\" includes a wailing woman constantly crying for food, which has been compared to La Llorona's signature nocturnal wailing for her children.The motherly nature of La Llorona's tragedy has been compared toCihuacoatl, an Aztec goddess deity of motherhood. Her seeking of", "Her seeking of children to keep for herself is significantly compared toCoatlicue, known as \"Our Lady Mother\" orTonantzin(who's also comparable to theVirgen de Guadalupe, another significant mother figure in Mexican culture), also a monster that devours filth or sin. she was in rage so much that she drowned her children and then was so sad that she drowned herself and now is called the weeping woman. The legend of La Llorona is traditionally told throughoutMexico,Central Americaand northernSouth America.La Lloronais sometimes conflated withLa Malinche,theNahuawoman who served asHernán Cortés' interpreter and also bore his son.La Malincheis considered both the mother of the modern Mexican people and a symbol of national treachery for her role in aiding the Spanish. Stories of weeping female phantoms are common in the folklore of bothIberianandAmerindiancultures. Scholars have pointed out similarities betweenLa Lloronaand theCihuacōātlofAztec mythology,as well asEveandLilithofHebrew mythology.AuthorBen", "mythology.AuthorBen Radford's investigation into the legend ofLa Llorona, published inMysterious New Mexico, found common elements of the story in the German folktale\"Die Weisse Frau\"dating from 1486.La Lloronaalso bears a resemblance to the ancientGreektale of thedemigoddessLamia, in whichHera,Zeus' wife, learned of his affair with Lamia and killed all the children Lamia had with Zeus. Out of jealousy over the loss of her own children, Lamia kills other women's children. TheFlorentine Codexis an important text that originated in late Mexico in 1519, a quote from which is, \"The sixth omen was that many times a woman would be heard going along weeping and shouting. She cried out loudly at night, saying, \"Oh my children, we are about to go forever.\" Sometimes she said, \"Oh my children, where am I to take you?\" While the roots of theLa Lloronalegend appear to be pre-Hispanic,the earliest published reference to the legend is a 19th-century sonnet by Mexican poetManuel Carpio.The poem makes no reference to", "no reference to infanticide, ratherLa Lloronais identified as the ghost of a woman named Rosalia who was murdered by her husband. Regional versions The legend has a wide variety of details and versions. In a typical version of the legend, a beautiful woman named María marries a richranchero/conquistadorto whom she bears two children. One day, María sees her husband with another woman and in a fit of blind rage, she drowns their children in a river, which she immediately regrets. Unable to save them and consumed by guilt,she drowns herself as well but is unable to enter theafterlife, forced to be inpurgatoryand roam this earth until she finds her children.In another version of the story, her children areillegitimate, and she drowns them so that their father cannot take them away to be raised by his new wife.Recurring themes in variations on theLa Lloronamyth include a white, wet dress, nocturnal wailing, and an association with water. Mexico The legend ofLa Lloronais deeply rooted in Mexican popular culture.", "popular culture. Her story is told to children to encourage them not to wander off in the dark and near bodies ofwatersuch as rivers and lakes alone. Her spirit is often evoked in artwork,such as that ofAlejandro Colunga.La Cihuacoatle, Leyenda de la Lloronais a yearly waterfront theatrical performance of the legend ofLa Lloronaset in thecanalsof theXochimilcoborough of Mexico City,which was established in 1993 to coincide with theDay of the Dead. Guatemala According to the local legend, inGuatemala Citylived a woman who had an affair with a lover. She became pregnant and gave birth to a child named Juan de la Cruz who she drowned so her husband would not know. The woman was condemned in the afterlife to search for her murdered son in every place where there is a pool of water. She does that by crying out for him—hence hermonikerof the Wailing Woman (La Llorona).It is a popular scary legend that in one iteration or another has been told to generations of children. The terrifying cry of \"Oh, my children!!\"", "\"Oh, my children!!\" (¡Ay mis hijos!) is well known due to the story. Additionally, one peculiar detail is that when a person hears the cry from afar means that the ghost is nearby, but if the cry is heard nearby, it means the ghost is afar. Someone unlucky enough to face the specter is \"won over\" to the afterlife, never to be seen again.. The legend is deeply rooted in Antigua Guatemala, the former capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala (current Central America and southern state of Chiapas, Mexico) United States In theSouthwestern United States, the story ofLa Lloronais told to scare children into good behavior,sometimes specifically to deter children from playing near dangerous water.Also told to them is that her cries are heard as she walks around the street or near bodies of water to scare children from wandering around, resembling the stories ofEl Cucuy. InChumash mythologyindigenous to Southern California,La Lloronais linked to thenunašɨš, a mythological creature with a cry similar to that of a newborn", "that of a newborn baby.It is a very popular story. Venezuela The tale ofLa Lloronais set in theVenezuelan Llanosduring the colonial period.La Lloronais said to be the spirit of a woman that died of sorrow after her children were killed, either by herself or by her family.Families traditionally place wooden crosses above their doors to ward off such spirits. Other mythologies InEastern Europe, the modernRusalkais a type ofwater spiritinSlavic mythology. They come to be after a woman drowns due to suicide or murder, especially if they had an unwanted pregnancy. Then they must stay in this world for a period of time. TheGreek legendofJasonandMedeaalso features the motif of a woman who murders her children as an act of revenge against her husband, who has left her for another woman. In popular culture Film The story ofLa Lloronafirst appeared on film in 1933'sLa Llorona, filmed in Mexico.René Cardona's 1960 filmLa Lloronawas also shot in Mexico,as was the 1963 horror filmThe Curse of the Crying Woman,directed", "Woman,directed byRafael Baledón. In a pivotal scene in the 2001 filmMulholland Drive,Rebekah Del RioplaysLa Llorona de Los Angeles,a mysterious singer who performsLlorando,a Spanish language version ofCryingbyRoy Orbison.In keeping with the legend, the characters who witness this performance suffer severe consequences. The 2008 Mexican horror filmKilometer 31is inspired by the legend ofLa Llorona.Additionally the early 2000s saw a spate of low-budget movies based onLa Llorona, including: La Lloronais the primary antagonist in the 2007 movieJ-ok'el.In the 2011 Mexican animated filmLa Leyenda de la Llorona, she is portrayed as a more sympathetic character, whose children die in an accident rather than at their mother's hands. In the 2017PixarfilmCoco, \"La Llorona\", the Mexican folk song popularized byAndres Henestrosain 1941is sung byAlanna Ubachin her role as Mamá Imelda, joined by Antonio Sol as the singing voice of Ernesto de la Cruz. In July 2019,James Wan,Gary Daubermanand Emilie Gladstone produced a film", "produced a film titledThe Curse of La LloronaforWarner Bros. Pictures. The film was directed byMichael Chavesand starsLinda Cardellini,Raymond Cruz,Patricia Velasquezand Marisol Ramirez as La Llorona. Also in 2019,Jayro Bustamantedirected the Guatemalan filmLa Llorona, starringMaría Mercedes Coroy, which screened in the Contemporary World Cinema section at the2019 Toronto International Film Festival. The Legend of La Lloronawas a film released in January 2022 and starsDanny Trejo,Autumn Reeser, andAntonio Cupo. Theater Mexican playwrightJosefina LópezwroteUnconquered Spirits,which uses the myth ofLa Lloronaas a plot device. The play premiered atCalifornia State University, Northridge's Little Theatre in 1995. Literature Nancy Farmer's 2002science fictionnovel,The House of the Scorpionincludes references toLa Llorona. The legend ofLa Lloronais discussed inJaquira Díaz's 2019 memoir,Ordinary Girls: The scariest part was not that La Llorona was a monster, or that she came when you called her name three times in", "name three times in the dark, or that she could come into your room at night and take you from your bed like she'd done with her own babies. It was that once she'd been a person, a woman, a mother. And then a moment, an instant, a split second later, she was a monster. The novelPaola Santiago and the River of Tears, the first part of a young adult trilogy by Tehlor Kay Mejia, is based on the legend of La Llorona. Rodolfo Anaya's novelBless Me, Ultimareferences La Llorona, describing her as a spirit of the river without mentioning her origins. \"Advice from La Llorona\" byDeborah A. Mirandais a poem exploring grief and loss. In Summer of the Mariposas, byGuadalupe Garcia McCall, she serves as a mentor to the Garza Sisters. Music \"La Llorona\" is a Mexican folk song popularized byAndres Henestrosain 1941.It has since been covered by various musicians, includingChavela Vargas,Joan Baez,Lila Downs,andRosalía. North American singer-songwriterLhasa de Sela's debut albumLa Llorona(1997) explored the dark mysteries of", "dark mysteries of Latin folklore. She combined a variety of musical genres includingklezmer,gypsy jazzand Mexican folk music, all in the Spanish language.The album was certified Platinum in Canada,and it earned her a CanadianJuno Awardfor Best Global Artist in 1998. Manic Hispanic, a rock band from Los Angeles, California, have a song titled \"She Turned Into Llorona\" on their 2003 albumMijo Goes To Jr. College. Television La Lloronais an antagonist in the TV seriesSupernatural, portrayed by Sarah Shahi in thepilot episodeand by Shanae Tomasevich in \"Moriah\" andseason 15. La Lloronais an antagonist ina 2012 second-season episodeof the TV seriesGrimm. La Lloronaappears in theVictor and Valentinoepisode \"The Lonely Haunts 3: La Llorona\" voiced byVanessa Marshall. Contrary to the usual depictions, this version of La Llorona is good and simply lonely and claims to have had twenty kids who had all grown up and left her; implying that she suffers fromEmpty nest syndrome. La Lloronaappears in theCraig of the", "in theCraig of the Creekepisode \"The Legend of the Library\" voiced by Carla Tassara. Craig and the Stump Kids visit their friend Stacks at the local library to get out of the rain. When the power goes out and their fellow Creek Kids begin disappearing, Stacks believes that La Llorona is to blame. In the end, it is revealed that the \"ghost\" was actually Lorraine, the substitute librarian who is very serious about her job. She makes the kids promise to take good care of the library along with a warning, showing a ghostly face at the same time. Whether or not Lorraine was in fact La Llorona or the face was imagined is left ambiguous. La Lloronaappears in theRiverdaleepisode \"Chapter 97: Ghost Stories\". The characters tell ghost stories about people related to them or the town that had died. La Llorona is one. She haunts Sweetwater River and she also manages to possess Toni and take Betty's unborn child away. La Lloronais portrayed by drag queen,Mirage, during the 3rd episode ofSeason 16ofRupaul's Drag Race.", "Drag Race. During this episode the queens had to show three different looks in the runway and she portrayed La Llorana in the second theme named \"Significant Mother\" where they needed to show an outfit based on a iconic mother. Video games La Lloronaappears as a collectible demon inAtlus'sShin Megami Tenseiseries of role-playing games, making her first appearance in the 1997 installment,Devil Summoner: Soul Hackersfor theSega Saturn. Comics La Lloronais the name of a fictional punk band in thealternativecomic bookLove and Rockets. They are known for their song, 'Two Faces Have I', the title of which is generally misheard as 'Do Vases Have Eyes(?)'. See also References Bibliography", "The House of the Scorpion The House of the Scorpionis a 2002science fictionyoung adult novel byNancy Farmer. It is set in the future and mostly takes place in Opium, a country which separates Aztlán (formerly Mexico) and the United States. The main character, Matteo Alacrán, or Matt, is a young clone of adrug lordof the same name, usually called \"El Patrón\". It is a story about the struggle to survive as a freeindividualand the search for apersonal identity. Background The idea was originally from a short story that Farmer wrote for an anthology, which she withdrew and then expanded after realizing it was too closely tied to her own life.The novel is partly inspired by Farmer's experience of rescuing a Mexican immigrant from dying in the desert,as is evidenced in the theme ofillegal immigration. On her personal website, Farmer says she wrote the novel for her son, who isdyslexic.Also on her website, Farmer notes that swear words were removed from the manuscript before publication, and that she wished the", "that she wished the novel were 50 pages longer. Farmer chose thescorpionsymbol because El Patrón, a main character in the novel, is from the Mexican state ofDurango. Farmer based many of the novel's characters on figures from her life, both in childhood and present day. Plot This story is set in the country of Opium, a narrow strip of land betweenMexico(now calledAztlán), and theUnited States, which is ruled by the original Matteo Alacrán, or El Patrón, an incredibly powerful drug lord, who is over 140 years old. Opium consists of severaldrug-producing Farms, the Alacrán estate (which producesopiumpoppies) being the largest and where some of the Alacrán family stay. The protagonist, Matt, is a clone of El Patrón. For the first six years of his life, he lives in a small house on the edge of the poppy fields with Celia, a cook working in El Patrón's mansion. When he is discovered by three children, Emilia, Steven, and Maria, he smashes a window and jumps out of the house. Unaware of the danger of jumping", "danger of jumping barefoot onto smashed glass, he has to be carried to El Patrón's mansion to be treated for his injuries. Matt is treated kindly until Mr. Alacrán, El Patrón's great-grandson, recognizes him as a clone, which results in a few months of him being locked in a room and treated like an animal. When he finds out, El Patrón is furious and gives Matt clothes and his own room and commands everyone to treat him with respect. Matt is also given a bodyguard, Tam Lin, a reformed terrorist who becomes a father figure to Matt. During the seven years that Matt lives in the house, he befriends María, which gradually blossoms into romance. Matt is kept in the dark about his identity, however, until a cruel joke reveals to him that he is a clone. Matt also discovers that all clones are supposed to be injected when \"harvested\" (born) with a compound that cripples their brains and turns them into little more than thrashing, drooling animals meant to donate organs. In denial, he convinces himself that El Patrón", "that El Patrón would not hire tutors for him and keep him entertained if he wanted to kill him and that instead, he must be wanted to run the country when El Patrón dies. At Steven and Emilia's wedding, El Patrón has a nearly-fatal heart attack. Matt and María attempt to flee in the ensuing chaos but are betrayed by the newlyweds. María is taken back to the convent in which she studies, and Matt is taken to the hospital, where El Patrón finally confirms that Matt was created only as an organ donor to keep him alive. At that moment, Celia reveals that she has been giving Matt doses ofarsenic, which were not large enough to kill Matt but would be deadly to one as frail as El Patrón. The resulting rage of El Patrón causes him to have a fatal heart attack. Mr. Alacrán calls doctors to take him to emergency surgery, and after El Patrón dies, he orders Tam Lin to dispose of Matt. Tam Lin pretends to comply but gives Matt supplies and sets him on a path to Aztlán. Arriving in Aztlán, Matt comes across a group of", "across a group of orphans, the \"Lost Boys,\" who live in an orphanage operated by the \"Keepers,\" a group of ferventMarxistswho preach the \"Five Principles of Good Citizenship\" and the \"Four Attitudes Leading to Right-Mindfulness\". The Keepers operateplanktonfarms, force the orphans to do manual labor and to subsist on plankton, while they themselves enjoy luxurious quarters and food. At first, Matt is an outcast because the other boys think he is a spoiledaristocrat. However, he becomes a hero when he defies the Keepers and leads the boys in a rebellion. He then is shut up in a closet for the night after the incident, until the next morning. Here, he is dumped in the \"Boneyard\", a dried lake full of whale bones, delicately balanced. After he manages to get free, he and Chacho are rescued by Ton-Ton and Fidelito, who drive the shrimp harvester to San Luis to find María and her mother, the politically powerful Esperanza Mendoza. Esperanza thanks the boys for giving her the ability to take down the Keepers. Matt", "the Keepers. Matt learns that Opium is in a country-wide lockdown but manages to re-enter the country, only to learn that the entire Alacrán family is dead, and the estate is empty except for servants, including Celia. Those at El Patrón's wake, including Tam Lin, who promised El Patrón, drank poisoned wine, which El Patrón saved to be served at his funeral since he never intended to die and wanted to run the business forever or to have it and everyone else die with him. Matt takes on the role of El Patrón to become the new ruler of Opium, with intentions to dismantle the current regime. Main Characters Matteo (Matt) Alacrán: The protagonist, Matt is the most recent clone of El Patrón. Raised in close proximity to the Alacrán estate, Matt is constantly reminded of his position as a clone, being of equal status to cattle. As such, Matt grows up wanting to prove himself better than anyone else, so they will be forced to acknowledge him.The House of the Scorpionfollows Matt's journey from a young boy growing up", "boy growing up in a small house with his caretaker, Celia, to his subsequent realization of his autonomy and self-worth. Throughout much of the book, Matt struggles to find balance between his selfishness and desire to prove himself, with being kind and moral to others. At first, Matt views El Patrón as a very dear man whom he cares about deeply, yet slowly starts to realize the cruel nature of the man. Helped along the way with family and friends, Matt realizes the corrupt nature of Opium and eventually seeks to change the drug-powered land for the better. Matteo (El Patrón) Alacrán: A powerful drug-lord in the land of Opium. El Patrón extends his life by replacing his body parts with those of younger clones. By doing so, he has lived far longer than the average person at 140 years old. He likes to give his clones what he considers a luxurious life, because he lives vicariously through his clones experiencing a life of privilege he never had growing up. When Matt expresses musical talent, he immediately", "he immediately hires a music teacher so he can enjoy the talent he never got to foster. Though he is affectionate to Matt, he is cruel and domineering towards everyone else, including his own family. He is quick to turn people into eejits, the mindless slaves that work his fields and tend to other manual work. He is widely feared for his cruelty and power. Everything, from the land, wealth, power, and people, belongs to him and him alone. When he has a heart attack due to Matt's failure to provide a heart, he poisons his entire family to ensure his empire and all his possessions fall with him. Celia: Matt's caretaker and mother figure, Celia is a kind, caring woman who protects Matt fiercely from any threat. She goes so far to protect him that when she finds out Matt's heart is due to replace El Patrón's, she begins to poison Matt with tiny amounts of arsenic. Not enough to kill Matt, but certainly kill someone with a weaker system. Described as a hardworking woman, Celia always made sure to make time for", "to make time for Matt, carrying him to bed every night, even past the point of exhaustion where she almost collapsed after working all day. Matt grows up in her care learning love despite being treated negatively by others, describing her snores to be a comforting, familiar sound. Tam Lin: Both Matt and El Patrón's body guard, he is described as having curly brown hair, blue eyes, and covered in scars. He has a tough, unfriendly exterior, though he proves on multiple occasions he cares for Matt, such as when he saves him from choking while he is young and later, helping Matt escape into the mountains to avoid a fate of dying as a clone. Tam Lin spends a lot of time at Celia's house with Matt, teaching him survival skills such as cooking and camping. Before working for El Patrón, Tam Lin was a Scottish nationalist, described by others as a terrorist for attempting to blow up a government official. Instead, he accidentally killed 20 children. Deciding to make amends for the wrongs he committed at the end, Tam", "at the end, Tam Lin allows El Patrón to poison and kill him along with the rest of the Alacrán family. Themes The House of the Scorpionis a story about the struggle to survive as a freeindividualand the search for apersonal identity. The novel deals with issues and ethics around humancloning. Technology: Matt wrestles with his status as a clone, as well as what being El Patrón's clone means for his future. Trained as a scientist, Nancy Farmer recognized the positives of modern technology, as well as human's ability to \"pervert\" it, particularly where it concerns cloning drug lords and making powerful bombs and other weapons. Discussing cloning, Nancy Farmer disclosed she has \"consciously not really judged\" cloning humans, so long as it's not for their body parts, and does not mind when animals are cloned. Further, though Matt is a direct clone of El Patrón, he is not a complete duplicate, and possesses qualities unique to an upbringing surrounded by love and certain circumstances. Though clones possess the", "clones possess the same DNA and physical appearance, there are certain traits that only appear if they were nurtured. For example, Matt proves to be musically gifted, a talent encouraged by Celia. El Patrón possesses the same talent, yet it \"withered and died\" due to lack of training. Coming of Age: As a clone, Matt's value is in the health of his organs, as to prolong the life of his benefactor, El Patrón. Clones share the same status as cattle, and Matt is \"regarded as property whose value extends only as far as the usefulness of his body parts.\" InThe House of the Scorpion, coming of age for Matt means \"claiming humanity\", and rising above his status as livestock. The book centers around Matt's journey to claim independence, self-worth, and sense of purpose in an environment surrounded by hate. Literary style Though the novel details moral issues involved with human cloning, in his review forThe New York Times, Roger Sutton argued that the novel is only nominally science fiction, and is more often a", "and is more often a realistic fiction tale with elements of the adventure story. Reception Reviewing the novel inThe New York Times, Roger Sutton traced the novel's roots back toPinocchio, as both novels feature non-human characters desperate to become human. Sutton called the novel \"a big, ambitious tale.\" Publishers Weekly, in a starred review of the novel, noted that \"Farmer grippingly demonstrates that there are no easy answers. The questions she raises will haunt readers long after the final page.\" Kirkus Reviews, also in a starred review, calledThe House of the Scorpion\"a must-read for SF fans.\" The Lord of Opium AsThe House of the Scorpiondrew on so much of her childhood, Farmer found it difficult to write the sequel,The Lord of Opium.The sequel was published on September 3, 2013. The story begins a few hours after the final events of the first book.Largely centered around Matt's new regime in Opium, it explores the temptation of absolute power and Matt's struggle to not become the same type of ruler", "same type of ruler as the original El Patrón. As a 15 year-old boy, once a victim of hatred and disdain, he now finds himself in a position of wealth, power, and complete control over people. Farmer discussed her interest in exploring the temptation of power and control Matt struggled with, stating, \"I don't know if that's a particularly popular way for the book to go but it was what interested me.\" Awards It won the U.S.National Book Award for Young People's Literatureand was named aNewbery HonorBookand aMichael L. Printz HonorBook.In thespeculative fictionfield, it was a runner-up for theLocus Awardin the young adult categoryand theMythopoeic Awardin the children's category. Further reading References External links Nancy Farmerat theInternet Speculative Fiction Database", "Nancy Farmer Nancy Farmer(born 1941) is an American writer ofchildren'sand young adult books and science fiction. She has written threeNewbery Honorbooksand won the U.S.National Book Award for Young People's LiteratureforThe House of the Scorpion, published byAtheneum Books for Young Readersin 2002. Biography Farmer was born inPhoenix, Arizona. She earned her B.A. atReed College(1963) and later studied chemistry and entomology at the University of California, Berkeley.She enlisted in thePeace Corps(1963–1965), and subsequently worked inMozambiqueandRhodesia(present-dayZimbabwe), where she studied biological methods of controlling thetsetse flybetween 1975 and 1978. She met her future husband, Harold Farmer, at the University of Rhodesia (now theUniversity of Zimbabwe). They married after a week-long courtship. As of 2010, Farmer lives in Arizona'sChiricahua Mountainswith her husband. They have one son, Daniel. Bibliography Novels The Sea of Trolls trilogy Picture books Short stories Awards \"The Mirror\" (1987)", "\"The Mirror\" (1987) The Ear, the Eye and the Arm(1994) A Girl Named Disaster(1996) The House of the Scorpion(2002) The Land of the Silver Apples(2007) See also References External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Gaulden_Jagger", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier_(supercomputer" ]

[ "Mary Gaulden Jagger Mary Esther Gaulden Jagger(April 30, 1921 – September 1, 2007), known professionally asMary Esther Gaulden, was an Americanradiation geneticist, professor ofradiologyand political activist who authored some 60 scientific publications. Early life Mary Esther Gaulden was the daughter of Daniel Harley Gaulden, Sr. and Virginia Carson Gaulden. She earned aBachelor of Sciencedegree fromWinthrop College, where she double-majored inmusicandbiology, and later earned her doctorate in biology at theUniversity of Virginia. Oak Ridge In 1949, she began working as a senior radiation biologist in the Biology Division of theOak Ridge National LaboratoryinOak Ridge, TennesseeunderAlexander Hollaender. There, in 1956, she metbiophysicistJohn Jagger, whom she married 19 October 1956. While working in Oak Ridge, Gaulden Jagger became locally famous as the person who \"threw the rascals out\" of theAnderson CountyElection Commission, and was also active in the county's desegregation movement, participating in drugstore and restaurantsit-insalongside her husband. Gaulden was a founding member of the Radiation Research Society and the Environmental Mutagen Society and was president of theAssociation of Southeastern Biologistsin 1959. UT Southwestern Medical Center In the mid-1960s, the couple and their two young children relocated toDallas, Texas. Gaulden took a position as a professor of radiology at theUT Southwestern Medical Center, where she retired in 1992. In 1966 she was a co-founder of theNational Organization for Women. Gaulden served on the Committee onToxicologyof theU.S. National Research Councilfrom 1989 to 1999, studying (among other things) the environment on theInternational Space Station. Awards References This biographical article related to a physician in the United States is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge National Laboratory(ORNL) is afederally funded research and development centerinOak Ridge, Tennessee, United States. Founded in 1943, the laboratory is now sponsored by theUnited States Department of Energyand administered byUT–Battelle, LLC. Established in 1943, ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system by sizeand third largest by annual budget.It is located in theRoane Countysection of Oak Ridge.Its scientific programs focus onmaterials,nuclear science,neutronscience, energy,high-performance computing,environmental science,systems biologyandnational security, sometimes in partnership with the state ofTennessee, universities and other industries. ORNL has several of the world's topsupercomputers, includingFrontier, ranked by theTOP500as the world's most powerful. The lab is a leading neutron and nuclear power research facility that includes theSpallation Neutron Source, theHigh Flux Isotope Reactor, and theCenter for Nanophase Materials Sciences. Overview Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed byUT–Battelle,alimited liability partnershipbetween theUniversity of Tennesseeand theBattelle Memorial Institute, formed in 2000 for that purpose.The annual budget is US$2.4 billion. As of 2021 there is a staff of 5,700 working at ORNL, around 2,000 of whom are scientists and engineers,and an additional 3,200 guest researchers annually. There are five campuses on the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge reservation: the National Laboratory, theY-12 National Security Complex, the East Tennessee Technology Park (formerly theOak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant), theOak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, and the developing Oak Ridge Science and Technology Park, although the four other facilities are unrelated to the National Laboratory.The total area of the reservation is 150 square kilometres (58 sq mi) of which the lab takes up 18 square kilometres (7 sq mi). History In 1934 theFreel Farm Mound Site, an archaeological site and burial mound of theLate Woodland periodwas excavated.The site is currently inundated byMelton Hill Lake. The city ofOak Ridgewas established by theArmy Corps of Engineersas part of theClinton Engineer Worksin 1942 on isolated farm land as part of theManhattan Project.During World War II, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by theUniversity of Chicago'sMetallurgical Laboratory.In 1943, construction of the Clinton Laboratories, what would later be known as the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, was completed.The site was chosen for theX-10 Graphite Reactor, used to produceplutoniumfrom naturaluranium.Enrico Fermiand his colleagues developed the world's second self-sustainingnuclear reactorafter Fermi's previous experiment, theChicago Pile-1. The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation. After the end of World War II, management of the lab was contracted by the US government toMonsanto; however, they withdrew in 1947.TheUniversity of Chicagotemporarily re-assumed responsibility, with the site receiving the prestigious \"National\" laboratory designation, until in December 1947, whenUnion Carbide and Carbon Co., which already operated two other facilities at Oak Ridge, took control of the laboratory and renamed the site Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Post-war, the demand formilitary sciencehad fallen dramatically, and the future of the lab was uncertain. The X-10 reactor and the laboratory's 1,000 employees were no longer involved in nuclear weapons.Instead, it was used for scientific research.In 1946 the firstmedical isotopeswere produced in the X-10 reactor, and by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals.The quantity and variety ofradionuclidesproduced by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s. ORNL was the only Western source ofcalifornium-252.ORNL scientists also performed the world's first successfulbone marrow transplantin mice by suppressing theirimmune systems. In 1950 theOak Ridge School of Reactor Technologywas established with two courses in reactor operation and safety; almost 1,000 students graduated.Much of the research performed at ORNL in the 1950s was related to nuclear reactors as a form of energy production, both for propulsion and electricity. More reactors were built in the 1950s than in the rest of the ORNL's history combined.One of their most influential projects was thelight-water reactor, a precursor to many modern nuclear power stations. TheUS Militaryfunded much of its development, fornuclear-powered submarines and shipsof theUS Navy.TheUS Armyalso contracted the design of portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases.The reactors were produced by theAmerican Locomotive Companyand used inGreenland, thePanama Canal Zone, andAntarctica.TheUS Air Forcealso contributed funding to three reactors, the lab's first computers, and its first particle accelerators.ORNL built itsfirst molten salt reactor in 1954as a proof-of-concept for a proposed fleet oflong-range bombers, but it was never used. Alvin M. Weinberg was named Director of Research, ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory.In the early 1960s there was a large push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powereddesalinationplants, where deserts met the sea, to provide water. The project, called Water for Peace, was backed byJohn F. KennedyandLyndon B. Johnsonand was presented at a 1964 United Nations conference, but increases in the cost of construction and falling public confidence in nuclear power caused the plan to be shuttered.The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used forradiation exposureexperiments leading to more accuratedosage limitsanddosimeters, and improvedradiation shielding. In 1964 theMolten-Salt Reactor Experimentbegan with the construction of the reactor. It operated from 1966 until 1969 (with six months down time to move fromU-235toU-233fuel) and proved the viability ofmolten salt reactors, while also producing fuel for other reactors as a byproduct of its own reaction.TheHigh Flux Isotope Reactorbuilt in 1965 had the highestneutron fluxof any reactor at the time.It improved upon the work of the X-10 reactor, producing more medical isotopes as well as allowing higher fidelity of materials research.Researchers in the biology division studied the effects of chemicals on mice, includingpetrol fumes,pesticides, andtobacco. In the late 1960s, cuts in funding led to the cancellation of plans for another particle accelerator, and theUnited States Atomic Energy Commissioncut the breeder reactor program by two-thirds, leading to a downsizing in staff from 5,000 to 3,800.In the 1970s, the prospect offusion powerwas strongly considered, sparking research at ORNL. Atokamakcalled ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin.After the success of the fusion experiments, it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however, the experiments ultimately failed to lead to fusion power plants. TheUS Atomic Energy Commission(AEC) required improved safety standards in the early 1970s for nuclear reactors, so ORNL staff wrote almost 100 requirements covering many factors including fuel transport and earthquake resistance. In 1972 the AEC held a series of public hearings where emergency cooling requirements were highlighted and the safety requirements became more stringent.Also in 1972,Peter Mazur, a biologist at ORNL, froze withliquid nitrogen, thawed and implanted mouseembryosin asurrogate mother. The mouse pups were born healthy.The technique is popular in the livestock industry, as it allows the embryos of valuable cattle to be transported easily and a prize cow can have multiple eggs extracted and thus, throughin vitrofertilisation, have many more offspring than would naturally be possible. In 1974 Alvin Weinberg, director of the lab for 19 years, was replaced byHerman Postma, a fusion scientist.In 1977 construction began for 6 metre (20 foot)superconductingelectromagnets, intended to controlfusion reactions. The project was an international effort: three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one inSwitzerlandand the final by remaining European states.ORNL was involved in analysing the damage to the core of theThree Mile Island Nuclear Generating Stationafter theaccident in 1979. The 1980s brought more changes to ORNL: a focus on efficiency became paramount. An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time.Materials research into heat resistantceramicsfor use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s.In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established, where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regardingReagan's economic policyof less government expenditure.In 1981, the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility, a 25 MVparticle accelerator, was opened at ORNL. At the time, Holifield had the widest range of ion species and was twice as powerful as other accelerators, attracting hundreds of guest researchers each year. The Department of Energy was concerned with the pollution surrounding ORNL, and it began clean-up efforts. Burial trenches and leaking pipes hadcontaminated the groundwaterbeneath the lab, and radiation tanks were sitting idle, full ofwaste. Estimates of the total cost of clean-up were into the hundreds of millions of US dollars.The five older reactors were subjected to safety reviews in 1987, ordered to be deactivated until the reviews were complete. By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted, the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted.In 1989 the former executive officer of theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science,Alvin Trivelpiece, became director of ORNL; he remained in the role until 2000. In 1992whistleblowerCharles Varnadore filed complaints against ORNL, alleging safety violations and retaliation by his superiors. While an administrative law judge ruled in Varnadore's favor, Secretary of LaborRobert Reichoverturned that ruling. However, Varnadore's case saw prime contractorMartin Mariettacited for safety violations and ultimately led to additional whistleblower protection within DOE. In January 2019 ORNL announced a major breakthrough in its capacity to automatePu-238production which helped push annual production from 50 grams to 400 grams, moving closer toNASA's goal of 1.5 kilograms per year by 2025 in order to sustain its space exploration programs. Areas of research ORNL conductsresearch and developmentactivities that span a wide range of scientific disciplines. Many research areas have a significant overlap with each other; researchers often work in two or more of the fields listed here. The laboratory's major research areas are described briefly below. Energy The laboratory has a long history of energy research; nuclear reactor experiments have been conducted since the end of World War II in 1945. Because of the availability of reactors and high-performance computing resources, an emphasis on improving the efficiency of nuclear reactors is present.The programs develop more efficient materials, more accurate simulations of aging reactor cores, sensors and controls as well as safety procedures for regulatory authorities. The Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program aims to improveair quality in the USand reduce dependence on foreign oil supplies.There are three key areas of research: electricity, manufacturing and mobility. The electricity division focuses on reducing electricity consumption and finding alternative sources for production. Buildings, which account for 39% of US electricity consumption as of 2012, are a key area of research as the program aims to create affordable,carbon-neutralhomes.Research also takes place into higher efficiencysolar panels,geothermal electricityandheating, lower costwind generators, and the economic and environmental feasibility of potentialhydro power plants. The Fusion Energy Division pursues short-term goals to develop components such ashigh-temperature superconductors, high-speed hydrogen pellet injectors, and suitable materials for future fusion research.Much research into the behaviour and maintenance of plasma takes place at the Fusion Energy Division to further the understanding ofplasma physics, a crucial area for developing a fusion power plant.The USITERoffice is at ORNL with partners atPrinceton Plasma Physics LaboratoryandSavannah River National Laboratory.The US contribution to the ITER project is 9.1% which is expected to be in excess of US$1.6 billion throughout the contract.ORNL researchers participated in developing of an extensive research plan for the US-ITER collaboration detailed in 2022. Biology Biological research coversecology,forestry,genomics,computational biology,structural biologyandbioinformatics.The BioEnergy Program aims to improve the efficiency of all stages of thebiofuelprocess to improve theenergy securityof the United States.The program aims to make genetic improvements to the potential biomass used,formulate methods for refineries that can accept a diverse range of fuels, and to improve the efficiency of energy delivery both to power plants and end users. The Center for Molecular Biophysics conducts research into the behaviour of biological molecules in various conditions. The center hosts projects that examinecell wallsfor biofuel production,use neutron scattering to analyseprotein folding, and simulate the effect of catalysis on a conventional andquantum scale.ORNL is home to a field site for theNational Ecological Observatory Network(NEON), which has a field office nearby. The Department of Energy works closely with theTennessee Wildlife Resources Agencyout of ORNL to monitor forest ecology for the surrounding Appalachians & Cumberland Plateau Domain of NEON. Neutron science There are two neutron sources at ORNL; theHigh Flux Isotope Reactor(HFIR) and theSpallation Neutron Source(SNS). HFIR provides neutrons in a stable beam resulting from a constantnuclear reactionwhereas SNS, a particle accelerator, produces pulses of neutrons.HFIR wentcriticalin 1965 and has been used for materials research and as a major source of medical radioisotopes since.As of 2013, HFIR provides the world's highest constantneutron fluxas a result of various upgrades.Berkelium-249, used to synthesizetennessinefor the first time, was produced in the HFIR as part of an international effort.HFIR is likely to operate until approximately 2060 before thereactor pressure vesselis considered unsafe for continued use. The SNS has the highest intensity neutron pulses of any human-made neutron source.SNS was made operational in 2006 and has since been upgraded to 1 megawatt with plans to continue up to 3 MW.High-power neutron pulses permit clearer images of the targets, meaning smaller samples can be analysed and accurate results require fewer pulses. Materials Between 2002 and 2008 ORNL partnered withCaterpillar Inc.to form a new material for their diesel engines that can withstand large temperature fluctuations.The new steel, named CF8C Plus, is based on conventional CF8C stainless steel with addedmanganeseandnitrogen; the result has better high–temperature properties and is easier to cast at a similar cost.In 2003 the partners received an R&D 100 award fromR&D magazineand in 2009 received an award for \"excellence in technology transfer\" from theFederal Laboratory Consortiumfor the commercialisation of the steel. There is a high-temperature materials lab at ORNL that permits researchers from universities, private companies and other government initiatives to use their facilities. As is the case for all designated user facilities, the resources of the High Temperature Materials Laboratory are available for free if the results are published; private research is permitted but requires payment. The Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences (CNMS) researches the behaviour and fabrication ofnanomaterials. The center emphasises discovery of new materials and the understanding of underlying physical and chemical interactions that enable creation of nanomaterials.In 2012, CNMS produced a lithium-sulfide battery with a theoretical energy density three to five times greater than existinglithium ion batteries. Security ORNL provides resources to theUnited States Department of Homeland Securityand other defense programs. The Global Security and Nonproliferation (GS&N) program develops and implements policies, both US based and international, to prevent theproliferation of nuclear material.The program has developed safeguards for nuclear arsenals, guidelines for dismantling arsenals, plans of action should nuclear material fall into unauthorised hands, detection methods for stolen or missing nuclear material, and trade of nuclear material between the US and Russia.The GS&N's work overlaps with that of the Homeland Security Programs Office, providing detection of nuclear material and nonproliferation guidelines. Other areas concerning the Department Homeland Security include nuclear and radiological forensics,chemicalandbiological agentdetection usingmass spectrometry, and simulations of potential national hazards. High-performance computing ORNL has been the site of varioussupercomputers, home to the fastest on several occasions.In 1953, ORNL partnered with theArgonne National Laboratoryto buildORACLE(Oak Ridge Automatic Computer and Logical Engine), a computer to research nuclear physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.ORACLE had 2048words(80Kibit) ofmemoryand took approximately 590 microseconds to perform addition or multiplication of integers.In the 1960s ORNL was equipped with anIBM 360/91and an IBM 360/65.In 1995 ORNL bought anIntel Paragonbased computer called theIntel Paragon XP/S 150that performed at 154gigaFLOPSand ranked third on theTOP500list of supercomputers.In 2005Jaguarwas built, aCray XT3-based system that performed at 25 teraFLOPS and received incremental upgrades up to theXT5platform that performed at 2.3 petaFLOPS in 2009. It was recognised as the world's fastest from November 2009 until November 2010.Summit was built for Oak Ridge National Laboratory during 2018, which benchmarked at 122.3 petaFLOPS. As of June 2020, Summit was the world's second fastest supercomputer with 202,752 CPU cores, 27,648Nvidia Tesla GPUs, and 250 Petabytes of storage, having lost the top position to the JapaneseFugakusupercomputer.In May 2022, the ORNLFrontiersystem broke the exascale barrier,achieving 1.102 exaflop/s using 8,730,112 cores. Since 1992 theCenter for Computational Scienceshas overseen high performance computing at ORNL. It manages theOak Ridge Leadership Computing Facilitythat contains the machines.In 2012, Jaguar was upgraded to theXK7platform, a fundamental change asGPUsare used for the majority of processing, and renamedTitan. Titan performed at 17.59 petaFLOPS and held the number 1 spot on the TOP500 list for November 2012.Other computers include a 77 node cluster to visualise data that the larger machines output in theExploratory Visualization Environment for Research in Science and Technology(EVEREST), a visualisation room with a 10 by 3 metre (30 by 10 ft) wall that displays 35 megapixel projections.Smoky is an 80 node Linux cluster used for application development. Research projects are refined and tested on Smoky before running on larger machines such as Titan. In 1989 programmers at the Oak Ridge National Lab wrote the first version ofParallel Virtual Machine(PVM), software that enablesdistributed computingon machines of differing specifications.PVM isfree softwareand has become the de facto standard for distributed computing.Jack Dongarraof ORNL and theUniversity of Tennesseewrote theLINPACKsoftware library andLINPACK benchmarks, used to calculatelinear algebraand the standard method of measuring floating point performance of a supercomputer as used by the TOP500 organisation. Notable people See also Notes and references Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier_(supercomputer" ]

[ "Mary Gaulden Jagger Mary Esther Gaulden Jagger(April 30, 1921 – September 1, 2007), known professionally asMary Esther Gaulden, was an Americanradiation geneticist, professor ofradiologyand political activist who authored some 60 scientific publications. Early life Mary Esther Gaulden was the daughter of Daniel Harley Gaulden, Sr. and Virginia Carson Gaulden. She earned aBachelor of Sciencedegree fromWinthrop College, where she double-majored inmusicandbiology, and later earned her doctorate in biology at theUniversity of Virginia. Oak Ridge In 1949, she began working as a senior radiation biologist in the Biology Division of theOak Ridge National LaboratoryinOak Ridge, TennesseeunderAlexander Hollaender. There, in 1956, she metbiophysicistJohn Jagger, whom she married 19 October 1956. While working in Oak Ridge, Gaulden Jagger became locally famous as the person who \"threw the rascals out\" of theAnderson CountyElection Commission, and was also active in the county's desegregation movement, participating in", "participating in drugstore and restaurantsit-insalongside her husband. Gaulden was a founding member of the Radiation Research Society and the Environmental Mutagen Society and was president of theAssociation of Southeastern Biologistsin 1959. UT Southwestern Medical Center In the mid-1960s, the couple and their two young children relocated toDallas, Texas. Gaulden took a position as a professor of radiology at theUT Southwestern Medical Center, where she retired in 1992. In 1966 she was a co-founder of theNational Organization for Women. Gaulden served on the Committee onToxicologyof theU.S. National Research Councilfrom 1989 to 1999, studying (among other things) the environment on theInternational Space Station. Awards References This biographical article related to a physician in the United States is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge National Laboratory(ORNL) is afederally funded research and development centerinOak Ridge, Tennessee, United States. Founded in 1943, the laboratory is now sponsored by theUnited States Department of Energyand administered byUT–Battelle, LLC. Established in 1943, ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system by sizeand third largest by annual budget.It is located in theRoane Countysection of Oak Ridge.Its scientific programs focus onmaterials,nuclear science,neutronscience, energy,high-performance computing,environmental science,systems biologyandnational security, sometimes in partnership with the state ofTennessee, universities and other industries. ORNL has several of the world's topsupercomputers, includingFrontier, ranked by theTOP500as the world's most powerful. The lab is a leading neutron and nuclear power research facility that includes theSpallation Neutron Source, theHigh Flux Isotope Reactor, and theCenter for", "and theCenter for Nanophase Materials Sciences. Overview Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed byUT–Battelle,alimited liability partnershipbetween theUniversity of Tennesseeand theBattelle Memorial Institute, formed in 2000 for that purpose.The annual budget is US$2.4 billion. As of 2021 there is a staff of 5,700 working at ORNL, around 2,000 of whom are scientists and engineers,and an additional 3,200 guest researchers annually. There are five campuses on the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge reservation: the National Laboratory, theY-12 National Security Complex, the East Tennessee Technology Park (formerly theOak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant), theOak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, and the developing Oak Ridge Science and Technology Park, although the four other facilities are unrelated to the National Laboratory.The total area of the reservation is 150 square kilometres (58 sq mi) of which the lab takes up 18 square kilometres (7 sq mi). History In 1934 theFreel Farm Mound Site, an", "Farm Mound Site, an archaeological site and burial mound of theLate Woodland periodwas excavated.The site is currently inundated byMelton Hill Lake. The city ofOak Ridgewas established by theArmy Corps of Engineersas part of theClinton Engineer Worksin 1942 on isolated farm land as part of theManhattan Project.During World War II, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by theUniversity of Chicago'sMetallurgical Laboratory.In 1943, construction of the Clinton Laboratories, what would later be known as the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, was completed.The site was chosen for theX-10 Graphite Reactor, used to produceplutoniumfrom naturaluranium.Enrico Fermiand his colleagues developed the world's second self-sustainingnuclear reactorafter Fermi's previous experiment, theChicago Pile-1. The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation. After the end of World War II, management of the lab was contracted by the US government toMonsanto; however, they withdrew in", "they withdrew in 1947.TheUniversity of Chicagotemporarily re-assumed responsibility, with the site receiving the prestigious \"National\" laboratory designation, until in December 1947, whenUnion Carbide and Carbon Co., which already operated two other facilities at Oak Ridge, took control of the laboratory and renamed the site Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Post-war, the demand formilitary sciencehad fallen dramatically, and the future of the lab was uncertain. The X-10 reactor and the laboratory's 1,000 employees were no longer involved in nuclear weapons.Instead, it was used for scientific research.In 1946 the firstmedical isotopeswere produced in the X-10 reactor, and by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals.The quantity and variety ofradionuclidesproduced by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s. ORNL was the only Western source ofcalifornium-252.ORNL scientists also performed the world's first successfulbone marrow transplantin mice by suppressing theirimmune", "theirimmune systems. In 1950 theOak Ridge School of Reactor Technologywas established with two courses in reactor operation and safety; almost 1,000 students graduated.Much of the research performed at ORNL in the 1950s was related to nuclear reactors as a form of energy production, both for propulsion and electricity. More reactors were built in the 1950s than in the rest of the ORNL's history combined.One of their most influential projects was thelight-water reactor, a precursor to many modern nuclear power stations. TheUS Militaryfunded much of its development, fornuclear-powered submarines and shipsof theUS Navy.TheUS Armyalso contracted the design of portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases.The reactors were produced by theAmerican Locomotive Companyand used inGreenland, thePanama Canal Zone, andAntarctica.TheUS Air Forcealso contributed funding to three reactors, the lab's first computers, and its first particle accelerators.ORNL built itsfirst", "built itsfirst molten salt reactor in 1954as a proof-of-concept for a proposed fleet oflong-range bombers, but it was never used. Alvin M. Weinberg was named Director of Research, ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory.In the early 1960s there was a large push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powereddesalinationplants, where deserts met the sea, to provide water. The project, called Water for Peace, was backed byJohn F. KennedyandLyndon B. Johnsonand was presented at a 1964 United Nations conference, but increases in the cost of construction and falling public confidence in nuclear power caused the plan to be shuttered.The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used forradiation exposureexperiments leading to more accuratedosage limitsanddosimeters, and improvedradiation shielding. In 1964 theMolten-Salt Reactor Experimentbegan with the construction of the reactor. It operated from 1966 until 1969 (with six months down time to move fromU-235toU-233fuel) and proved the viability ofmolten salt", "ofmolten salt reactors, while also producing fuel for other reactors as a byproduct of its own reaction.TheHigh Flux Isotope Reactorbuilt in 1965 had the highestneutron fluxof any reactor at the time.It improved upon the work of the X-10 reactor, producing more medical isotopes as well as allowing higher fidelity of materials research.Researchers in the biology division studied the effects of chemicals on mice, includingpetrol fumes,pesticides, andtobacco. In the late 1960s, cuts in funding led to the cancellation of plans for another particle accelerator, and theUnited States Atomic Energy Commissioncut the breeder reactor program by two-thirds, leading to a downsizing in staff from 5,000 to 3,800.In the 1970s, the prospect offusion powerwas strongly considered, sparking research at ORNL. Atokamakcalled ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin.After the success of the fusion experiments, it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however,", "in 1973; however, the experiments ultimately failed to lead to fusion power plants. TheUS Atomic Energy Commission(AEC) required improved safety standards in the early 1970s for nuclear reactors, so ORNL staff wrote almost 100 requirements covering many factors including fuel transport and earthquake resistance. In 1972 the AEC held a series of public hearings where emergency cooling requirements were highlighted and the safety requirements became more stringent.Also in 1972,Peter Mazur, a biologist at ORNL, froze withliquid nitrogen, thawed and implanted mouseembryosin asurrogate mother. The mouse pups were born healthy.The technique is popular in the livestock industry, as it allows the embryos of valuable cattle to be transported easily and a prize cow can have multiple eggs extracted and thus, throughin vitrofertilisation, have many more offspring than would naturally be possible. In 1974 Alvin Weinberg, director of the lab for 19 years, was replaced byHerman Postma, a fusion scientist.In 1977", "scientist.In 1977 construction began for 6 metre (20 foot)superconductingelectromagnets, intended to controlfusion reactions. The project was an international effort: three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one inSwitzerlandand the final by remaining European states.ORNL was involved in analysing the damage to the core of theThree Mile Island Nuclear Generating Stationafter theaccident in 1979. The 1980s brought more changes to ORNL: a focus on efficiency became paramount. An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time.Materials research into heat resistantceramicsfor use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s.In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established, where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research", "materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regardingReagan's economic policyof less government expenditure.In 1981, the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility, a 25 MVparticle accelerator, was opened at ORNL. At the time, Holifield had the widest range of ion species and was twice as powerful as other accelerators, attracting hundreds of guest researchers each year. The Department of Energy was concerned with the pollution surrounding ORNL, and it began clean-up efforts. Burial trenches and leaking pipes hadcontaminated the groundwaterbeneath the lab, and radiation tanks were sitting idle, full ofwaste. Estimates of the total cost of clean-up were into the hundreds of millions of US dollars.The five older reactors were subjected to safety reviews in 1987, ordered to be deactivated until the reviews were complete. By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted, the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted.In 1989 the former executive officer of theAmerican", "of theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science,Alvin Trivelpiece, became director of ORNL; he remained in the role until 2000. In 1992whistleblowerCharles Varnadore filed complaints against ORNL, alleging safety violations and retaliation by his superiors. While an administrative law judge ruled in Varnadore's favor, Secretary of LaborRobert Reichoverturned that ruling. However, Varnadore's case saw prime contractorMartin Mariettacited for safety violations and ultimately led to additional whistleblower protection within DOE. In January 2019 ORNL announced a major breakthrough in its capacity to automatePu-238production which helped push annual production from 50 grams to 400 grams, moving closer toNASA's goal of 1.5 kilograms per year by 2025 in order to sustain its space exploration programs. Areas of research ORNL conductsresearch and developmentactivities that span a wide range of scientific disciplines. Many research areas have a significant overlap with each other; researchers often work in", "often work in two or more of the fields listed here. The laboratory's major research areas are described briefly below. Energy The laboratory has a long history of energy research; nuclear reactor experiments have been conducted since the end of World War II in 1945. Because of the availability of reactors and high-performance computing resources, an emphasis on improving the efficiency of nuclear reactors is present.The programs develop more efficient materials, more accurate simulations of aging reactor cores, sensors and controls as well as safety procedures for regulatory authorities. The Energy Efficiency and Electricity Technologies Program aims to improveair quality in the USand reduce dependence on foreign oil supplies.There are three key areas of research: electricity, manufacturing and mobility. The electricity division focuses on reducing electricity consumption and finding alternative sources for production. Buildings, which account for 39% of US electricity consumption as of 2012, are a key area", "are a key area of research as the program aims to create affordable,carbon-neutralhomes.Research also takes place into higher efficiencysolar panels,geothermal electricityandheating, lower costwind generators, and the economic and environmental feasibility of potentialhydro power plants. The Fusion Energy Division pursues short-term goals to develop components such ashigh-temperature superconductors, high-speed hydrogen pellet injectors, and suitable materials for future fusion research.Much research into the behaviour and maintenance of plasma takes place at the Fusion Energy Division to further the understanding ofplasma physics, a crucial area for developing a fusion power plant.The USITERoffice is at ORNL with partners atPrinceton Plasma Physics LaboratoryandSavannah River National Laboratory.The US contribution to the ITER project is 9.1% which is expected to be in excess of US$1.6 billion throughout the contract.ORNL researchers participated in developing of an extensive research plan for the US-ITER", "for the US-ITER collaboration detailed in 2022. Biology Biological research coversecology,forestry,genomics,computational biology,structural biologyandbioinformatics.The BioEnergy Program aims to improve the efficiency of all stages of thebiofuelprocess to improve theenergy securityof the United States.The program aims to make genetic improvements to the potential biomass used,formulate methods for refineries that can accept a diverse range of fuels, and to improve the efficiency of energy delivery both to power plants and end users. The Center for Molecular Biophysics conducts research into the behaviour of biological molecules in various conditions. The center hosts projects that examinecell wallsfor biofuel production,use neutron scattering to analyseprotein folding, and simulate the effect of catalysis on a conventional andquantum scale.ORNL is home to a field site for theNational Ecological Observatory Network(NEON), which has a field office nearby. The Department of Energy works closely with", "works closely with theTennessee Wildlife Resources Agencyout of ORNL to monitor forest ecology for the surrounding Appalachians & Cumberland Plateau Domain of NEON. Neutron science There are two neutron sources at ORNL; theHigh Flux Isotope Reactor(HFIR) and theSpallation Neutron Source(SNS). HFIR provides neutrons in a stable beam resulting from a constantnuclear reactionwhereas SNS, a particle accelerator, produces pulses of neutrons.HFIR wentcriticalin 1965 and has been used for materials research and as a major source of medical radioisotopes since.As of 2013, HFIR provides the world's highest constantneutron fluxas a result of various upgrades.Berkelium-249, used to synthesizetennessinefor the first time, was produced in the HFIR as part of an international effort.HFIR is likely to operate until approximately 2060 before thereactor pressure vesselis considered unsafe for continued use. The SNS has the highest intensity neutron pulses of any human-made neutron source.SNS was made operational in 2006 and", "in 2006 and has since been upgraded to 1 megawatt with plans to continue up to 3 MW.High-power neutron pulses permit clearer images of the targets, meaning smaller samples can be analysed and accurate results require fewer pulses. Materials Between 2002 and 2008 ORNL partnered withCaterpillar Inc.to form a new material for their diesel engines that can withstand large temperature fluctuations.The new steel, named CF8C Plus, is based on conventional CF8C stainless steel with addedmanganeseandnitrogen; the result has better high–temperature properties and is easier to cast at a similar cost.In 2003 the partners received an R&D 100 award fromR&D magazineand in 2009 received an award for \"excellence in technology transfer\" from theFederal Laboratory Consortiumfor the commercialisation of the steel. There is a high-temperature materials lab at ORNL that permits researchers from universities, private companies and other government initiatives to use their facilities. As is the case for all designated user", "all designated user facilities, the resources of the High Temperature Materials Laboratory are available for free if the results are published; private research is permitted but requires payment. The Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences (CNMS) researches the behaviour and fabrication ofnanomaterials. The center emphasises discovery of new materials and the understanding of underlying physical and chemical interactions that enable creation of nanomaterials.In 2012, CNMS produced a lithium-sulfide battery with a theoretical energy density three to five times greater than existinglithium ion batteries. Security ORNL provides resources to theUnited States Department of Homeland Securityand other defense programs. The Global Security and Nonproliferation (GS&N) program develops and implements policies, both US based and international, to prevent theproliferation of nuclear material.The program has developed safeguards for nuclear arsenals, guidelines for dismantling arsenals, plans of action should nuclear", "should nuclear material fall into unauthorised hands, detection methods for stolen or missing nuclear material, and trade of nuclear material between the US and Russia.The GS&N's work overlaps with that of the Homeland Security Programs Office, providing detection of nuclear material and nonproliferation guidelines. Other areas concerning the Department Homeland Security include nuclear and radiological forensics,chemicalandbiological agentdetection usingmass spectrometry, and simulations of potential national hazards. High-performance computing ORNL has been the site of varioussupercomputers, home to the fastest on several occasions.In 1953, ORNL partnered with theArgonne National Laboratoryto buildORACLE(Oak Ridge Automatic Computer and Logical Engine), a computer to research nuclear physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.ORACLE had 2048words(80Kibit) ofmemoryand took approximately 590 microseconds to perform addition or multiplication of integers.In the 1960s ORNL was equipped with anIBM 360/91and", "anIBM 360/91and an IBM 360/65.In 1995 ORNL bought anIntel Paragonbased computer called theIntel Paragon XP/S 150that performed at 154gigaFLOPSand ranked third on theTOP500list of supercomputers.In 2005Jaguarwas built, aCray XT3-based system that performed at 25 teraFLOPS and received incremental upgrades up to theXT5platform that performed at 2.3 petaFLOPS in 2009. It was recognised as the world's fastest from November 2009 until November 2010.Summit was built for Oak Ridge National Laboratory during 2018, which benchmarked at 122.3 petaFLOPS. As of June 2020, Summit was the world's second fastest supercomputer with 202,752 CPU cores, 27,648Nvidia Tesla GPUs, and 250 Petabytes of storage, having lost the top position to the JapaneseFugakusupercomputer.In May 2022, the ORNLFrontiersystem broke the exascale barrier,achieving 1.102 exaflop/s using 8,730,112 cores. Since 1992 theCenter for Computational Scienceshas overseen high performance computing at ORNL. It manages theOak Ridge Leadership Computing", "Computing Facilitythat contains the machines.In 2012, Jaguar was upgraded to theXK7platform, a fundamental change asGPUsare used for the majority of processing, and renamedTitan. Titan performed at 17.59 petaFLOPS and held the number 1 spot on the TOP500 list for November 2012.Other computers include a 77 node cluster to visualise data that the larger machines output in theExploratory Visualization Environment for Research in Science and Technology(EVEREST), a visualisation room with a 10 by 3 metre (30 by 10 ft) wall that displays 35 megapixel projections.Smoky is an 80 node Linux cluster used for application development. Research projects are refined and tested on Smoky before running on larger machines such as Titan. In 1989 programmers at the Oak Ridge National Lab wrote the first version ofParallel Virtual Machine(PVM), software that enablesdistributed computingon machines of differing specifications.PVM isfree softwareand has become the de facto standard for distributed computing.Jack Dongarraof ORNL", "Dongarraof ORNL and theUniversity of Tennesseewrote theLINPACKsoftware library andLINPACK benchmarks, used to calculatelinear algebraand the standard method of measuring floating point performance of a supercomputer as used by the TOP500 organisation. Notable people See also Notes and references Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier_(supercomputer" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_Bay_(town),_New_York", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Cliff,_New_York", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Shore_School_District" ]

[ "Oyster Bay, New York TheTown of Oyster Bayis the easternmost of the threetownsthat make upNassau County, New York, United States. Part of theNew York metropolitan area, it is the only town in Nassau County to extend from theNorth Shoreto theSouth ShoreofLong Island. As of the 2020 census, it had a population of 301,332, making it the 5th most populous city or town in the state. There are 18 villages and 18hamletswithin the town of Oyster Bay. TheU.S. PostalService has organized these 36 places into 30 five-digitZIP Codes, served by 20 post offices.Each post office shares the name of one of the hamlets or villages, but their boundaries are usually not coterminous. Oyster Bay is also the name ofa hamlet on the North Shore, within the town of Oyster Bay. Near this hamlet, in the village ofCove Neck, isSagamore Hill, the former residence andsummer White HouseofU.S. PresidentTheodore Rooseveltand now a museum. At least six of the 36 villages and hamlets of the town have shores onOyster Bay Harbor, an inlet ofLong Island Sound, and many of these at one time or another have also been referred to as being part of the hamlet of Oyster Bay. History Succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples had lived in the area for thousands of years. At the time of European contact, theLenape(Delaware) nation inhabited western Long Island. By 1600 the band inhabiting the local area was called theMatinecockafter their location, but they were Lenape people. Following European colonization, the area became part of the colony ofNew Netherland. In 1639, theDutch West India Companymade its first purchase of land on Long Island from the local Native Americans. The English also had colonies on Long Island at this time. The Dutch did not dispute English claims to what is now Suffolk County, but when settlers fromNew Englandarrived in (present-day) Oyster Bay in 1640, they were soon arrested as part of a boundary dispute. In 1643, Englishmen purchased land in the present-day town ofHempsteadfrom the Indians that included land purchased by the Dutch in 1639. Nevertheless, in 1644, the Dutch director granted a patent for Hempstead to the English. The Dutch also granted other English settlements inFlushing,Newtown, andJamaica. In 1650, theTreaty of Hartfordestablished a boundary between Dutch and English claims at \"Oysterbay\", by which the Dutch meant present-dayCold Spring Harbor(to the east) and the English meant all of the water connected to present-day Oyster Bay Harbor. Meanwhile, the government of England came under the control ofOliver Cromwellas a republic, andsmugglerstook advantage of the unresolved border dispute. In 1653, English settlers made their first purchase of land in Oyster Bay from the localMatinecock tribe, though there were already some rogue English settlements there. For this purchase, the English settlers paid to the Native American Moheness (aka Assiapum), \"six kettles, six fathoms of wampum, six hoes, six hatchets, three pairs of stockings, thirty awl-blades or muxes, twenty knives, three shirts and as much Peague as will amount to four pounds sterling.\"The monarchy was restored in England in 1660, and in 1664 King Charles gave Long Island (and much else) to his brother James, leading to the Dutch relinquishing control of all of New Amsterdam. In 1667 the settlement at Oyster Bay received its charter from the new English colony ofNew York, becoming the Township of Oyster Bay. By 1687, the last piece of land was sold by the Indians, and few remained by 1709. During most of theAmerican Revolutionthe town was under the control of British forces. The town was originally part ofQueens County, until the western portion of that county was amalgamated intoNew York Cityin 1898 and Nassau County was created in 1899. In 1918,Glen Cove, to the west, incorporated as a city and formed a governing system separate from the town. FollowingWorld War II, housing replaced farmland as the population grew from about 40,000 in 1950 to more than 290,000 in 1990. Oyster Bay is home to theSeawanhaka Corinthian Yacht Club, one of the oldest yacht clubs in the Western Hemisphere, which opened in 1871.There are 40 buildings and sites presently namedTown of Oyster Bay Landmarks. Geography The town of Oyster Bay extends fromLong Island Soundin the north, south to the waters ofSouth Oyster Bayand the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered by the town ofNorth Hempsteadon the northwest and the town ofHempsteadon the southwest. It is the easternmost of the three towns of Nassau County, withSuffolk Countyimmediately to the east. According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 169.5 square miles (439 km2), of which 104.4 square miles (270 km2) is land and 65.1 square miles (169 km2), or 38.42%, is water. As with most of Long Island, the north shore is hilly, the south shore has sandy beaches, and the area between is aplain. Between the 1990 Census and the 2000 census, the town exchanged territory with the towns of Hempstead (Nassau County) andBabylon(Suffolk County). It also gained territory from the town ofHuntingtonin Suffolk County. Demographics The 2019American Community Surveydetermined the population was 293,576, estimating a 1.6% increase from the2010 United States census.The racial and ethnic makeup of Oyster Bay was 75.5% non-Hispanic white, 2.3% Black or African American, 0.2% American Indian or Alaska Native, 12.5% Asian, 2.0% from two or more races, and 8.1% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. As of the 2010 censusthe population was 85%White(80%Non-Hispanic White), 2.3%BlackorAfrican American, 0.2%Native American, 9.1%Asian, 0.0%Pacific Islander, 1.9% fromother races, and 1.6% from two or more races.HispanicorLatinoof any race were 7.5% of the population. As of thecensusof 2000, there were 293,925 people, 99,355 households, and 80,278 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,816.2 inhabitants per square mile (1,087.3/km2). There were 101,076 housing units at an average density of 968.4 per square mile (373.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 90.83%White, 1.64%BlackorAfrican American, 0.07%Native American, 4.85%Asian, 0.02%Pacific Islander, 1.36% fromother races, and 1.23% from two or more races.HispanicorLatinoof any race were 5.06% of the population. There were 99,355 households, out of which 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.9% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.2% were non-families. 16.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.27. In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.5% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males. According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was $99,873, and the median income for a family was $115,095.Males had a median income of $60,726 versus $39,420 for females. Theper capita incomefor the town was $35,895. About 2.0% of families and 3.3% of the population were below thepoverty line, including 3.0% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over. Economy Aer Lingusoperates its United States office in Oyster Bay, centered on the hamlet ofJericho.Cablevision Systems, a major cable company in the tri-state area has its corporate headquarters inBethpage, New York,as well as a satellite office inJericho, New Yorkthat contains its medium to large business solutions division,Lightpath.Acclaim Entertainmentwas originally located in the hamlet ofOyster Bay.It originally occupied a one-room office in Oyster Bay. At a later time it occupied a brick structure with two stories.In 1994 Acclaim bought a headquarters building inGlen Cove. Education Both theState University of New York at Old WestburyandNew York Institute of Technologyor NYIT (and its affiliatedNew York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine) are located inOld Westbury.LIU Post, the largest campus of the privateLong Island Universitysystem, is located inBrookville. Government The Town of Oyster Bay has a government comprising a town supervisor and a town council consisting of six members. Council members are elected on a town-wide basis, and there are no election districts within the town. Two other elected positions are town clerk and receiver of taxes. At one point, the town had its own police force, but it no longer does. In New York, atownis a major division within a county. Larger towns may contain a number of namedincorporated villagesthat provides numerous local services to the village residents. Towns may contain namedunincorporated hamlets, governed and administered by the town council. Villages (incorporated) The Town of Oyster Bay contains all or part of 20 incorporated villages: Hamlets (unincorporated) The town of Oyster Bay also contains all or part of 17 unincorporated hamlets: There are also a few areas that are not part of any incorporated village or census-designated place: Notes: Transportation Rail lines TheLong Island Rail Road'sOyster Bay Branchserves the town's vicinity fromGlen HeadtoOyster Bay. TheMain Lineruns through the center of the town from with stations inHicksville, andBethpage. ThePort Jefferson Branchbegins at Hicksville, and goes through Hicksville andSyosset. Rail freight service also exists along theCentral Branchwhich begins inBethpage. Further south in the town, theBabylon Branchruns fromSeafordto the Suffolk County Line with stations inMassapequaandMassapequa Park. Bus service The Town of Oyster Bay is served primarily byNassau Inter-County Expressbus routes, though some routes fromSuffolk County Transitalso enter the town from the county line. Major roads Notable people In popular culture References External links", "Sea Cliff, New York Sea Cliffis avillagelocated within theTown of Oyster BayinNassau County, onLong Island, inNew York, United States. As of the2010 United States census, the village population was 4,995. It is considered part of the greater Glen Cove area, which is anchored by theCity of Glen Cove. Geography According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.0 square miles (5.2 km2), of which 1.1 square miles (2.8 km2) is land and 0.9 square miles (2.3 km2) (44.67%) is water. Demographics 2010 census As of the 2010 censusthe population was 92.8% White, 88% Non-Hispanic white, 2.4% African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.9% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.8% of the population. 2000 census At the2000 censusthere were 5,066 people, 2,013 households, and 1,356 families in the village. The population density was 4,655.1 inhabitants per square mile (1,797.3/km2). There were 2,082 housing units at an average density of 1,913.1 per square mile (738.7/km2). Theracial makeupof the village was 94.83% White, 1.68% African American, 0.10% Native American, 1.22% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 1.20% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.76%. Of the 2,013 households 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.1% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.6% were non-families. 26.6% of households were one person and 9.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06. The age distribution was 24.1% under the age of 18, 4.6% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 27.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% 65 or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males. The median household income was $78,501 and the median family income was $100,576. Males had a median income of $65,469 versus $41,146 for females. The per capita income for the village was $41,707. About 2.1% of families and 2.8% of the population were below thepoverty line, including 0.7% of those under age 18 and 10.6% of those age 65 or over. Government As of April 5, 2021, the Mayor of Sea Cliff was Elena Villafane. Education The village is part of theNorth Shore School District. Landmarks Several buildings in Sea Cliff, mostlyVictorianhouses, are listed on theNational Register of Historic Places.Many of them were built as summer homes as part of Sea Cliff's late nineteenth century role as a resort town, and they have been collectively called \"one of the best collections of late Victorian era architecture in Nassau County.\" Properties in Sea Cliff listed on the National Register of Historic Places include: Notable people References External links", "North Shore Central School District North Shore Central School District(also known asCentral School District No. 1) is a publicschool districtinNassau County, New York. It serves severalvillages and hamletsin theNorth Shoreregion ofLong Island, specificallyGlenwood Landing,Glen Head,Sea Cliff,Old Brookville, and parts ofGreenvaleandRoslyn Harbor.About 2,567 students attend North Shore schools.It has a single high school,North Shore High School. History Formation North Shore Central School District was formed in 1953 from the smaller Sea Cliff, Glen Head, and Glenwood Landing school districts.The merger was generally opposed by Glenwood Landing residents, who did not want to share the tax revenues from theGlenwood Generating Station, while the other districts were desirous of them.Glenwood Landing Board of Education President William Anderson once explained the situation as \"we endure the smoke, let's have the gravy.\"An earlier vote that year onconsolidatingthe districts failed because that process required the vote to succeed in all three districts individually, while thecentralizationprocess only required a simple majority across all voters.It was the firstcentral school districtin Nassau County,and was accordingly referred to as \"Central School District No. 1\" under the numbering scheme of the time. At the time of centralization Glenwood Landing School was considered preferable because of its facilities and staff. The Sea Cliff School, which had been built in 1912 and expanded in 1926, was a K–12 school prior to centralization.Glen Head School had been built in 1924.Glenwood Landing School's \"Old Building\" had been built in 1927and its \"New Building\" in 1949.The Glenwood Landing and Glen Head Schools did not provide high school education, and their students attended high school in Sea Cliff,Glen Cove, orRoslyn. The first new building opened by the district was the six-classroom Kissam Lane School in 1956, which would later become North Shore Middle School.Initially a K–3 school, it was designed byVincent Klingand won national architectural awards for its openness and simple, compact design, with floor-to-ceiling windows and an exterior doorway in every classroom.In 1960, the construction of the junior high school on the site was approved, with the Kissam Lane School incorporated into the new building.It opened in 1961. The construction ofNorth Shore High Schoolwas delayed by a lawsuit by Glenwood Landing residents who wanted to undo the district centralization,but it opened in 1957; it, too, was designed by Vincent Kling.An addition was made to the Glenwood Landing School in 1965. Later history In the 1970s, Sea Cliff School was considered to be in such a state of disrepair that there were several proposals to demolish and replace it, but these were consistently defeated by voters. As of 1977, the district had the lowest property tax rate in Nassau County due to the presence of the Glenwood Generating Station. Additions were made to Glen Head School in 1994, to North Shore Middle School in 1990 and 1994, and to North Shore High School in the 1990s. A series of major renovations and additions to all five school buildings was performed in 2000.The most major work included demolishing and replacing the north and south wings of Sea Cliff School.The renovations added 15 classrooms and a new cafeteria and library to the school. During the renovation, Sea Cliff students temporarily used the nearby vacant St. Boniface Parish school building.Additionally, an addition was constructed to Glenwood Landing School, and North Shore Middle School's cafeteria was expanded. A more minor round of renovations to district buildings occurred in 2014. The Glenwood Generating Plant was decommissioned and demolished during 2012–2015. Its demolition raised concern about the financial effects on North Shore School District, as the over $20 million annual tax payments from the plant provided 20 percent of the district's budget.This led to fears of a 15–19% increase in residential taxes in late 2014. However, it was determined that according to state law there could be no more than a 1% increase in property taxes for a given tax class as a result of a decreased tax assessment in another class (the four tax classes being residential, cooperatives/condominiums, commercial, and utilities). The financial effects on the district would thus have to be mitigated by increased taxes on remaining utilities in the district, as well as a $2.5 million one-time grant from the state arranged by local state legislators.The site's municipal and schoolpayments in lieu of taxesfell from $23.2 million in 2012 to $16.6 million in 2015. Schools Secondary schools: Primary schools:(grades K-5) Notable alumni See also References External links 40°50′13″N73°37′26″W / 40.837°N 73.624°W /40.837; -73.624" ]

[ "Oyster Bay, New York TheTown of Oyster Bayis the easternmost of the threetownsthat make upNassau County, New York, United States. Part of theNew York metropolitan area, it is the only town in Nassau County to extend from theNorth Shoreto theSouth ShoreofLong Island. As of the 2020 census, it had a population of 301,332, making it the 5th most populous city or town in the state. There are 18 villages and 18hamletswithin the town of Oyster Bay. TheU.S. PostalService has organized these 36 places into 30 five-digitZIP Codes, served by 20 post offices.Each post office shares the name of one of the hamlets or villages, but their boundaries are usually not coterminous. Oyster Bay is also the name ofa hamlet on the North Shore, within the town of Oyster Bay. Near this hamlet, in the village ofCove Neck, isSagamore Hill, the former residence andsummer White HouseofU.S. PresidentTheodore Rooseveltand now a museum. At least six of the 36 villages and hamlets of the town have shores onOyster Bay Harbor, an inlet ofLong", "an inlet ofLong Island Sound, and many of these at one time or another have also been referred to as being part of the hamlet of Oyster Bay. History Succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples had lived in the area for thousands of years. At the time of European contact, theLenape(Delaware) nation inhabited western Long Island. By 1600 the band inhabiting the local area was called theMatinecockafter their location, but they were Lenape people. Following European colonization, the area became part of the colony ofNew Netherland. In 1639, theDutch West India Companymade its first purchase of land on Long Island from the local Native Americans. The English also had colonies on Long Island at this time. The Dutch did not dispute English claims to what is now Suffolk County, but when settlers fromNew Englandarrived in (present-day) Oyster Bay in 1640, they were soon arrested as part of a boundary dispute. In 1643, Englishmen purchased land in the present-day town ofHempsteadfrom the Indians that included land", "that included land purchased by the Dutch in 1639. Nevertheless, in 1644, the Dutch director granted a patent for Hempstead to the English. The Dutch also granted other English settlements inFlushing,Newtown, andJamaica. In 1650, theTreaty of Hartfordestablished a boundary between Dutch and English claims at \"Oysterbay\", by which the Dutch meant present-dayCold Spring Harbor(to the east) and the English meant all of the water connected to present-day Oyster Bay Harbor. Meanwhile, the government of England came under the control ofOliver Cromwellas a republic, andsmugglerstook advantage of the unresolved border dispute. In 1653, English settlers made their first purchase of land in Oyster Bay from the localMatinecock tribe, though there were already some rogue English settlements there. For this purchase, the English settlers paid to the Native American Moheness (aka Assiapum), \"six kettles, six fathoms of wampum, six hoes, six hatchets, three pairs of stockings, thirty awl-blades or muxes, twenty knives,", "twenty knives, three shirts and as much Peague as will amount to four pounds sterling.\"The monarchy was restored in England in 1660, and in 1664 King Charles gave Long Island (and much else) to his brother James, leading to the Dutch relinquishing control of all of New Amsterdam. In 1667 the settlement at Oyster Bay received its charter from the new English colony ofNew York, becoming the Township of Oyster Bay. By 1687, the last piece of land was sold by the Indians, and few remained by 1709. During most of theAmerican Revolutionthe town was under the control of British forces. The town was originally part ofQueens County, until the western portion of that county was amalgamated intoNew York Cityin 1898 and Nassau County was created in 1899. In 1918,Glen Cove, to the west, incorporated as a city and formed a governing system separate from the town. FollowingWorld War II, housing replaced farmland as the population grew from about 40,000 in 1950 to more than 290,000 in 1990. Oyster Bay is home to", "Bay is home to theSeawanhaka Corinthian Yacht Club, one of the oldest yacht clubs in the Western Hemisphere, which opened in 1871.There are 40 buildings and sites presently namedTown of Oyster Bay Landmarks. Geography The town of Oyster Bay extends fromLong Island Soundin the north, south to the waters ofSouth Oyster Bayand the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered by the town ofNorth Hempsteadon the northwest and the town ofHempsteadon the southwest. It is the easternmost of the three towns of Nassau County, withSuffolk Countyimmediately to the east. According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 169.5 square miles (439 km2), of which 104.4 square miles (270 km2) is land and 65.1 square miles (169 km2), or 38.42%, is water. As with most of Long Island, the north shore is hilly, the south shore has sandy beaches, and the area between is aplain. Between the 1990 Census and the 2000 census, the town exchanged territory with the towns of Hempstead (Nassau County) andBabylon(Suffolk County).", "County). It also gained territory from the town ofHuntingtonin Suffolk County. Demographics The 2019American Community Surveydetermined the population was 293,576, estimating a 1.6% increase from the2010 United States census.The racial and ethnic makeup of Oyster Bay was 75.5% non-Hispanic white, 2.3% Black or African American, 0.2% American Indian or Alaska Native, 12.5% Asian, 2.0% from two or more races, and 8.1% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. As of the 2010 censusthe population was 85%White(80%Non-Hispanic White), 2.3%BlackorAfrican American, 0.2%Native American, 9.1%Asian, 0.0%Pacific Islander, 1.9% fromother races, and 1.6% from two or more races.HispanicorLatinoof any race were 7.5% of the population. As of thecensusof 2000, there were 293,925 people, 99,355 households, and 80,278 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,816.2 inhabitants per square mile (1,087.3/km2). There were 101,076 housing units at an average density of 968.4 per square mile (373.9/km2). The racial", "The racial makeup of the town was 90.83%White, 1.64%BlackorAfrican American, 0.07%Native American, 4.85%Asian, 0.02%Pacific Islander, 1.36% fromother races, and 1.23% from two or more races.HispanicorLatinoof any race were 5.06% of the population. There were 99,355 households, out of which 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.9% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.2% were non-families. 16.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.27. In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.5% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males. According to a 2007 estimate,", "to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was $99,873, and the median income for a family was $115,095.Males had a median income of $60,726 versus $39,420 for females. Theper capita incomefor the town was $35,895. About 2.0% of families and 3.3% of the population were below thepoverty line, including 3.0% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over. Economy Aer Lingusoperates its United States office in Oyster Bay, centered on the hamlet ofJericho.Cablevision Systems, a major cable company in the tri-state area has its corporate headquarters inBethpage, New York,as well as a satellite office inJericho, New Yorkthat contains its medium to large business solutions division,Lightpath.Acclaim Entertainmentwas originally located in the hamlet ofOyster Bay.It originally occupied a one-room office in Oyster Bay. At a later time it occupied a brick structure with two stories.In 1994 Acclaim bought a headquarters building inGlen Cove. Education Both theState University of New York", "of New York at Old WestburyandNew York Institute of Technologyor NYIT (and its affiliatedNew York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine) are located inOld Westbury.LIU Post, the largest campus of the privateLong Island Universitysystem, is located inBrookville. Government The Town of Oyster Bay has a government comprising a town supervisor and a town council consisting of six members. Council members are elected on a town-wide basis, and there are no election districts within the town. Two other elected positions are town clerk and receiver of taxes. At one point, the town had its own police force, but it no longer does. In New York, atownis a major division within a county. Larger towns may contain a number of namedincorporated villagesthat provides numerous local services to the village residents. Towns may contain namedunincorporated hamlets, governed and administered by the town council. Villages (incorporated) The Town of Oyster Bay contains all or part of 20 incorporated villages:", "villages: Hamlets (unincorporated) The town of Oyster Bay also contains all or part of 17 unincorporated hamlets: There are also a few areas that are not part of any incorporated village or census-designated place: Notes: Transportation Rail lines TheLong Island Rail Road'sOyster Bay Branchserves the town's vicinity fromGlen HeadtoOyster Bay. TheMain Lineruns through the center of the town from with stations inHicksville, andBethpage. ThePort Jefferson Branchbegins at Hicksville, and goes through Hicksville andSyosset. Rail freight service also exists along theCentral Branchwhich begins inBethpage. Further south in the town, theBabylon Branchruns fromSeafordto the Suffolk County Line with stations inMassapequaandMassapequa Park. Bus service The Town of Oyster Bay is served primarily byNassau Inter-County Expressbus routes, though some routes fromSuffolk County Transitalso enter the town from the county line. Major roads Notable people In popular culture References External links", "Sea Cliff, New York Sea Cliffis avillagelocated within theTown of Oyster BayinNassau County, onLong Island, inNew York, United States. As of the2010 United States census, the village population was 4,995. It is considered part of the greater Glen Cove area, which is anchored by theCity of Glen Cove. Geography According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.0 square miles (5.2 km2), of which 1.1 square miles (2.8 km2) is land and 0.9 square miles (2.3 km2) (44.67%) is water. Demographics 2010 census As of the 2010 censusthe population was 92.8% White, 88% Non-Hispanic white, 2.4% African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.9% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.8% of the population. 2000 census At the2000 censusthere were 5,066 people, 2,013 households, and 1,356 families in the village. The population density was 4,655.1 inhabitants per square mile (1,797.3/km2). There were 2,082 housing", "were 2,082 housing units at an average density of 1,913.1 per square mile (738.7/km2). Theracial makeupof the village was 94.83% White, 1.68% African American, 0.10% Native American, 1.22% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 1.20% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.76%. Of the 2,013 households 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.1% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.6% were non-families. 26.6% of households were one person and 9.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06. The age distribution was 24.1% under the age of 18, 4.6% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 27.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% 65 or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.0 males. The median household income was $78,501 and the median family", "the median family income was $100,576. Males had a median income of $65,469 versus $41,146 for females. The per capita income for the village was $41,707. About 2.1% of families and 2.8% of the population were below thepoverty line, including 0.7% of those under age 18 and 10.6% of those age 65 or over. Government As of April 5, 2021, the Mayor of Sea Cliff was Elena Villafane. Education The village is part of theNorth Shore School District. Landmarks Several buildings in Sea Cliff, mostlyVictorianhouses, are listed on theNational Register of Historic Places.Many of them were built as summer homes as part of Sea Cliff's late nineteenth century role as a resort town, and they have been collectively called \"one of the best collections of late Victorian era architecture in Nassau County.\" Properties in Sea Cliff listed on the National Register of Historic Places include: Notable people References External links", "North Shore Central School District North Shore Central School District(also known asCentral School District No. 1) is a publicschool districtinNassau County, New York. It serves severalvillages and hamletsin theNorth Shoreregion ofLong Island, specificallyGlenwood Landing,Glen Head,Sea Cliff,Old Brookville, and parts ofGreenvaleandRoslyn Harbor.About 2,567 students attend North Shore schools.It has a single high school,North Shore High School. History Formation North Shore Central School District was formed in 1953 from the smaller Sea Cliff, Glen Head, and Glenwood Landing school districts.The merger was generally opposed by Glenwood Landing residents, who did not want to share the tax revenues from theGlenwood Generating Station, while the other districts were desirous of them.Glenwood Landing Board of Education President William Anderson once explained the situation as \"we endure the smoke, let's have the gravy.\"An earlier vote that year onconsolidatingthe districts failed because that process required", "process required the vote to succeed in all three districts individually, while thecentralizationprocess only required a simple majority across all voters.It was the firstcentral school districtin Nassau County,and was accordingly referred to as \"Central School District No. 1\" under the numbering scheme of the time. At the time of centralization Glenwood Landing School was considered preferable because of its facilities and staff. The Sea Cliff School, which had been built in 1912 and expanded in 1926, was a K–12 school prior to centralization.Glen Head School had been built in 1924.Glenwood Landing School's \"Old Building\" had been built in 1927and its \"New Building\" in 1949.The Glenwood Landing and Glen Head Schools did not provide high school education, and their students attended high school in Sea Cliff,Glen Cove, orRoslyn. The first new building opened by the district was the six-classroom Kissam Lane School in 1956, which would later become North Shore Middle School.Initially a K–3 school, it was", "K–3 school, it was designed byVincent Klingand won national architectural awards for its openness and simple, compact design, with floor-to-ceiling windows and an exterior doorway in every classroom.In 1960, the construction of the junior high school on the site was approved, with the Kissam Lane School incorporated into the new building.It opened in 1961. The construction ofNorth Shore High Schoolwas delayed by a lawsuit by Glenwood Landing residents who wanted to undo the district centralization,but it opened in 1957; it, too, was designed by Vincent Kling.An addition was made to the Glenwood Landing School in 1965. Later history In the 1970s, Sea Cliff School was considered to be in such a state of disrepair that there were several proposals to demolish and replace it, but these were consistently defeated by voters. As of 1977, the district had the lowest property tax rate in Nassau County due to the presence of the Glenwood Generating Station. Additions were made to Glen Head School in 1994, to North", "in 1994, to North Shore Middle School in 1990 and 1994, and to North Shore High School in the 1990s. A series of major renovations and additions to all five school buildings was performed in 2000.The most major work included demolishing and replacing the north and south wings of Sea Cliff School.The renovations added 15 classrooms and a new cafeteria and library to the school. During the renovation, Sea Cliff students temporarily used the nearby vacant St. Boniface Parish school building.Additionally, an addition was constructed to Glenwood Landing School, and North Shore Middle School's cafeteria was expanded. A more minor round of renovations to district buildings occurred in 2014. The Glenwood Generating Plant was decommissioned and demolished during 2012–2015. Its demolition raised concern about the financial effects on North Shore School District, as the over $20 million annual tax payments from the plant provided 20 percent of the district's budget.This led to fears of a 15–19% increase in residential", "in residential taxes in late 2014. However, it was determined that according to state law there could be no more than a 1% increase in property taxes for a given tax class as a result of a decreased tax assessment in another class (the four tax classes being residential, cooperatives/condominiums, commercial, and utilities). The financial effects on the district would thus have to be mitigated by increased taxes on remaining utilities in the district, as well as a $2.5 million one-time grant from the state arranged by local state legislators.The site's municipal and schoolpayments in lieu of taxesfell from $23.2 million in 2012 to $16.6 million in 2015. Schools Secondary schools: Primary schools:(grades K-5) Notable alumni See also References External links 40°50′13″N73°37′26″W / 40.837°N 73.624°W /40.837; -73.624" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popes" ]

[ "Charlemagne Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Charlemagne(/ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn,ˌʃɑːrləˈmeɪn/SHAR-lə-mayn, -⁠MAYN; 2 April 748– 28 January 814) wasKing of the Franksfrom 768,King of the Lombardsfrom 774, andEmperorof what is now known as theCarolingian Empirefrom 800, holding these titles until his death in 814. He united most ofWesternandCentral Europe, and was the first recognised emperor to rule from the west after thefall of the Western Roman Empireapproximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout theMiddle Ages. A member of the FrankishCarolingian dynasty, Charlemagne was the eldest son ofPepin the ShortandBertrada of Laon. With his brother,Carloman I, he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepin's death and became the sole ruler three years later. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of protecting the papacy and became its chief defender, removing theLombardsfrom power innorthern Italyin 774. His reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests ofBavaria,Saxonyandnorthern Spain, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a large part of Europe. Charlemagne spread Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as seen at theMassacre of Verdenagainst theSaxons. He also sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasid caliphHarun al-Rashidin the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Iberian affairs. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome byPope Leo III. Although historians debate the coronation's significance, the title represented the height of his prestige and authority. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with theEastern Roman EmpireinConstantinople. Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner to the line ofHoly Roman Emperors, which persisted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion, which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign began a period of cultural activity known as theCarolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne died in 814 and was laid to rest atAachen CathedralinAachen, his imperial capital city. He was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son,Louis the Pious. After Louis, the Frankish kingdom was divided and eventually coalesced intoWestandEast Francia, which later becameFranceandGermany, respectively. Charlemagne's profound influence on the Middle Ages and influence on the territory he ruled has led him to be called the \"Father of Europe\" by many historians. He is seen as a founding figure by multiple European states and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and after the medieval period and isveneratedby theCatholic Church. Name Several languages were spoken in Charlemagne's world, and he was known to contemporaries asKarlusin theOld High Germanhe spoke; asKarlotoEarly Old French(orProto-Romance) speakers; and asCarolus(orKarolus)inMedieval Latin, the formal language of writing and diplomacy.Charlesis the modern English form of these names. The nameCharlemagne, as the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the FrenchCharles-le-magne('Charles the Great').In modern German, he is known asKarl der Große.The Latinepithetmagnus('great') may have been associated with him during his lifetime, but this is not certain. The contemporaryRoyal Frankish Annalsroutinely call himCarolus magnus rex(\"Charles the great king\").That epithet is attested in the works of thePoeta Saxoaround 900, and it had become commonly applied to him by 1000. Charlemagne was named after his grandfather,Charles Martel.That name, and its derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel and Charlemagne.Karoluswas adapted by Slavic languages as their word for \"king\" (Russian:korol',Polish:królandSlovak:král) through Charlemagne's influence or that of his great-grandson,Charles the Fat. Early life and rise to power Political background and ancestry By the sixth century, the westernGermanictribe of theFrankshad beenChristianised; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king,Clovis I, to Catholicism.The Franks had established a kingdom inGaulin the wake of theFall of the Western Roman Empire.This kingdom,Francia, grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and theLow Countriesunder the rule of theMerovingian dynasty.Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to thepartible inheritancepractised by the Franks.The late seventh century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of KingChilderic II, which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. Pepin of Herstal,mayor of the palaceofAustrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at theBattle of Tertry.Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia:Arnulf of MetzandPepin of Landen.The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises.Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel.Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of KingTheuderic IVin 737, leaving the throne vacant.He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons,CarlomanandPepin the Short, who succeeded him after his death in 741.The brothers placed the MerovingianChilderic IIIon the throne in 743.Pepin marriedBertrada, a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744.In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder,Drogo, took his place. Birth Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most likely in 748.An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographerEinhardreports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; theRoyal Frankish Annalsimprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian.Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies ofSuetoniuswhich he used as a model.All three sources may have been influenced byPsalm 90: \"The days of our years are threescore years and ten\". HistorianKarl Ferdinand Wernerchallenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to theAnnales Petavianiwhich records Charlemagne's birth in 747.Lorsch Abbeycommemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be genuine.Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January.Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth.Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces inVaires-sur-MarneandQuierzyare among the places suggested by scholars.Pepin the Short held an assembly inDürenin 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him. Language and education Einhard refers to Charlemagne'spatrius sermo(\"native tongue\").Most scholars have identified this as a form ofOld High German, probably aRhenish Franconiandialect.Due to the prevalence in Francia of \"rustic Roman\", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age.Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. Charlemagne's father Pepin had been educated at the abbey ofSaint-Denis, although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown.He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court,which wasitinerant.Charlemagne also asserted his own education in theliberal artsin encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life.The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time.HistorianJohannes Friedconsiders it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read,but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that \"the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best\"and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill.Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. Accession and reign with Carloman There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankishannalsduring his father's lifetime.By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king.Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand byPope Stephen II,but modern historians dispute this.It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this tripanointedPepin as king; this legitimised his rule.Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brotherCarlomanwere anointed with their father.Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery. Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign againstAquitaine.Aquitaine, led by DukesHunaldandWaiofar, was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign.Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father.They had separate coronations, Charlemagne atNoyonand Carloman atSoissons, on 9 October.The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom.TheRoyal Frankish Annalsreport that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruledBurgundy,Provence, Aquitaine, andAlamannia, with no mention made of which brother received Neustria.The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine.They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own.Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the kings.It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory,or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia.Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons.Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. Pope Stephen IIIwas elected in 768, but was briefly deposed byAntipope Constantine IIbefore being restored to Rome.Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings.Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence.The Lombard kingDesideriusalso had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally.Desiderius already had alliances withBavariaandBeneventothrough the marriages of his daughters to their dukes,and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence.Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride.Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known asDesiderata, although she may have been named Gerperga.Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewomanHimiltrude, and they had a son in 769 namedPepin.Paul the Deaconwrote in his 784Gesta Episcoporum Mettensiumthat Pepin was born \"before legal marriage\", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage (friedelehe), or married after Pepin was born.Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks.He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widowGerbergato flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children.Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and marriedHildegard, daughter of countGerold, a powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom.This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's familyand a move to secure Gerold's support. King of the Franks and the Lombards Annexation of the Lombard Kingdom Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his firstwar against the Saxons, who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the paganIrminsulatEresburgand seizing their gold and silver.The success of the war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action.The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne. Pope Adrian Isucceeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius.Unsuccessful in dealing with the Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene.He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews.This overture was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle,Bernard) crossed the Alps tobesiegethe Lombard capital ofPaviain late 773. Charlemagne's second son (also namedCharles) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia, but died on the way.Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's sonAdalgishad taken Carloman's sons.Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown.Recent biographer,Janet Nelsoncompares them to thePrinces in the Towerin theWars of the Roses.Fried suggests that the boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or \"an act of murder smooth Charlemagne's ascent to power.\"Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople. Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome.Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter.Adrian presented a copy of theagreement between Pepin and Stephen IIIoutlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore.It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries.Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege. Disease struck the Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774.Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards.The takeover of one kingdom by another was \"extraordinary\",and the authors ofThe Carolingian Worldcall it \"without parallel\".Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation.HistorianRosamond McKittericksuggests that the elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover,andRoger Collinsattributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's \"presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it\".Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives. Frontier wars in Saxony and Spain The Saxons took advantage of Charlemagne's absence in Italy to raid the Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign the following year.Charlemagne was soon drawn back to Italy as DukeHrodgaud of Friulirebelled against him.He quickly crushed the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's lands to the Franks to consolidate his rule in Lombardy.Charlemagne wintered in Italy, consolidating his power by issuing charters and legislation and taking Lombard hostages.Amid the 775 Saxon andFriuliancampaigns, his daughterRotrudewas born in Francia. Returning north, Charlemagne waged another brief, destructive campaign against the Saxons in 776.This led to the submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and lands and submitted tobaptism.In 777, Charlemagne held an assembly atPaderbornwith Frankish and Saxon men; many more Saxons came under his rule, but the Saxon magnateWidukindfled to Denmark to prepare for a new rebellion. Also at the Paderborn assembly were representatives of dissident factions fromal-Andalus(Muslim Spain). They included the son and son-in-law ofYusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, the former governor ofCórdobaousted by CaliphAbd al-Rahmanin 756, who sought Charlemagne's support for al-Fihri's restoration. Also present wasSulayman al-Arabi, governor of Barcelona and Girona, who wanted to become part of the Frankish kingdom and receive Charlemagne's protection rather than remain under the rule of Córdoba.Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity to strengthen the security of the kingdom's southern frontier and extend his influence, agreed to intervene.Crossing the Pyrenees, his army found little resistance until an ambush byBasqueforces in 778 at theBattle of Roncevaux Pass. The Franks, defeated in the battle, withdrew with most of their army intact. Building the dynasty Charlemagne returned to Francia to greet his newborn twin sons,Louisand Lothair, who were born while he was in Spain;Lothair died in infancy.Again, Saxons had seized on the king's absence to raid. Charlemagne sent an army to Saxony in 779while he held assemblies, legislated, and addressed a famine in Francia.Hildegard gave birth to another daughter,Bertha.Charlemagne returned to Saxony in 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from Saxon nobles and oversaw their baptism. He and Hildegard traveled with their four younger children to Rome in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles atWorms, to make a journey first requested by Adrian in 775.Adrian baptised Carloman and renamed him Pepin, a name he shared with his half-brother.Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed and crowned. Pepin was appointed king of the Lombards, and Louis king of Aquitaine.This act was not nominal, since the young kings were sent to live in their kingdoms under the care of regents and advisers.A delegation from theByzantine Empire, the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East, met Charlemagne during his stay in Rome; Charlemagne agreed to betroth his daughter Rotrude toEmpress Irene's son, EmperorConstantine VI. Hildegard gave birth to her eighth child,Gisela, during this trip to Italy.After the royal family's return to Francia, she had her final pregnancy and died from its complications on 30 April 783. The child, named after her, died shortly thereafter.Charlemagne commissioned epitaphs for his wife and daughter, and arranged for aMassto be said daily at Hildegard's tomb.Charlemagne's mother Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783.Charlemagne was remarried toFastrada, daughter of the East Frankish count Radolf, by the end of the year. Saxon resistance and reprisal In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack the Frankish positions in Saxony.He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the Frankish counts leading it.Charlemagne came toVerdenafter learning of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to an assembly and compelled them to turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their previous acts as treachery. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in themassacre of Verden.Fried writes, \"Although this figure may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt\",andAlessandro Barberocalls it \"perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation.\"Charlemagne issued theCapitulatio de partibus Saxoniae, probably in the immediate aftermath of (or as a precursor of) the massacre.With a harsh set of laws which included the death penalty for pagan practices, theCapitulatio\"constituted a program for the forcedconversion of the Saxons\"and was \"aimed ... at suppressing Saxon identity\". Charlemagne's focus for the next several years would be on his attempt to complete the subjugation of the Saxons. Concentrating first inWestphaliain 783, he pushed intoThuringiain 784 as his sonCharles the Youngercontinued operations in the west. At each stage of the campaigns, the Frankish armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery.Unusually, Charlemagne campaigned through the winter instead of resting his army.By 785, he had suppressed the Saxon resistance and completely commanded Westphalia. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather, ending this phase of theSaxon Wars. Benevento, Bavaria, and Pepin's revolt Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming to extend his influence further into southern Italy, he marched into the Duchy of Benevento.Duke Arechisfled to a fortified position atSalernobefore offering Charlemagne his fealty. Charlemagne accepted his submission and hostages, who included Arechis's sonGrimoald.In Italy, Charlemagne also met with envoys from Constantinople. Empress Irene had called the 787Second Council of Nicaea, but did not inform Charlemagne or invite any Frankish bishops. Charlemagne, probably in reaction to the perceived slight of the exclusion, broke the betrothal of his daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI. After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis sent envoys to Irene to offer an alliance; he suggested that she send a Byzantine army with Adalgis, the exiled son of Desiderus, to remove the Franks from power in Lombardy.Before his plans could be finalised, Aldechis and his elder son Romuald died of illness within weeks of each other.Charlemagne sent Grimoald back to Benevento to serve as duke and return it to Frankish suzerainty.The Byzantine armyinvaded, but were repulsed by the Frankish and Lombard forces. As affairs were being settled in Italy, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. Bavaria was ruled by DukeTassilo, Charlemagne's first cousin, who had been installed by Pepin the Short in 748.Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a potential threat to Charlemagne's rule in Lombardy.The neighbouring rulers had a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each other in 781.In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) accused Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully attacked the Bavarian city ofBolzano.Charlemagne gathered his forces to prepare for an invasion of Bavaria in 787. Dividing the army, the Franks launched a three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing his poor position, Tassilo agreed to surrender and recognise Charlemagne as his overlord.The following year, Tassilo was accused of plotting with theAvarsto attack Charlemagne. He was deposed and sent to a monastery, and Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into his kingdom.Charlemagne spent the next few years based inRegensburg, largely focused on consolidating his rule of Bavaria andwarring againstthe Avars.Successful campaigns against them were launched from Bavaria and Italy in 788,and Charlemagne led campaigns in 791 and 792. Charlemagne gave Charles the Younger rule ofMainein Neustria in 789, leaving Pepin the Hunchback his only son without lands.His relationship with Himiltrude was now apparently seen as illegitimate at his court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession.In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles to assassinate them and install himself as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Charlemagne before it could proceed; Pepin was sent to a monastery, and many of his co-conspirators were executed. The early 790s saw a marked focus on ecclesiastical affairs by Charlemagne. He summoned a council in Regensburg in 792 to address the theological controversy over theadoptionismdoctrine in the Spanish church and formulate a response to the Second Council of Nicea.The council condemned adoptionism asheresyand led to the production of theLibri Carolini, a detailed argument against Nicea's canons.In 794, Charlemagne called anothercouncil in Frankfurt.The council confirmed Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the deposition of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and endorsed prayer in vernacular languages.Soon after the council, Fastrada fell ill and died;Charlemagne married the Alamannian noblewomanLuitgardshortly afterwards. Continued wars with the Saxons and Avars Charlemagne gathered an army after the council of Frankfurt as Saxon resistance continued, beginning a series of annual campaigns which lasted through 799.The campaigns of the 790s were even more destructive than those of earlier decades, with the annal writers frequently noting Charlemagne \"burning\", \"ravaging\", \"devastating\", and \"laying waste\" the Saxon lands.Charlemagne forcibly removed a large number of Saxons to Francia, installing Frankish elites and soldiers in their place.His extended wars in Saxony led to his establishing his court inAachen, which had easy access to the frontier. He built a largepalacethere, including a chapel which is now part of theAachen Cathedral.Einhard joined the court at that time.Pepin of Italy(Carloman) engaged in further wars against the Avars in the south, which led to the collapse of their kingdom and the eastward expansion of Frankish rule. Charlemagne also worked to expand his influence through diplomatic means during the 790s wars, focusing on the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. Charles the Younger proposed a marriage pact with the daughter of KingOffa of Mercia, but Offa insisted that Charlemagne's daughter Bertha also be given as a bride for his son.Charlemagne refused the arrangement, and the marriage did not take place.Charlemagne and Offa entered into a formal peace in 796, protecting trade and securing the rights of English pilgrims to pass through Francia on their way to Rome.Charlemagne was also the host and protector of several deposed English rulers who were later restored:Eadbehrt of Kent,Ecgberht, King of Wessex, andEardwulf of Northumbria.Nelson writes that Charlemagne treated the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms \"like satellite states,\" establishing direct relations with English bishops.Charlemagne also forged an alliance withAlfonso II of Asturias, although Einhard calls Alfonso his \"dependent\".Following hissack of Lisbonin 798, Alfonso sent Charlemagne trophies of his victory, including armour, mules and prisoners. Reign as emperor Coronation AfterLeo IIIbecame pope in 795, he faced political opposition. His enemies accused him of a number of crimes and physically attacked him in April 799, attempting to remove his eyes and tongue.Leo escaped and fled north to seek Charlemagne's help.Charlemagne continued his campaign against the Saxons before breaking off to meet Leo atPaderbornin September.Hearing evidence from the pope and his enemies, he sent Leo back to Rome with royal legates who were instructed to reinstate the pope and conduct a further investigation.In August of the following year, Charlemagne made plans to go to Rome after an extensive tour of his lands in Neustria.Charlemagne met Leo in November nearMentanaat the twelfth milestone outside Rome, the traditional location where Roman emperors began theirformal entryinto the city.Charlemagne presided over an assembly to hear the charges, but believed that no one could sit in judgement of the pope. Leo swore an oath on 23 December, declaring his innocence of all charges.At mass inSt. Peter's Basilicaon Christmas Day 800, Leo proclaimed Charlemagne \"emperor of the Romans\" (Imperator Romanorum) and crowned him.Charlemagne was the first reigning emperor in the west since the deposition ofRomulus Augustulusin 476.His son,Charles the Younger, was anointed king by Leo at the same time. Historians differ about the intentions of the imperial coronation, the extent to which Charlemagne was aware of it or participated in its planning, and the significance of the events for those present and for Charlemagne's reign.Contemporary Frankish and papal sources differ in their emphasis on, and representation of, events.Einhard writes that Charlemagne would not have entered the church if he knew about the pope's plan; modern historians have regarded his report as truthful or rejected it as a literary device demonstrating Charlemagne's humility.Collins says that the actions surrounding the coronation indicate that it was planned by Charlemagne as early as his meeting with Leo in 799,and Fried writes that Charlemagne planned to adopt the title of emperor by 798 \"at the latest.\"During the years before the coronation, Charlemagne's courtierAlcuinreferred to his realm as anImperium Christianum(\"Christian Empire\") in which \"just as the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had been united by a common Roman citizenship\", the new empire would be united by a common Christian faith.This is the view ofHenri Pirenne, who says that \"Charles was the Emperor of theecclesiaas the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church\". The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire remained a significant contemporary power in European politics for Leo and Charlemagne, especially in Italy. The Byzantines continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with their borders not far south of Rome. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797, deposing and blinding him.Irene, the first Byzantine empress, faced opposition in Constantinople because of her gender and her means of accession.One of the earliest narrative sources for the coronation, theAnnals of Lorsch, presented a female ruler in Constantinople as a vacancy in the imperial title which justified Leo's coronation of Charlemagne.Pirenne disagrees, saying that the coronation \"was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.\"Leo's main motivations may have been the desire to increase his standing after his political difficulties, placing himself as a power broker and securing Charlemagne as a powerful ally and protector.The Byzantine Empire's lack of ability to influence events in Italy and support the papacy were also important to Leo's position.According to theRoyal Frankish Annals, Leoprostratedhimself before Charlemagne after crowning him (an act of submission standard in Roman coronation rituals from the time ofDiocletian). This account presents Leo not as Charlemagne's superior, but as the agent of the Roman people who acclaimed Charlemagne as emperor. Historian Henry Mayr-Harting claims that the assumption of the imperial title by Charlemagne was an effort to incorporate the Saxons into the Frankish realm, since they did not have a native tradition of kingship.However, Costambeyset al.note inThe Carolingian Worldthat \"since Saxony had not been in the Roman empire it is hard to see on what basis an emperor would have been any more welcomed.\"These authors write that the decision to take the title of emperor was aimed at furthering Charlemagne's influence in Italy, as an appeal to traditional authority recognised by Italian elites within and (especially) outside his control. Collins also writes that becoming emperor gave Charlemagne \"the right to try to impose his rule over the whole of \", considering this a motivation for the coronation.He notes the \"element of political and military risk\"inherent in the affair due to the opposition of the Byzantine Empire and potential opposition from the Frankish elite, as the imperial title could draw him further into Mediterranean politics.Collins sees several of Charlemagne's actions as attempts to ensure that his new title had a distinctly-Frankish context. Charlemagne's coronation led to a centuries-long ideological conflict between his successors and Constantinople known as theproblem of two emperors,which could be seen as a rejection or usurpation of the Byzantine emperors' claim to be the universal, preeminent rulers of Christendom.Historian James Muldoon writes that Charlemagne may have had a more limited view of his role, seeing the title as representing dominion over lands he already ruled.However, the title of emperor gave Charlemagne enhanced prestige and ideological authority.He immediately incorporated his new title into documents he issued, adopting the formula \"Charles, most sereneaugustus, crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the Roman empire, and who is by the mercy of God king of the Franks and the Lombards\"instead of the earlier form \"Charles, by the grace of God king of the Franks and Lombards andpatricianof the Romans.\"Leo acclaimed Charlemagne as \"emperor of the Romans\" during the coronation, but Charlemagne never used this title.The avoidance of the specific claim of being a \"Roman emperor\", as opposed to the more-neutral \"emperor governing the Roman empire\", may have been to improve relations with the Byzantines.This formulation (with the continuation of his earlier royal titles) may also represent a view of his role as emperor as being the ruler of the people of the city of Rome, as he was of the Franks and the Lombards. Governing the empire Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating several ecclesiastical disputes in Rome and experiencingan earthquake in Spoleto.He never returned to the city.Continuing trends and a ruling style established in the 790s,Charlemagne's reign from 801 onward is a \"distinct phase\"characterised by more sedentary rule from Aachen.Although conflict continued until the end of his reign, the relative peace of the imperial period allowed for attention on internal governance. The Franks continued to wage war, though these wars were defending and securing the empire's frontiers,and Charlemagne rarely led armies personally.A significant expansion of theSpanish Marchwas achieved with a series of campaigns by Louis against the Emirate of Cordoba, culminating in the801 capture of Barcelona. The 802Capitulare missorum generalewas an expansive piece of legislation, with provisions governing the conduct of royal officials and requiring that all free men take anoath of loyaltyto Charlemagne.Thecapitularyreformed the institution of themissi dominici, officials who would now be assigned in pairs (a cleric and a lay aristocrat) to administer justice and oversee governance in defined territories.The emperor also ordered the revision of the Lombard and Frankish legal codes. In addition to themissi, Charlemagne also ruled parts of the empire with his sons as sub-kings.Although Pepin and Louis had some authority as kings in Italy and Aquitaine, Charlemagne had the ultimate authority and directly intervened.Charles, their elder brother, had been given lands in Neustria in 789 or 790 and made a king in 800. The 806 charterDivisio Regnorum(Division of the Realm) set the terms of Charlemagne's succession.Charles, as his eldest son in good favour, was given the largest share of the inheritance: rule of Francia, Saxony,Nordgau, and parts of Alemannia. The two younger sons were confirmed in their kingdoms and gained additional territories; most of Bavaria and Alemmannia was given to Pepin, and Provence, Septimania, and parts of Burgundy were given to Louis.Charlemagne did not address the inheritance of the imperial title.TheDivisioalso provided that if any of the brothers predeceased Charlemagne, their sons would inherit their share; peace was urged among his descendants. Conflict and diplomacy with the east After his coronation, Charlemagne sought recognition of his imperial title from Constantinople.Several delegations were exchanged between Charlemagne and Irene in 802 and 803. According to the contemporary Byzantine chroniclerThophanes, Charlemagne made an offer of marriage to Irene which she was close to accepting.Irene was deposed and replaced byNikephoros I, who was unwilling to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.The two empires conflicted over control of theAdriatic Sea(especiallyIstriaandVeneto) several times during Nikephoros' reign. Charlemagne sent envoys to Constantinople in 810 to make peace, giving up his claims to Veneto. Nikephoros died in battle before the envoys could leave Constantinople but his son-in-law and successorMichael Iconfirmed the peace, sending his own envoys to Aachen to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.Charlemagne soon issued the first Frankish coins bearing his imperial title, although papal coins minted in Rome had used the title as early as 800. He sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasidcaliphHarun al-Rashidduring the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Spanish affairs.As an early sign of friendship, Charlemagne requested an elephant as a gift from Harun. Harun later provided an elephant namedAbul-Abbas, which arrived at Aachen in 802.Harun also sought to undermine Charlemagne's relations with the Byzantines, with whom he was at war. As part of his outreach, Harun gave Charlemagne nominal rule of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchrein Jerusalem and other gifts.According to Einhard, Charlemagne \"zealously strove to make friendships with kings beyond the seas\" in order \"that he might get some help and relief to the Christians living under their rule.\" A surviving administrative document, theBasel roll, shows the work done by his agents in Palestine in furtherance of this goal. Harun's death lead to a succession crisis and, under his successors, churches and synagogues were destroyed in the caliphate.Unable to intervene directly, Charlemagne sent specially-minted coins and arms to the eastern Christians to defend and restore their churches and monasteries. The coins with their inscriptions were also an important tool of imperial propaganda.Johannes Fried writes that deteriorating relations with Baghdad after Harun's death may have been the impetus for renewed negotiations with Constantinople which led to Charlemagne's peace with Michael in 811. As emperor, Charlemagne became involved in a religious dispute between Eastern and Western Christians over the recitation of theNiceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the fundamental statement of orthodox Christian belief. The original text of the creed, adopted at theCouncil of Constantinople, professed that theHoly Spiritproceeded fromthe Father. A tradition developed in Western Europe that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father \"and theSon\", inserting the Latin termfilioqueinto the creed.The difference did not cause significant conflict until 807, when Frankish monks in Bethlehem were denounced as heretics by a Greek monk for using thefilioqueform.The Frankish monks appealed the dispute to Rome, where Pope Leo affirmed the text of the creed omitting the phrase and passed the report on to Charlemagne.Charlemagne summoned acouncil at Aachen in 809which defended the use offilioque, and sent the decision to Rome. Leo said that the Franks could maintain their tradition, but asserted that the canonical creed did not includefilioque.He commissioned two silver shields with the creed in Latin and Greek (omitting thefilioque), which he hung inSt. Peter's Basilica.Another product of the 809 Aachen council was theHandbook of 809, an illustratedcalendricaland astronomical compendium. Wars with the Danes Scandinaviahad been brought into contact with the Frankish world through Charlemagne's wars with the Saxons.Raids on Charlemagne's lands by theDanesbegan around 800.Charlemagne engaged in his final campaign in Saxony in 804, seizing Saxon territory east of theElbe, removing its Saxon population, and giving the land to hisObotriteallies.The Danish kingGudfred, uneasy at the extension of Frankish power, offered to meet with Charlemagne to arrange peace and (possibly) hand over Saxons who had fled to him;the talks were unsuccessful. The northern frontier was quiet until 808, when Gudfred and some allied Slavic tribes led an incursion into the Obotrite lands and extracted tribute from over half the territory.Charles the Younger led an army across the Elbe in response, but only attacked some of Gudfred's Slavic allies.Gudfred again attempted diplomatic overtures in 809, but no peace was apparently made.Danish pirates raided Frisia in 810, although it is uncertain if they were connected to Gudfred.Charlemagne sent an army to secure Frisia while he led a force against Gudfred, who had reportedly challenged the emperor to face him in battle.The battle never took place, since Gudfred was murdered by two of his own men before Charlemagne's arrival.Gudfred's nephew and successorHemmingimmediately sued for peace, and a commission led by Charlemagne's cousinWalareached a settlement with the Danes in 811.The Danes did not pose a threat for the remainder of Charlemagne's reign, but the effects of this war and their earlier expansion in Saxony helped set the stage for the intenseVikingraids across Europe later in the ninth century. Final years and death The Carolingian dynasty experienced a number of losses in 810 and 811, when Charlemagne's sisterGisela, his daughter Rotrude, and his sons Pepin the Hunchback, Pepin of Italy, and Charles the Younger died.The deaths of Charles and Pepin of Italy left Charlemagne's earlier plans for succession in disarray. He declared Pepin of Italy's sonBernardruler of Italy and made his own only surviving son, Louis, heir to the rest of the empire.Charlemagne also made a newwilldetailing the disposal of his property at his death, with bequests to the church, his children, and his grandchildren.Einhard (possibly relying ontropesfrom Suetonius'sThe Twelve Caesars) says that Charlemagne viewed the deaths of his family members, his fall from a horse, astronomical phenomena, and the collapse of part of the palace in his last years as signs of his impending death.Charlemagne continued to govern with energy during his final year, ordering bishops to assemble in five ecclesiastical councils.These culminated in a large assembly at Aachen, where Charlemagne crowned Louis as his co-emperor and Bernard as king in a ceremony on 11 September 813. Charlemagne became ill in the autumn of 813 and spent his last months praying, fasting, and studying thegospels.He developedpleurisy, and was bedridden for seven days before dying on the morning of 28 January 814.Thegan, a biographer of Louis, records the emperor's last words as \"Into your hands, Lord, I commend my spirit\" (quoting fromLuke 23:46).Charlemagne's body was prepared and buried in thechapel at Aachenby his daughters and palace officials that day.Louis arrived at Aachen thirty days after his father's death, making a formaladventusand taking charge of the palace and the empire.Charlemagne's remains were exhumed by Holy Roman EmperorFrederick Barbarossain 1165, and reinterred in a new casket byFrederick IIin 1215. Legacy Political legacy The stability and peace of Charlemagne's reign did not long outlive him. Louis' reign was marked by strife, including a number of rebellions by his sons. After Louis' death, the empire was divided among his sons intoWest,East, andMiddle Franciaby theTreaty of Verdun.Middle Francia was divided several more times over the course of subsequent generations.Carolingians would rule – with some interruptions – in East Francia (later theKingdom of Germany) until 911,and in West Francia (which would becomeFrance) until 987.After 887, the imperial title was held sporadically by a series of non-dynastic Italian rulersbefore it lapsed in 924.The East Frankish kingOtto the GreatconqueredItaly, and was crowned emperor in 962.By this time, the eastern and western parts of Charlemagne's former empire had already developed distinct languages and cultures.Otto founded (or re-established) theHoly Roman Empire,which would last until itsdissolutionin 1806, during theNapoleonic Wars. According to historian Jennifer Davis, Charlemagne \"invented medieval rulership\" and his influence can be seen at least into the nineteenth century.Charlemagne is often known as \"the father of Europe\" because of the influence of his reign and the legacy he left across the large area of the continent he ruled.The political structures he established remained in place through his Carolingian successors, and continued to exert influence into the eleventh century. Charlemagne was an ancestor of several European ruling houses, including theCapetian dynasty,theOttonian dynasty,theHouse of Luxembourg,and theHouse of Ivrea.The Ottonians and Capetians, direct successors of the Carolingans, drew on the legacy of Charlemagne to bolster their legitimacy and prestige; the Ottonians and their successors held their German coronations in Aachen through the Middle Ages.The marriage ofPhilip II of FrancetoIsabella of Hainault(a direct descendant of Charlemagne) was seen as a sign of increased legitimacy for their son,Louis VIII, and the French kings' association with Charlemagne's legacy was stressed until the monarchy's end.German and French rulers, such as Frederick Barbarossa andNapoleon, cited the influence of Charlemagne and associated themselves with him.In fact, both German and French monarchs considered themselves as successors of Charlemagne, enumerating him as \"Charles I\" in their regnal lists. The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (theKarlspreisder Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to those who promote European unity.Recipients of the prize includeRichard von Coudenhove-Kalergi(founder of the pan-European movement),Alcide De Gasperi, andWinston Churchill. Carolingian Renaissance Contacts with the wider Mediterranean world through Spain and Italy, the influx of foreign scholars at court, and the relative stability and length of Charlemagne's reign led to a cultural revival known as theCarolingian Renaissance.Although the beginnings of this revival can be seen under his predecessors, Charles Martel and Pepin, Charlemagne took an active and direct role in shaping intellectual life which led to the revival's zenith.Charlemagne promoted learning as a matter of policy and direct patronage, with the aim of creating a more effective clergy.TheAdmonitio generalisandEpistola de litteris colendisoutlined his policies and aims for education. Intellectual life at court was dominated by Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Visigothic and Italian scholars, includingDungal of Bobbio, Alcuin of York,Theodulf of Orléans, andPeter of Pisa; Franks such as Einhard andAngelbertalso made substantial contributions.Aside from the intellectual activity at the palace, Charlemagne promoted ecclesiastical schools and publicly funded schools for the children of the elite and future clergy.Students learned basic Latin literacy and grammar, arithmetic, and other subjects of the medieval liberal arts.From their education, it was expected that even rural priests could provide their parishioners with basic instruction in religious matters and (possibly) the literacy required for worship.Latin was standardised and its use brought into territories well beyond the former Roman Empire, forming a second language community of speakers and writers and sustaining Latin creativity in the Middle Ages. Carolingian authors produced extensive works, including legal treatises, histories, poetry, and religious texts.Scriptoriain monasteries and cathedrals focused on copying new and old works, producing an estimated 90,000 manuscripts during the ninth century.TheCarolingian minusculescript was developed and popularised in medieval copying, influencingRenaissanceand modern typefaces.Scholar John J. Contreni considers the educational and learning revival under Charlemagne and his successors \"one of the most durable and resilient elements of the Carolingian legacy\". Memory and historiography Charlemagne was a frequent subject of, and inspiration for, medieval writers after his death. Einhard'sVita Karoli Magni, according to Johannes Fired, \"can be said to have revived the defunct literary genre of the secular biography.\"Einhard drew on classical sources, such as Suetonius'The Twelve Caesars, the orations of Cicero, andTacitus'Agricolato frame his work's structure and style.The Carolingian period also saw a revival of themirrors for princesgenre.The author of the Latin poemVisio Karoli Magni, writtenc.865, uses facts (apparently from Einhard) and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after their civil wars later in the ninth century as the bases of a visionary tale about Charles meeting a prophetic spectre in a dream.Notker'sGesta Karoli Magni, written for Charlemagne's great-grandson Charles the Fat, presents moral anecdotes (exempla) to highlight the emperor's qualities as a ruler. Charlemagne, as a figure of myth and emulation, grew over the centuries; Matthias Becher writes that over 1,000 legends are recorded about him, far outstripping subsequent emperors and kings.Later medieval writers depicted Charlemagne as a crusader and Christian warrior.Charlemagne is the main figure of the medievalliterary cycleknown as theMatter of France. Works in this cycle, which originated during theCrusades, centre on characterizations of the emperor as a leader of Christian knights in wars against Muslims. The cycle includeschansons de geste(epic poems) such as theSong of Rolandand chronicles such as theHistoria Caroli Magni, also known as the(Pseudo-)Turpin Chronicle.Charlemagne was depicted as one of theNine Worthies, a fixture in medieval literature and art as an exemplar of a Christian king.Despite his central role in these legends, authorThomas Bulfinchnoted that \"romancers represent him as often weak and passionate, the victim of treacherous counsellors, and at the mercy of turbulent barons, on whose prowess he depends for the maintenance of his throne.\" Attention to Charlemagne became more scholarly in the early modern period as Eindhard'sVitaand other sources began to be published.Political philosophers debated his legacy;Montesquieuviewed him as the first constitutional monarch and protector of freemen, butVoltairesaw him as a despotic ruler and representative of the medieval period as aDark Age.As early as the sixteenth century, debate between German and French writers began about Charlemagne's \"nationality\".These contrasting portraits—a French Charlemagne versus a GermanKarl der Große—became especially pronounced during the nineteenth century with Napoleon's use of Charlemagne's legacy and the rise of German nationalism.German historiography and popular perception focused on theMassacre of Verden, emphasized with Charlemagne as the \"butcher\" of the Germanic Saxons or downplayed as an unfortunate part of the legacy of a great German ruler.Propaganda in Nazi Germanyinitially portrayed Charlemagne as an enemy of Germany, a French ruler who worked to take away the freedom and native religion of the German people.This quickly shifted asAdolf Hitlerendorsed a portrait of Charlemagne as a great unifier of disparate German tribes into a common nation, allowing Hitler to co-opt Charlemagne's legacy as an ideological model for his expansionist policies. Historiography after World War II focused on Charlemagne as \"the father of Europe\" rather than a nationalistic figure,a view first advanced during the nineteenth century by German romantic philosopherFriedrich Schlegel.This view has led to Charlemagne's adoption as a political symbol ofEuropean integration.Modern historians increasingly place Charlemagne in the context of the wider Mediterranean world, following the work of Henri Pirenne. Religious influence and veneration Charlemagne gave much attention to religious and ecclesiastical affairs, holding 23synodsduring his reign. His synods were called to address specific issues at particular times, but generally dealt with church administration and organization, education of the clergy, and the proper forms of liturgy and worship.Charlemagne used the Christian faith as a unifying factor in the realm and, in turn, worked to impose unity on the church.He implemented an edited version of theDionysio-Hadrianabook ofcanon lawacquired from Pope Adrian, required use of theRule of St. Benedictin monasteries throughout the empire, and promoted a standardised liturgy adapted from therites of the Roman Churchto conform with Frankish practices.Carolingian policies promoting unity did not eliminate the diverse practices throughout the empire, but created a shared ecclesiastical identity—according to Rosamond McKitterick, \"unison, not unity.\" The condition of all his subjects as a \"Christian people\" was an important concern.Charlemagne's policies encouraged preaching to the laity, particularly invernacularlanguages they would understand.He believed it essential to be able to recite theLord's Prayerand theApostles' Creed, and made efforts to ensure that the clergy taught them and other basics of Christian morality. ThomasF.X.Noble writes that the efforts of Charlemagne and his successors to standardise Christian doctrine and practices and harmonise Frankish practices were essential steps in the development of Christianity in Europe, and the Roman Catholic orLatin Church\"as a historical phenomenon, not as a theological or ecclesiological one, is a Carolingian construction.\"He says that the medieval European concept ofChristendomas an overarching community of Western Christians, rather than a collection of local traditions, is the result of Carolingian policies and ideology.Charlemagne's doctrinal policies promoting the use offilioqueand opposing the Second Council of Nicea were key steps in thegrowing divide between Western and Eastern Christianity. EmperorOtto IIattempted to have Charlemagnecanonisedin 1000.In 1165, Frederick Barbarossa persuadedAntipope Paschal IIIto elevate Charlemagne to sainthood.Since Paschal's acts were not considered valid, Charlemagne was not recognised as a saint by theHoly See.Despite this lack of official recognition, hiscultwas observed in Aachen, Reims, Frankfurt, Zurich and Regensburg, and he has been venerated in France since the reign ofCharles V. Charlemagne also drew attention from figures of the ProtestantReformation, withMartin Luthercriticising his apparent subjugation to the papacy by accepting his coronation from Leo.John Calvinand other Protestant thinkers viewed him as a forerunner of the Reformation, however, noting theLibri Carolini'scondemnation of the worship of images and relics and conflicts by Charlemagne and his successors with the temporal power of the popes. Wives, concubines, and children Wives and their children Concubines and their children Charlemagne had at least twenty children with his wives and other partners.After the death of his wife Luitgard in 800, he did not remarry but had children with unmarried partners.He was determined that all his children, including his daughters, should receive an education in the liberal arts. His children were taught in accordance with their aristocratic status, which included training in riding and weaponry for his sons and embroidery, spinning and weaving for his daughters. Rosamond McKitterick writes that Charlemagne exercised \"a remarkable degree of patriarchal control ... over his progeny,\" noting that only a handful of his children and grandchildren were raised outside his court.Pepin of Italy and Louis reigned as kings from childhood and lived at their courts.Careers in the church were arranged for his illegitimate sons.His daughters were resident at court or atChelles Abbey(where Charlemagne's sister was abbess), and those at court may have fulfilled the duties of queen after 800. Louis and Pepin of Italy married and had children during their father's lifetime, and Charlemagne brought Pepin's daughters into his household after Pepin's death.Rotrude had been betrothed to Emperor Constantine VI, but the betrothal was ended.None of Charlemagne's daughters married, although several had children with unmarried partners. Bertha had two sons,Nithardand Hartnid, with Charlemagne's courtierAngilbert; Rotrude had a son namedLouis, possibly with CountRorgon; and Hiltrude had a son named Richbod, possibly with a count named Richwin.TheDivisio Regnorumissued by Charlemagne in 806 provided that his legitimate daughters be allowed to marry or become nuns after his death. Theodrada entered a convent, but the decisions of his other daughters are unknown. Appearance and iconography Einhard gives a first-hand description of Charlemagne's appearance later in life: He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, since his height was seven times the length of his own foot. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and he enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Charlemagne's tomb was opened in 1861 by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and measured it at 1.92 metres (6 ft 4 in) in length, roughly equivalent to Einhard's seven feet.A 2010 estimate of his height from anX-rayandCT scanof histibiawas 1.84 metres (6 ft 0 in); this puts him in the 99thpercentileof height for his period, given that average male height of his time was 1.69 metres (5 ft 7 in). The width of the bone suggested that he was slim. Charlemagne wore his hair short, abandoning the Merovingian tradition of long-haired monarchs.He had a moustache (possibly imitating the Ostrogothic kingTheoderic the Great), in contrast with the bearded Merovingian kings;future Carolingian monarchs would adopt this style.Paul Dutton notes the ubiquitous crown in portraits of Charlemagne and other Carolingian rulers, replacing the earlier Merovingian long hair.A ninth-century statuette depicts Charlemagne or his grandson,Charles the Baldand shows the subject as moustachioed with short hair;this also appears on contemporary coinage. By the twelfth century, Charlemagne was described as bearded rather than moustachioed in literary sources such as theSong of Roland, thePseudo-Turpin Chronicle, and other works in Latin, French, and German.ThePseudo-Turpinuniquely says that his hair was brown.Later art and iconography of Charlemagne followed suit, generally depicting him in a later medieval style as bearded with longer hair. Notes References Citations Works cited Further reading Primary sources in English translation Secondary works External links", "List of popes This chronological list ofpopesof theCatholic Churchcorresponds to that given in theAnnuario Pontificiounder the heading \"I Sommi Pontefici Romani\" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated asantipopes. Published every year by theRoman Curia, theAnnuario Pontificiono longeridentifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times.The 2001 edition of theAnnuario Pontificiointroduced \"almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II\". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope. The termpope(Latin:papa,lit.'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for exampleCoptic pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, includingSummus Pontifex,Pontifex Maximus, andServus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification. Hermannus Contractusmay have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His list ends in 1049 withLeo IXas number 154. Several changes were made to the list during the 20th century.Christopherwas considered a legitimate pope for a long time but was removed due to how he obtained the papacy.Pope-elect Stephenwas listed as Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his name was removed. The decisions of theCouncil of Pisa(1409) were reversed in 1963 in a reinterpretation of theWestern Schism, extendingGregory XII's pontificate to 1415 and classifying rival claimantsAlexander VandJohn XXIIIas antipopes. A significant number of these popes have been recognized assaints, including 48 out of the first 50 consecutive popes, and others are in the sainthood process. Of the first 31 popes, 28 died as martyrs. Chronological list of popes 1st millennium 1st century The chronology of the early popes is heavily disputed. The first ancient lists of popes were not written until the late 2nd century, after the monarchical episcopate had already developed in Rome. These first lists combined contradictory traditions, and even the succession of the first popes is disputed. The first certain dates are AD 222 and 235, the elections ofUrban IandLiberius. The years given for the first 30 popes follow the work ofRichard Adelbert Lipsius, which often show a 3-year difference with the traditional dates given byEusebius of Caesarea.These are also the dates used by theCatholic Encyclopedia. 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 2nd millennium 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Member of theDominican Order. Reverted Boniface VIII'sUnam Sanctam. 15th century 16th century Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as the ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. Born as a subject of theBishopric of Utrecht. The only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope untilJohn Paul IIin 1978. Tutor ofEmperor Charles V. Came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east. He refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic. However, he is noted for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation. Adrian's remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg. His efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion. Citizen of theRepublic of Florence. Cousin of Leo X. Romesackedby imperial troops (1527). Forbade the divorce ofHenry VIII; crowned Charles V as emperor atBologna(1530). Commissioned Michelangelo's painting ofThe Last Judgmentin the Sistine Chapel (1533). ApprovedCopernicus'heliocentric universe theory(1533). However Copernicus made very few astronomical observations and based his new model squarely on his mathematical calculations. Natural philosophers of that time (professionals who began to be called scientists only in the 19th century) noted that if the earth rotated there would be observable Coriolis effects. Secondly, a revolving earth would imply a stellar parallax. Given that neither of these effects were observed at the time (would be observed decades later) , Copernicus' model still did not prove heliocentrism. Thenieceof the pope was married to the futureHenry II of France(1533). Recognized theOrder of Friars Minor Capuchin(Capuchins). Born as a subject of theKingdom of Naples. Member of theTheatines. Established theRoman GhettoinCum Nimis Absurdum(1555) and established theIndex of Forbidden Books. Ordered Michelangelo to repaint the nudes ofThe Last Judgmentmodestly. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Member of theDominican Order. Excommunicated QueenElizabeth I of England(1570).Battle of Lepanto(1571); instituted the feast ofOur Lady of Victory. Issued the1570 Roman Missal. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States.Reformed the calendar(1582); built the Gregorian Chapel in the Vatican. The first pope to bestow theImmaculate Conceptionas patroness to the Philippine Islands through the bullIlius Fulti Præsido(1579). Strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations. 17th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Known for various building projects which included the facade ofSt Peter's Basilica. Established theBank of the Holy Spirit(1605); restored theAqua Traiana. During his pontificateGalileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those ofAristotleandPtolemyand closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time. Not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries.Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars, was sympathetic to Galileo's theories, but was invited to defend the Aristotelian point of view byClaudio Acquaviva, the Jesuits' Father General. Not all scientists at the time supported Galileo. Opposition fromTycho Braheand others arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no such evidence existed at the time. (Only in 1838 wasFriedrich Besselable to accurately observe it.) Galileo's arguments – based on sunspots and the action of tides – were flawed and were refuted and rejected by other scholars at the time. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. The great-great-great-grandson ofAlexander VI. Erected theFontana dei Quattro FiumiinPiazza Navona. Promulgated the apostolic constitutionCum occasione(1653) which condemned five doctrines ofJansenismasheresy. Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Mediated in thepeace of Aachen(1668). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Canonized the first saint from the Americas: St.Rose of Lima(1671). Decorated the bridge of Sant' Angelo with the ten statues of angels and added one of the two fountains that adorn the piazza of St. Peter's. Established regulations for the removal of relics of saints from cemeteries. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Condemned thedoctrine of mental reservation(1679) and initiated theHoly League. Extended theHoly Name of Maryas a universal feast (1684). Admired for positive contributions to catechesis. During his pontificateIsaac Newtonpublished thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation. 18th century Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Completed the new façade of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran(1735). Commissioned theTrevi Fountainin Rome (1732). CondemnedFreemasonryinIn eminenti apostolatus(1738). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Reformed the education ofpriestsand thecalendar of feasts. Completed theTrevi Fountainand affirmed the teachings ofThomas Aquinas; founded academies of art, religion and science. Authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of theDialogue. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Condemned theFrench Revolution; expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death. The last pope to be a patron ofRenaissanceart. During his pontificate, the astronomerWilliam Herschel, studying the movement of stars, was the first to realize that theSolar Systemis moving in space, and determined the approximate direction of movement. Also discovered that theMilky Way(which in the late 18th century was believed to be the entire Universe) is flat, disk-shaped and with the Sun at its center (assertion discovered to be wrong decades later, because today it is known that the Sun is not located in theGalactic Center). 19th century During his pontificate, Augustinian friarGregor Mendelpublished theExperiments on Plant HybridizationandCharles DarwinpublishedOn the Origin of Species. At the time, no high-level Church pronouncement attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species. Even before the development of thescientific method, Catholic theology had allowed for biblical texts to be read as allegorical rather than literal where they appeared to contradict that which could be established by science or reason. Thus, Catholicism has been able to refine its understanding of scripture in light of scientific discoveries. First Pope to befilmed by a motion picture cameraand the first pope with voice recorded. 20th century Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Encouraged and expanded reception of the Eucharist. CombattedModernism; issued theoath against it. Advocated theGregorian Chantandreformed the Roman Breviary. Born as a subject of theKingdom of Sardinia, later became an Italian citizen. Credited for intervening for peace during World War I. Issued the1917 Code of Canon Law; supported the missionaries inMaximum illud. Remembered byBenedict XVIas a \"prophet of peace\". Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Signed theLateran Treatywith Italy (1929) establishingVatican Cityas a sovereign state. InauguratedVatican Radio(1931). Re-founded thePontifical Academy of Sciences(1936). Created the feast ofChrist the King. OpposedCommunismandNazism. Italian citizen. Invoked papal infallibility in the encyclicalMunificentissimus Deus; defined the dogma of theAssumption. Eliminated the Italian majority ofcardinals. Credited with intervening for peace duringWorld War II; controversial forhis reactionsto theHolocaust. Published theHumani generis, the first encyclical to specifically refer to evolution and took up a neutral position, concentrating on human evolution: \"The Church does not forbid that ... research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter.\" Italian citizen. Opened theSecond Vatican Council; called \"Good Pope John\". Issued the encyclicalPacem in terris(1963) on peace and nuclear disarmament; intervened for peace during theCuban Missile Crisis(1962). Italian citizen. Last pope to becrowned. First pope since 1809 to travel outside Italy. Closed theSecond Vatican Council. Issued the encyclicalHumanae vitae(1968) condemning artificial contraception.RevisedtheRoman Missal(1969). Italian citizen. Abolished the coronation and opted for thepapal inauguration. First pope to use 'the First' in papal name; first with two names for two immediate predecessors. Last pope to use thesedia gestatoria. Polish citizen, first pope of Slavic origin. First non-Italian pope sinceAdrian VI(1522–1523). Travelled extensively,visiting 129 countriesduring his pontificate. Second-longest reign afterPius IX. FoundedWorld Youth Day(1984) and thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences(1994). Canonized more saints than all his predecessors. Youngest individual to start his papacy since Pius IX (1846). 3rd millennium 21st century German citizen. Oldest to become pope sinceClement XII(1730).ElevatedtheTridentine Massto a more prominent position and promoted the use ofLatin; re-introduced several disused papal garments. Authorized the creation ofAnglican ordinariates(2009). First pope torenounce the papacyon his own initiative sinceCelestine V(1294),becomingpope emeritus.Longest-lived pope on record.Died on 31 December 2022, in Vatican. Argentine citizen. First pope to be born outside Europe sinceGregory III(731–741) and the first from the Americas; first pope from the Southern Hemisphere. First pope from areligious institutesinceGregory XVI(1831–1846); firstJesuitpope. First to use a new and non-composed regnal name sinceLando(913–914). First pope to visit and celebrate a mass on theArabian Peninsula. Religious orders 51 popes and 6antipopes(in italics) have been members ofreligious orders, including 12 members ofthird orders. They are listed by order as follows: Numbering of popes Regnal numbersfollow the usual convention for European monarchs. The first pope who chooses a unique name is not usually identified by an ordinal,John Paul Ibeing the exception. Antipopes are treated aspretenders, and their numbers are reused by those considered to be legitimate popes. However, there are anomalies in the numbering of the popes. Several numbers were mistakenly increased in the Middle Ages because the records were misunderstood. Several antipopes were also kept in the sequence, either by mistake or because they were previously considered to be true popes. See also Lists Notes References Sources External links" ]

[ "Charlemagne Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Charlemagne(/ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn,ˌʃɑːrləˈmeɪn/SHAR-lə-mayn, -⁠MAYN; 2 April 748– 28 January 814) wasKing of the Franksfrom 768,King of the Lombardsfrom 774, andEmperorof what is now known as theCarolingian Empirefrom 800, holding these titles until his death in 814. He united most ofWesternandCentral Europe, and was the first recognised emperor to rule from the west after thefall of the Western Roman Empireapproximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout theMiddle Ages. A member of the FrankishCarolingian dynasty, Charlemagne was the eldest son ofPepin the ShortandBertrada of Laon. With his brother,Carloman I, he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepin's death and became the sole ruler three years later. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of protecting the papacy and became its chief defender, removing theLombardsfrom power", "power innorthern Italyin 774. His reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests ofBavaria,Saxonyandnorthern Spain, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a large part of Europe. Charlemagne spread Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as seen at theMassacre of Verdenagainst theSaxons. He also sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasid caliphHarun al-Rashidin the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Iberian affairs. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome byPope Leo III. Although historians debate the coronation's significance, the title represented the height of his prestige and authority. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with theEastern Roman EmpireinConstantinople. Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner to the line ofHoly Roman Emperors, which persisted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne", "Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion, which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign began a period of cultural activity known as theCarolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne died in 814 and was laid to rest atAachen CathedralinAachen, his imperial capital city. He was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son,Louis the Pious. After Louis, the Frankish kingdom was divided and eventually coalesced intoWestandEast Francia, which later becameFranceandGermany, respectively. Charlemagne's profound influence on the Middle Ages and influence on the territory he ruled has led him to be called the \"Father of Europe\" by many historians. He is seen as a founding figure by multiple European states and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and after the medieval period and isveneratedby theCatholic Church. Name", "Church. Name Several languages were spoken in Charlemagne's world, and he was known to contemporaries asKarlusin theOld High Germanhe spoke; asKarlotoEarly Old French(orProto-Romance) speakers; and asCarolus(orKarolus)inMedieval Latin, the formal language of writing and diplomacy.Charlesis the modern English form of these names. The nameCharlemagne, as the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the FrenchCharles-le-magne('Charles the Great').In modern German, he is known asKarl der Große.The Latinepithetmagnus('great') may have been associated with him during his lifetime, but this is not certain. The contemporaryRoyal Frankish Annalsroutinely call himCarolus magnus rex(\"Charles the great king\").That epithet is attested in the works of thePoeta Saxoaround 900, and it had become commonly applied to him by 1000. Charlemagne was named after his grandfather,Charles Martel.That name, and its derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel and Charlemagne.Karoluswas adapted by Slavic", "adapted by Slavic languages as their word for \"king\" (Russian:korol',Polish:królandSlovak:král) through Charlemagne's influence or that of his great-grandson,Charles the Fat. Early life and rise to power Political background and ancestry By the sixth century, the westernGermanictribe of theFrankshad beenChristianised; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king,Clovis I, to Catholicism.The Franks had established a kingdom inGaulin the wake of theFall of the Western Roman Empire.This kingdom,Francia, grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and theLow Countriesunder the rule of theMerovingian dynasty.Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to thepartible inheritancepractised by the Franks.The late seventh century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of KingChilderic II, which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. Pepin of Herstal,mayor of the", "of the palaceofAustrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at theBattle of Tertry.Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia:Arnulf of MetzandPepin of Landen.The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises.Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel.Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of KingTheuderic IVin 737, leaving the throne vacant.He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons,CarlomanandPepin the Short, who succeeded him after his death in 741.The brothers placed the MerovingianChilderic IIIon the throne in 743.Pepin marriedBertrada, a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744.In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder,Drogo, took his place. Birth Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most", "it was most likely in 748.An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographerEinhardreports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; theRoyal Frankish Annalsimprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian.Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies ofSuetoniuswhich he used as a model.All three sources may have been influenced byPsalm 90: \"The days of our years are threescore years and ten\". HistorianKarl Ferdinand Wernerchallenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to theAnnales Petavianiwhich records Charlemagne's birth in 747.Lorsch Abbeycommemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be", "is likely to be genuine.Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January.Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth.Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces inVaires-sur-MarneandQuierzyare among the places suggested by scholars.Pepin the Short held an assembly inDürenin 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him. Language and education Einhard refers to Charlemagne'spatrius sermo(\"native tongue\").Most scholars have identified this as a form ofOld High German, probably aRhenish Franconiandialect.Due to the prevalence in Francia of \"rustic Roman\", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age.Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. Charlemagne's father Pepin had been", "Pepin had been educated at the abbey ofSaint-Denis, although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown.He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court,which wasitinerant.Charlemagne also asserted his own education in theliberal artsin encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life.The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time.HistorianJohannes Friedconsiders it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read,but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that \"the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best\"and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill.Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded", "and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. Accession and reign with Carloman There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankishannalsduring his father's lifetime.By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king.Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand byPope Stephen II,but modern historians dispute this.It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this tripanointedPepin as king; this legitimised his rule.Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brotherCarlomanwere anointed with their father.Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery. Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign againstAquitaine.Aquitaine, led by DukesHunaldandWaiofar, was", "was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign.Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father.They had separate coronations, Charlemagne atNoyonand Carloman atSoissons, on 9 October.The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom.TheRoyal Frankish Annalsreport that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruledBurgundy,Provence, Aquitaine, andAlamannia, with no mention made of which brother received Neustria.The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine.They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own.Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the", "a rift between the kings.It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory,or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia.Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons.Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. Pope Stephen IIIwas elected in 768, but was briefly deposed byAntipope Constantine IIbefore being restored to Rome.Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings.Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence.The Lombard kingDesideriusalso had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally.Desiderius already had alliances withBavariaandBeneventothrough the marriages of his daughters to their dukes,and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence.Charlemagne's mother,", "mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride.Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known asDesiderata, although she may have been named Gerperga.Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewomanHimiltrude, and they had a son in 769 namedPepin.Paul the Deaconwrote in his 784Gesta Episcoporum Mettensiumthat Pepin was born \"before legal marriage\", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage (friedelehe), or married after Pepin was born.Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole", "Charlemagne sole king of the Franks.He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widowGerbergato flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children.Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and marriedHildegard, daughter of countGerold, a powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom.This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's familyand a move to secure Gerold's support. King of the Franks and the Lombards Annexation of the Lombard Kingdom Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his firstwar against the Saxons, who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the paganIrminsulatEresburgand seizing their gold and silver.The success of the war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action.The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of", "thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne. Pope Adrian Isucceeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius.Unsuccessful in dealing with the Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene.He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews.This overture was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle,Bernard) crossed the Alps tobesiegethe Lombard capital ofPaviain late 773. Charlemagne's second son (also namedCharles) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia,", "back to Francia, but died on the way.Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's sonAdalgishad taken Carloman's sons.Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown.Recent biographer,Janet Nelsoncompares them to thePrinces in the Towerin theWars of the Roses.Fried suggests that the boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or \"an act of murder smooth Charlemagne's ascent to power.\"Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople. Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome.Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter.Adrian presented a copy of theagreement between Pepin and Stephen IIIoutlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore.It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement", "the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries.Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege. Disease struck the Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774.Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards.The takeover of one kingdom by another was \"extraordinary\",and the authors ofThe Carolingian Worldcall it \"without parallel\".Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation.HistorianRosamond McKittericksuggests that the elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover,andRoger Collinsattributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's \"presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it\".Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and", "with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives. Frontier wars in Saxony and Spain The Saxons took advantage of Charlemagne's absence in Italy to raid the Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign the following year.Charlemagne was soon drawn back to Italy as DukeHrodgaud of Friulirebelled against him.He quickly crushed the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's lands to the Franks to consolidate his rule in Lombardy.Charlemagne wintered in Italy, consolidating his power by issuing charters and legislation and taking Lombard hostages.Amid the 775 Saxon andFriuliancampaigns, his daughterRotrudewas born in Francia. Returning north, Charlemagne waged another brief, destructive campaign against the Saxons in 776.This led to the submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and lands and submitted tobaptism.In 777, Charlemagne held an assembly atPaderbornwith Frankish and Saxon men; many more Saxons came", "more Saxons came under his rule, but the Saxon magnateWidukindfled to Denmark to prepare for a new rebellion. Also at the Paderborn assembly were representatives of dissident factions fromal-Andalus(Muslim Spain). They included the son and son-in-law ofYusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, the former governor ofCórdobaousted by CaliphAbd al-Rahmanin 756, who sought Charlemagne's support for al-Fihri's restoration. Also present wasSulayman al-Arabi, governor of Barcelona and Girona, who wanted to become part of the Frankish kingdom and receive Charlemagne's protection rather than remain under the rule of Córdoba.Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity to strengthen the security of the kingdom's southern frontier and extend his influence, agreed to intervene.Crossing the Pyrenees, his army found little resistance until an ambush byBasqueforces in 778 at theBattle of Roncevaux Pass. The Franks, defeated in the battle, withdrew with most of their army intact. Building the dynasty Charlemagne returned to Francia to greet", "to Francia to greet his newborn twin sons,Louisand Lothair, who were born while he was in Spain;Lothair died in infancy.Again, Saxons had seized on the king's absence to raid. Charlemagne sent an army to Saxony in 779while he held assemblies, legislated, and addressed a famine in Francia.Hildegard gave birth to another daughter,Bertha.Charlemagne returned to Saxony in 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from Saxon nobles and oversaw their baptism. He and Hildegard traveled with their four younger children to Rome in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles atWorms, to make a journey first requested by Adrian in 775.Adrian baptised Carloman and renamed him Pepin, a name he shared with his half-brother.Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed and crowned. Pepin was appointed king of the Lombards, and Louis king of Aquitaine.This act was not nominal, since the young kings were sent to live in their kingdoms under the care of regents and advisers.A delegation from theByzantine", "from theByzantine Empire, the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East, met Charlemagne during his stay in Rome; Charlemagne agreed to betroth his daughter Rotrude toEmpress Irene's son, EmperorConstantine VI. Hildegard gave birth to her eighth child,Gisela, during this trip to Italy.After the royal family's return to Francia, she had her final pregnancy and died from its complications on 30 April 783. The child, named after her, died shortly thereafter.Charlemagne commissioned epitaphs for his wife and daughter, and arranged for aMassto be said daily at Hildegard's tomb.Charlemagne's mother Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783.Charlemagne was remarried toFastrada, daughter of the East Frankish count Radolf, by the end of the year. Saxon resistance and reprisal In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack the Frankish positions in Saxony.He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the Frankish counts leading it.Charlemagne came toVerdenafter learning of the defeat,", "of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to an assembly and compelled them to turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their previous acts as treachery. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in themassacre of Verden.Fried writes, \"Although this figure may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt\",andAlessandro Barberocalls it \"perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation.\"Charlemagne issued theCapitulatio de partibus Saxoniae, probably in the immediate aftermath of (or as a precursor of) the massacre.With a harsh set of laws which included the death penalty for pagan practices, theCapitulatio\"constituted a program for the forcedconversion of the Saxons\"and was \"aimed ... at suppressing Saxon identity\". Charlemagne's focus for the next several years would be on his attempt to complete the subjugation of the Saxons. Concentrating first inWestphaliain 783, he pushed intoThuringiain 784 as his sonCharles", "as his sonCharles the Youngercontinued operations in the west. At each stage of the campaigns, the Frankish armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery.Unusually, Charlemagne campaigned through the winter instead of resting his army.By 785, he had suppressed the Saxon resistance and completely commanded Westphalia. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather, ending this phase of theSaxon Wars. Benevento, Bavaria, and Pepin's revolt Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming to extend his influence further into southern Italy, he marched into the Duchy of Benevento.Duke Arechisfled to a fortified position atSalernobefore offering Charlemagne his fealty. Charlemagne accepted his submission and hostages, who included Arechis's sonGrimoald.In Italy, Charlemagne also met with envoys from Constantinople. Empress Irene had called the 787Second Council of Nicaea, but did not inform", "but did not inform Charlemagne or invite any Frankish bishops. Charlemagne, probably in reaction to the perceived slight of the exclusion, broke the betrothal of his daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI. After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis sent envoys to Irene to offer an alliance; he suggested that she send a Byzantine army with Adalgis, the exiled son of Desiderus, to remove the Franks from power in Lombardy.Before his plans could be finalised, Aldechis and his elder son Romuald died of illness within weeks of each other.Charlemagne sent Grimoald back to Benevento to serve as duke and return it to Frankish suzerainty.The Byzantine armyinvaded, but were repulsed by the Frankish and Lombard forces. As affairs were being settled in Italy, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. Bavaria was ruled by DukeTassilo, Charlemagne's first cousin, who had been installed by Pepin the Short in 748.Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a potential threat to Charlemagne's rule in Lombardy.The", "in Lombardy.The neighbouring rulers had a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each other in 781.In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) accused Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully attacked the Bavarian city ofBolzano.Charlemagne gathered his forces to prepare for an invasion of Bavaria in 787. Dividing the army, the Franks launched a three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing his poor position, Tassilo agreed to surrender and recognise Charlemagne as his overlord.The following year, Tassilo was accused of plotting with theAvarsto attack Charlemagne. He was deposed and sent to a monastery, and Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into his kingdom.Charlemagne spent the next few years based inRegensburg, largely focused on consolidating his rule of Bavaria andwarring againstthe Avars.Successful campaigns against them were launched from Bavaria and Italy in 788,and Charlemagne led campaigns in 791 and 792. Charlemagne gave Charles the Younger rule", "the Younger rule ofMainein Neustria in 789, leaving Pepin the Hunchback his only son without lands.His relationship with Himiltrude was now apparently seen as illegitimate at his court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession.In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles to assassinate them and install himself as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Charlemagne before it could proceed; Pepin was sent to a monastery, and many of his co-conspirators were executed. The early 790s saw a marked focus on ecclesiastical affairs by Charlemagne. He summoned a council in Regensburg in 792 to address the theological controversy over theadoptionismdoctrine in the Spanish church and formulate a response to the Second Council of Nicea.The council condemned adoptionism asheresyand led to the production of theLibri Carolini, a detailed argument against Nicea's canons.In 794, Charlemagne called anothercouncil in Frankfurt.The council confirmed Regensburg's", "Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the deposition of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and endorsed prayer in vernacular languages.Soon after the council, Fastrada fell ill and died;Charlemagne married the Alamannian noblewomanLuitgardshortly afterwards. Continued wars with the Saxons and Avars Charlemagne gathered an army after the council of Frankfurt as Saxon resistance continued, beginning a series of annual campaigns which lasted through 799.The campaigns of the 790s were even more destructive than those of earlier decades, with the annal writers frequently noting Charlemagne \"burning\", \"ravaging\", \"devastating\", and \"laying waste\" the Saxon lands.Charlemagne forcibly removed a large number of Saxons to Francia, installing Frankish elites and soldiers in their place.His extended wars in Saxony led to his establishing his court inAachen, which had easy access to the frontier. He built a largepalacethere, including a chapel", "including a chapel which is now part of theAachen Cathedral.Einhard joined the court at that time.Pepin of Italy(Carloman) engaged in further wars against the Avars in the south, which led to the collapse of their kingdom and the eastward expansion of Frankish rule. Charlemagne also worked to expand his influence through diplomatic means during the 790s wars, focusing on the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. Charles the Younger proposed a marriage pact with the daughter of KingOffa of Mercia, but Offa insisted that Charlemagne's daughter Bertha also be given as a bride for his son.Charlemagne refused the arrangement, and the marriage did not take place.Charlemagne and Offa entered into a formal peace in 796, protecting trade and securing the rights of English pilgrims to pass through Francia on their way to Rome.Charlemagne was also the host and protector of several deposed English rulers who were later restored:Eadbehrt of Kent,Ecgberht, King of Wessex, andEardwulf of Northumbria.Nelson writes that", "writes that Charlemagne treated the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms \"like satellite states,\" establishing direct relations with English bishops.Charlemagne also forged an alliance withAlfonso II of Asturias, although Einhard calls Alfonso his \"dependent\".Following hissack of Lisbonin 798, Alfonso sent Charlemagne trophies of his victory, including armour, mules and prisoners. Reign as emperor Coronation AfterLeo IIIbecame pope in 795, he faced political opposition. His enemies accused him of a number of crimes and physically attacked him in April 799, attempting to remove his eyes and tongue.Leo escaped and fled north to seek Charlemagne's help.Charlemagne continued his campaign against the Saxons before breaking off to meet Leo atPaderbornin September.Hearing evidence from the pope and his enemies, he sent Leo back to Rome with royal legates who were instructed to reinstate the pope and conduct a further investigation.In August of the following year, Charlemagne made plans to go to Rome after an extensive tour of his", "tour of his lands in Neustria.Charlemagne met Leo in November nearMentanaat the twelfth milestone outside Rome, the traditional location where Roman emperors began theirformal entryinto the city.Charlemagne presided over an assembly to hear the charges, but believed that no one could sit in judgement of the pope. Leo swore an oath on 23 December, declaring his innocence of all charges.At mass inSt. Peter's Basilicaon Christmas Day 800, Leo proclaimed Charlemagne \"emperor of the Romans\" (Imperator Romanorum) and crowned him.Charlemagne was the first reigning emperor in the west since the deposition ofRomulus Augustulusin 476.His son,Charles the Younger, was anointed king by Leo at the same time. Historians differ about the intentions of the imperial coronation, the extent to which Charlemagne was aware of it or participated in its planning, and the significance of the events for those present and for Charlemagne's reign.Contemporary Frankish and papal sources differ in their emphasis on, and representation", "and representation of, events.Einhard writes that Charlemagne would not have entered the church if he knew about the pope's plan; modern historians have regarded his report as truthful or rejected it as a literary device demonstrating Charlemagne's humility.Collins says that the actions surrounding the coronation indicate that it was planned by Charlemagne as early as his meeting with Leo in 799,and Fried writes that Charlemagne planned to adopt the title of emperor by 798 \"at the latest.\"During the years before the coronation, Charlemagne's courtierAlcuinreferred to his realm as anImperium Christianum(\"Christian Empire\") in which \"just as the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had been united by a common Roman citizenship\", the new empire would be united by a common Christian faith.This is the view ofHenri Pirenne, who says that \"Charles was the Emperor of theecclesiaas the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church\". The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire remained a significant", "a significant contemporary power in European politics for Leo and Charlemagne, especially in Italy. The Byzantines continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with their borders not far south of Rome. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797, deposing and blinding him.Irene, the first Byzantine empress, faced opposition in Constantinople because of her gender and her means of accession.One of the earliest narrative sources for the coronation, theAnnals of Lorsch, presented a female ruler in Constantinople as a vacancy in the imperial title which justified Leo's coronation of Charlemagne.Pirenne disagrees, saying that the coronation \"was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.\"Leo's main motivations may have been the desire to increase his standing after his political difficulties, placing himself as a power broker and securing Charlemagne as a powerful ally and protector.The Byzantine Empire's lack of ability to", "lack of ability to influence events in Italy and support the papacy were also important to Leo's position.According to theRoyal Frankish Annals, Leoprostratedhimself before Charlemagne after crowning him (an act of submission standard in Roman coronation rituals from the time ofDiocletian). This account presents Leo not as Charlemagne's superior, but as the agent of the Roman people who acclaimed Charlemagne as emperor. Historian Henry Mayr-Harting claims that the assumption of the imperial title by Charlemagne was an effort to incorporate the Saxons into the Frankish realm, since they did not have a native tradition of kingship.However, Costambeyset al.note inThe Carolingian Worldthat \"since Saxony had not been in the Roman empire it is hard to see on what basis an emperor would have been any more welcomed.\"These authors write that the decision to take the title of emperor was aimed at furthering Charlemagne's influence in Italy, as an appeal to traditional authority recognised by Italian elites within and", "elites within and (especially) outside his control. Collins also writes that becoming emperor gave Charlemagne \"the right to try to impose his rule over the whole of \", considering this a motivation for the coronation.He notes the \"element of political and military risk\"inherent in the affair due to the opposition of the Byzantine Empire and potential opposition from the Frankish elite, as the imperial title could draw him further into Mediterranean politics.Collins sees several of Charlemagne's actions as attempts to ensure that his new title had a distinctly-Frankish context. Charlemagne's coronation led to a centuries-long ideological conflict between his successors and Constantinople known as theproblem of two emperors,which could be seen as a rejection or usurpation of the Byzantine emperors' claim to be the universal, preeminent rulers of Christendom.Historian James Muldoon writes that Charlemagne may have had a more limited view of his role, seeing the title as representing dominion over lands he", "over lands he already ruled.However, the title of emperor gave Charlemagne enhanced prestige and ideological authority.He immediately incorporated his new title into documents he issued, adopting the formula \"Charles, most sereneaugustus, crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the Roman empire, and who is by the mercy of God king of the Franks and the Lombards\"instead of the earlier form \"Charles, by the grace of God king of the Franks and Lombards andpatricianof the Romans.\"Leo acclaimed Charlemagne as \"emperor of the Romans\" during the coronation, but Charlemagne never used this title.The avoidance of the specific claim of being a \"Roman emperor\", as opposed to the more-neutral \"emperor governing the Roman empire\", may have been to improve relations with the Byzantines.This formulation (with the continuation of his earlier royal titles) may also represent a view of his role as emperor as being the ruler of the people of the city of Rome, as he was of the Franks and the Lombards. Governing the", "Governing the empire Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating several ecclesiastical disputes in Rome and experiencingan earthquake in Spoleto.He never returned to the city.Continuing trends and a ruling style established in the 790s,Charlemagne's reign from 801 onward is a \"distinct phase\"characterised by more sedentary rule from Aachen.Although conflict continued until the end of his reign, the relative peace of the imperial period allowed for attention on internal governance. The Franks continued to wage war, though these wars were defending and securing the empire's frontiers,and Charlemagne rarely led armies personally.A significant expansion of theSpanish Marchwas achieved with a series of campaigns by Louis against the Emirate of Cordoba, culminating in the801 capture of Barcelona. The 802Capitulare missorum generalewas an expansive piece of legislation, with provisions governing the conduct of royal officials and requiring that all free men take anoath of loyaltyto", "anoath of loyaltyto Charlemagne.Thecapitularyreformed the institution of themissi dominici, officials who would now be assigned in pairs (a cleric and a lay aristocrat) to administer justice and oversee governance in defined territories.The emperor also ordered the revision of the Lombard and Frankish legal codes. In addition to themissi, Charlemagne also ruled parts of the empire with his sons as sub-kings.Although Pepin and Louis had some authority as kings in Italy and Aquitaine, Charlemagne had the ultimate authority and directly intervened.Charles, their elder brother, had been given lands in Neustria in 789 or 790 and made a king in 800. The 806 charterDivisio Regnorum(Division of the Realm) set the terms of Charlemagne's succession.Charles, as his eldest son in good favour, was given the largest share of the inheritance: rule of Francia, Saxony,Nordgau, and parts of Alemannia. The two younger sons were confirmed in their kingdoms and gained additional territories; most of Bavaria and Alemmannia was", "and Alemmannia was given to Pepin, and Provence, Septimania, and parts of Burgundy were given to Louis.Charlemagne did not address the inheritance of the imperial title.TheDivisioalso provided that if any of the brothers predeceased Charlemagne, their sons would inherit their share; peace was urged among his descendants. Conflict and diplomacy with the east After his coronation, Charlemagne sought recognition of his imperial title from Constantinople.Several delegations were exchanged between Charlemagne and Irene in 802 and 803. According to the contemporary Byzantine chroniclerThophanes, Charlemagne made an offer of marriage to Irene which she was close to accepting.Irene was deposed and replaced byNikephoros I, who was unwilling to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.The two empires conflicted over control of theAdriatic Sea(especiallyIstriaandVeneto) several times during Nikephoros' reign. Charlemagne sent envoys to Constantinople in 810 to make peace, giving up his claims to Veneto. Nikephoros died in", "Nikephoros died in battle before the envoys could leave Constantinople but his son-in-law and successorMichael Iconfirmed the peace, sending his own envoys to Aachen to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.Charlemagne soon issued the first Frankish coins bearing his imperial title, although papal coins minted in Rome had used the title as early as 800. He sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasidcaliphHarun al-Rashidduring the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Spanish affairs.As an early sign of friendship, Charlemagne requested an elephant as a gift from Harun. Harun later provided an elephant namedAbul-Abbas, which arrived at Aachen in 802.Harun also sought to undermine Charlemagne's relations with the Byzantines, with whom he was at war. As part of his outreach, Harun gave Charlemagne nominal rule of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchrein Jerusalem and other gifts.According to Einhard, Charlemagne \"zealously strove to make friendships with kings beyond the seas\" in order \"that he might get", "\"that he might get some help and relief to the Christians living under their rule.\" A surviving administrative document, theBasel roll, shows the work done by his agents in Palestine in furtherance of this goal. Harun's death lead to a succession crisis and, under his successors, churches and synagogues were destroyed in the caliphate.Unable to intervene directly, Charlemagne sent specially-minted coins and arms to the eastern Christians to defend and restore their churches and monasteries. The coins with their inscriptions were also an important tool of imperial propaganda.Johannes Fried writes that deteriorating relations with Baghdad after Harun's death may have been the impetus for renewed negotiations with Constantinople which led to Charlemagne's peace with Michael in 811. As emperor, Charlemagne became involved in a religious dispute between Eastern and Western Christians over the recitation of theNiceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the fundamental statement of orthodox Christian belief. The original", "The original text of the creed, adopted at theCouncil of Constantinople, professed that theHoly Spiritproceeded fromthe Father. A tradition developed in Western Europe that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father \"and theSon\", inserting the Latin termfilioqueinto the creed.The difference did not cause significant conflict until 807, when Frankish monks in Bethlehem were denounced as heretics by a Greek monk for using thefilioqueform.The Frankish monks appealed the dispute to Rome, where Pope Leo affirmed the text of the creed omitting the phrase and passed the report on to Charlemagne.Charlemagne summoned acouncil at Aachen in 809which defended the use offilioque, and sent the decision to Rome. Leo said that the Franks could maintain their tradition, but asserted that the canonical creed did not includefilioque.He commissioned two silver shields with the creed in Latin and Greek (omitting thefilioque), which he hung inSt. Peter's Basilica.Another product of the 809 Aachen council was theHandbook of 809, an", "of 809, an illustratedcalendricaland astronomical compendium. Wars with the Danes Scandinaviahad been brought into contact with the Frankish world through Charlemagne's wars with the Saxons.Raids on Charlemagne's lands by theDanesbegan around 800.Charlemagne engaged in his final campaign in Saxony in 804, seizing Saxon territory east of theElbe, removing its Saxon population, and giving the land to hisObotriteallies.The Danish kingGudfred, uneasy at the extension of Frankish power, offered to meet with Charlemagne to arrange peace and (possibly) hand over Saxons who had fled to him;the talks were unsuccessful. The northern frontier was quiet until 808, when Gudfred and some allied Slavic tribes led an incursion into the Obotrite lands and extracted tribute from over half the territory.Charles the Younger led an army across the Elbe in response, but only attacked some of Gudfred's Slavic allies.Gudfred again attempted diplomatic overtures in 809, but no peace was apparently made.Danish pirates raided Frisia", "raided Frisia in 810, although it is uncertain if they were connected to Gudfred.Charlemagne sent an army to secure Frisia while he led a force against Gudfred, who had reportedly challenged the emperor to face him in battle.The battle never took place, since Gudfred was murdered by two of his own men before Charlemagne's arrival.Gudfred's nephew and successorHemmingimmediately sued for peace, and a commission led by Charlemagne's cousinWalareached a settlement with the Danes in 811.The Danes did not pose a threat for the remainder of Charlemagne's reign, but the effects of this war and their earlier expansion in Saxony helped set the stage for the intenseVikingraids across Europe later in the ninth century. Final years and death The Carolingian dynasty experienced a number of losses in 810 and 811, when Charlemagne's sisterGisela, his daughter Rotrude, and his sons Pepin the Hunchback, Pepin of Italy, and Charles the Younger died.The deaths of Charles and Pepin of Italy left Charlemagne's earlier plans for", "earlier plans for succession in disarray. He declared Pepin of Italy's sonBernardruler of Italy and made his own only surviving son, Louis, heir to the rest of the empire.Charlemagne also made a newwilldetailing the disposal of his property at his death, with bequests to the church, his children, and his grandchildren.Einhard (possibly relying ontropesfrom Suetonius'sThe Twelve Caesars) says that Charlemagne viewed the deaths of his family members, his fall from a horse, astronomical phenomena, and the collapse of part of the palace in his last years as signs of his impending death.Charlemagne continued to govern with energy during his final year, ordering bishops to assemble in five ecclesiastical councils.These culminated in a large assembly at Aachen, where Charlemagne crowned Louis as his co-emperor and Bernard as king in a ceremony on 11 September 813. Charlemagne became ill in the autumn of 813 and spent his last months praying, fasting, and studying thegospels.He developedpleurisy, and was bedridden", "and was bedridden for seven days before dying on the morning of 28 January 814.Thegan, a biographer of Louis, records the emperor's last words as \"Into your hands, Lord, I commend my spirit\" (quoting fromLuke 23:46).Charlemagne's body was prepared and buried in thechapel at Aachenby his daughters and palace officials that day.Louis arrived at Aachen thirty days after his father's death, making a formaladventusand taking charge of the palace and the empire.Charlemagne's remains were exhumed by Holy Roman EmperorFrederick Barbarossain 1165, and reinterred in a new casket byFrederick IIin 1215. Legacy Political legacy The stability and peace of Charlemagne's reign did not long outlive him. Louis' reign was marked by strife, including a number of rebellions by his sons. After Louis' death, the empire was divided among his sons intoWest,East, andMiddle Franciaby theTreaty of Verdun.Middle Francia was divided several more times over the course of subsequent generations.Carolingians would rule – with some", "rule – with some interruptions – in East Francia (later theKingdom of Germany) until 911,and in West Francia (which would becomeFrance) until 987.After 887, the imperial title was held sporadically by a series of non-dynastic Italian rulersbefore it lapsed in 924.The East Frankish kingOtto the GreatconqueredItaly, and was crowned emperor in 962.By this time, the eastern and western parts of Charlemagne's former empire had already developed distinct languages and cultures.Otto founded (or re-established) theHoly Roman Empire,which would last until itsdissolutionin 1806, during theNapoleonic Wars. According to historian Jennifer Davis, Charlemagne \"invented medieval rulership\" and his influence can be seen at least into the nineteenth century.Charlemagne is often known as \"the father of Europe\" because of the influence of his reign and the legacy he left across the large area of the continent he ruled.The political structures he established remained in place through his Carolingian successors, and continued to", "and continued to exert influence into the eleventh century. Charlemagne was an ancestor of several European ruling houses, including theCapetian dynasty,theOttonian dynasty,theHouse of Luxembourg,and theHouse of Ivrea.The Ottonians and Capetians, direct successors of the Carolingans, drew on the legacy of Charlemagne to bolster their legitimacy and prestige; the Ottonians and their successors held their German coronations in Aachen through the Middle Ages.The marriage ofPhilip II of FrancetoIsabella of Hainault(a direct descendant of Charlemagne) was seen as a sign of increased legitimacy for their son,Louis VIII, and the French kings' association with Charlemagne's legacy was stressed until the monarchy's end.German and French rulers, such as Frederick Barbarossa andNapoleon, cited the influence of Charlemagne and associated themselves with him.In fact, both German and French monarchs considered themselves as successors of Charlemagne, enumerating him as \"Charles I\" in their regnal lists. The city of Aachen", "The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (theKarlspreisder Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to those who promote European unity.Recipients of the prize includeRichard von Coudenhove-Kalergi(founder of the pan-European movement),Alcide De Gasperi, andWinston Churchill. Carolingian Renaissance Contacts with the wider Mediterranean world through Spain and Italy, the influx of foreign scholars at court, and the relative stability and length of Charlemagne's reign led to a cultural revival known as theCarolingian Renaissance.Although the beginnings of this revival can be seen under his predecessors, Charles Martel and Pepin, Charlemagne took an active and direct role in shaping intellectual life which led to the revival's zenith.Charlemagne promoted learning as a matter of policy and direct patronage, with the aim of creating a more effective clergy.TheAdmonitio generalisandEpistola de litteris colendisoutlined his policies and aims for education.", "aims for education. Intellectual life at court was dominated by Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Visigothic and Italian scholars, includingDungal of Bobbio, Alcuin of York,Theodulf of Orléans, andPeter of Pisa; Franks such as Einhard andAngelbertalso made substantial contributions.Aside from the intellectual activity at the palace, Charlemagne promoted ecclesiastical schools and publicly funded schools for the children of the elite and future clergy.Students learned basic Latin literacy and grammar, arithmetic, and other subjects of the medieval liberal arts.From their education, it was expected that even rural priests could provide their parishioners with basic instruction in religious matters and (possibly) the literacy required for worship.Latin was standardised and its use brought into territories well beyond the former Roman Empire, forming a second language community of speakers and writers and sustaining Latin creativity in the Middle Ages. Carolingian authors produced extensive works, including legal treatises,", "legal treatises, histories, poetry, and religious texts.Scriptoriain monasteries and cathedrals focused on copying new and old works, producing an estimated 90,000 manuscripts during the ninth century.TheCarolingian minusculescript was developed and popularised in medieval copying, influencingRenaissanceand modern typefaces.Scholar John J. Contreni considers the educational and learning revival under Charlemagne and his successors \"one of the most durable and resilient elements of the Carolingian legacy\". Memory and historiography Charlemagne was a frequent subject of, and inspiration for, medieval writers after his death. Einhard'sVita Karoli Magni, according to Johannes Fired, \"can be said to have revived the defunct literary genre of the secular biography.\"Einhard drew on classical sources, such as Suetonius'The Twelve Caesars, the orations of Cicero, andTacitus'Agricolato frame his work's structure and style.The Carolingian period also saw a revival of themirrors for princesgenre.The author of the Latin", "author of the Latin poemVisio Karoli Magni, writtenc.865, uses facts (apparently from Einhard) and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after their civil wars later in the ninth century as the bases of a visionary tale about Charles meeting a prophetic spectre in a dream.Notker'sGesta Karoli Magni, written for Charlemagne's great-grandson Charles the Fat, presents moral anecdotes (exempla) to highlight the emperor's qualities as a ruler. Charlemagne, as a figure of myth and emulation, grew over the centuries; Matthias Becher writes that over 1,000 legends are recorded about him, far outstripping subsequent emperors and kings.Later medieval writers depicted Charlemagne as a crusader and Christian warrior.Charlemagne is the main figure of the medievalliterary cycleknown as theMatter of France. Works in this cycle, which originated during theCrusades, centre on characterizations of the emperor as a leader of Christian knights in wars against Muslims. The cycle includeschansons de", "includeschansons de geste(epic poems) such as theSong of Rolandand chronicles such as theHistoria Caroli Magni, also known as the(Pseudo-)Turpin Chronicle.Charlemagne was depicted as one of theNine Worthies, a fixture in medieval literature and art as an exemplar of a Christian king.Despite his central role in these legends, authorThomas Bulfinchnoted that \"romancers represent him as often weak and passionate, the victim of treacherous counsellors, and at the mercy of turbulent barons, on whose prowess he depends for the maintenance of his throne.\" Attention to Charlemagne became more scholarly in the early modern period as Eindhard'sVitaand other sources began to be published.Political philosophers debated his legacy;Montesquieuviewed him as the first constitutional monarch and protector of freemen, butVoltairesaw him as a despotic ruler and representative of the medieval period as aDark Age.As early as the sixteenth century, debate between German and French writers began about Charlemagne's", "about Charlemagne's \"nationality\".These contrasting portraits—a French Charlemagne versus a GermanKarl der Große—became especially pronounced during the nineteenth century with Napoleon's use of Charlemagne's legacy and the rise of German nationalism.German historiography and popular perception focused on theMassacre of Verden, emphasized with Charlemagne as the \"butcher\" of the Germanic Saxons or downplayed as an unfortunate part of the legacy of a great German ruler.Propaganda in Nazi Germanyinitially portrayed Charlemagne as an enemy of Germany, a French ruler who worked to take away the freedom and native religion of the German people.This quickly shifted asAdolf Hitlerendorsed a portrait of Charlemagne as a great unifier of disparate German tribes into a common nation, allowing Hitler to co-opt Charlemagne's legacy as an ideological model for his expansionist policies. Historiography after World War II focused on Charlemagne as \"the father of Europe\" rather than a nationalistic figure,a view first", "figure,a view first advanced during the nineteenth century by German romantic philosopherFriedrich Schlegel.This view has led to Charlemagne's adoption as a political symbol ofEuropean integration.Modern historians increasingly place Charlemagne in the context of the wider Mediterranean world, following the work of Henri Pirenne. Religious influence and veneration Charlemagne gave much attention to religious and ecclesiastical affairs, holding 23synodsduring his reign. His synods were called to address specific issues at particular times, but generally dealt with church administration and organization, education of the clergy, and the proper forms of liturgy and worship.Charlemagne used the Christian faith as a unifying factor in the realm and, in turn, worked to impose unity on the church.He implemented an edited version of theDionysio-Hadrianabook ofcanon lawacquired from Pope Adrian, required use of theRule of St. Benedictin monasteries throughout the empire, and promoted a standardised liturgy adapted", "liturgy adapted from therites of the Roman Churchto conform with Frankish practices.Carolingian policies promoting unity did not eliminate the diverse practices throughout the empire, but created a shared ecclesiastical identity—according to Rosamond McKitterick, \"unison, not unity.\" The condition of all his subjects as a \"Christian people\" was an important concern.Charlemagne's policies encouraged preaching to the laity, particularly invernacularlanguages they would understand.He believed it essential to be able to recite theLord's Prayerand theApostles' Creed, and made efforts to ensure that the clergy taught them and other basics of Christian morality. ThomasF.X.Noble writes that the efforts of Charlemagne and his successors to standardise Christian doctrine and practices and harmonise Frankish practices were essential steps in the development of Christianity in Europe, and the Roman Catholic orLatin Church\"as a historical phenomenon, not as a theological or ecclesiological one, is a Carolingian", "is a Carolingian construction.\"He says that the medieval European concept ofChristendomas an overarching community of Western Christians, rather than a collection of local traditions, is the result of Carolingian policies and ideology.Charlemagne's doctrinal policies promoting the use offilioqueand opposing the Second Council of Nicea were key steps in thegrowing divide between Western and Eastern Christianity. EmperorOtto IIattempted to have Charlemagnecanonisedin 1000.In 1165, Frederick Barbarossa persuadedAntipope Paschal IIIto elevate Charlemagne to sainthood.Since Paschal's acts were not considered valid, Charlemagne was not recognised as a saint by theHoly See.Despite this lack of official recognition, hiscultwas observed in Aachen, Reims, Frankfurt, Zurich and Regensburg, and he has been venerated in France since the reign ofCharles V. Charlemagne also drew attention from figures of the ProtestantReformation, withMartin Luthercriticising his apparent subjugation to the papacy by accepting his", "by accepting his coronation from Leo.John Calvinand other Protestant thinkers viewed him as a forerunner of the Reformation, however, noting theLibri Carolini'scondemnation of the worship of images and relics and conflicts by Charlemagne and his successors with the temporal power of the popes. Wives, concubines, and children Wives and their children Concubines and their children Charlemagne had at least twenty children with his wives and other partners.After the death of his wife Luitgard in 800, he did not remarry but had children with unmarried partners.He was determined that all his children, including his daughters, should receive an education in the liberal arts. His children were taught in accordance with their aristocratic status, which included training in riding and weaponry for his sons and embroidery, spinning and weaving for his daughters. Rosamond McKitterick writes that Charlemagne exercised \"a remarkable degree of patriarchal control ... over his progeny,\" noting that only a handful of his", "a handful of his children and grandchildren were raised outside his court.Pepin of Italy and Louis reigned as kings from childhood and lived at their courts.Careers in the church were arranged for his illegitimate sons.His daughters were resident at court or atChelles Abbey(where Charlemagne's sister was abbess), and those at court may have fulfilled the duties of queen after 800. Louis and Pepin of Italy married and had children during their father's lifetime, and Charlemagne brought Pepin's daughters into his household after Pepin's death.Rotrude had been betrothed to Emperor Constantine VI, but the betrothal was ended.None of Charlemagne's daughters married, although several had children with unmarried partners. Bertha had two sons,Nithardand Hartnid, with Charlemagne's courtierAngilbert; Rotrude had a son namedLouis, possibly with CountRorgon; and Hiltrude had a son named Richbod, possibly with a count named Richwin.TheDivisio Regnorumissued by Charlemagne in 806 provided that his legitimate daughters be", "daughters be allowed to marry or become nuns after his death. Theodrada entered a convent, but the decisions of his other daughters are unknown. Appearance and iconography Einhard gives a first-hand description of Charlemagne's appearance later in life: He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, since his height was seven times the length of his own foot. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and he enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Charlemagne's tomb was opened in 1861 by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and measured it at 1.92 metres (6 ft 4 in) in length, roughly equivalent to Einhard's seven feet.A 2010 estimate of his height from anX-rayandCT scanof histibiawas 1.84 metres (6 ft 0 in); this puts him in the 99thpercentileof height for his period, given that", "period, given that average male height of his time was 1.69 metres (5 ft 7 in). The width of the bone suggested that he was slim. Charlemagne wore his hair short, abandoning the Merovingian tradition of long-haired monarchs.He had a moustache (possibly imitating the Ostrogothic kingTheoderic the Great), in contrast with the bearded Merovingian kings;future Carolingian monarchs would adopt this style.Paul Dutton notes the ubiquitous crown in portraits of Charlemagne and other Carolingian rulers, replacing the earlier Merovingian long hair.A ninth-century statuette depicts Charlemagne or his grandson,Charles the Baldand shows the subject as moustachioed with short hair;this also appears on contemporary coinage. By the twelfth century, Charlemagne was described as bearded rather than moustachioed in literary sources such as theSong of Roland, thePseudo-Turpin Chronicle, and other works in Latin, French, and German.ThePseudo-Turpinuniquely says that his hair was brown.Later art and iconography of Charlemagne", "of Charlemagne followed suit, generally depicting him in a later medieval style as bearded with longer hair. Notes References Citations Works cited Further reading Primary sources in English translation Secondary works External links", "List of popes This chronological list ofpopesof theCatholic Churchcorresponds to that given in theAnnuario Pontificiounder the heading \"I Sommi Pontefici Romani\" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated asantipopes. Published every year by theRoman Curia, theAnnuario Pontificiono longeridentifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times.The 2001 edition of theAnnuario Pontificiointroduced \"almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II\". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope. The termpope(Latin:papa,lit.'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for exampleCoptic pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, includingSummus", "includingSummus Pontifex,Pontifex Maximus, andServus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification. Hermannus Contractusmay have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His list ends in 1049 withLeo IXas number 154. Several changes were made to the list during the 20th century.Christopherwas considered a legitimate pope for a long time but was removed due to how he obtained the papacy.Pope-elect Stephenwas listed as Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his name was removed. The decisions of theCouncil of Pisa(1409) were reversed in 1963 in a reinterpretation of theWestern Schism, extendingGregory XII's pontificate to 1415 and classifying rival claimantsAlexander VandJohn XXIIIas antipopes. A significant number of these popes have been recognized assaints, including 48 out of the first 50 consecutive popes, and others are in the sainthood process. Of the first 31 popes, 28 died as martyrs.", "28 died as martyrs. Chronological list of popes 1st millennium 1st century The chronology of the early popes is heavily disputed. The first ancient lists of popes were not written until the late 2nd century, after the monarchical episcopate had already developed in Rome. These first lists combined contradictory traditions, and even the succession of the first popes is disputed. The first certain dates are AD 222 and 235, the elections ofUrban IandLiberius. The years given for the first 30 popes follow the work ofRichard Adelbert Lipsius, which often show a 3-year difference with the traditional dates given byEusebius of Caesarea.These are also the dates used by theCatholic Encyclopedia. 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 2nd millennium 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Member of theDominican Order. Reverted Boniface VIII'sUnam Sanctam. 15th century 16th century", "16th century Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as the ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. Born as a subject of theBishopric of Utrecht. The only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope untilJohn Paul IIin 1978. Tutor ofEmperor Charles V. Came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east. He refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic. However, he is noted for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation. Adrian's remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg. His efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of", "resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion. Citizen of theRepublic of Florence. Cousin of Leo X. Romesackedby imperial troops (1527). Forbade the divorce ofHenry VIII; crowned Charles V as emperor atBologna(1530). Commissioned Michelangelo's painting ofThe Last Judgmentin the Sistine Chapel (1533). ApprovedCopernicus'heliocentric universe theory(1533). However Copernicus made very few astronomical observations and based his new model squarely on his mathematical calculations. Natural philosophers of that time (professionals who began to be called scientists only in the 19th century) noted that if the earth rotated there would be observable Coriolis effects. Secondly, a revolving earth would imply a stellar parallax. Given that neither of these effects were observed at the time (would be observed decades later) , Copernicus' model still did not prove heliocentrism. Thenieceof the pope was married to the", "was married to the futureHenry II of France(1533). Recognized theOrder of Friars Minor Capuchin(Capuchins). Born as a subject of theKingdom of Naples. Member of theTheatines. Established theRoman GhettoinCum Nimis Absurdum(1555) and established theIndex of Forbidden Books. Ordered Michelangelo to repaint the nudes ofThe Last Judgmentmodestly. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Member of theDominican Order. Excommunicated QueenElizabeth I of England(1570).Battle of Lepanto(1571); instituted the feast ofOur Lady of Victory. Issued the1570 Roman Missal. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States.Reformed the calendar(1582); built the Gregorian Chapel in the Vatican. The first pope to bestow theImmaculate Conceptionas patroness to the Philippine Islands through the bullIlius Fulti Præsido(1579). Strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations. 17th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Known for various building projects which included the facade ofSt Peter's Basilica.", "Peter's Basilica. Established theBank of the Holy Spirit(1605); restored theAqua Traiana. During his pontificateGalileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those ofAristotleandPtolemyand closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time. Not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries.Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars, was sympathetic to Galileo's theories, but was invited to defend the Aristotelian point of view byClaudio Acquaviva, the Jesuits' Father General. Not all scientists at the time supported Galileo. Opposition fromTycho Braheand others arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no such evidence existed at the time. (Only in 1838 wasFriedrich Besselable to accurately observe it.) Galileo's arguments – based on sunspots and the action of tides – were flawed", "tides – were flawed and were refuted and rejected by other scholars at the time. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. The great-great-great-grandson ofAlexander VI. Erected theFontana dei Quattro FiumiinPiazza Navona. Promulgated the apostolic constitutionCum occasione(1653) which condemned five doctrines ofJansenismasheresy. Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Mediated in thepeace of Aachen(1668). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Canonized the first saint from the Americas: St.Rose of Lima(1671). Decorated the bridge of Sant' Angelo with the ten statues of angels and added one of the two fountains that adorn the piazza of St. Peter's. Established regulations for the removal of relics of saints from cemeteries. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Condemned thedoctrine of mental reservation(1679) and initiated theHoly League. Extended theHoly Name of Maryas a universal feast (1684). Admired for positive contributions to catechesis. During his pontificateIsaac", "pontificateIsaac Newtonpublished thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation. 18th century Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Completed the new façade of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran(1735). Commissioned theTrevi Fountainin Rome (1732). CondemnedFreemasonryinIn eminenti apostolatus(1738). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Reformed the education ofpriestsand thecalendar of feasts. Completed theTrevi Fountainand affirmed the teachings ofThomas Aquinas; founded academies of art, religion and science. Authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of theDialogue. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Condemned theFrench Revolution; expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death. The last pope to be a patron ofRenaissanceart. During his pontificate, the astronomerWilliam Herschel, studying the", "studying the movement of stars, was the first to realize that theSolar Systemis moving in space, and determined the approximate direction of movement. Also discovered that theMilky Way(which in the late 18th century was believed to be the entire Universe) is flat, disk-shaped and with the Sun at its center (assertion discovered to be wrong decades later, because today it is known that the Sun is not located in theGalactic Center). 19th century During his pontificate, Augustinian friarGregor Mendelpublished theExperiments on Plant HybridizationandCharles DarwinpublishedOn the Origin of Species. At the time, no high-level Church pronouncement attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species. Even before the development of thescientific method, Catholic theology had allowed for biblical texts to be read as allegorical rather than literal where they appeared to contradict that which could be established by science or reason. Thus, Catholicism has been able to refine its understanding of", "understanding of scripture in light of scientific discoveries. First Pope to befilmed by a motion picture cameraand the first pope with voice recorded. 20th century Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Encouraged and expanded reception of the Eucharist. CombattedModernism; issued theoath against it. Advocated theGregorian Chantandreformed the Roman Breviary. Born as a subject of theKingdom of Sardinia, later became an Italian citizen. Credited for intervening for peace during World War I. Issued the1917 Code of Canon Law; supported the missionaries inMaximum illud. Remembered byBenedict XVIas a \"prophet of peace\". Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Signed theLateran Treatywith Italy (1929) establishingVatican Cityas a sovereign state. InauguratedVatican Radio(1931). Re-founded thePontifical Academy of Sciences(1936). Created the feast ofChrist the King. OpposedCommunismandNazism. Italian citizen. Invoked papal", "Invoked papal infallibility in the encyclicalMunificentissimus Deus; defined the dogma of theAssumption. Eliminated the Italian majority ofcardinals. Credited with intervening for peace duringWorld War II; controversial forhis reactionsto theHolocaust. Published theHumani generis, the first encyclical to specifically refer to evolution and took up a neutral position, concentrating on human evolution: \"The Church does not forbid that ... research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter.\" Italian citizen. Opened theSecond Vatican Council; called \"Good Pope John\". Issued the encyclicalPacem in terris(1963) on peace and nuclear disarmament; intervened for peace during theCuban Missile Crisis(1962). Italian citizen. Last pope to becrowned. First pope since 1809 to travel outside Italy. Closed theSecond Vatican Council. Issued the", "Council. Issued the encyclicalHumanae vitae(1968) condemning artificial contraception.RevisedtheRoman Missal(1969). Italian citizen. Abolished the coronation and opted for thepapal inauguration. First pope to use 'the First' in papal name; first with two names for two immediate predecessors. Last pope to use thesedia gestatoria. Polish citizen, first pope of Slavic origin. First non-Italian pope sinceAdrian VI(1522–1523). Travelled extensively,visiting 129 countriesduring his pontificate. Second-longest reign afterPius IX. FoundedWorld Youth Day(1984) and thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences(1994). Canonized more saints than all his predecessors. Youngest individual to start his papacy since Pius IX (1846). 3rd millennium 21st century German citizen. Oldest to become pope sinceClement XII(1730).ElevatedtheTridentine Massto a more prominent position and promoted the use ofLatin; re-introduced several disused papal garments. Authorized the creation ofAnglican ordinariates(2009). First pope torenounce the", "pope torenounce the papacyon his own initiative sinceCelestine V(1294),becomingpope emeritus.Longest-lived pope on record.Died on 31 December 2022, in Vatican. Argentine citizen. First pope to be born outside Europe sinceGregory III(731–741) and the first from the Americas; first pope from the Southern Hemisphere. First pope from areligious institutesinceGregory XVI(1831–1846); firstJesuitpope. First to use a new and non-composed regnal name sinceLando(913–914). First pope to visit and celebrate a mass on theArabian Peninsula. Religious orders 51 popes and 6antipopes(in italics) have been members ofreligious orders, including 12 members ofthird orders. They are listed by order as follows: Numbering of popes Regnal numbersfollow the usual convention for European monarchs. The first pope who chooses a unique name is not usually identified by an ordinal,John Paul Ibeing the exception. Antipopes are treated aspretenders, and their numbers are reused by those considered to be legitimate popes. However, there are", "However, there are anomalies in the numbering of the popes. Several numbers were mistakenly increased in the Middle Ages because the records were misunderstood. Several antipopes were also kept in the sequence, either by mistake or because they were previously considered to be true popes. See also Lists Notes References Sources External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory#", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow#", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak#" ]

[ "Miasma theory Themiasma theory(also called themiasmic theory) is anabandoned medical theorythat held thatdiseases—such ascholera,chlamydia, or theBlack Death—were caused by amiasma(μίασμα,Ancient Greekfor 'pollution'), a noxious form of \"bad air\", also known asnight air. The theory held thatepidemicswere caused by miasma, emanating from rotting organic matter.Though miasma theory is typically associated with the spread ofcontagious diseases, some academics in the early nineteenth century suggested that the theory extended to other conditions as well, e.g. one could become obese by inhaling the odor of food. The miasma theory was advanced byHippocratesin the fourth century B.C.,and accepted from ancient times inEuropeandChina. The theory was eventually abandoned byscientistsandphysiciansafter 1880, replaced by thegerm theory of disease: specific germs, not miasma, caused specific diseases. However, cultural beliefs about getting rid of odor made theclean-up of wastea high priority for cities.It also encouraged the construction of well-ventilated hospital facilities, schools and other buildings. Etymology The wordmiasmacomes from ancient Greek and though conceptually, there is no word in English that has the same exact meaning, it can be loosely translated as 'stain' or 'pollution'. The idea later gave rise to the namemalaria(literally 'bad air' inMedieval Italian). Views worldwide Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that caused illnesses. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infection was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell. It was also initially believed that miasmas were propagated through worms from ulcers within those affected by a plague. Europe In the fifth or fourth century BC, Hippocrates wrote about the effects of the environs over the human diseases: Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces for they are not at all alike, but differ much from themselves in regard to their changes. Then the winds, the hot and the cold, especially such as are common to all countries, and then such as are peculiar to each locality. We must also consider the qualities of the waters, for as they differ from one another in taste and weight, so also do they differ much in their qualities. In the same manner, when one comes into a city to which he is a stranger, he ought to consider its situation, how it lies as to the winds and the rising of the sun; for its influence is not the same whether it lies to the north or the south, to the rising or to the setting sun. These things one ought to consider most attentively, and concerning the waters which the inhabitants use, whether they be marshy and soft, or hard, and running from elevated and rocky situations, and then if saltish and unfit for cooking; and the ground, whether it be naked and deficient in water, or wooded and well watered, and whether it lies in a hollow, confined situation, or is elevated and cold; and the mode in which the inhabitants live, and what are their pursuits, whether they are fond of drinking and eating to excess, and given to indolence, or are fond of exercise and labor, and not given to excess in eating and drinking. In the 1st century BC, the Roman architectural writerVitruviusdescribed the potential effects of miasma (Latinnebula) from fetid swamplands when visiting a city: For when the morning breezes blow toward the town at sunrise, if they bring with them mist from marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of creatures of the marshes to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site unhealthy. The miasmatic theory of disease remained popular in theMiddle Agesand a sense ofeffluviacontributed to Robert Boyle'sSuspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air. In the 1850s, miasma was used to explain the spread ofcholerainLondonand inParis, partly justifyingHaussmann's later renovation of the French capital. The disease was said to be preventable by cleansing and scouring of the body and items.Dr. William Farr, the assistant commissioner for the 1851 London census, was an important supporter of the miasma theory. He believed that cholera was transmitted by air, and that there was a deadly concentration ofmiasmatanear theRiver Thames' banks. Such a belief was in part accepted because of the general lack ofair qualityin urbanized areas.The wide acceptance of miasma theory during the cholera outbreaks overshadowed the partially correct theory brought forth byJohn Snowthat cholera was spread through water. This slowed the response to the major outbreaks in the Soho district of London and other areas. TheCrimean WarnurseFlorence Nightingale(1820–1910)was a proponent of the theory and worked to make hospitals sanitary and fresh-smelling. It was stated in 'Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes' (1860) that Nightingale would \"keep the air breathes as pure as the external air.\" Fear of miasma registered in many early nineteenth-century warnings concerning what was termed \"unhealthy fog\". The presence of fog was thought to strongly indicate the presence of miasma. The miasmas were thought to behave like smoke or mist, blown with air currents, wafted by winds. It was thought that miasma did not simply travel on air but changed the air through which it propagated; the atmosphere was infected by miasma, as diseased people were. China In China, miasma (Chinese:瘴氣;pinyin:Zhàngqì; alternative names瘴毒,瘴癘) is an old concept of illness, used extensively by ancient Chinese local chronicles and works of literature. Miasma has different names in Chinese culture. Most of the explanations of miasma refer to it as a kind of sickness, or poison gas. The ancient Chinese thought that miasma was related to the environment of parts of Southern China. The miasma was thought to be caused by the heat, moisture and the dead air in the Southern Chinese mountains. They thought that insects' waste polluted the air, the fog, and the water, and the virgin forest harbored a great environment for miasma to occur. In descriptions by ancient travelers, soldiers, or local officials (most of them are men of letters) of the phenomenon of miasma, fog, haze, dust, gas, or poison geological gassing were always mentioned. The miasma was thought to have caused a lot of diseases such as the cold, influenza, heat strokes,malaria, or dysentery. In the medical history of China, malaria had been referred to by different names in different dynasty periods. Poisoning andpsittacosiswere also called miasma in ancient China because they did not accurately understand the cause of disease. In theSui dynasty(581–618 CE), doctorChao Yuanfangmentioned miasma in his bookOn Pathogen and Syndromes(諸病源候論). He thought that miasma in Southern China was similar totyphoid feverin Northern China. However, in his opinion, miasma was different from malaria anddysentery. In his book, he discussed dysentery in another chapter, and malaria in a single chapter. He also claimed that miasma caused various diseases, so he suggested that one should find apt and specific ways to resolve problems. The concept of miasma developed in several stages. First, before the WesternJin dynasty, the concept of miasma was gradually forming; at least, in the EasternHan dynasty, there was no description of miasma. During the Eastern Jin, large numbers of northern people moved south, and miasma was then recognized by men of letters and nobility. After the Sui and theTang dynasty, scholars-bureaucrats sent to be the local officials recorded and investigated miasma. As a result, the government became concerned about the severe cases and the causes of miasma by sending doctors to the areas of epidemic to research the disease and heal the patients. In theMing dynastyandQing dynasty, versions of local chronicles record different miasma in different places. However, Southern China was highly developed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The environment changed rapidly, and after the 19th century, western science and medical knowledge were introduced into China, and people knew how to distinguish and deal with the disease. The concept of miasma therefore faded out due to the progress of medicine in China. Influence in Southern China The terrifying miasma diseases in the southern regions of China made it the primary location for relegating officials and sending criminals to exile since the Qin-Han dynasty. PoetHan Yu(韓愈) of theTang dynasty, for example, wrote to his nephew who came to see him off after his banishment to the Chao Prefecture in his poem,En Route(左遷至藍關示姪孫湘): At dawn I sent a single warning to the throne of the Nine Steps;At evening I was banished to Chao Yang, eight thousand leagues.Striving on behalf of a noble dynasty to expel an ignoble government,How should I, withered and worn, deplore my future lot?The clouds gather on Ch'in Mountains, I cannot see my home;The snow bars the passes of Lan, my horse cannot go forward.But I know that you will come from afar, to fulfil your set purpose, And lovingly gather my bones, on the banks of that plague-stricken river. The prevalent belief and predominant fear of the southern region with its \"poisonous air and gases\" is evident in historical documents. Similar topics and feelings toward the miasma-infected south are often reflected in early Chinese poetry and records. Most scholars of the time agreed that the geological environments in the south had a direct impact on the population composition and growth. Many historical records reflect that females were less prone to miasma infection, and mortality rates were much higher in the south, especially for the men. This directly influenced agriculture cultivation and the southern economy, as men were the engine of agriculture production. Zhou Qufei (周去非), a local magistrate from theSouthern Song dynasty, described in his treatiseRepresentative Answers from the South: \"... The men are short and tan, while the women were plump and seldom came down with illness,\"and exclaimed at the populous female population in theGuangxiregion. This inherent environmental threat also prevented immigration from other regions. Hence, development in the damp and sultry south was much slower than in the north, where the dynasties' political power resided for much of early Chinese history. India InIndia, there was also a miasma theory. Gambir was considered the first antimiasmatic application. Thisgambir treeis found in Southern India and Sri Lanka. Developments from 19th century onwards Zymotic theory Based onzymotictheory, people believed vapors calledmiasmata(singular:miasma) rose from the soil and spread diseases. Miasmata were believed to come from rotting vegetation and foul water—especially inswampsand urbanghettos. Many people, especially the weak or infirm, avoided breathing night air by going indoors and keeping windows and doors shut. In addition to ideas associated with zymotic theory, there was also a general fear that cold or cool air spread disease. The fear of night air gradually disappeared as understanding about disease increased as well as with improvements in home heating andventilation. Particularly important was the understanding that the agent spreadingmalariawas themosquito(active at night) rather than miasmata. Contagionism versus miasmatism Prior to the late 19th century,night airwas considered dangerous in most Western cultures. Throughout the 19th century, the medical community was divided on the explanation for disease proliferation. On one side were the contagionists, believing disease was passed through physical contact, while others believed disease was present in the air in the form of miasma, and thus could proliferate without physical contact. Two members of the latter group were Dr. Thomas S. Smith and Florence Nightingale. Thomas Southwood Smithspent many years comparing the miasmatic theory to contagionism. To assume the method of propagation by touch, whether by the person or of infected articles, and to overlook that by the corruption of the air, is at once to increase the real danger, from exposure to noxious effluvia, and to divert attention from the true means of remedy and prevention. Florence Nightingale: The idea of \"contagion\", as explaining the spread of disease, appears to have been adopted at a time when, from the neglect of sanitary arrangements, epidemics attacked whole masses of people, and when men had ceased to consider that nature had any laws for her guidance. Beginning with the poets and historians, the word finally made its way into scientific nomenclature, where it has remained ever since a satisfactory explanation for pestilence and an adequate excuse for non-exertion to prevent its recurrence. The currentgerm theoryaccounts for disease proliferation by both direct and indirect physical contact. Influence on sanitary engineering reforms In the early 19th century, the living conditions in industrialized cities in Britain were increasingly unsanitary. The population was growing at a much faster rate than the infrastructure could support. For example, the population of Manchester doubled within a single decade, leading to overcrowding and a significant increase in waste accumulation.The miasma theory of disease made sense to the sanitary reformers of the mid-19th century. Miasmas explained whycholeraand other diseases were epidemic in places where the water was stagnant and foul-smelling. A leading sanitary reformer, London'sEdwin Chadwick, asserted that \"all smell is disease\", and maintained that a fundamental change in the structure of sanitation systems was needed to combat increasing urban mortality rates. Chadwick saw the problem of cholera and typhoid epidemics as being directly related to urbanization, and he proposed that new, independent sewerage systems should be connected to homes. Chadwick supported his proposal with reports from theLondon Statistical Societywhich showed dramatic increases in both morbidity and mortality rates since the beginning of urbanization in the early 19th century.Though Chadwick proposed reform on the basis of the miasma theory, his proposals did contribute to improvements insanitation, such as preventing the reflux of noxious air from sewers back into houses by using separate drainage systems in the design of sanitation. That led, incidentally, to decreased outbreaks ofcholeraand thus helped to support the theory. The miasma theory was consistent with the observation that disease was associated with poor sanitation, and hence foul odours, and that sanitary improvements reduced disease. However, it was inconsistent with the findings arising frommicrobiologyandbacteriologyin the later 19th century, which eventually led to the adoption of thegerm theory of disease, although consensus was not reached immediately. Concerns oversewer gas, which was a major component of the miasma theory developed byGalen, and brought to prominence by the \"Great Stink\" in London in the summer of 1858, led proponents of the theory to observe that sewers enclosed the refuse of the human bowel, which medical science had discovered could teem withtyphoid, cholera, and othermicrobes. In 1846, the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Actwas passed to identify whether the transmission of cholera was by air or by water. The act was used to encourage owners to clean their dwellings and connect them to sewers. Even though eventually disproved by the understanding ofbacteriaand the discovery ofviruses, the miasma theory helped establish the connection between poor sanitation and disease. That encouraged cleanliness and spurred public health reforms which, in Britain, led to the Public Health Actsof 1848 and 1858, and the Local Government Act of 1858. The latter of those enabled the instituting of investigations into the health and sanitary regulations of any town or place, upon the petition of residents or as a result of death rates exceeding the norm. Early medical and sanitary engineering reformers included Henry Austin,Joseph Bazalgette,Edwin Chadwick, Frank Forster,Thomas Hawksley,William Haywood,Henry Letheby,Robert Rawlinson,John Simon,John SnowandThomas Wicksteed.Their efforts, and associated British regulatory improvements, were reported in the United States as early as 1865. Particularly notable in 19th century sanitation reform is the work of Joseph Bazalgette, chief engineer to London'sMetropolitan Board of Works. Encouraged by the Great Stink, Parliament sanctioned Bazalgette to design and construct a comprehensive system of sewers, which intercepted London's sewage and diverted it away from its water supply. The system helped purify London's water and saved the city from epidemics. In 1866, the last of the three great British cholera epidemics took hold in a small area ofWhitechapel. However, the area was not yet connected to Bazalgette's system, and the confined area of the epidemic acted as testament to the efficiency of the system's design. Years later, the influence of those sanitary reforms on Britain was described byRichard Rogers: London was the first city to create a complex civic administration which could coordinate modern urban services, from public transport to housing, clean water to education. London's County Council was acknowledged as the most progressive metropolitan government in the world. Fifty years earlier, London had been the worst slum city of the industrialized world: over-crowded, congested, polluted and ridden with disease... The miasma theory did contribute to containing disease in urban settlements, but did not allow the adoption of a suitable approach to the reuse of excreta in agriculture.It was a major factor in the practice of collecting human excreta from urban settlements and reusing them in the surrounding farmland. That type ofresource recoveryscheme was common in major cities in the 19th century before the introduction of sewer-based sanitation systems.Nowadays, the reuse of excreta, when done in a hygienic manner, is known asecological sanitation, and is promoted as a way of \"closing the loop\". Throughout the 19th century, concern about public health and sanitation, along with the influence of the miasma theory, were reasons for the advocacy of the then-controversial practice ofcremation. If infectious diseases were spread by noxious gases emitted from decaying organic matter, that included decaying corpses. The public health argument for cremation faded with the eclipsing of the miasma theory of disease. Replacement by germ theory Although the connection between germ and disease was proposed quite early, it was not until the late 1800s that the germ theory was generally accepted. The miasmatic theory was challenged byJohn Snow, suggesting that there was some means by which the disease was spread via a poison or morbid material (orig:materies morbi) in the water.He suggested this before and in response to a cholera epidemic on Broad Street in central London in 1854.Because of the miasmatic theory's predominance among Italian scientists, the discovery in the same year byFilippo Paciniof thebacillusthat caused the disease was completely ignored. It was not until 1876 thatRobert Kochproved that the bacteriumBacillus anthraciscausedanthrax,which brought a definitive end to miasma theory. 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak The work ofJohn Snowis notable for helping to make the connection between cholera and typhoid epidemics and contaminated water sources, which contributed to the eventual demise of miasma theory. During thecholera epidemic of 1854, Snow traced high mortality rates among the citizens ofSohoto a water pump inBroad Street. Snow convinced the local government to remove the pump handle, which resulted in a marked decrease in cases of cholera in the area. In 1857, Snow submitted a paper to theBritish Medical Journalwhich attributed high numbers of cholera cases to water sources that were contaminated with human waste. Snow used statistical data to show that citizens who received their water from upstream sources were considerably less likely to develop cholera than those who received their water from downstream sources. Though his research supported his hypothesis that contaminated water, not foul air, was the source of cholera epidemics, a review committee concluded that Snow's findings were not significant enough to warrant change, and they were summarily dismissed. Additionally, other interests intervened in the process of reform. Many water companies and civic authorities pumped water directly from contaminated sources such as the Thames to public wells, and the idea of changing sources or implementing filtration techniques was an unattractive economic prospect. In the face of such economic interests, reform was slow to be adopted. In 1855, John Snow made a testimony against the Amendment to the \"Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act\" that regularized air pollution of some industries. He claimed that: That is possible; but I believe that the poison of the cholera is either swallowed in water, or got directly from some other person in the family, or in the room; I believe it is quite an exception for it to be conveyed in the air; though if the matter gets dry it may be wafted a short distance. The same year,William Farr, who was then the major supporter of the miasma theory, issued a report to criticize the germ theory. Farr and the Committee wrote that: After careful inquiry, we see no reason to adopt this belief. We do not feel it established that the water was contaminated in the manner alleged; nor is there before us any sufficient evidence to show whether inhabitants of that district, drinking from that well, suffered in proportion more than other inhabitants of the district who drank from other sources. Experiments by Louis Pasteur The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted byLouis Pasteurbetween 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of thepuerperal feverand the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested usingboric acidto kill these microorganisms before and after confinement. By 1866, eight years after the death of John Snow, William Farr publicly acknowledged that the miasma theory on the transmission of cholera was wrong, by his statistical justification on the death rate. Anthrax Robert Kochis widely known for his work withanthrax, discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to beBacillus anthracis.He published the discovery in a booklet asDie Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis(The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis) in 1876 while working in Wöllstein.His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacteriummarked the first photography of a bacterium.He discovered the formation ofsporesin anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions.However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease.To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope.His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea ofspontaneous generationand supporting the germ theory of disease. See also References Further reading External links", "John Snow John Snow(15 March 1813 – 16 June 1858) was an English physician and a leader in the development ofanaesthesiaandmedical hygiene. He is considered one of the founders of modernepidemiologyand earlygerm theory, in part because of his work in tracing the source of acholera outbreak in London's Soho, which he identified as a particular public water pump. Snow's findings inspired fundamental changes in the water andwaste systems of London, which led to similar changes in other cities, and a significant improvement in generalpublic healtharound the world. Early life and education Snow was born on 15 March 1813 inYork, England, the first of nine children born to William and Frances Snow in theirNorth Streethome, and was baptised atAll Saints' Church, North Street, York. His father was a labourerwho worked at a local coal yard, by the Ouse, constantly replenished from the Yorkshire coalfield by barges, but later was a farmer in a small village to the north of York. The neighbourhood was one of the poorest in the city, and was frequently in danger of flooding because of its proximity to theRiver Ouse. Growing up, Snow experienced unsanitary conditions and contamination in his hometown. Most of the streets were unsanitary and the river was contaminated by runoff water from market squares, cemeteries and sewage. From a young age, Snow demonstrated an aptitude for mathematics. In 1827, when he was 14, he obtained a medical apprenticeship with William Hardcastle in the area ofNewcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1832, during his time as a surgeon-apothecary apprentice, he encountereda cholera epidemicfor the first time inKillingworth, a coal-mining village.Snow treated many victims of the disease and thus gained experience. Eventually he adjusted toteetotalismand led a life characterized by abstinence, signing anabstinence pledgein 1835. Snow was also a vegetarian and tried to only drink distilled water that was \"pure\".Between 1832 and 1835 Snow worked as an assistant to acollierysurgeon, first inBurnopfield, County Durham, and then inPateley Bridge,West Riding of Yorkshire. In October 1836 he enrolled at theHunterian school of medicineonGreat Windmill Street, London. Career In the 1830s, Snow's colleague at theNewcastle Infirmarywas surgeonThomas Michael Greenhow. The surgeons worked together conducting research on England'scholeraepidemics, both continuing to do so for many years. In 1837, Snow began working at theWestminster Hospital. Admitted as a member of theRoyal College of Surgeons of Englandon 2 May 1838, he graduated from theUniversity of Londonin December 1844 and was admitted to theRoyal College of Physiciansin 1850. Snow was a founding member of theEpidemiological Society of Londonwhich was formed in May 1850 in response to the cholera outbreak of 1849. By 1856, Snow and Greenhow's nephew,Dr. E.H. Greenhowwere some of a handful of esteemed medical men of the society who held discussions on this \"dreadful scourge, thecholera\". After finishing his medical studies in theUniversity of London, he earned his MD in 1844. Snow set up his practice at 54 Frith Street in Soho as a surgeon and general practitioner. John Snow contributed to a wide range of medical concerns includinganaesthesiology. He was a member of theWestminster Medical Society, an organisation dedicated to clinical and scientific demonstrations. Snow gained prestige and recognition all the while being able to experiment and pursue many of his scientific ideas. He was a speaker multiple times at the society's meetings and he also wrote and published articles. He was especially interested in patients with respiratory diseases and tested his hypothesis through animal studies. In 1841, he wrote,On Asphyxiation, and on the Resuscitation of Still-Born Children, which is an article that discusses his discoveries on the physiology of neonatal respiration, oxygen consumption and the effects of body temperature change. In 1857, Snow made an early and often overlookedcontribution to epidemiology in a pamphlet,On the adulteration of bread as a cause ofrickets. Anaesthesia Snow's interest inanaesthesiaand breathing was evident from 1841 and beginning in 1843, he experimented withetherto see its effects on respiration.Only a year after ether was introduced to Britain, in 1847, he published a short work titled,On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether,which served as a guide for its use. At the same time, he worked on various papers that reported his clinical experience with anaesthesia, noting reactions, procedures and experiments. Within two years of ether being introduced, Snow was the most accomplished anaesthetist in Britain. London's principal surgeons suddenly wanted his assistance. As well as ether, John Snow studiedchloroform, which was introduced in 1847 byJames Young Simpson, a Scottish obstetrician. He realised that chloroform was much more potent and required more attention and precision when administering it. Snow first realised this with Hannah Greener, a 15-year-old patient who died on 28 January 1848 after a surgical procedure that required the cutting of her toenail. She was administered chloroform by covering her face with a cloth dipped in the substance. However, she quickly lost pulse and died. After investigating her death and a couple of deaths that followed, he realized that chloroform had to be administered carefully and published his findings in a letter toThe Lancet. John Snow was one of the first physicians to study and calculate dosages for the use of ether and chloroform as surgicalanaesthetics, allowing patients to undergo surgical andobstetricprocedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. He designed the apparatus to safely administer ether to the patients and also designed a mask to administer chloroform.Snow published an article on ether in 1847 entitledOn the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether.A longer version entitledOn Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administrationwas published posthumously in 1858. Although he thoroughly worked with ether as an anaesthetic, he never attempted to patent it; instead, he continued to work and publish written works on his observations and research. Obstetric anaesthesia Snow's work and findings were related to both anaesthesia and the practice of childbirth. His experience with obstetric patients was extensive and used different substances including ether,amyleneand chloroform to treat his patients. However, chloroform was the easiest drug to administer. He treated 77 obstetric patients with chloroform. He would apply the chloroform at the second stage of labour and controlled the amount without completely putting the patients to sleep. Once the patient was delivering the baby, they would only feel the first half of the contraction and be on the border of unconsciousness, but not fully there. Regarding administration of the anaesthetic, Snow believed that it would be safer if another person that was not the surgeon applied it. The use of chloroform as an anaesthetic for childbirth was seen as unethical by many physicians and even theChurch of England. However, on 7 April 1853,Queen Victoriaasked John Snow to administer chloroform during the delivery of her eighth child,Leopold. He then repeated the procedure for the delivery of her daughterBeatricein 1857.This led to wider acceptance of obstetrical anaesthesia. Cholera Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominantmiasma theorythat stated that diseases such as cholera andbubonic plaguewere caused by pollution or a noxious form of \"bad air\". Thegerm theory of diseasehad not yet been developed, so Snow did not understand the mechanism by which the disease was transmitted. His observation of the evidence led him to discount the theory of foul air. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay,On the Mode of Communication of Cholera,followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in theSohoepidemic of 1854. By talking to local residents (with the help ofHenry Whitehead), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (nowBroadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from theBroad Street pumpdid not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle (force rod). This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline: There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it.: 51–52 Snow later used adot mapto illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that homes supplied by theSouthwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, which was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of theThames, had a cholera rate fourteen times that of those supplied byLambeth Waterworks Company, which obtained water from the upriver, cleanerSeething Wells.Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science ofepidemiology. Snow wrote: On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street... With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally... The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump well. I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst , and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day. Researchers later discovered that this public well had been dug only 3 feet (0.9 m) from an oldcesspit, which had begun to leak faecal bacteria. The cloth nappy of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil. Thomas Shapterhad conducted similar studies and used a point-based map for the study of cholera inExeter, seven years before John Snow, although this did not identify the water supply problem that was later held responsible. Political controversy After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the fecal-oral route of disease transmission, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate. It was not until 1866 thatWilliam Farr, one of Snow's chief opponents, realised the validity of his diagnosis when investigating another outbreak of cholera atBromley by Bowand issued immediate orders that unboiled water was not to be drunk. Farr denied Snow's explanation of how exactly the contaminated water spread cholera, although he did accept that water had a role in the spread of the illness. In fact, some of the statistical data that Farr collected helped promote John Snow's views. Public health officials recognise the political struggles in which reformers have often become entangled.During the annualPumphandle Lecturein England, members of theJohn Snow Societyremove and replace a pump handle to symbolise the continuing challenges for advances in public health. Personal life Snow was known to swim as a hobby for exercise.He became avegetarianat the age of 17 and was ateetotaller.He embraced alacto-ovo vegetariandiet by supplementing his vegetables with dairy products and eggs for eight years. Whilst in his thirties he became avegan.His health deteriorated and he suffered arenal disorderwhich he attributed to his vegan diet so he took up meat-eating and drinking wine.He continued drinking pure water (via boiling) throughout his adult life. He never married. In 1830, Snow became a member of thetemperance movement. In 1845, he became a member of York Temperance Society.After his health declined it was only about 1845 that he consumed a little wine to aid digestion. Snow lived at 18Sackville Street, London, from 1852 to his death in 1858. Snow suffered a stroke while working in his London office on 10 June 1858. He was 45 years old at the time.He never recovered, dying six days later on 16 June 1858. He was buried inBrompton Cemetery. It has been speculated that his premature death may have been related to his frequent exposure and experimentation with anesthetic gases, which is now known to have numerous adverse health effects. Snow administered and experimented with ether, chloroform, ethyl nitrate, carbon disulfide, benzene, bromoform, ethyl bromide and dichloroethane during his lifetime. Legacy and honours See also References Sources Further reading External links", "1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak TheBroad Street cholera outbreak(orGolden Square outbreak) was a severeoutbreakofcholerathat occurred in 1854 near Broad Street (nowBroadwick Street) inSoho,London,England, and occurred during the1846–1860 cholera pandemichappening worldwide. This outbreak, which killed 616 people, is best known for the physicianJohn Snow's study of its causes and his hypothesis thatgerm-contaminated waterwas the source of cholera, rather than particles in the air (referred to as \"miasma\").This discovery came to influencepublic healthand the construction of improvedsanitationfacilities beginning in the mid-19th century. Later, the term \"focus of infection\" started to be used to describe sites, such as the Broad Street pump, in which conditions are favourable for transmission of an infection. Snow's endeavour to find the cause of the transmission of cholera caused him to unknowingly create adouble-blind experiment. Background In the mid-19th century, Soho in London had a serious problem with filth due to the large influx of people and a lack of proper sanitary services: the London sewer system had not reached Soho. Cowsheds, slaughter houses and grease-boiling dens lined the streets and contributed animal droppings, rotting fluids and other contaminants to the primitive Soho sewer system.Manycellarshadcesspoolsunderneath their floorboards, which formed from the sewers and filth seeping in from the outside.Since the cesspools were overrunning, the London government decided to dump the waste into theRiver Thames, contaminating the water supply.London had already suffered from a \"series of debilitating cholera outbreaks\".These included outbreaks in 1832 and 1849 which killed a total of 14,137 people. Competing theories of cholera Preceding the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, physicians and scientists held two competing theories on the causes of cholera in the human body: miasma theory and germ theory.The London medical community debated between these causes for the persistent cholera outbreaks in the city. The cholera-causing bacteriumVibrio choleraewas isolated in 1854, but the finding did not become well known and accepted until decades later. Miasma theory Miasma theorists concluded that cholera was caused by particles in the air, or \"miasmata\", which arose from decomposing matter or other dirty organic sources. \"Miasma\" particles were thought to travel through the air and infect individuals, and thus cause cholera.DrWilliam Farr, the commissioner for the 1851 London census and a member of the General Register's Office, believed that miasma arose from the soil surrounding the River Thames. It contained decaying organic matter which contained miasmatic particles and was released into the London air. Miasma theorists believed in \"cleansing and scouring, rather than through the purer scientific approach of microbiology\".Farr later agreed with Snow's germ theory following Snow's publications. Germ theory In contrast, the germ theory held that the principal cause of cholera was a germ cell that had not yet been identified. Snow theorised that this unknown germ was transmitted from person to person by individuals ingesting water.John Simon, a pathologist and the lead medical officer for London, labelled Snow's germ theory as \"peculiar\". Excerpt from John Simon: This doctrine is, that cholera propagates itself by a 'morbid matter' which, passing from one patient in his evacuations, is accidentally swallowed by other persons as a pollution of food or water; that an increase of the swallowed germ of the disease takes place in the interior of the stomach and bowels, giving rise to the essential actions of cholera, as at first a local derangement; and that 'the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind must necessarily have some sort of structure, most likely that of a cell. Even though Simon understood Snow's theory, he questioned its relation to the cause of cholera. Broad Street outbreak On 31 August 1854, after several other outbreaks had occurred elsewhere in the city, a major outbreak of cholera occurred in Soho. Snow later called it \"the most terrible outbreak of cholera which ever occurred in this kingdom.\" Over the next three days, 127 people on or near Broad Street died. During the next week, three quarters of the residents had fled the area. By 10 September, more than 500 people had died and the mortality rate was 12.8 per thousand inhabitants in some parts of the city.By the end of the outbreak, 616 people had died. Many of the victims were taken to theMiddlesex Hospital, where their treatment was superintended byFlorence Nightingale, who briefly joined the hospital in early September in order to help with the outbreak. According to a letter fromElizabeth Gaskell, \"She herself was up night and day from Friday afternoon (Sept. 1) to Sunday afternoon, receiving the poor creatures (chiefly fallen women of that neighbourhood - they had it the worst) who were being constantly brought in - - undressing them - putting onturpentinestupes, et cetera, doing it herself to as many as she could manage\". By talking to local residents (with the help ofReverend Henry Whitehead), Snow identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (nowBroadwick Street) at Cambridge Street. Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a sample of the water from thisBroad Street pumpwater did not conclusively prove its danger, his facts about the patterns of illness and death among residents in Soho persuaded theSt Jamesparish authorities to disable the well pump by removing its handle. Although this action has been popularly reported as ending the outbreak, the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline, as explained by Snow: There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it. Snow later used adot mapto illustrate how cases of cholera occurred around this pump.Snow's efforts to connect the incidence of cholera with potential geographic sources was based on creating what is now known as aVoronoi diagram. He mapped the locations of individual water pumps and generated cells which represented all the points on his map which were closest to each pump. The section of Snow's map representing areas in the city where the closest available source of water was the Broad Street pump included the highest incidence of cholera cases. Snow also performed a statistical comparison between theSouthwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, and a waterworks atSeething Wells(owned by theLambeth Waterworks Company) that was further upriver and hence had cleaner water; he showed that houses supplied by the former had a cholera mortality rate 14 times that of those supplied by the latter. Regarding the decline in cases related to the Broad Street pump, Snow said: It will be observed that the deaths either very much diminished, or ceased altogether, at every point where it becomes decidedly nearer to send to another pump than to the one in Broad street. It may also be noticed that the deaths are most numerous near to the pump where the water could be more readily obtained. There was one significant anomaly—none of the workers in the nearby Broad Streetbrewerycontracted cholera. As they were given a daily allowance of beer, they did not consume water from the nearby well.During the brewing process, thewort(or un-fermented beer) is boiled in part so thathopscan be added. This step killed the cholera bacteria in the water they had used to brew with, making it safe to drink. Snow showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering it to homes, resulting in an increased incidence of cholera among its customers. Snow's study is part of the history ofpublic healthandhealth geography. It is regarded as the founding event ofepidemiology. In Snow's own words: On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street ... With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump-water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally ... The result of the inquiry then was, that there had been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump-well. I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St. James's parish, on the evening of Thursday, the 7th September, and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day. It was discovered later that this public well had been dug 3 feet (0.9 m) from an oldcesspitthat had begun to leak faecal bacteria. Waste water from washingnappies, used by a baby who had contracted cholera from another source, drained into this cesspit. Its opening was under a nearby house that had been rebuilt further away after a fire and a street widening. At the time there were cesspits under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil. At the same time, an investigation of cholera transmission was being conducted inDeptford. Around 90 people died within a few days in that town, where the water was known to be clean, and there had been no previous outbreaks of cholera. Snow was informed that the water had recently turned impure. Residents were forced to let the water run for a while before using it, in order to let the sudsy, sewer-like water run until it was clear. Snow, finding that the water the residents were using was not different from the usual water from their pump, determined that the outbreak must be caused by a leak in the pipes that allowed surrounding sewage and its contaminants to seep in to the water supply. This scenario was similar to that of the Broad Street outbreak. The incoming water was being contaminated by the increasing levels of sewage, coupled with the lack of proper and safe plumbing. After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterwards they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the oral-faecal method of transmission of disease, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate. Investigation by John Snow The Broad Street outbreak was an effect rather than a cause of the epidemic. Snow's conclusions were not predominantly based on the Broad Street outbreak, as he noted that he hesitated to come to a conclusion based on a population that had predominantly fled the neighbourhood and redistributed itself. He feared throwing off results of the study. From a mathematics perspective, John Snow's innovation was focusing on death rates in areas served by two water companies which drew water from the River Thames, rather than basing it on data from victims of the Broad Street pump (which drew water from a well). Snow's work also led to a far greater health and safety impact than the removal of the Broad Street pump handle. Deactivating the pump \"hardly made a dent in the citywide cholera epidemic, which went on to claim nearly 3,000 lives\". Snow was sceptical of the prevailingmiasma theory, which held that diseases such as cholera or theBlack Deathwere caused by pollution or a noxious form of \"bad air\". Thegerm theorywas not established at this point (Louis Pasteurdid not propose it until 1861). Snow did not understand the mechanism by which disease was transmitted, but the evidence led him to believe that it was not due to breathing foul air. Based on the pattern of illness among residents, Snow hypothesized that cholera was spread by an agent in contaminated water.He first published his theory in 1849, in an essay titled \"On the Mode of Communication of Cholera\".In 1855 he published a second edition, including a more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the 1854 Soho outbreak. The cholera epidemic of 1849–1854 was also related to the water supplied by companies in London at the time. The main players were theSouthwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, and theLambeth Waterworks Company. Both companies provided water to their customers that was drawn from the River Thames, which was highly contaminated with visible and invisible products and bacteria. Dr Hassall examined the filtered water and found it contained animal hair, among other foul substances. He made the remark that: It will be observed, that the water of the companies of the Surrey Side of London, viz., the Southwark, Vauxhall, and Lambeth, is by far the worst of all those who take their supply from the Thames Other companies, such as theNew River CompanyandChelsea Waterworks Company, were observed to have better filtered water; few deaths occurred in the neighbourhoods which they supplied. These two companies not only obtained their water from cleaner sources than the Thames, but they filtered the water and treated it until there were no obvious contaminants. As mentioned above, Snow is known for his influence on public health, which arose after his studies of the cholera epidemic. In attempting to figure out who was receiving impure water in each neighbourhood, what is now known as a double-blind experiment fell right into his lap. He describes the conditions of the situation in his essays: In many cases a single house has a supply different from that on either side. Each company supplies both rich and poor, both large houses and small; there is no difference in the condition or occupation of the persons receiving the water of the different companies...As there is no difference whatever either in the houses or the people receiving the supply of the two Water Companies, or in any of the physical conditions with which they are surrounded, it is obvious that no experiment could have been devised which would more thoroughly test the effect of water supply on the progress of Cholera than this, which circumstances placed ready made before the observer. The experiment too, was on the grandest scale. No fewer than three hundred thousand people of both sexes, of every age and occupation, and of every rank and station, from gentlefolks down to the very poor, were divided into two groups without their choice, and, in most cases, without their knowledge; one group being supplied water containing the sewage of London, and amongst it, whatever might have come from the cholera patients, the other group having water quite free from such impurity. Snow went on to study the water contents from each home through a test performed on each sample. In this way, it could be deduced from which supplier the home was receiving their water. He concluded that it was indeed impure water from the big companies that allowed the spread of cholera to progress rapidly. He went on to prove his theory through the observation of prisons in London, finding that cholera ceased in these places only a few days after switching to cleaner water sources. Snow's post-outbreak evaluation Snow's analysis of cholera and cholera outbreaks extended past the closure of the Broad Street pump. He concluded that cholera was transmitted through and affected the alimentary canal within the human body. Cholera did not affect either the circulatory or the nervous system and there was no \"poison in the blood...in the consecutive fever...the blood became poisoned fromureagetting into the circulation\".According to Snow, this \"urea\" entered the blood through kidney failure. (Acute kidney failure is a complication of cholera.) Therefore, the fever was caused by kidney failure, not by a poison already present in the subject's bloodstream. Popular medical practices, such as bloodletting, could not be effective in such a case. Snow also argued that cholera was not a product of Miasma. \"There was nothing in the air to account for the spread of cholera\".According to Snow, cholera was spread by persons ingesting a substance, not through atmospheric transmittal. Involvement of Henry Whitehead TheReverend Henry Whiteheadwas an assistantcurateat St. Luke's church in Soho during the 1854 cholera outbreak. A former believer in themiasma theory of disease, Whitehead worked to disprove false theories. He was influenced by Snow's theory that cholera spreads by consumption of water contaminated by human waste. Snow's work, particularly his maps of the Soho area cholera victims, convinced Whitehead that the Broad Street pump was the source of the local infections. Whitehead joined Snow in tracking the contamination to a faulty cesspool and the outbreak'sindex case(the baby with cholera). Whitehead's work with Snow combineddemographicstudy with scientific observation, setting an important precedent for epidemiology. Board of Health The Board of Health in London had several committees, of which the Committee for Scientific Inquiries was placed in charge of investigating the cholera outbreak. They were to study the atmospheric environment in London; however, they were also to examine samples of water from several water companies in London. The committee found that the most contaminated water supply came from the South London water companies, Southwark and Vauxhall. As part of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries, Richard Dundas Thomson and Arthur Hill Hassall examined what Thomson referred to as \"vibriones\". Thomson examined the occurrence of vibriones in air samples from various cholera wards and Hassall observed vibriones in water samples. Neither identified vibriones as the cause of cholera. As part of their investigation of the cholera epidemic, the Board of Health sent physicians to examine in detail the conditions of the Golden Square neighbourhood and its inhabitants. The Board of Health ultimately attributed the 1854 epidemic to miasma. Dr Edwin Lankester's evaluation DrEdwin Lankesterwas a physician on the local research conglomerate that studied the 1854 Broad Street Cholera Epidemic. In 1866, Lankester wrote about Snow's conclusion that the pump itself was the cause of the cholera outbreak. He agreed with Snow at the time; however, his opinion, like Snow's, was not publicly supported. Lankester subsequently closed the pump due to Snow's theory and data on the pattern of infection, and infection rates dropped significantly. Lankester eventually was named the first medical officer of health forSt James's parishin London, the same area where the pump was located. Broadwick Street pump in the 21st century A replica pump was installed in 1992 at the site of the 1854 pump. Every year the John Snow Society holds \"Pumphandle Lectures\" on subjects of public health. Until August 2015, when the pump was removed due to redevelopment, they also held a ceremony here in which they removed and reattached the pump handle to pay tribute to Snow's historic discovery. The original location of the historic pump is marked by a red granite paver. In addition, plaques on the John Snow pub at the corner describe the significance of Snow's findings at this site. Gallery See also References Sources Further reading External links" ]

[ "Miasma theory Themiasma theory(also called themiasmic theory) is anabandoned medical theorythat held thatdiseases—such ascholera,chlamydia, or theBlack Death—were caused by amiasma(μίασμα,Ancient Greekfor 'pollution'), a noxious form of \"bad air\", also known asnight air. The theory held thatepidemicswere caused by miasma, emanating from rotting organic matter.Though miasma theory is typically associated with the spread ofcontagious diseases, some academics in the early nineteenth century suggested that the theory extended to other conditions as well, e.g. one could become obese by inhaling the odor of food. The miasma theory was advanced byHippocratesin the fourth century B.C.,and accepted from ancient times inEuropeandChina. The theory was eventually abandoned byscientistsandphysiciansafter 1880, replaced by thegerm theory of disease: specific germs, not miasma, caused specific diseases. However, cultural beliefs about getting rid of odor made theclean-up of wastea high priority for cities.It also encouraged", "also encouraged the construction of well-ventilated hospital facilities, schools and other buildings. Etymology The wordmiasmacomes from ancient Greek and though conceptually, there is no word in English that has the same exact meaning, it can be loosely translated as 'stain' or 'pollution'. The idea later gave rise to the namemalaria(literally 'bad air' inMedieval Italian). Views worldwide Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that caused illnesses. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infection was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell. It was also initially believed that miasmas were propagated through worms from ulcers within those affected by a plague. Europe In the fifth or fourth century BC, Hippocrates", "BC, Hippocrates wrote about the effects of the environs over the human diseases: Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly, should proceed thus: in the first place to consider the seasons of the year, and what effects each of them produces for they are not at all alike, but differ much from themselves in regard to their changes. Then the winds, the hot and the cold, especially such as are common to all countries, and then such as are peculiar to each locality. We must also consider the qualities of the waters, for as they differ from one another in taste and weight, so also do they differ much in their qualities. In the same manner, when one comes into a city to which he is a stranger, he ought to consider its situation, how it lies as to the winds and the rising of the sun; for its influence is not the same whether it lies to the north or the south, to the rising or to the setting sun. These things one ought to consider most attentively, and concerning the waters which the inhabitants use, whether", "use, whether they be marshy and soft, or hard, and running from elevated and rocky situations, and then if saltish and unfit for cooking; and the ground, whether it be naked and deficient in water, or wooded and well watered, and whether it lies in a hollow, confined situation, or is elevated and cold; and the mode in which the inhabitants live, and what are their pursuits, whether they are fond of drinking and eating to excess, and given to indolence, or are fond of exercise and labor, and not given to excess in eating and drinking. In the 1st century BC, the Roman architectural writerVitruviusdescribed the potential effects of miasma (Latinnebula) from fetid swamplands when visiting a city: For when the morning breezes blow toward the town at sunrise, if they bring with them mist from marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of creatures of the marshes to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site unhealthy. The miasmatic theory of disease remained popular in", "remained popular in theMiddle Agesand a sense ofeffluviacontributed to Robert Boyle'sSuspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air. In the 1850s, miasma was used to explain the spread ofcholerainLondonand inParis, partly justifyingHaussmann's later renovation of the French capital. The disease was said to be preventable by cleansing and scouring of the body and items.Dr. William Farr, the assistant commissioner for the 1851 London census, was an important supporter of the miasma theory. He believed that cholera was transmitted by air, and that there was a deadly concentration ofmiasmatanear theRiver Thames' banks. Such a belief was in part accepted because of the general lack ofair qualityin urbanized areas.The wide acceptance of miasma theory during the cholera outbreaks overshadowed the partially correct theory brought forth byJohn Snowthat cholera was spread through water. This slowed the response to the major outbreaks in the Soho district of London and other areas. TheCrimean WarnurseFlorence", "WarnurseFlorence Nightingale(1820–1910)was a proponent of the theory and worked to make hospitals sanitary and fresh-smelling. It was stated in 'Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes' (1860) that Nightingale would \"keep the air breathes as pure as the external air.\" Fear of miasma registered in many early nineteenth-century warnings concerning what was termed \"unhealthy fog\". The presence of fog was thought to strongly indicate the presence of miasma. The miasmas were thought to behave like smoke or mist, blown with air currents, wafted by winds. It was thought that miasma did not simply travel on air but changed the air through which it propagated; the atmosphere was infected by miasma, as diseased people were. China In China, miasma (Chinese:瘴氣;pinyin:Zhàngqì; alternative names瘴毒,瘴癘) is an old concept of illness, used extensively by ancient Chinese local chronicles and works of literature. Miasma has different names in Chinese culture. Most of the explanations of miasma refer to it as a kind of", "to it as a kind of sickness, or poison gas. The ancient Chinese thought that miasma was related to the environment of parts of Southern China. The miasma was thought to be caused by the heat, moisture and the dead air in the Southern Chinese mountains. They thought that insects' waste polluted the air, the fog, and the water, and the virgin forest harbored a great environment for miasma to occur. In descriptions by ancient travelers, soldiers, or local officials (most of them are men of letters) of the phenomenon of miasma, fog, haze, dust, gas, or poison geological gassing were always mentioned. The miasma was thought to have caused a lot of diseases such as the cold, influenza, heat strokes,malaria, or dysentery. In the medical history of China, malaria had been referred to by different names in different dynasty periods. Poisoning andpsittacosiswere also called miasma in ancient China because they did not accurately understand the cause of disease. In theSui dynasty(581–618 CE), doctorChao", "CE), doctorChao Yuanfangmentioned miasma in his bookOn Pathogen and Syndromes(諸病源候論). He thought that miasma in Southern China was similar totyphoid feverin Northern China. However, in his opinion, miasma was different from malaria anddysentery. In his book, he discussed dysentery in another chapter, and malaria in a single chapter. He also claimed that miasma caused various diseases, so he suggested that one should find apt and specific ways to resolve problems. The concept of miasma developed in several stages. First, before the WesternJin dynasty, the concept of miasma was gradually forming; at least, in the EasternHan dynasty, there was no description of miasma. During the Eastern Jin, large numbers of northern people moved south, and miasma was then recognized by men of letters and nobility. After the Sui and theTang dynasty, scholars-bureaucrats sent to be the local officials recorded and investigated miasma. As a result, the government became concerned about the severe cases and the causes of miasma", "causes of miasma by sending doctors to the areas of epidemic to research the disease and heal the patients. In theMing dynastyandQing dynasty, versions of local chronicles record different miasma in different places. However, Southern China was highly developed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The environment changed rapidly, and after the 19th century, western science and medical knowledge were introduced into China, and people knew how to distinguish and deal with the disease. The concept of miasma therefore faded out due to the progress of medicine in China. Influence in Southern China The terrifying miasma diseases in the southern regions of China made it the primary location for relegating officials and sending criminals to exile since the Qin-Han dynasty. PoetHan Yu(韓愈) of theTang dynasty, for example, wrote to his nephew who came to see him off after his banishment to the Chao Prefecture in his poem,En Route(左遷至藍關示姪孫湘): At dawn I sent a single warning to the throne of the Nine Steps;At evening I was", "evening I was banished to Chao Yang, eight thousand leagues.Striving on behalf of a noble dynasty to expel an ignoble government,How should I, withered and worn, deplore my future lot?The clouds gather on Ch'in Mountains, I cannot see my home;The snow bars the passes of Lan, my horse cannot go forward.But I know that you will come from afar, to fulfil your set purpose, And lovingly gather my bones, on the banks of that plague-stricken river. The prevalent belief and predominant fear of the southern region with its \"poisonous air and gases\" is evident in historical documents. Similar topics and feelings toward the miasma-infected south are often reflected in early Chinese poetry and records. Most scholars of the time agreed that the geological environments in the south had a direct impact on the population composition and growth. Many historical records reflect that females were less prone to miasma infection, and mortality rates were much higher in the south, especially for the men. This directly influenced", "directly influenced agriculture cultivation and the southern economy, as men were the engine of agriculture production. Zhou Qufei (周去非), a local magistrate from theSouthern Song dynasty, described in his treatiseRepresentative Answers from the South: \"... The men are short and tan, while the women were plump and seldom came down with illness,\"and exclaimed at the populous female population in theGuangxiregion. This inherent environmental threat also prevented immigration from other regions. Hence, development in the damp and sultry south was much slower than in the north, where the dynasties' political power resided for much of early Chinese history. India InIndia, there was also a miasma theory. Gambir was considered the first antimiasmatic application. Thisgambir treeis found in Southern India and Sri Lanka. Developments from 19th century onwards Zymotic theory Based onzymotictheory, people believed vapors calledmiasmata(singular:miasma) rose from the soil and spread diseases. Miasmata were believed to", "were believed to come from rotting vegetation and foul water—especially inswampsand urbanghettos. Many people, especially the weak or infirm, avoided breathing night air by going indoors and keeping windows and doors shut. In addition to ideas associated with zymotic theory, there was also a general fear that cold or cool air spread disease. The fear of night air gradually disappeared as understanding about disease increased as well as with improvements in home heating andventilation. Particularly important was the understanding that the agent spreadingmalariawas themosquito(active at night) rather than miasmata. Contagionism versus miasmatism Prior to the late 19th century,night airwas considered dangerous in most Western cultures. Throughout the 19th century, the medical community was divided on the explanation for disease proliferation. On one side were the contagionists, believing disease was passed through physical contact, while others believed disease was present in the air in the form of miasma, and", "form of miasma, and thus could proliferate without physical contact. Two members of the latter group were Dr. Thomas S. Smith and Florence Nightingale. Thomas Southwood Smithspent many years comparing the miasmatic theory to contagionism. To assume the method of propagation by touch, whether by the person or of infected articles, and to overlook that by the corruption of the air, is at once to increase the real danger, from exposure to noxious effluvia, and to divert attention from the true means of remedy and prevention. Florence Nightingale: The idea of \"contagion\", as explaining the spread of disease, appears to have been adopted at a time when, from the neglect of sanitary arrangements, epidemics attacked whole masses of people, and when men had ceased to consider that nature had any laws for her guidance. Beginning with the poets and historians, the word finally made its way into scientific nomenclature, where it has remained ever since a satisfactory explanation for pestilence and an adequate excuse", "an adequate excuse for non-exertion to prevent its recurrence. The currentgerm theoryaccounts for disease proliferation by both direct and indirect physical contact. Influence on sanitary engineering reforms In the early 19th century, the living conditions in industrialized cities in Britain were increasingly unsanitary. The population was growing at a much faster rate than the infrastructure could support. For example, the population of Manchester doubled within a single decade, leading to overcrowding and a significant increase in waste accumulation.The miasma theory of disease made sense to the sanitary reformers of the mid-19th century. Miasmas explained whycholeraand other diseases were epidemic in places where the water was stagnant and foul-smelling. A leading sanitary reformer, London'sEdwin Chadwick, asserted that \"all smell is disease\", and maintained that a fundamental change in the structure of sanitation systems was needed to combat increasing urban mortality rates. Chadwick saw the problem of", "saw the problem of cholera and typhoid epidemics as being directly related to urbanization, and he proposed that new, independent sewerage systems should be connected to homes. Chadwick supported his proposal with reports from theLondon Statistical Societywhich showed dramatic increases in both morbidity and mortality rates since the beginning of urbanization in the early 19th century.Though Chadwick proposed reform on the basis of the miasma theory, his proposals did contribute to improvements insanitation, such as preventing the reflux of noxious air from sewers back into houses by using separate drainage systems in the design of sanitation. That led, incidentally, to decreased outbreaks ofcholeraand thus helped to support the theory. The miasma theory was consistent with the observation that disease was associated with poor sanitation, and hence foul odours, and that sanitary improvements reduced disease. However, it was inconsistent with the findings arising frommicrobiologyandbacteriologyin the later", "the later 19th century, which eventually led to the adoption of thegerm theory of disease, although consensus was not reached immediately. Concerns oversewer gas, which was a major component of the miasma theory developed byGalen, and brought to prominence by the \"Great Stink\" in London in the summer of 1858, led proponents of the theory to observe that sewers enclosed the refuse of the human bowel, which medical science had discovered could teem withtyphoid, cholera, and othermicrobes. In 1846, the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Actwas passed to identify whether the transmission of cholera was by air or by water. The act was used to encourage owners to clean their dwellings and connect them to sewers. Even though eventually disproved by the understanding ofbacteriaand the discovery ofviruses, the miasma theory helped establish the connection between poor sanitation and disease. That encouraged cleanliness and spurred public health reforms which, in Britain, led to the Public Health Actsof 1848", "Health Actsof 1848 and 1858, and the Local Government Act of 1858. The latter of those enabled the instituting of investigations into the health and sanitary regulations of any town or place, upon the petition of residents or as a result of death rates exceeding the norm. Early medical and sanitary engineering reformers included Henry Austin,Joseph Bazalgette,Edwin Chadwick, Frank Forster,Thomas Hawksley,William Haywood,Henry Letheby,Robert Rawlinson,John Simon,John SnowandThomas Wicksteed.Their efforts, and associated British regulatory improvements, were reported in the United States as early as 1865. Particularly notable in 19th century sanitation reform is the work of Joseph Bazalgette, chief engineer to London'sMetropolitan Board of Works. Encouraged by the Great Stink, Parliament sanctioned Bazalgette to design and construct a comprehensive system of sewers, which intercepted London's sewage and diverted it away from its water supply. The system helped purify London's water and saved the city from", "saved the city from epidemics. In 1866, the last of the three great British cholera epidemics took hold in a small area ofWhitechapel. However, the area was not yet connected to Bazalgette's system, and the confined area of the epidemic acted as testament to the efficiency of the system's design. Years later, the influence of those sanitary reforms on Britain was described byRichard Rogers: London was the first city to create a complex civic administration which could coordinate modern urban services, from public transport to housing, clean water to education. London's County Council was acknowledged as the most progressive metropolitan government in the world. Fifty years earlier, London had been the worst slum city of the industrialized world: over-crowded, congested, polluted and ridden with disease... The miasma theory did contribute to containing disease in urban settlements, but did not allow the adoption of a suitable approach to the reuse of excreta in agriculture.It was a major factor in the", "major factor in the practice of collecting human excreta from urban settlements and reusing them in the surrounding farmland. That type ofresource recoveryscheme was common in major cities in the 19th century before the introduction of sewer-based sanitation systems.Nowadays, the reuse of excreta, when done in a hygienic manner, is known asecological sanitation, and is promoted as a way of \"closing the loop\". Throughout the 19th century, concern about public health and sanitation, along with the influence of the miasma theory, were reasons for the advocacy of the then-controversial practice ofcremation. If infectious diseases were spread by noxious gases emitted from decaying organic matter, that included decaying corpses. The public health argument for cremation faded with the eclipsing of the miasma theory of disease. Replacement by germ theory Although the connection between germ and disease was proposed quite early, it was not until the late 1800s that the germ theory was generally accepted. The", "accepted. The miasmatic theory was challenged byJohn Snow, suggesting that there was some means by which the disease was spread via a poison or morbid material (orig:materies morbi) in the water.He suggested this before and in response to a cholera epidemic on Broad Street in central London in 1854.Because of the miasmatic theory's predominance among Italian scientists, the discovery in the same year byFilippo Paciniof thebacillusthat caused the disease was completely ignored. It was not until 1876 thatRobert Kochproved that the bacteriumBacillus anthraciscausedanthrax,which brought a definitive end to miasma theory. 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak The work ofJohn Snowis notable for helping to make the connection between cholera and typhoid epidemics and contaminated water sources, which contributed to the eventual demise of miasma theory. During thecholera epidemic of 1854, Snow traced high mortality rates among the citizens ofSohoto a water pump inBroad Street. Snow convinced the local government to", "local government to remove the pump handle, which resulted in a marked decrease in cases of cholera in the area. In 1857, Snow submitted a paper to theBritish Medical Journalwhich attributed high numbers of cholera cases to water sources that were contaminated with human waste. Snow used statistical data to show that citizens who received their water from upstream sources were considerably less likely to develop cholera than those who received their water from downstream sources. Though his research supported his hypothesis that contaminated water, not foul air, was the source of cholera epidemics, a review committee concluded that Snow's findings were not significant enough to warrant change, and they were summarily dismissed. Additionally, other interests intervened in the process of reform. Many water companies and civic authorities pumped water directly from contaminated sources such as the Thames to public wells, and the idea of changing sources or implementing filtration techniques was an unattractive", "was an unattractive economic prospect. In the face of such economic interests, reform was slow to be adopted. In 1855, John Snow made a testimony against the Amendment to the \"Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act\" that regularized air pollution of some industries. He claimed that: That is possible; but I believe that the poison of the cholera is either swallowed in water, or got directly from some other person in the family, or in the room; I believe it is quite an exception for it to be conveyed in the air; though if the matter gets dry it may be wafted a short distance. The same year,William Farr, who was then the major supporter of the miasma theory, issued a report to criticize the germ theory. Farr and the Committee wrote that: After careful inquiry, we see no reason to adopt this belief. We do not feel it established that the water was contaminated in the manner alleged; nor is there before us any sufficient evidence to show whether inhabitants of that district, drinking from that well,", "from that well, suffered in proportion more than other inhabitants of the district who drank from other sources. Experiments by Louis Pasteur The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted byLouis Pasteurbetween 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of thepuerperal feverand the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested usingboric acidto kill these microorganisms before and after confinement. By 1866, eight years after the death of John Snow, William Farr publicly acknowledged that the miasma theory on the transmission of cholera was wrong, by his statistical justification on the death rate. Anthrax Robert Kochis widely known for his work withanthrax, discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to beBacillus anthracis.He published the discovery in a booklet asDie Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis(The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis) in", "Anthracis) in 1876 while working in Wöllstein.His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacteriummarked the first photography of a bacterium.He discovered the formation ofsporesin anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions.However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease.To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope.His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea ofspontaneous generationand supporting the germ theory of disease. See also References Further reading External links", "John Snow John Snow(15 March 1813 – 16 June 1858) was an English physician and a leader in the development ofanaesthesiaandmedical hygiene. He is considered one of the founders of modernepidemiologyand earlygerm theory, in part because of his work in tracing the source of acholera outbreak in London's Soho, which he identified as a particular public water pump. Snow's findings inspired fundamental changes in the water andwaste systems of London, which led to similar changes in other cities, and a significant improvement in generalpublic healtharound the world. Early life and education Snow was born on 15 March 1813 inYork, England, the first of nine children born to William and Frances Snow in theirNorth Streethome, and was baptised atAll Saints' Church, North Street, York. His father was a labourerwho worked at a local coal yard, by the Ouse, constantly replenished from the Yorkshire coalfield by barges, but later was a farmer in a small village to the north of York. The neighbourhood was one of the poorest", "one of the poorest in the city, and was frequently in danger of flooding because of its proximity to theRiver Ouse. Growing up, Snow experienced unsanitary conditions and contamination in his hometown. Most of the streets were unsanitary and the river was contaminated by runoff water from market squares, cemeteries and sewage. From a young age, Snow demonstrated an aptitude for mathematics. In 1827, when he was 14, he obtained a medical apprenticeship with William Hardcastle in the area ofNewcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1832, during his time as a surgeon-apothecary apprentice, he encountereda cholera epidemicfor the first time inKillingworth, a coal-mining village.Snow treated many victims of the disease and thus gained experience. Eventually he adjusted toteetotalismand led a life characterized by abstinence, signing anabstinence pledgein 1835. Snow was also a vegetarian and tried to only drink distilled water that was \"pure\".Between 1832 and 1835 Snow worked as an assistant to acollierysurgeon, first", "first inBurnopfield, County Durham, and then inPateley Bridge,West Riding of Yorkshire. In October 1836 he enrolled at theHunterian school of medicineonGreat Windmill Street, London. Career In the 1830s, Snow's colleague at theNewcastle Infirmarywas surgeonThomas Michael Greenhow. The surgeons worked together conducting research on England'scholeraepidemics, both continuing to do so for many years. In 1837, Snow began working at theWestminster Hospital. Admitted as a member of theRoyal College of Surgeons of Englandon 2 May 1838, he graduated from theUniversity of Londonin December 1844 and was admitted to theRoyal College of Physiciansin 1850. Snow was a founding member of theEpidemiological Society of Londonwhich was formed in May 1850 in response to the cholera outbreak of 1849. By 1856, Snow and Greenhow's nephew,Dr. E.H. Greenhowwere some of a handful of esteemed medical men of the society who held discussions on this \"dreadful scourge, thecholera\". After finishing his medical studies in theUniversity", "in theUniversity of London, he earned his MD in 1844. Snow set up his practice at 54 Frith Street in Soho as a surgeon and general practitioner. John Snow contributed to a wide range of medical concerns includinganaesthesiology. He was a member of theWestminster Medical Society, an organisation dedicated to clinical and scientific demonstrations. Snow gained prestige and recognition all the while being able to experiment and pursue many of his scientific ideas. He was a speaker multiple times at the society's meetings and he also wrote and published articles. He was especially interested in patients with respiratory diseases and tested his hypothesis through animal studies. In 1841, he wrote,On Asphyxiation, and on the Resuscitation of Still-Born Children, which is an article that discusses his discoveries on the physiology of neonatal respiration, oxygen consumption and the effects of body temperature change. In 1857, Snow made an early and often overlookedcontribution to epidemiology in a pamphlet,On the", "a pamphlet,On the adulteration of bread as a cause ofrickets. Anaesthesia Snow's interest inanaesthesiaand breathing was evident from 1841 and beginning in 1843, he experimented withetherto see its effects on respiration.Only a year after ether was introduced to Britain, in 1847, he published a short work titled,On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether,which served as a guide for its use. At the same time, he worked on various papers that reported his clinical experience with anaesthesia, noting reactions, procedures and experiments. Within two years of ether being introduced, Snow was the most accomplished anaesthetist in Britain. London's principal surgeons suddenly wanted his assistance. As well as ether, John Snow studiedchloroform, which was introduced in 1847 byJames Young Simpson, a Scottish obstetrician. He realised that chloroform was much more potent and required more attention and precision when administering it. Snow first realised this with Hannah Greener, a 15-year-old patient who died on 28", "who died on 28 January 1848 after a surgical procedure that required the cutting of her toenail. She was administered chloroform by covering her face with a cloth dipped in the substance. However, she quickly lost pulse and died. After investigating her death and a couple of deaths that followed, he realized that chloroform had to be administered carefully and published his findings in a letter toThe Lancet. John Snow was one of the first physicians to study and calculate dosages for the use of ether and chloroform as surgicalanaesthetics, allowing patients to undergo surgical andobstetricprocedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. He designed the apparatus to safely administer ether to the patients and also designed a mask to administer chloroform.Snow published an article on ether in 1847 entitledOn the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether.A longer version entitledOn Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administrationwas published posthumously in 1858. Although", "in 1858. Although he thoroughly worked with ether as an anaesthetic, he never attempted to patent it; instead, he continued to work and publish written works on his observations and research. Obstetric anaesthesia Snow's work and findings were related to both anaesthesia and the practice of childbirth. His experience with obstetric patients was extensive and used different substances including ether,amyleneand chloroform to treat his patients. However, chloroform was the easiest drug to administer. He treated 77 obstetric patients with chloroform. He would apply the chloroform at the second stage of labour and controlled the amount without completely putting the patients to sleep. Once the patient was delivering the baby, they would only feel the first half of the contraction and be on the border of unconsciousness, but not fully there. Regarding administration of the anaesthetic, Snow believed that it would be safer if another person that was not the surgeon applied it. The use of chloroform as an", "of chloroform as an anaesthetic for childbirth was seen as unethical by many physicians and even theChurch of England. However, on 7 April 1853,Queen Victoriaasked John Snow to administer chloroform during the delivery of her eighth child,Leopold. He then repeated the procedure for the delivery of her daughterBeatricein 1857.This led to wider acceptance of obstetrical anaesthesia. Cholera Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominantmiasma theorythat stated that diseases such as cholera andbubonic plaguewere caused by pollution or a noxious form of \"bad air\". Thegerm theory of diseasehad not yet been developed, so Snow did not understand the mechanism by which the disease was transmitted. His observation of the evidence led him to discount the theory of foul air. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay,On the Mode of Communication of Cholera,followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in theSohoepidemic of 1854. By talking to", "1854. By talking to local residents (with the help ofHenry Whitehead), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (nowBroadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from theBroad Street pumpdid not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle (force rod). This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline: There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it.: 51–52 Snow later", "51–52 Snow later used adot mapto illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that homes supplied by theSouthwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, which was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of theThames, had a cholera rate fourteen times that of those supplied byLambeth Waterworks Company, which obtained water from the upriver, cleanerSeething Wells.Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science ofepidemiology. Snow wrote: On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the", "to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street... With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally... The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump well. I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst , and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day. Researchers later discovered that this public well had been dug only 3 feet (0.9 m) from an oldcesspit, which had begun to leak faecal bacteria. The cloth nappy of a baby, who", "of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil. Thomas Shapterhad conducted similar studies and used a point-based map for the study of cholera inExeter, seven years before John Snow, although this did not identify the water supply problem that was later held responsible. Political controversy After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the fecal-oral", "the fecal-oral route of disease transmission, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate. It was not until 1866 thatWilliam Farr, one of Snow's chief opponents, realised the validity of his diagnosis when investigating another outbreak of cholera atBromley by Bowand issued immediate orders that unboiled water was not to be drunk. Farr denied Snow's explanation of how exactly the contaminated water spread cholera, although he did accept that water had a role in the spread of the illness. In fact, some of the statistical data that Farr collected helped promote John Snow's views. Public health officials recognise the political struggles in which reformers have often become entangled.During the annualPumphandle Lecturein England, members of theJohn Snow Societyremove and replace a pump handle to symbolise the continuing challenges for advances in public health. Personal life Snow was known to swim as a hobby for exercise.He became avegetarianat the age of 17 and was ateetotaller.He embraced", "embraced alacto-ovo vegetariandiet by supplementing his vegetables with dairy products and eggs for eight years. Whilst in his thirties he became avegan.His health deteriorated and he suffered arenal disorderwhich he attributed to his vegan diet so he took up meat-eating and drinking wine.He continued drinking pure water (via boiling) throughout his adult life. He never married. In 1830, Snow became a member of thetemperance movement. In 1845, he became a member of York Temperance Society.After his health declined it was only about 1845 that he consumed a little wine to aid digestion. Snow lived at 18Sackville Street, London, from 1852 to his death in 1858. Snow suffered a stroke while working in his London office on 10 June 1858. He was 45 years old at the time.He never recovered, dying six days later on 16 June 1858. He was buried inBrompton Cemetery. It has been speculated that his premature death may have been related to his frequent exposure and experimentation with anesthetic gases, which is now known", "which is now known to have numerous adverse health effects. Snow administered and experimented with ether, chloroform, ethyl nitrate, carbon disulfide, benzene, bromoform, ethyl bromide and dichloroethane during his lifetime. Legacy and honours See also References Sources Further reading External links", "1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak TheBroad Street cholera outbreak(orGolden Square outbreak) was a severeoutbreakofcholerathat occurred in 1854 near Broad Street (nowBroadwick Street) inSoho,London,England, and occurred during the1846–1860 cholera pandemichappening worldwide. This outbreak, which killed 616 people, is best known for the physicianJohn Snow's study of its causes and his hypothesis thatgerm-contaminated waterwas the source of cholera, rather than particles in the air (referred to as \"miasma\").This discovery came to influencepublic healthand the construction of improvedsanitationfacilities beginning in the mid-19th century. Later, the term \"focus of infection\" started to be used to describe sites, such as the Broad Street pump, in which conditions are favourable for transmission of an infection. Snow's endeavour to find the cause of the transmission of cholera caused him to unknowingly create adouble-blind experiment. Background In the mid-19th century, Soho in London had a serious problem with", "problem with filth due to the large influx of people and a lack of proper sanitary services: the London sewer system had not reached Soho. Cowsheds, slaughter houses and grease-boiling dens lined the streets and contributed animal droppings, rotting fluids and other contaminants to the primitive Soho sewer system.Manycellarshadcesspoolsunderneath their floorboards, which formed from the sewers and filth seeping in from the outside.Since the cesspools were overrunning, the London government decided to dump the waste into theRiver Thames, contaminating the water supply.London had already suffered from a \"series of debilitating cholera outbreaks\".These included outbreaks in 1832 and 1849 which killed a total of 14,137 people. Competing theories of cholera Preceding the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak, physicians and scientists held two competing theories on the causes of cholera in the human body: miasma theory and germ theory.The London medical community debated between these causes for the persistent", "for the persistent cholera outbreaks in the city. The cholera-causing bacteriumVibrio choleraewas isolated in 1854, but the finding did not become well known and accepted until decades later. Miasma theory Miasma theorists concluded that cholera was caused by particles in the air, or \"miasmata\", which arose from decomposing matter or other dirty organic sources. \"Miasma\" particles were thought to travel through the air and infect individuals, and thus cause cholera.DrWilliam Farr, the commissioner for the 1851 London census and a member of the General Register's Office, believed that miasma arose from the soil surrounding the River Thames. It contained decaying organic matter which contained miasmatic particles and was released into the London air. Miasma theorists believed in \"cleansing and scouring, rather than through the purer scientific approach of microbiology\".Farr later agreed with Snow's germ theory following Snow's publications. Germ theory In contrast, the germ theory held that the principal cause", "the principal cause of cholera was a germ cell that had not yet been identified. Snow theorised that this unknown germ was transmitted from person to person by individuals ingesting water.John Simon, a pathologist and the lead medical officer for London, labelled Snow's germ theory as \"peculiar\". Excerpt from John Simon: This doctrine is, that cholera propagates itself by a 'morbid matter' which, passing from one patient in his evacuations, is accidentally swallowed by other persons as a pollution of food or water; that an increase of the swallowed germ of the disease takes place in the interior of the stomach and bowels, giving rise to the essential actions of cholera, as at first a local derangement; and that 'the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind must necessarily have some sort of structure, most likely that of a cell. Even though Simon understood Snow's theory, he questioned its relation to the cause of cholera. Broad Street outbreak On 31 August 1854, after several", "1854, after several other outbreaks had occurred elsewhere in the city, a major outbreak of cholera occurred in Soho. Snow later called it \"the most terrible outbreak of cholera which ever occurred in this kingdom.\" Over the next three days, 127 people on or near Broad Street died. During the next week, three quarters of the residents had fled the area. By 10 September, more than 500 people had died and the mortality rate was 12.8 per thousand inhabitants in some parts of the city.By the end of the outbreak, 616 people had died. Many of the victims were taken to theMiddlesex Hospital, where their treatment was superintended byFlorence Nightingale, who briefly joined the hospital in early September in order to help with the outbreak. According to a letter fromElizabeth Gaskell, \"She herself was up night and day from Friday afternoon (Sept. 1) to Sunday afternoon, receiving the poor creatures (chiefly fallen women of that neighbourhood - they had it the worst) who were being constantly brought in - -", "brought in - - undressing them - putting onturpentinestupes, et cetera, doing it herself to as many as she could manage\". By talking to local residents (with the help ofReverend Henry Whitehead), Snow identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (nowBroadwick Street) at Cambridge Street. Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a sample of the water from thisBroad Street pumpwater did not conclusively prove its danger, his facts about the patterns of illness and death among residents in Soho persuaded theSt Jamesparish authorities to disable the well pump by removing its handle. Although this action has been popularly reported as ending the outbreak, the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline, as explained by Snow: There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is", "stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it. Snow later used adot mapto illustrate how cases of cholera occurred around this pump.Snow's efforts to connect the incidence of cholera with potential geographic sources was based on creating what is now known as aVoronoi diagram. He mapped the locations of individual water pumps and generated cells which represented all the points on his map which were closest to each pump. The section of Snow's map representing areas in the city where the closest available source of water was the Broad Street pump included the highest incidence of cholera cases. Snow also performed a statistical comparison between theSouthwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, and a waterworks atSeething Wells(owned by theLambeth Waterworks Company) that was further upriver and hence had cleaner water; he showed that houses supplied by the former had a cholera", "had a cholera mortality rate 14 times that of those supplied by the latter. Regarding the decline in cases related to the Broad Street pump, Snow said: It will be observed that the deaths either very much diminished, or ceased altogether, at every point where it becomes decidedly nearer to send to another pump than to the one in Broad street. It may also be noticed that the deaths are most numerous near to the pump where the water could be more readily obtained. There was one significant anomaly—none of the workers in the nearby Broad Streetbrewerycontracted cholera. As they were given a daily allowance of beer, they did not consume water from the nearby well.During the brewing process, thewort(or un-fermented beer) is boiled in part so thathopscan be added. This step killed the cholera bacteria in the water they had used to brew with, making it safe to drink. Snow showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering it to", "delivering it to homes, resulting in an increased incidence of cholera among its customers. Snow's study is part of the history ofpublic healthandhealth geography. It is regarded as the founding event ofepidemiology. In Snow's own words: On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street ... With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump-water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally ... The result of the inquiry then was, that there had", "was, that there had been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump-well. I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St. James's parish, on the evening of Thursday, the 7th September, and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day. It was discovered later that this public well had been dug 3 feet (0.9 m) from an oldcesspitthat had begun to leak faecal bacteria. Waste water from washingnappies, used by a baby who had contracted cholera from another source, drained into this cesspit. Its opening was under a nearby house that had been rebuilt further away after a fire and a street widening. At the time there were cesspits under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose", "could decompose into the soil. At the same time, an investigation of cholera transmission was being conducted inDeptford. Around 90 people died within a few days in that town, where the water was known to be clean, and there had been no previous outbreaks of cholera. Snow was informed that the water had recently turned impure. Residents were forced to let the water run for a while before using it, in order to let the sudsy, sewer-like water run until it was clear. Snow, finding that the water the residents were using was not different from the usual water from their pump, determined that the outbreak must be caused by a leak in the pipes that allowed surrounding sewage and its contaminants to seep in to the water supply. This scenario was similar to that of the Broad Street outbreak. The incoming water was being contaminated by the increasing levels of sewage, coupled with the lack of proper and safe plumbing. After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump", "Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterwards they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the oral-faecal method of transmission of disease, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate. Investigation by John Snow The Broad Street outbreak was an effect rather than a cause of the epidemic. Snow's conclusions were not predominantly based on the Broad Street outbreak, as he noted that he hesitated to come to a conclusion based on a population that had predominantly fled the neighbourhood and redistributed itself. He feared throwing off results of the study. From a mathematics perspective, John Snow's innovation was focusing on death rates in areas served by two water companies which drew water from the River Thames, rather than basing it on data from victims of the Broad Street pump (which drew water from a well). Snow's work also led to a far greater health and safety impact than", "safety impact than the removal of the Broad Street pump handle. Deactivating the pump \"hardly made a dent in the citywide cholera epidemic, which went on to claim nearly 3,000 lives\". Snow was sceptical of the prevailingmiasma theory, which held that diseases such as cholera or theBlack Deathwere caused by pollution or a noxious form of \"bad air\". Thegerm theorywas not established at this point (Louis Pasteurdid not propose it until 1861). Snow did not understand the mechanism by which disease was transmitted, but the evidence led him to believe that it was not due to breathing foul air. Based on the pattern of illness among residents, Snow hypothesized that cholera was spread by an agent in contaminated water.He first published his theory in 1849, in an essay titled \"On the Mode of Communication of Cholera\".In 1855 he published a second edition, including a more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the 1854 Soho outbreak. The cholera epidemic of 1849–1854 was also related to the", "also related to the water supplied by companies in London at the time. The main players were theSouthwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company, and theLambeth Waterworks Company. Both companies provided water to their customers that was drawn from the River Thames, which was highly contaminated with visible and invisible products and bacteria. Dr Hassall examined the filtered water and found it contained animal hair, among other foul substances. He made the remark that: It will be observed, that the water of the companies of the Surrey Side of London, viz., the Southwark, Vauxhall, and Lambeth, is by far the worst of all those who take their supply from the Thames Other companies, such as theNew River CompanyandChelsea Waterworks Company, were observed to have better filtered water; few deaths occurred in the neighbourhoods which they supplied. These two companies not only obtained their water from cleaner sources than the Thames, but they filtered the water and treated it until there were no obvious", "were no obvious contaminants. As mentioned above, Snow is known for his influence on public health, which arose after his studies of the cholera epidemic. In attempting to figure out who was receiving impure water in each neighbourhood, what is now known as a double-blind experiment fell right into his lap. He describes the conditions of the situation in his essays: In many cases a single house has a supply different from that on either side. Each company supplies both rich and poor, both large houses and small; there is no difference in the condition or occupation of the persons receiving the water of the different companies...As there is no difference whatever either in the houses or the people receiving the supply of the two Water Companies, or in any of the physical conditions with which they are surrounded, it is obvious that no experiment could have been devised which would more thoroughly test the effect of water supply on the progress of Cholera than this, which circumstances placed ready made before", "ready made before the observer. The experiment too, was on the grandest scale. No fewer than three hundred thousand people of both sexes, of every age and occupation, and of every rank and station, from gentlefolks down to the very poor, were divided into two groups without their choice, and, in most cases, without their knowledge; one group being supplied water containing the sewage of London, and amongst it, whatever might have come from the cholera patients, the other group having water quite free from such impurity. Snow went on to study the water contents from each home through a test performed on each sample. In this way, it could be deduced from which supplier the home was receiving their water. He concluded that it was indeed impure water from the big companies that allowed the spread of cholera to progress rapidly. He went on to prove his theory through the observation of prisons in London, finding that cholera ceased in these places only a few days after switching to cleaner water sources. Snow's", "sources. Snow's post-outbreak evaluation Snow's analysis of cholera and cholera outbreaks extended past the closure of the Broad Street pump. He concluded that cholera was transmitted through and affected the alimentary canal within the human body. Cholera did not affect either the circulatory or the nervous system and there was no \"poison in the blood...in the consecutive fever...the blood became poisoned fromureagetting into the circulation\".According to Snow, this \"urea\" entered the blood through kidney failure. (Acute kidney failure is a complication of cholera.) Therefore, the fever was caused by kidney failure, not by a poison already present in the subject's bloodstream. Popular medical practices, such as bloodletting, could not be effective in such a case. Snow also argued that cholera was not a product of Miasma. \"There was nothing in the air to account for the spread of cholera\".According to Snow, cholera was spread by persons ingesting a substance, not through atmospheric transmittal. Involvement", "Involvement of Henry Whitehead TheReverend Henry Whiteheadwas an assistantcurateat St. Luke's church in Soho during the 1854 cholera outbreak. A former believer in themiasma theory of disease, Whitehead worked to disprove false theories. He was influenced by Snow's theory that cholera spreads by consumption of water contaminated by human waste. Snow's work, particularly his maps of the Soho area cholera victims, convinced Whitehead that the Broad Street pump was the source of the local infections. Whitehead joined Snow in tracking the contamination to a faulty cesspool and the outbreak'sindex case(the baby with cholera). Whitehead's work with Snow combineddemographicstudy with scientific observation, setting an important precedent for epidemiology. Board of Health The Board of Health in London had several committees, of which the Committee for Scientific Inquiries was placed in charge of investigating the cholera outbreak. They were to study the atmospheric environment in London; however, they were also to", "they were also to examine samples of water from several water companies in London. The committee found that the most contaminated water supply came from the South London water companies, Southwark and Vauxhall. As part of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries, Richard Dundas Thomson and Arthur Hill Hassall examined what Thomson referred to as \"vibriones\". Thomson examined the occurrence of vibriones in air samples from various cholera wards and Hassall observed vibriones in water samples. Neither identified vibriones as the cause of cholera. As part of their investigation of the cholera epidemic, the Board of Health sent physicians to examine in detail the conditions of the Golden Square neighbourhood and its inhabitants. The Board of Health ultimately attributed the 1854 epidemic to miasma. Dr Edwin Lankester's evaluation DrEdwin Lankesterwas a physician on the local research conglomerate that studied the 1854 Broad Street Cholera Epidemic. In 1866, Lankester wrote about Snow's conclusion that the pump", "that the pump itself was the cause of the cholera outbreak. He agreed with Snow at the time; however, his opinion, like Snow's, was not publicly supported. Lankester subsequently closed the pump due to Snow's theory and data on the pattern of infection, and infection rates dropped significantly. Lankester eventually was named the first medical officer of health forSt James's parishin London, the same area where the pump was located. Broadwick Street pump in the 21st century A replica pump was installed in 1992 at the site of the 1854 pump. Every year the John Snow Society holds \"Pumphandle Lectures\" on subjects of public health. Until August 2015, when the pump was removed due to redevelopment, they also held a ceremony here in which they removed and reattached the pump handle to pay tribute to Snow's historic discovery. The original location of the historic pump is marked by a red granite paver. In addition, plaques on the John Snow pub at the corner describe the significance of Snow's findings at this", "findings at this site. Gallery See also References Sources Further reading External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden_Democrats", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2006", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carola_H%C3%A4ggkvist", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_von_Trapp", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign" ]

[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Sweden_Democrats (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ab8ee0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2006 (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b943bbe50>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Carola Häggkvist Carola Maria Häggkvist(Swedish pronunciation:; born 8 September 1966), commonly known simply asCarola, is a Swedish pop singer. She has been among Sweden's most popular performers since the early 1980s and has released albums ranging from pop anddiscotohymnsandfolk music.Her debut album,Främling(1983), sold around one million copies and remains the biggest-selling album in Swedish music history.She has also worked as a songwriter. During her career, she has recorded many top-selling albums and singles and is referred to as Sweden's most prominent female singer. Some of her biggest hits are \"Främling\", \"Tommy tycker om mig\", \"Fångad av en stormvind\", \"All the Reasons to Live\", \"I Believe in Love\", \"Genom allt\", and \"Evighet\". She has released records in various languages: Swedish, Dutch,German,English, Norwegian and Japanese. Häggkvist has represented Sweden at theEurovision Song Conteston three occasions: in1983, finishing third; in1991, winning the contest; and in2006, finishing fifth. Early life Carola Maria Häggkvist was born on 8 September 1966 atSödersjukhusetinStockholm. She grew up inNorsborg, south of the Swedish capital. At the age of eight, she began to perform at Stockholm's Miniteatern; she also attendedAdolf Fredrik's Music School.In 1977, Häggkvist won a talent competition and appeared on television for the first time, onSveriges magasin, performing \"Krokodilbarnets klagan\". Career 1981–1989: Early career andFrämling In 1981, Swedish music promoterBert Karlssonmet then 15-year-old Häggkvist after she performed on the television seriesHylands hörnaand offered her the chance to take part inMelodifestivalen, the Swedish selection for theEurovision Song Contestin 1982. She turned down the offer. SongwriterLasse Holmoffered Häggkvist two of his songs forMelodifestivalen 1983, \"Mona Lisa\" and \"Främling\". \"Främling\" was chosen, and with it Häggkvist won the right to represent Sweden at that year's Eurovision Song Contest in Munich. The song scored eight points, the highest possible mark, from all eleven regional juries. Häggkvist represented Sweden at theEurovision Song Conteston 23 April. She finished third in front of 6.1 million Swedish television viewers, 84% of the country's population. This is still a record in Sweden. \"Främling\" became the title track to Häggkvist's debut album, which sold over one million copies, making it the biggest-selling album in Swedish history.After Eurovision, Häggkvist embarked on a tour of European television programmes, promoting \"Främling\" and performing in it several languages: in English as \"Love Isn't Love\", in German as \"Fremder\", and in Dutch as \"Je ogen hebben geen geheimen\". The album contained hits like \"Mickey\", \"Liv\", \"Gloria\" and \"Tokyo\". In December 1983, she released her first Christmas album,Julefrid med Carola,which sold 200,000 copies. In 1984, Häggkvist released two top-selling pop/rock albums that together sold over 1 million copies. \"Tommy tycker om mig\" became a huge hit in Sweden, together with \"Hunger\". She later travelled to Japan and recorded a single in Japanese.In 1985, theBee Geescollaborated with her on the albumRunaway, which was written by the Gibb brothers and produced byMaurice Gibb. The record sold double platinum when released in Sweden the following year.\"The Runaway\", \"Brand New Heart\", \"Spread your wings\" and \"Radiate\" became massive hits in Scandinavia. In 1987, Häggkvist embarked on a church tour with pianistPer-Erik Hallin. After this followed a career hiatus for the singer. 1990–1991: New image, independence, and Eurovision victory In 1990, she returned to Melodifestivalen, with \"Mitt i ett äventyr\" (\"In the middle of an adventure\"). The song finished second in the festival, failing to earn Häggkvist the right to represent Sweden at Eurovision.Edin-Ådahlwon the event.Her comeback album, titledMuch More, was released, earning a gold certificate in Sweden.However, Häggkvist and songwriterStephan Berghad already begun planning another attempt at Eurovision. In 1991, she returned to Melodifestivalen with \"Fångad av en stormvind\" (\"Captured by a lovestorm\"). The song won the festival by thirty-two points and became the Swedish entry for theEurovision Song Contest in Rome.British bookmakers considered Häggkvist second favourite to win the contest.On the night of the contest, with one voting jury left to announce their scores, three countries remained in contention to win the contest: Sweden, with 146 points; Israel, with 139; and France, with 134. Neither Israel nor Sweden won any points from the Italian jury, but France won twelve, leaving Sweden and France tied for first place with 146 at the conclusion of the voting. Sweden won the contest after acountback, having received five ten-point scores during the voting versus France's two.\"Fångad av en stormvind\" became a huge hit in Europe,and was followed by a compilation album,Hits, and a Christmas album,Jul.After her victory, she released an international version of \"Much More\" and went on an extended promotional tour throughout Europe. Her album produced several hits, among them \"I'll live\" and \"All the Reasons to Live\". 1992–2004: Albums, tours, and musicals Häggkvist was the first Scandinavian pop artist to perform inChina—in front of an estimated 600 million television viewers; she also released an album in China in 1992.In 1992 and 1993, Rival International, released Carola's earlier albums on CD. She was originally signed to Mariann Records in Scandinavia. In 1993, ten years after her breakthrough representing Sweden at the 1983 Eurovision Song Contest, she recorded agospelalbum,My Tribute, which was released in sixteen countries, making her gospel artist of the year in the Netherlands in 1994.The album contains the hit-single \"My Tribute\", one of Häggkvist's best-known songs. In 1994, Häggkvist released a rock-themed album, '\"Personligt\" (Personally), marking her debut as a songwriter and selling gold.\"Så länge jag lever\", \"Sanna Vänner\" and \"Guld i dina ögon\" became hits and received a great amount of radio airplay. In 1995, Häggkvist made her debut as a musical actress, playing Maria inThe Sound of MusicoppositeTommy Körbergas the male lead. She played the role in 325 performances and won the prestigiousGuldmasken(Golden Mask) award.Three years later, she sang the theme song in the Norwegian musicalSophie's World, which was released on the albumSongs from Sophie's World.Also in 1998, Häggkvist played the voice of Mirjam in the Swedish version ofThe Prince of Egypt.In 2002, she made a short appearance asFantineinLes Misérablesin London and five Scandinavian cities. In November 1997, Häggkvist released another compilation album,De bästa av Carola(\"The Best of Carola\"), and with it several new singles like \"Dreamer\".Following this came an album of tracks penned byLina Sandell,Blott en dag(\"Just One Day\").The album received excellent reviews and revealed Carola's passion for hymns. In 1999, another Christmas album was released:Jul i Betlehem(\"Christmas in Bethlehem\"). The album sold 600,000 units throughout Scandinavia, including 350,000 in Sweden.and became the biggest-selling album of 1999. She also co-wrote the ballad \"Himlen i min famn\", which remains a popular Christmas song that is often performed at Christmas concerts. In the summer of 1999, she toured in theRhapsody in Rock. In 2001, she releasedSov på min arm, an album based on Christian hymns, gospel melodies and intimate ballads. It became one of the most-sold albums in Scandinavia that year. In 2002, she release the pop/country albumMy Show, which received great reviews. The album, which marked Häggkvist's return to the pop scene, contained several hits such as \"The Light\", \"I believe in love\", which also topped the Estonian and Brazilian charts, and \"A Kiss Goodbye\". Even though the album only peaked at number 6 on the Swedish album chart, it sold 100,000 copies by the end of the year. In the summer, Häggkvist embarked on a huge and luxurious Scandinavian tour. In 2003, Häggkvist submitted a song, \"Autumn Leaf\", forMelodifestivalen 2003. Having performed the demo, she was required to perform the song when it qualified for the competition. Häggkvist decided against doing that, and the song was disqualified from the competition.\"Autumn Leaf\" appeared on Häggkvist's next album,Guld, platina & passion, in Swedish as \"När löven faller\" (When the leaves fall). The ballad became an enormous hit.Guld, platina & passionreached number 1 on the Swedish charts and sold over 300,000 copies. She also recorded her favorite Elvis Presley songs, \"Walk a mile in my shoes\" and \"If I can dream\". The following year, Häggkvist released a religious album,Credo, which she described as \"an expression of my love for God\".The album peaked at spot 2 on the Swedish album chart. This was followed byStörst av allt, which Dan Backman ofSvenska Dagbladetwrote featured \"spiritually aimed music…revolving around belonging, love, death and eternity\".Genom Alltbecame a huge radio hit in Sweden and the soul ballad \"Allt kommer bli bra mamma\", a dedication to her deceased mother, became popular at religious events. 2005–present: Return to Eurovision Having performed as part of the interval act atMelodifestivalen 2005,Häggkvist confirmed that she would return to the competition in 2006. She performed \"Evighet\" (\"Eternity\"), written byBobby Ljunggren,Henrik WikströmandThomas G:son, which she described as a \"true winning song\". The song qualified from the fourth semi-final in Gothenburg on 11 March 2006,and was widely tipped to win the festival outright as the final at theStockholm Globe Arenaapproached.Despite finishing second with the regional juries toAndreas Johnson, \"Evighet\" won the competition with 232 points.Prior to the contest, Carola visited 12 countries where she promoted her song. \"Invincible\" received a large amount of air play on the radios in these countries. The song qualified from the semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest in Athens, in English as \"Invincible\". Häggkvist in the end finished fifth out of twenty-four with 170 points.This placing also made her the third-most successful artist in the history of Eurovision, counting by total points earned in her performances, with her three songs scoring a total of 442 points, behind onlyDima Bilan, the 2006 runner-up and 2008 winner; andLoreen, winner of 2012 and 2023. Following Melodifestivalen, Häggkvist released a pop album,Från nu till evighet(\"From Now to Eternity\"). Lennart Wrigholm reviewed the album forMusiklandet; he criticised the amount of new material on the album: \"Has this old lady really got such a workload that she cannot put more than ten new tracks on her album?\" and wrote that the inclusion of the English version of \"Evighet\" as a bonus track was \"an insult to the potential buyer\".On the other hand,Expressen's Anders Nunstedt wrote that on \"Jag ger allt\" (\"I Give It All\") \"the title does not lie\" and that \"Vem kan älska mig\" (\"Who Can Love Me\") features a \"brilliant refrain\".The album topped the Swedish sales chart, and sold approximately 100,000 copies by the end of the year.Stanna eller gå, a Latin-inspired pop song, became a radio hit during the summer. Following the album's release, Häggkvist toured Sweden and received outstanding reviews.During the autumn, Häggkvist had problems with her voice but nonetheless sang \"Because We Believe\", a song written byAndrea Bocelli, with the Italiantenor. In late 2007, Häggkvist released another Christmas album,I denna natt blir världen ny(\"There is a New World This Night\"), a sequel toJul i Betlehem. The album featured songs in Swedish and English, and was recorded in Jerusalem in June 2007.Stefan Malmqvist ofSvenska Dagbladetwrote that, as in previous Christmas albums, Häggkvist is \"a saccharine version of herself\" when singingChristmas carols.The album was reported to have sold 90,000 copies. Included on the album was the gospel songGo and Tell It on the Mountain. After the release she toured Scandinavia. Carola enteredMelodifestivalen 2008as part of the duoJohnson & HäggkvistwithAndreas Johnson. Their first single was called \"Lucky Star\" which became popular on the radio. In the melodifestival in February, they sang \"One Love\", written by Carola, Johnson and Peter Kvint.They were the early favourites to win the whole show, taking part in the second qualifier. They qualified for the Second Chance round, missing out on an automatic final spot. Though widely tipped to qualify for the final after all, they did not even proceed from the first voting round in the Second Chance programme. AlthoughOne Lovedid not become an enormous success, the songLucky Starwhich they released a few months prior to the contest did sell well, and topped the Swedish charts for weeks. Carola decided to take it easy the rest of the year, but did embark on a small Christmas tour at the end of the year. In 2009, Carola was reportedly working on her upcoming album, and other projects. She went to the United States to record some new material. She departed from her recording company and signed a contract withX5 Music Group, in which she aims to transfer her music abroad through the internet. In June, she hostedCarola Camp, a camp designed to help talented young singers and entertainers. In May, she performed at the Eurovision Song Contest held in Moscow at the kick-off ceremony, performing her 3 Eurovision songs. In July, she performed, together with the Eurovision winnerAlexander Rybakin Norway and sang \"Fairytale\" and \"Främling\" and The Jackson 5's \"I'll Be There\". At the end of 2009, she released the albumChristmas in Bethlehem, which contained duets with artists like Paul Potts. She embarked on yet another Christmas tour, visiting Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland. She also launched her new website. Carola attended in the final of theEurovision Song Contest 2013inMalmöand performed in a humorous interval act about Swedish culture. In the summer of 2010, Carola embarked on tour across Sweden, singing the hits of both Elvis Presley and Barbra Streisand.The influence came from Carola's childhood, where her father and her mother would play records by both their favourite artists. The tour was an instant success, selling out and becoming one of the few tours to sell out that year. She took time out from the tour to appear onAllsång på Skansen, and in March 2011 she released a studio album, containing twelve songs. In 2014 Häggkvist participated inSå mycket bättreonTV4. Carola attended the final of theEurovision Song Contest 2016in Stockholm and was briefly interviewed on screen along with another previous Swedish winnerLoreen. In late-October 2016, she released her new Christmas album titledDrömmen om julen. The release was followed by a tour. In April 2021, it was announced that Carola would be the spokesperson forSwedenat theEurovision Song Contest 2021, reading out the Swedish jury points at the Grand Final.She will perform \"Waterloo\" withCharlotte PerrelliandConchita Wurstas an interval act for the final of theEurovision Song Contest 2024. Personal life and media attention Her status as one of the most popular national celebrities of her country made her more or less constantly followed by the tabloid press. She has often talked about her Christian faith and much of the focus has been around her membership in the controversial evangelical churchLivets Ord(Word of Life). She was married toRunar Søgaard, a Norwegian Christian preacher, with whom she has a son, Amadeus.The couple divorced in 2000, after ten years of marriage.She adopted a daughter, Zoe, fromSouth Africa, in 2012. (Her parents had both died in 2004.) In 2015 she was assisting a man to transport eight refugees on the Greek island of Kos. She prevented thieves from stealing the refugees' boat engine, but caused a high-speed car chase. At a police station, the motor thieves accused her of illegally transporting refugees. She was arrested, but released a few hours later with no charges. Controversy regarding opinions on homosexuality In an interview in 2002 for the Swedish gay magazineQX, she alienated many gay and some heterosexual fans by alleging that she knew homosexual people who had become heterosexual through prayers. She also said that homosexuality would always remain \"unnatural\" to her. Four years later, her comment was brought up when she participated in the Swedish national selection for theEurovision Song Contestin March 2006. During a press conference a journalist tried to ask her about her opinions on homosexuality, but she did not answer. On 15 March 2006Rickard Engfors, who was Carola's cooperating partner during theMelodifestivalenandEurovision Song Contest 2006, said \"Carola doesn't hate gays. If she did, I wouldn't work for her. She is a fantastic person.\" During an exclusive interview for one of the Eurovision-related websites before the 2006 contest, Carola was also questioned about this, and she stated that she \"would love for every gay person to feel that she loves them\" and that she does not think that \"being gay is a sickness\". She went on to criticize thetabloidsfor misinterpreting her original words and making an issue out of it. Later in the interview, she also commented on one of her supporting dancers being gay and his boyfriend being \"great\". In 2008, she spoke to the newspaperAftonbladetand again revisited her opinions about homosexuality, which she insisted have evolved over the past two decades and are very inclusive. She said, \"I actually invited gays fromQXto my 25-year anniversary , butQXturned it down. What can I do? I love all people. I love the gays. So I am definitely not homophobic in any way. We are here for the music and I have no wacky opinions. And I feel love from many homosexuals too.\" In 2014, while participating on the TV showSå mycket bättre, she revealed that she had a romance with a woman in the 1980s. She said \"I remember when I hung out with a girl actually in the '80s. We were definitely not a couple, but I tested. It was a bit hard because I felt an extreme attraction and a force in that, but I chose not to go further\". On the 2019 series ofSå mycket bättre, she was asked about possibly having a relation with a woman in the future, and she said that it is a possibility. Discography Dubbing Awards Häggkvist was awarded theIllis quorummedal by theGovernment of Swedenon 13 July 2023. References External links", "The Sound of Music The Sound of Musicis amusicalwith music byRichard Rodgers, lyrics byOscar Hammerstein II, and a book byHoward LindsayandRussel Crouse. It is based on the 1949 memoir ofMaria von Trapp,The Story of the Trapp Family Singers. Set in Austria on the eve of theAnschlussin 1938, the musical tells the story of Maria, who takes a job as governess to a large family while she decides whether to become a nun. She falls in love with the children, and eventually their widowed father,Captain von Trapp. He is ordered to accept a commission in the German Navy, but he opposes the Nazis. He and Maria decide on a plan to flee Austria with the children. Many songs from the musical have becomestandards, including \"Do-Re-Mi\", \"My Favorite Things\", \"Edelweiss\", \"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\", and the title song \"The Sound of Music\". The originalBroadwayproduction, starringMary MartinandTheodore Bikel, opened in 1959and won fiveTony Awards, including Best Musical, out of nine nominations. The first London production opened at thePalace Theatrein 1961. The show has enjoyed numerous productions and revivals since then. It was adapted as a1965 film musicalstarringJulie AndrewsandChristopher Plummer, which won fiveAcademy Awards, including Best Picture.The Sound of Musicwas the last musical written byRodgers and Hammerstein, as Oscar Hammerstein died of stomach cancer nine months after the Broadway premiere. History After viewingThe Trapp Family, a 1956West Germanfilm about thevon Trapp family, and its 1958 sequel (The Trapp Family in America), stage directorVincent J. Donehuethought that the project would be perfect for his friendMary Martin; Broadway producersLeland Haywardand Richard Halliday (Martin's husband) agreed.The producers originally envisioned a non-musical play that would be written byLindsay and Crouseand that would feature songs from the repertoire of the Trapp Family Singers. Then they decided to add an original song or two, perhaps byRodgers and Hammerstein. But it was soon agreed that the project should feature all new songs and be a musical rather than a play. Details of the history of the von Trapp family were altered for the musical. The realGeorg von Trappdid live with his family in a villa inAigen, a suburb ofSalzburg. He wrote to theNonnberg Abbeyin 1926 asking for a nun to help tutor his sick daughter, and theMother AbbesssentMaria. His wife,Agathe Whitehead, had died in 1922. The real Maria and Georg married at the Nonnberg Abbey in 1927. Lindsay and Crouse altered the story so that Maria was governess to all of the children, whose names and ages were changed, as was Maria's original surname (the show used \"Rainer\" instead of \"Kutschera\"). The von Trapps spent some years in Austria after Maria and the Captain married and he was offered a commission inGermany's navy. Since von Trapp opposed the Nazis by that time, the family left Austria after theAnschluss, going by train toItalyand then traveling on to London and the United States.To make the story more dramatic, Lindsay and Crouse had the family, soon after Maria's and the Captain's wedding, escape over the mountains to Switzerland on foot. Synopsis Act I InSalzburg,Federal State of Austria, just beforeWorld War II, nuns fromNonnberg Abbeysing theDixit Dominus. One of thepostulants, Maria Rainer, is on the nearby mountainside, regretting leaving the beautiful hills (\"The Sound of Music\"). She returns late to the abbey where the MotherAbbessand the other nuns have been considering what to do about the free-spirit (\"Maria\"). Maria explains her lateness, saying she was raised on that mountain, and apologizes for singing in the garden without permission. The Mother Abbess joins her in song (\"My Favorite Things\"). The Mother Abbess tells her that she should spend some time outside theabbeyto decide whether she is suited for themonasticlife. She will act as thegovernessto the seven children of a widower,Austro-Hungarian Navysubmarine CaptainGeorg von Trapp. Maria arrives at the villa of Captain von Trapp. He explains her duties and summons the children with aboatswain's call. They march in, clad in uniforms. He teaches her their individual signals on the call, but she openly disapproves of this militaristic approach. Alone with them, she breaks through their wariness and teaches them the basics of music (\"Do-Re-Mi\"). Rolf, a young messenger, delivers a telegram and then meets with the eldest child, Liesl, outside the villa. He claims he knows what is right for her because he is a year older than she (\"Sixteen Going on Seventeen\"). They kiss, and he runs off, leaving her squealing with joy. Meanwhile, the housekeeper, Frau Schmidt, gives Maria material to make new clothes, as Maria had given all her possessions to the poor. Maria sees Liesl slipping in through the window, wet from a sudden thunderstorm, but agrees to keep her secret. The other children are frightened by the storm. Maria sings \"The Lonely Goatherd\" to distract them. Captain von Trapp arrives a month later fromViennawith Baroness Elsa Schrader and Max Detweiler. Elsa tells Max that something is preventing the Captain from marrying her. He opines that only poor people have the time for great romances (\"How Can Love Survive\"). Rolf enters, looking for Liesl, and greets them with \"Heil\". The Captain orders him away, saying that he is Austrian, not German. Maria and the childrenleapfrogin, wearing play-clothes that she made from the old drapes in her room. Infuriated, the Captain sends them off to change. She tells him that the children need him to show his love for them, and he angrily orders her back to the abbey. As she apologizes, they hear the children singing \"The Sound of Music\", which she had taught them, to welcome Elsa Schrader. He joins in and embraces them. Alone with Maria, he asks her to stay, thanking her for bringing music back into his house. Elsa is suspicious of her until she explains that she will be returning to the abbey in September. The Captain gives a party to introduce Elsa, and guests argue over theAnschluss(the Nazi German annexation of Austria). Kurt asks Maria to teach him to dance theLändler. When he fails to negotiate a complicated figure, the Captain steps in to demonstrate. He and Maria dance until they come face-to-face; and she breaks away, embarrassed and confused. Discussing the expected marriage between Elsa and the Captain, Brigitta tells Maria that she thinks Maria and the Captain are really in love with each other. Elsa asks the Captain to allow the children to say goodnight to the guests with a song (\"So Long, Farewell\"). Max is amazed at their talent and wants them for the Kaltzburg Festival, which he is organizing. The guests leave for the dining room, and Maria slips out the front door with her luggage. At the abbey, Maria says that she is ready to take hermonastic vows; but the Mother Abbess realizes that she is running away from her feelings. She tells her to face the Captain and discover if they love each other, and tells her to search for and find the life she was meant to live (\"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\"). Act II Max teaches the children how to sing on stage. When the Captain tries to lead them, they complain that he is not doing it as Maria did. He tells them that he has asked Elsa to marry him. They try to cheer themselves up by singing \"My Favorite Things\" but are unsuccessful until they hear Maria singing on her way to rejoin them. Learning of the wedding plans, she decides to stay only until the Captain can arrange for another governess. Max and Elsa argue with the Captain about the imminentAnschluss, trying to convince him that it is inevitable (\"No Way to Stop It\"). When he refuses to compromise on his opposition to it, Elsa breaks off the engagement. Alone, the Captain and Maria finally admit their love, desiring only to be \"An Ordinary Couple\". As they marry, the nuns reprise \"Maria\" against the wedding processional. While Maria and the Captain are on their honeymoon, Max prepares the children to perform at the Kaltzburg Festival. Herr Zeller, theGauleiterof the region, demands to know why they are not flying theFlag of Nazi Germanynow that theAnschlusshas occurred. The Captain and Maria return early from their honeymoon before the Festival. In view of the Nazi German occupation, the Captain decides the children should not sing at the event. Max argues that they would sing for Austria, but the Captain points out that it no longer exists. Maria and Liesl discuss romantic love; Maria predicts that in a few years Liesl will be married (\"Sixteen Going on Seventeen (Reprise)\"). Rolf enters with a telegram that offers the Captain a commission in theGerman Navy, and Liesl is upset to discover that Rolf is now a committedNazi. The Captain consults Maria and decides that they must secretly flee Austria. German Admiral von Schreiber arrives to find out why Captain von Trapp has not answered the telegram. He explains that the German Navy holds him in high regard, offers him the commission, and tells him to report immediately toBremerhavento assume command. Maria says that he cannot leave immediately, as they are all singing in the Festival concert; and the Admiral agrees to wait. At the concert, after the von Trapps sing an elaborate reprise of \"Do-Re-Mi\", Max brings out the Captain's guitar. Captain von Trapp sings \"Edelweiss\", as a goodbye to his homeland, while usingAustria's national floweras a symbol to declare his loyalty to the country. Max asks for an encore and announces that this is the von Trapp family's last chance to sing together, as the honor guard waits to escort the Captain to his new command. While the judges decide on the prizes, the von Trapps sing \"So Long, Farewell\" (reprise), leaving the stage in small groups. Max then announces the runners-up, stalling as much as possible. When he announces that the first prize goes to the von Trapps and they do not appear, theNazisstart a search. The family hides at the Abbey, and Sister Margaretta tells them that the borders have been closed. Rolf comes upon them and calls his lieutenant, but after seeing Liesl he changes his mind and tells him they aren't there. The Nazis leave, and the von Trapps flee over theAlpsas the nuns reprise \"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\". Musical numbers Characters and casts Characters Original casts Notable replacements Productions Original productions The Sound of Musicpremiered at New Haven'sShubert Theatrewhere it played an eight-performance tryout in October and November 1959 before another short tryout in Boston.The musical then opened onBroadwayat theLunt-Fontanne Theatreon November 16, 1959, moved to theMark Hellinger Theatreon November 6, 1962, and closed on June 15, 1963, after 1,443 performances. The director wasVincent J. Donehue, and the choreographer wasJoe Layton. The original cast includedMary Martinas Maria,Theodore Bikelas Captain Georg von Trapp,Patricia Newayas Mother Abbess,Kurt Kasznaras Max Detweiler,Marion Marloweas Elsa Schrader, Brian Davies as Rolf,Lauri Petersas Liesl andMuriel O'Malleyas Sister Margaretta.Patricia Brooks,June CardandTatiana Troyanoswere ensemble members in the original production. The show tied for theTony Awardfor Best Musical withFiorello!. Other awards included Martin for Best Actress in a Musical, Neway for Best Featured Actress, Best Scenic Design (Oliver Smith) and Best Conductor And Musical Director (Frederick Dvonch). Bikel and Kasznar were nominated for acting awards, and Donehue was nominated for his direction. The entire children's cast was nominated for Best Featured Actress category as a single nominee, even though two of the children (Kurt and Friedrich) were boys. Martha Wrightreplaced Martin in the role of Maria on Broadway in October 1961, followed by Karen Gantz in July 1962, Jeannie Carson in August 1962andNancy Dussaultin September 1962.Jon Voight, who later married co-star Lauri Peters, was a replacement for Rolf from September 1961 to June 1962.The national tour starredFlorence Hendersonas Maria andBeatrice Krebsas Mother Abbess. It opened at theGrand Riviera Theater, Detroit, on February 27, 1961, and closed November 23, 1963, at theO'Keefe Centre, Toronto. Henderson was succeeded by Barbara Meister in June 1962. Theodore Bikel was not satisfied playing the role of the Captain, and Bikel did not like to play the same role over and over again. In his autobiography, he writes: \"I promised myself then that if I could afford it, I would never do a run as long as that again.\"The original Broadwaycast albumsold three million copies. The musical premiered in London'sWest Endat thePalace Theatreon May 18, 1961, and ran for 2,385 performances. It was directed by Jerome Whyte and used the original New York choreography, supervised by Joe Layton, and the original sets designed by Oliver Smith. The cast includedJean Baylessas Maria, followed by Sonia Rees, Roger Dann as Captain von Trapp,Constance Shacklockas Mother Abbess,Eunice Gaysonas Elsa Schrader, Harold Kasket as Max Detweiler, Barbara Brown as Liesl, Nicholas Bennett as Rolf andOlive Gilbertas Sister Margaretta. 1981 London revival In 1981, at producer Ross Taylor's urging,Petula Clarkagreed to star in a revival of the show at theApollo Victoria TheatreinLondon'sWest End.Michael Jaystonplayed Captain von Trapp,Honor Blackmanwas the Baroness andJune Bronhillplayed the Mother Abbess. Other notable cast members includedHelen Anker,John BennettandMartina Grant.Despite her misgivings that, at age 49, she was too old to play the role convincingly, Clark opened to unanimous rave reviews and the largest advance sale in the history of British theatre at that time. Maria von Trapp, who attended the opening night performance, described Clark as \"the best\" Maria ever. Clark extended her initial six-month contract to thirteen months. Playing to 101 percent ofseating capacity, the show set the highest attendance figure for a single week (October 26–31, 1981) of any British musical production in history (as recorded inThe Guinness Book of Theatre).It was the first stage production to incorporate the two additional songs (\"Something Good\" and \"I Have Confidence\") that Richard Rodgers composed for the film version.\"My Favorite Things\" had a similar context to the film version, while the short verse \"A Bell is No Bell\" was extended into a full-length song for Maria and the Mother Abbess. \"The Lonely Goatherd\" was set in a new scene at a village fair. The cast recording of this production was the first to be recorded digitally. It was released on CD for the first time in 2010 by the UK label Pet Sounds and included two bonus tracks from the original single issued byEpicto promote the production. 1998 Broadway revival DirectorSusan H. Schulmanstaged the first Broadway revival ofThe Sound of Music, withRebecca Lukeras Maria andMichael Siberryas Captain von Trapp. It also featuredPatti Cohenouras Mother Abbess,Jan Maxwellas Elsa Schrader,Fred Applegateas Max Detweiler,Dashiell Eavesas Rolf,Patricia Conollyas Frau Schmidt andLaura Benanti, in her Broadway debut, as Luker'sunderstudy. Later, Luker and Siberry were replaced byRichard Chamberlainas the Captain and Benanti as Maria.Lou Taylor Puccimade his Broadway debut as the understudy for Kurt von Trapp. The production opened on March 12, 1998, at theMartin Beck Theatre, and closed on June 20, 1999, after 533 performances. This production was nominated for aTony Awardfor Best Revival of a Musical.It then toured in North America. 2006 London revival AnAndrew Lloyd Webberproduction opened on November 15, 2006, at theLondon Palladium, produced by Live Nation'sDavid IanandJeremy Sams. Following failed negotiations with Hollywood starScarlett Johansson,the role of Maria was cast through a UK talent search reality TV show calledHow Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?The talent show was produced by (and featured) Andrew Lloyd Webber and also featured presenter/comedianGraham Nortonand a judging panel ofDavid Ian,John BarrowmanandZoë Tyler. Connie Fisherwas selected by public voting as the winner of the show. In early 2007, Fisher suffered from a heavy cold that prevented her from performing for two weeks. To prevent further disruptions, an alternate Maria,Aoife Mulholland, a fellow contestant onHow Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?, played Maria on Monday evenings and Wednesday matinee performances.Simon Shepherdwas originally cast as Captain von Trapp, but after two preview performances he was withdrawn from the production, andAlexander Hansonmoved into the role in time for the official opening date along withLesley Garrettas the Mother Abbess. After Garrett left,Margaret Preecetook the role. The cast also featuredLauren Wardas the Baroness,Ian Gelderas Max,Sophie Bouldas Liesl, andNeil McDermottas Rolf. Other notable replacements includedSimon BurkeandSimon MacCorkindaleas the Captain and newcomer Amy Lennox as Liesl.Summer Strallenreplaced Fisher in February 2008,with Mulholland portraying Maria on Monday evenings and Wednesday matinees. The revival received enthusiastic reviews, especially for Fisher, Preece, Bould and Garrett. A cast recording of the London Palladium cast was released.The production closed on February 21, 2009, after a run of over two yearsand was followed by a UK national tour, described below. Other notable productions 1960s to 2000 The first Australian production opened atMelbourne'sPrincess Theatrein 1961 and ran for three years. The production was directed by Charles Hickman, with musical numbers staged by Ernest Parham. The cast includedJune Bronhillas Maria,Peter Gravesas Captain von Trapp andRosina Raisbeckas Mother Abbess. A touring company then played for years, with Vanessa Lee (Graves' wife) in the role of Maria. The cast recording made in 1961 was the first time a major overseas production featuring Australian artists was transferred to disc. In 1988, the Moon Troupe ofTakarazuka Revueperformed the musical at the Bow Hall (Takarazuka,Hyōgo). Harukaze Hitomi and Gou Mayuka starred.A 1990New York City Operaproduction, directed byOscar Hammerstein II's son, James, featuredDebby Booneas Maria,Laurence Guittardas Captain von Trapp, andWerner Klempereras Max. An Australian revival played in the Lyric Theatre,Sydney, New South Wales, from November 1999 to February 2000.Lisa McCuneplayed Maria,John Waterswas Captain von Trapp,Bert Newtonwas Max,Eilene Hannanwas Mother Abbess andRachel Marleywas Marta. This production was based on the 1998 Broadway revival staging.The production then toured until February 2001, in Melbourne,Brisbane,PerthandAdelaide.Rachael Becktook over as Maria in Perth and Adelaide, andRob Guesttook over as Captain von Trapp in Perth. 21st century An Austrian production premiered in 2005 at theVolksoper Wienin German. It was directed and choreographed by Renaud Doucet. The cast included Sandra Pires as Maria, Kurt Schreibmayer and Michael Kraus as von Trapp, withHeidi Brunneras Mother Abbess. The song \"Do-Re-Mi\" was rewritten as \"C wie Cellophanpapier\", replacing the solfège syllables with the German letter notation C through H and selecting mnemonics that begin with each letter.The production is still in the repertoire of the Volksoper with performances each season; performances are scheduled for 2024. TheSalzburg Marionette Theatrehas toured extensively with their version that features the recorded voices of Broadway singers such asChristiane Nollas Maria.The tour began inDallas, Texas, in 2007and continued in Salzburg in 2008.The director isRichard Hamburger.In 2008, a Brazilian production with Kiara Sasso as Maria and Herson Capri as the Captain played inRio de JaneiroandSão Paulo,and a Dutch production was mounted with Wieneke Remmers as Maria, directed by John Yost. Andrew Lloyd Webber,David IanandDavid MirvishpresentedThe Sound of Musicat thePrincess of Wales Theatrein Toronto from 2008 to 2010. The role of Maria was chosen by the public through a television show,How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, which was produced by Lloyd Webber and Ian and aired in mid-2008.Elicia MacKenziewonand played the role six times a week, while the runner-up in the TV show, Janna Polzin, played Maria twice a week.Captain von Trapp was played byBurke Moses. The show ran for more than 500 performances. It was Toronto's longest running revival ever. A UK tour began in 2009 and visited more than two dozen cities before ending in 2011. The original cast includedConnie Fisheras Maria,Michael Praedas Captain von Trapp andMargaret Preeceas the Mother Abbess. Kirsty Malpass was the alternate Maria.Jason Donovanassumed the role of Captain Von Trapp, andVerity Rushworthtook over as Maria, in early 2011.Lesley Garrettreprised her role as Mother Abbess for the tour's final engagement inWimbledonin October 2011. A production ran at the Ópera-Citi theater inBuenos Aires, Argentina in 2011. The cast included Laura Conforte as Maria and Diego Ramos as Captain Von Trapp.A Spanish national tour began in November 2011 at theAuditorio de TenerifeinSanta Cruz de Tenerifein theCanary Islands. The tour visited 29 Spanish cities, spending one year inMadrid'sGran Víaat the Teatro Coliseum, and one season at the Tívoli Theatre inBarcelona. It was directed by Jaime Azpilicueta and starred Silvia Luchetti as Maria and Carlos J. Benito as Captain Von Trapp. A production was mounted at theOpen Air Theatre, Regent's Parkfrom July to September 2013.It starred Charlotte Wakefield as Maria, with Michael Xavier as Captain von Trapp andCaroline Keiffas Elsa.It received enthusiastic reviews and became the highest-grossing production ever at the theatre.In 2014, the show was nominated for Best Musical Revival at theLaurence Olivier Awardsand Wakefield was nominated for Best Actress in a Musical. A brief South Korean production played in 2014The same year, a Spanish language translation opened at Teatro de la Universidad in San Juan, under the direction of Edgar García. It starredLourdes Roblesas Maria andBraulio Castilloas Captain Von Trapp, withDagmaras Elsa.A production (in Thai:มนต์รักเพลงสวรรค์) ran at Muangthai ratchadalai Theatre,Bangkok, Thailand, in April 2015 in the Thai language. The production replaced the song \"Ordinary couple\" with \"Something Good\". A North American tour, directed byJack O'Brienand choreographed by Danny Mefford, began at theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles in September 2015. The tour ran until July 2017.Kerstin Andersonplayed Maria, with Ben Davis as Capt. von Trapp andAshley Brownas Mother Abess. The production has received warm reviews.A UK tour produced byBill Kenwrightbegan in 2015 and toured into 2016. It was directed byMartin Connorand starredLucy O'Byrneas Maria.A 2016 Australian tour of the Lloyd Webber production, directed by Sams, included stops in Sydney,Brisbane, Melbourne and Adelaide. The cast includedAmy Lehpameras Maria,Cameron Daddoas Captain Von Trapp,Marina Prioras Baroness Schraeder andLorraine Baylyas Frau Schmidt. The choreographer wasArlene Phillips. Film adaptation On March 2, 1965,20th Century Foxreleased afilm adaptation of the musicalstarringJulie Andrewsas Maria Rainer andChristopher Plummeras Captain Georg von Trapp. It was produced and directed byRobert Wisewith the screenplay adaptation written byErnest Lehman. Two songs were written by Rodgers specifically for the film, \"I Have Confidence\" and \"Something Good\". The film won five Oscars at the38th Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Television adaptations Alive televised productionof the musical aired twice in December 2013 onNBC.It was directed byBeth McCarthy-MillerandRob Ashford.Carrie Underwoodstarred as Maria, withStephen Moyeras Captain von Trapp,Christian Borleas Max,Laura Benantias Elsa, andAudra McDonaldas the Mother Abbess.The production was released on DVD the same month. British networkITVpresented alive version of its ownon December 20, 2015. It starredKara Tointonas Maria,Julian Ovendenas Captain von Trapp,Katherine Kellyas the Baroness andAlexander Armstrongas Max. Reception Most reviews of the original Broadway production were favorable.Richard Watts Jr.of theNew York Poststated that the show had \"strangely gentle charm that is wonderfully endearing.The Sound of Musicstrives for nothing in the way of smash effects, substituting instead a kind of gracious and unpretentious simplicity.\"TheNew York World-Telegram and SunpronouncedThe Sound of Music\"the loveliest musical imaginable. It places Rodgers and Hammerstein back in top form as melodist and lyricist. The Lindsay-Crouse dialogue is vibrant and amusing in a plot that rises to genuine excitement.\"TheNew York Journal American's review opined thatThe Sound of Musicis \"the most mature product of the team ... it seemed to me to be the full ripening of these two extraordinary talents\". Brooks AtkinsonofThe New York Timesgave a mixed assessment. He praised Mary Martin's performance, saying \"she still has the same common touch ... same sharp features, goodwill, and glowing personality that makes music sound intimate and familiar\" and stated that \"the best of theSound of Musicis Rodgers and Hammerstein in good form\". However, he said, the libretto \"has the hackneyed look of the musical theatre replaced withOklahoma!in 1943. It is disappointing to see the American musical stage succumbing to the clichés ofoperetta.\"Walter Kerr's review in theNew York Herald Tribunewas unfavorable: \"BeforeThe Sound of Musicis halfway through its promising chores it becomes not only too sweet for words but almost too sweet for music\", stating that the \"evening suffer from little children\". Cast recordings Columbia Masterworksrecorded the original Broadway cast album at theColumbia 30th Street Studioin New York City a week after the show's 1959 opening. The album was the label's first deluxe package in a gatefold jacket, priced $1 higher than previous cast albums. It was No. 1 onBillboard'sbest-selling albums chart for 16 weeks in 1960.It was released on CD from Sony in the Columbia Broadway Masterworks series.In 1959, singerPatti Pagerecordedthe title songfrom the show forMercury Recordson the day that the musical opened on Broadway. The 1961 London production was recorded byEMIand released on the HMV label and later re-issued on CD in 1997, on the Broadway Angel label. The 1965 film soundtrackwas released byRCA Victorand is one of the most successful soundtrack albums in history, having sold over 20 million copies worldwide.RCA Victoralso released an album of the 1998Broadwayrevival produced byHallmark Entertainmentand featuring the full revival cast, includingRebecca Luker,Michael Siberry,Jan MaxwellandFred Applegate.TheTelarclabel made a studio cast recording ofThe Sound of Music, with theCincinnati Pops Orchestraconducted byErich Kunzel(1987). The lead roles went to opera stars:Frederica von Stadeas Maria,Håkan Hagegårdas Captain von Trapp, andEileen Farrellas the Mother Abbess.The recording \"includes both the two new songs written for the film version and the three Broadway songs they replace, as well as a previously unrecorded verse of \"An Ordinary Couple\"\".The 2006 London revival was recorded and has been released on theDecca Broadwaylabel.There have been numerous studio cast albums and foreign cast albums issued, though many have only received regional distribution. According to the cast album database, there are 62 recordings of the score that have been issued over the years. Thesoundtrackfrom the 2013 NBC television production starringCarrie UnderwoodandStephen Moyerwas released on CD and digital download in December 2013 on theSony Masterworkslabel. Also featured on the album areAudra McDonald,Laura BenantiandChristian Borle. Awards and nominations Original Broadway production 1998 Broadway Revival Notes References Further reading External links", "Maria von Trapp Maria Augusta von TrappDHS(néeKutschera; 26 January 1905 – 28 March 1987), often styled as “Baroness”, was the stepmother and matriarch of theTrapp Family Singers.She wroteThe Story of the Trapp Family Singers, which was published in 1949 and was the inspiration for the 1956 West German filmThe Trapp Family, which in turn inspired the 1959 Broadway musicalThe Sound of Musicand its 1965film version. Biography Early life Maria was purportedly born on 26 January 1905 to Karl and Augusta (néeRainer) Kuczera.She claimed to have been delivered on a train on the night of the 25th, during her mother's return from her homeland ofTyrolto their family residence inVienna, Austria.She was baptized into theCatholic Churchon the 29th within theAlservorstadtparish and maternity hospital. Her father was ahotel commissionaire,born in Vienna,the son of Josef Kučera from aMoravianvillage,Vídeň.Karl was first married inGrazto Klara Rainer in 1887.The couple had a son Karl in 1888 before Klara's death a few months later.Maria's father remained a widower until he remarried to Klara's younger sister, Augusta, in 1903.Augusta died ofpulmonary tuberculosiswhen Maria was nearly 10 months old.Maria’s grief-stricken father left her with his cousin (and foster mother) inKagran,who also cared for Maria's half-brother Karl after his mother Klara had died. Maria's father then traveled the world, although Maria would visit him upon occasion at his apartment in Vienna. He changed the spelling of their surname toKutscherain 1914,dying at home later that year.Her foster mother's son-in-law, Uncle Franz, then became her guardian. Uncle Franz maltreated Maria and punished her for things she did not do; he was later found to be mentally ill. This changed Maria from a shy child into the teenage \"class cut-up\", figuring she may as well have fun if she was going to get in trouble either way. Despite this change, Maria continued to get good grades. After graduating from high school at 15, Maria ran away to stay with a friend, with the intent to become a tutor for children staying at nearby hotels. Because she looked so young, no one took her seriously. Finally, a hotel manager asked her to be umpire for a tennis tournament. Although she did not know what an umpire was and had never played tennis, she took the job. From this job, she saved enough money to enter the State Teachers College for Progressive Education in Vienna, where she also received a scholarship.She graduated from there at age 18 in 1923. In 1924, she enteredNonnberg Abbey, aBenedictinemonastery inSalzburg, as apostulant, intending to become a nun. Marriage While still teaching at the Abbey in 1926, Maria was asked to teachMaria Franziska von Trapp, one of seven children born to widowed naval commanderGeorg von Trapp.His first wife, the Anglo-Austrian heiressAgathe Whitehead, had earlier died in 1922 fromscarlet fever.Eventually, Maria began to look after the other children:Rupert,Agathe,Werner,Hedwig,Johanna, andMartina. Captain von Trapp saw how much she cared about his children and asked her to marry him, although he was 25 years her senior. Frightened, she fled back to Nonnberg Abbey to seek guidance from themother abbess,Virgilia Lütz, who advised her it was God's will that she should marry him. She then returned to the family and accepted his proposal. She wrote in her autobiography that she was very angry on her wedding day, both at God and at her new husband, because she really wanted to be a nun. \"I really and truly was not in love. I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after.\"They married atNonnberg Abbeyon 26 November 1927 and had three children together: Rosmarie (1929–2022), Eleonore (\"Lorli\") (1931–2021) andJohannes(born 1939). Medical problems The von Trapps enjoyed hiking. On one outing, they stayed overnight at a farmer's house. The next morning, they were informed that Maria and two of Georg’s daughters, Johanna and Martina, hadscarlet fever. Johanna and Martina recovered, but the older Maria developedkidney stonesdue todehydration. Her stepdaughter, Maria Franziska, accompanied her to Vienna for a successful surgery, but Maria experienced lifelong kidney problems. Financial problems The family met with financial ruin in 1935. Georg had transferred his savings from a bank inLondonto an Austrian bank run by a friend named Frau Lammer. Austria was experiencing economic difficulties during aworldwide depressionbecause of theCrash of 1929, and Lammer's bank failed.To survive, the Trapps dismissed most of their servants, moved into the top floor of their house, and rented out the other rooms. TheArchbishop of Salzburg, Sigismund Waitz, sent FatherFranz Wasnerto stay with them as theirchaplainand this began their singing career. Early musical career and departure from Austria SopranoLotte Lehmannheard the family sing, and she suggested they perform at concerts. When theAustrian ChancellorKurt Schuschniggheard them over the radio, he invited them to perform in Vienna. After performing at a festival in 1935, they became a popular touring act. They experienced life under theNazisafter theannexation of Austriaby Germany in March 1938. Life became increasingly difficult as they witnessed hostility toward Jewish children by their classmates, the use of children against their parents, the advocacy of abortion both by Maria's doctor and by her son's school,and finally by the extension of an offer forGeorgto join theGerman Navy.They visitedMunichin the summer of 1938 and encounteredHitlerat a restaurant. In September, the family fled Austria forItalyvia train, then toEnglandand finally theUnited States. The Nazis made use of their abandoned home asHeinrich Himmler's headquarters. Initially calling themselves the \"Trapp Family Choir\", the von Trapps began to perform in the United States andCanada. They performed inNew York CityatThe Town Hallon 10 December 1938.TheNew York Timeswrote: There was something unusually lovable and appealing about the modest, serious singers of this little family aggregation as they formed a close semicircle about their self-effacing director for their initial offering, the handsome Mme. von Trapp in simple black, and the youthful sisters garbed in black and white Austrian folk costumes enlivened with red ribbons. It was only natural to expect work of exceeding refinement from them, and one was not disappointed in this. Charles Wagner was their first booking agent, then they signed on withFrederick Christian Schang. Thinking the name \"Trapp Family Choir\" too churchy, Schang Americanized their repertoire and, following his suggestion, the group changed its name to the \"Trapp Family Singers\".The family, which by then included all ten children, was soon touring the world giving concert performances.Alix Williamsonserved as the group's publicist for over two decades. After the war, they founded theTrapp Family Austrian Relieffund, which sent food and clothing to the impoverished in Austria. Move to the United States In the 1940s, the family moved toStowe, Vermont, where they ran amusic campwhen they were not touring. In 1944, Maria Augusta, Maria Franziska, Johanna, Martina, Hedwig and Agathe applied for U.S. citizenship, whereas Georg never applied to become a citizen. Rupert and Werner became citizens by serving during World War II, while Rosmarie and Eleonore became citizens by virtue of their mother's citizenship. Johannes was born in the United States inPhiladelphiaon the 17 January 1939 during a concert tour.Georg von Trapp died in 1947 in Vermont after suffering lung cancer. The family made a series of 78-rpm records forRCA Victorin the 1950s, some of which were later issued onRCA CamdenLPs. There were also a few later recordings released on LPs, including some stereo sessions. In 1957, the Trapp Family Singers disbanded and went their separate ways. Maria and three of her children became missionaries inPapua New Guinea. In 1965, Maria moved back to Vermont to manage theTrapp Family Lodge, which had been namedCor Unum. She began turning over management of the lodge to her son Johannes, although she was initially reluctant to do so.Hedwig returned to Austria and worked as a teacher inUmhausen. Death Maria von Trapp died of heart failure on 28 March 1987, aged 82, inMorrisville, Vermont, three days following surgery.She is interred in the family cemetery at the lodge, along with her husband and five of her step-children. Decorations and awards The family has won the following awards: Children Adaptations of the autobiography Maria von Trapp's book,The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949, was a best-seller. It was made into two successful German / Austrian films: The book was then adapted intoThe Sound of Music, a 1959Broadwaymusical byRodgers and Hammerstein, starringMary MartinandTheodore Bikel. It was a success, running for more than three years. The musical was adapted in 1965 as a motion pictureof the same name, starringJulie Andrews. The film version set US box office records, and Maria von Trapp received about $500,000 ($5.28 million today) in royalties. Maria von Trapp made acameo appearancein the movie version ofThe Sound of Music(1965). For an instant, she, her daughter Rosmarie, and Werner's daughter Barbara can be seen walking past an archway during the song, \"I Have Confidence\", at the line, \"I must stop these doubts, all these worries / If I don't, I just know I'll turn back.\" Maria von Trapp sang \"Edelweiss\" with Andrews onThe Julie Andrews Hourin 1973. In 1991, a 40 episodeanimeseries, titledTrapp Family Storyaired in Japan, her character referred to by her maiden name (Maria Kutschera), voiced byMasako Katsuki. She was portrayed in the 2015 filmThe von Trapp Family: A Life of MusicbyYvonne Catterfeld. Authored books References External links", "Astrological sign InWestern astrology,astrological signsare the twelve 30-degree sectors that make upEarth's 360-degree orbit around the Sun. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as theFirst Point of Aries, which is thevernal equinox. The astrological signs areAries,Taurus,Gemini,Cancer,Leo,Virgo,Libra,Scorpio,Sagittarius,Capricorn,Aquarius, andPisces. The Westernzodiacoriginated inBabylonian astrology, and was later influenced by theHellenisticculture. Each sign was named after a constellationthe sunannually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popularsun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with theconstellationsthey were named after byaxial precessionof the Earth whileHindu astrologymeasurements correct for this shifting.Astrology (i.e. a system of omina based on celestial appearances) was developed inChineseandTibetancultures as well but these astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky. Astrology is apseudoscience.Scientific investigations of thetheoreticalbasis andexperimentalverification of claimshave shown it to have no scientific validity orexplanatory power. More plausible explanations for the apparent correlation between personality traits and birth months exist, such as theinfluence of seasonal birth in humans. According toastrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of \"as above, so below\", so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression.Scientific astronomyused the same sectors of the eclipticas Western astrology until the 19th century. Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiac's names and symbols remain mostly consistent. Western astrology measures fromEquinoxandSolsticepoints (points relating to equal, longest, and shortest days of thetropical year), whileHindu astrologymeasures along the equatorial plane (sidereal year). Western zodiac signs History Western astrologyis a direct continuation ofHellenistic astrologyas recorded in Ptolemy'sTetrabiblosin the 2nd century. Hellenistic astrology in turn was partly based on concepts fromBabylonian tradition. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction.This division of the ecliptic originated in the Babylonian \"ideal calendar\" found in the old compendiumMUL.APINand its combination with the Babylonianlunar calendar,represented as the \"path of the moon\" in MUL.APIN. In a way, the zodiac is the idealisation of an ideal lunar calendar. By the 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomy and its system of celestial omens influenced the culture ofancient Greece, as did the astronomy of Egypt by late 2nd century BC. This resulted, unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and the creation ofHoroscopic astrology, employing the use of theAscendant(the rising degree of the ecliptic, at the time of birth), and of the twelvehouses. Association of the astrological signs withEmpedocles' four classicalelementswas another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs. The body of the Hellenistic astrological tradition as it stood by the 2nd century is described inPtolemy'sTetrabiblos. This is the seminal work for later astronomical tradition not only in the West but also in India and the Islamic sphere and has remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings. Western astrological correspondence chart The following table shows the approximate dates of the twelve astrological signs, along with the classicaland modernrulerships of each sign. By definition,Ariesstarts at theFirst Point of Arieswhich is the location of the Sun at theMarch equinox. The precise date of the Equinox varies from year to year but is always between 19 March and 21 March. The consequence is the start date of Aries and therefore the start date of all the other signs can change slightly from year to year. The following Western astrology table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude with the Latin names. The longitudeintervals, are treated as closed for the first endpoint (a) and open for the second (b) – for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus, not part of Aries. The signs are occasionally numbered 0 through 11 in place of symbols in astronomical works. The twelve signs are positioned in a circular pattern, creating a pattern of oppositions related to different philosophically polarized attributes. Fire and air elements are generally 180 degrees opposed in Western astrology, as well as earth and water elements.Not all systems of astrology have four elements, notably the Sepher Yetzirah describes only three elements emanating from a central divine source.Spring signs are opposite to autumn ones, winter signs are opposite to summer ones and vice versa. Polarity InWestern astrology, the polarity divides the zodiac in half and refers to the alignment of a sign'senergyas either positive or negative, with various attributes associated to them as a result.Positive polaritysigns, also called active, yang, expressive, or masculine signs, are the six odd-numbered signs of the zodiac:Aries,Gemini,Leo,Libra,Sagittarius, andAquarius. Positive signs make up the fire and air triplicities.Negative polaritysigns, also called passive, yin, receptive, or feminine signs,are the six even-numbered signs of the zodiac:Taurus,Cancer,Virgo,Scorpio,Capricorn, andPisces. Negative signs make up the earth and water triplicities. The three modalities The modality or mode of a given sign refers to its position in theseasonit is found in. Each of the four elements manifests in three modalities:cardinal,fixed, andmutable.Since each modality comprehends four signs, they are also known as Quadruplicities.For example, the signAriesis found in the first month of spring in theNorthern Hemisphere, so practitioners of astrology describe it as having a cardinal modality.The combination of element and modality provides the signs with their unique characterizations. For instance, Capricorn is the cardinal earth sign, impressing its association with action (cardinal modality) in the material world (earth element). Triplicities of the four elements The Greek philosopherEmpedoclesidentified fire, earth, air, and water aselementsin the fifth-century BC. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles, love and strife, which manipulate the elements into different mixtures that produce the different natures of things. He stated all the elements are equal, the same age, rule their own provinces, and possess their own individual character. Empedocles said that those born with nearly equal proportions of the elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions. The elemental categories are called triplicities because eachclassical elementis associated with three signsThe four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent toHippocrates' personality types(sanguine = air; choleric = fire; melancholic = earth; phlegmatic = water). A modern approach looks at elements as \"the energy substance of experience\"and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords.The elements have grown in importance and some astrologers beginnatal chartinterpretations by studying the balance of elements in the location ofplanets(especially the Sun's and Moon's ascendant signs) and the position ofanglesin the chart. Celestial body rulerships Rulership is the connection betweenplanetand correlated sign andhouse.The conventional rulerships are as follows: Dignity and detriment, exaltation and fall A traditional belief of astrology, known asessential dignity, is the idea that the Sun, Moon, and planets are more powerful and effective in some signs than others because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony. By contrast, they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict. These categories are Dignity, Detriment, Exaltation, and Fall. In traditional astrology, other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership. These are known as Exaltation,Triplicity,Terms or bounds, and Face orDecan, which together are known as describing a planet'sEssential dignity, the quality or ability of one's true nature. In addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considersAccidental dignityof planets. This is placement byhousein the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's \"ability to act\". So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature.The twelfth is a cadent house as are the third, sixth and ninth and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the first, fourth, seventh, or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (second, fifth, eighth, eleventh) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range ofAccidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth. Additional classifications Each sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler.The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity. The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity. While the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it, they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism. The first four signs, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer, form the group of personal signs. The next four signs, Leo, Virgo, Libra, and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs. The last four signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces, form the group of transpersonal signs. Dane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors,used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology. The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac (constellation factors). The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year. The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing, or the half of the year when darkness is increasing. The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness, or the half when there is more darkness than daylight. The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time falls in, defined by the first two factors. Thus Western sign gallery Indian astrology In Indian astrology, there are five elements: fire, earth(Land), air, water, and ether. The master of fire is Mars, while Mercury is of land, Saturn of air, Venus of water, and Jupiter of ether. Jyotisharecognises twelve zodiac signs (Rāśi),that correspond to those in Western astrology. The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems. Nakshatras Anakshatra(Devanagari: नक्षत्र,Sanskritnakshatra, a metaphoricalcompoundofnaksha-'map/chart', andtra-'guard'), orlunar mansion, is one of the 27 divisions of the sky identified by prominent star(s), as used inHindu astronomyandastrology(Jyotisha).\"Nakshatra\" in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tulu and Tamil and Prakrit also, thus, it refers to stars themselves. Chinese zodiac signs Chinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (also known asshichen). A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its operation in a60-year cyclein combination with theFive PhasesofChinese astrology(Wood,Fire,Metal,WaterandEarth).Nevertheless, some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations: each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter. For example, in the year ofSnakeJupiter is in the Sign of Gemini, in the year ofHorseJupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on. So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar. Zodiac symbolism The following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes. The twelve signs InChinese astrology, the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of theRat, and there are many stories about theOrigins of the Chinese Zodiacwhich explain why this is so. When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements, they are traditionally called the twelveEarthly Branches. The Chinese zodiac follows thelunisolarChinese calendarand thus the \"changeover\" days in a month (when one sign changes to another sign) vary each year. The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order. The five elements The five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a60-yearcalendar. The five elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the tenHeavenly Stems. The yin/yang split seen in theGregorian calendarmeans years that end in an even number are Yang (representing masculine, active, and light), those that end with an odd number are Yin (representing feminine, passive and darkness), subject to Chinese New Year having passed. See also Notes References" ]

[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Sweden_Democrats (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ab8ee0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_2006 (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b943bbe50>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Carola Häggkvist Carola Maria Häggkvist(Swedish pronunciation:; born 8 September 1966), commonly known simply asCarola, is a Swedish pop singer. She has been among Sweden's most popular performers since the early 1980s and has released albums ranging from pop anddiscotohymnsandfolk music.Her debut album,Främling(1983), sold around one million copies and remains the biggest-selling album in Swedish music history.She has also worked as a songwriter. During her career, she has recorded many top-selling albums and singles and is referred to as Sweden's most prominent female singer. Some of her biggest hits are \"Främling\", \"Tommy tycker om mig\", \"Fångad av en stormvind\", \"All the Reasons to Live\", \"I Believe in Love\", \"Genom allt\", and \"Evighet\". She has released records in various languages: Swedish, Dutch,German,English, Norwegian and Japanese. Häggkvist has represented Sweden at theEurovision Song Conteston three occasions: in1983, finishing third; in1991, winning the contest; and in2006, finishing fifth. Early", "fifth. Early life Carola Maria Häggkvist was born on 8 September 1966 atSödersjukhusetinStockholm. She grew up inNorsborg, south of the Swedish capital. At the age of eight, she began to perform at Stockholm's Miniteatern; she also attendedAdolf Fredrik's Music School.In 1977, Häggkvist won a talent competition and appeared on television for the first time, onSveriges magasin, performing \"Krokodilbarnets klagan\". Career 1981–1989: Early career andFrämling In 1981, Swedish music promoterBert Karlssonmet then 15-year-old Häggkvist after she performed on the television seriesHylands hörnaand offered her the chance to take part inMelodifestivalen, the Swedish selection for theEurovision Song Contestin 1982. She turned down the offer. SongwriterLasse Holmoffered Häggkvist two of his songs forMelodifestivalen 1983, \"Mona Lisa\" and \"Främling\". \"Främling\" was chosen, and with it Häggkvist won the right to represent Sweden at that year's Eurovision Song Contest in Munich. The song scored eight points, the highest", "points, the highest possible mark, from all eleven regional juries. Häggkvist represented Sweden at theEurovision Song Conteston 23 April. She finished third in front of 6.1 million Swedish television viewers, 84% of the country's population. This is still a record in Sweden. \"Främling\" became the title track to Häggkvist's debut album, which sold over one million copies, making it the biggest-selling album in Swedish history.After Eurovision, Häggkvist embarked on a tour of European television programmes, promoting \"Främling\" and performing in it several languages: in English as \"Love Isn't Love\", in German as \"Fremder\", and in Dutch as \"Je ogen hebben geen geheimen\". The album contained hits like \"Mickey\", \"Liv\", \"Gloria\" and \"Tokyo\". In December 1983, she released her first Christmas album,Julefrid med Carola,which sold 200,000 copies. In 1984, Häggkvist released two top-selling pop/rock albums that together sold over 1 million copies. \"Tommy tycker om mig\" became a huge hit in Sweden, together with", "together with \"Hunger\". She later travelled to Japan and recorded a single in Japanese.In 1985, theBee Geescollaborated with her on the albumRunaway, which was written by the Gibb brothers and produced byMaurice Gibb. The record sold double platinum when released in Sweden the following year.\"The Runaway\", \"Brand New Heart\", \"Spread your wings\" and \"Radiate\" became massive hits in Scandinavia. In 1987, Häggkvist embarked on a church tour with pianistPer-Erik Hallin. After this followed a career hiatus for the singer. 1990–1991: New image, independence, and Eurovision victory In 1990, she returned to Melodifestivalen, with \"Mitt i ett äventyr\" (\"In the middle of an adventure\"). The song finished second in the festival, failing to earn Häggkvist the right to represent Sweden at Eurovision.Edin-Ådahlwon the event.Her comeback album, titledMuch More, was released, earning a gold certificate in Sweden.However, Häggkvist and songwriterStephan Berghad already begun planning another attempt at Eurovision. In 1991,", "In 1991, she returned to Melodifestivalen with \"Fångad av en stormvind\" (\"Captured by a lovestorm\"). The song won the festival by thirty-two points and became the Swedish entry for theEurovision Song Contest in Rome.British bookmakers considered Häggkvist second favourite to win the contest.On the night of the contest, with one voting jury left to announce their scores, three countries remained in contention to win the contest: Sweden, with 146 points; Israel, with 139; and France, with 134. Neither Israel nor Sweden won any points from the Italian jury, but France won twelve, leaving Sweden and France tied for first place with 146 at the conclusion of the voting. Sweden won the contest after acountback, having received five ten-point scores during the voting versus France's two.\"Fångad av en stormvind\" became a huge hit in Europe,and was followed by a compilation album,Hits, and a Christmas album,Jul.After her victory, she released an international version of \"Much More\" and went on an extended promotional", "promotional tour throughout Europe. Her album produced several hits, among them \"I'll live\" and \"All the Reasons to Live\". 1992–2004: Albums, tours, and musicals Häggkvist was the first Scandinavian pop artist to perform inChina—in front of an estimated 600 million television viewers; she also released an album in China in 1992.In 1992 and 1993, Rival International, released Carola's earlier albums on CD. She was originally signed to Mariann Records in Scandinavia. In 1993, ten years after her breakthrough representing Sweden at the 1983 Eurovision Song Contest, she recorded agospelalbum,My Tribute, which was released in sixteen countries, making her gospel artist of the year in the Netherlands in 1994.The album contains the hit-single \"My Tribute\", one of Häggkvist's best-known songs. In 1994, Häggkvist released a rock-themed album, '\"Personligt\" (Personally), marking her debut as a songwriter and selling gold.\"Så länge jag lever\", \"Sanna Vänner\" and \"Guld i dina ögon\" became hits and received a great", "received a great amount of radio airplay. In 1995, Häggkvist made her debut as a musical actress, playing Maria inThe Sound of MusicoppositeTommy Körbergas the male lead. She played the role in 325 performances and won the prestigiousGuldmasken(Golden Mask) award.Three years later, she sang the theme song in the Norwegian musicalSophie's World, which was released on the albumSongs from Sophie's World.Also in 1998, Häggkvist played the voice of Mirjam in the Swedish version ofThe Prince of Egypt.In 2002, she made a short appearance asFantineinLes Misérablesin London and five Scandinavian cities. In November 1997, Häggkvist released another compilation album,De bästa av Carola(\"The Best of Carola\"), and with it several new singles like \"Dreamer\".Following this came an album of tracks penned byLina Sandell,Blott en dag(\"Just One Day\").The album received excellent reviews and revealed Carola's passion for hymns. In 1999, another Christmas album was released:Jul i Betlehem(\"Christmas in Bethlehem\"). The album", "The album sold 600,000 units throughout Scandinavia, including 350,000 in Sweden.and became the biggest-selling album of 1999. She also co-wrote the ballad \"Himlen i min famn\", which remains a popular Christmas song that is often performed at Christmas concerts. In the summer of 1999, she toured in theRhapsody in Rock. In 2001, she releasedSov på min arm, an album based on Christian hymns, gospel melodies and intimate ballads. It became one of the most-sold albums in Scandinavia that year. In 2002, she release the pop/country albumMy Show, which received great reviews. The album, which marked Häggkvist's return to the pop scene, contained several hits such as \"The Light\", \"I believe in love\", which also topped the Estonian and Brazilian charts, and \"A Kiss Goodbye\". Even though the album only peaked at number 6 on the Swedish album chart, it sold 100,000 copies by the end of the year. In the summer, Häggkvist embarked on a huge and luxurious Scandinavian tour. In 2003, Häggkvist submitted a song, \"Autumn", "a song, \"Autumn Leaf\", forMelodifestivalen 2003. Having performed the demo, she was required to perform the song when it qualified for the competition. Häggkvist decided against doing that, and the song was disqualified from the competition.\"Autumn Leaf\" appeared on Häggkvist's next album,Guld, platina & passion, in Swedish as \"När löven faller\" (When the leaves fall). The ballad became an enormous hit.Guld, platina & passionreached number 1 on the Swedish charts and sold over 300,000 copies. She also recorded her favorite Elvis Presley songs, \"Walk a mile in my shoes\" and \"If I can dream\". The following year, Häggkvist released a religious album,Credo, which she described as \"an expression of my love for God\".The album peaked at spot 2 on the Swedish album chart. This was followed byStörst av allt, which Dan Backman ofSvenska Dagbladetwrote featured \"spiritually aimed music…revolving around belonging, love, death and eternity\".Genom Alltbecame a huge radio hit in Sweden and the soul ballad \"Allt kommer bli", "\"Allt kommer bli bra mamma\", a dedication to her deceased mother, became popular at religious events. 2005–present: Return to Eurovision Having performed as part of the interval act atMelodifestivalen 2005,Häggkvist confirmed that she would return to the competition in 2006. She performed \"Evighet\" (\"Eternity\"), written byBobby Ljunggren,Henrik WikströmandThomas G:son, which she described as a \"true winning song\". The song qualified from the fourth semi-final in Gothenburg on 11 March 2006,and was widely tipped to win the festival outright as the final at theStockholm Globe Arenaapproached.Despite finishing second with the regional juries toAndreas Johnson, \"Evighet\" won the competition with 232 points.Prior to the contest, Carola visited 12 countries where she promoted her song. \"Invincible\" received a large amount of air play on the radios in these countries. The song qualified from the semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest in Athens, in English as \"Invincible\". Häggkvist in the end finished fifth out", "finished fifth out of twenty-four with 170 points.This placing also made her the third-most successful artist in the history of Eurovision, counting by total points earned in her performances, with her three songs scoring a total of 442 points, behind onlyDima Bilan, the 2006 runner-up and 2008 winner; andLoreen, winner of 2012 and 2023. Following Melodifestivalen, Häggkvist released a pop album,Från nu till evighet(\"From Now to Eternity\"). Lennart Wrigholm reviewed the album forMusiklandet; he criticised the amount of new material on the album: \"Has this old lady really got such a workload that she cannot put more than ten new tracks on her album?\" and wrote that the inclusion of the English version of \"Evighet\" as a bonus track was \"an insult to the potential buyer\".On the other hand,Expressen's Anders Nunstedt wrote that on \"Jag ger allt\" (\"I Give It All\") \"the title does not lie\" and that \"Vem kan älska mig\" (\"Who Can Love Me\") features a \"brilliant refrain\".The album topped the Swedish sales chart, and", "sales chart, and sold approximately 100,000 copies by the end of the year.Stanna eller gå, a Latin-inspired pop song, became a radio hit during the summer. Following the album's release, Häggkvist toured Sweden and received outstanding reviews.During the autumn, Häggkvist had problems with her voice but nonetheless sang \"Because We Believe\", a song written byAndrea Bocelli, with the Italiantenor. In late 2007, Häggkvist released another Christmas album,I denna natt blir världen ny(\"There is a New World This Night\"), a sequel toJul i Betlehem. The album featured songs in Swedish and English, and was recorded in Jerusalem in June 2007.Stefan Malmqvist ofSvenska Dagbladetwrote that, as in previous Christmas albums, Häggkvist is \"a saccharine version of herself\" when singingChristmas carols.The album was reported to have sold 90,000 copies. Included on the album was the gospel songGo and Tell It on the Mountain. After the release she toured Scandinavia. Carola enteredMelodifestivalen 2008as part of the", "2008as part of the duoJohnson & HäggkvistwithAndreas Johnson. Their first single was called \"Lucky Star\" which became popular on the radio. In the melodifestival in February, they sang \"One Love\", written by Carola, Johnson and Peter Kvint.They were the early favourites to win the whole show, taking part in the second qualifier. They qualified for the Second Chance round, missing out on an automatic final spot. Though widely tipped to qualify for the final after all, they did not even proceed from the first voting round in the Second Chance programme. AlthoughOne Lovedid not become an enormous success, the songLucky Starwhich they released a few months prior to the contest did sell well, and topped the Swedish charts for weeks. Carola decided to take it easy the rest of the year, but did embark on a small Christmas tour at the end of the year. In 2009, Carola was reportedly working on her upcoming album, and other projects. She went to the United States to record some new material. She departed from her", "departed from her recording company and signed a contract withX5 Music Group, in which she aims to transfer her music abroad through the internet. In June, she hostedCarola Camp, a camp designed to help talented young singers and entertainers. In May, she performed at the Eurovision Song Contest held in Moscow at the kick-off ceremony, performing her 3 Eurovision songs. In July, she performed, together with the Eurovision winnerAlexander Rybakin Norway and sang \"Fairytale\" and \"Främling\" and The Jackson 5's \"I'll Be There\". At the end of 2009, she released the albumChristmas in Bethlehem, which contained duets with artists like Paul Potts. She embarked on yet another Christmas tour, visiting Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland. She also launched her new website. Carola attended in the final of theEurovision Song Contest 2013inMalmöand performed in a humorous interval act about Swedish culture. In the summer of 2010, Carola embarked on tour across Sweden, singing the hits of both Elvis Presley and Barbra", "Presley and Barbra Streisand.The influence came from Carola's childhood, where her father and her mother would play records by both their favourite artists. The tour was an instant success, selling out and becoming one of the few tours to sell out that year. She took time out from the tour to appear onAllsång på Skansen, and in March 2011 she released a studio album, containing twelve songs. In 2014 Häggkvist participated inSå mycket bättreonTV4. Carola attended the final of theEurovision Song Contest 2016in Stockholm and was briefly interviewed on screen along with another previous Swedish winnerLoreen. In late-October 2016, she released her new Christmas album titledDrömmen om julen. The release was followed by a tour. In April 2021, it was announced that Carola would be the spokesperson forSwedenat theEurovision Song Contest 2021, reading out the Swedish jury points at the Grand Final.She will perform \"Waterloo\" withCharlotte PerrelliandConchita Wurstas an interval act for the final of theEurovision Song", "theEurovision Song Contest 2024. Personal life and media attention Her status as one of the most popular national celebrities of her country made her more or less constantly followed by the tabloid press. She has often talked about her Christian faith and much of the focus has been around her membership in the controversial evangelical churchLivets Ord(Word of Life). She was married toRunar Søgaard, a Norwegian Christian preacher, with whom she has a son, Amadeus.The couple divorced in 2000, after ten years of marriage.She adopted a daughter, Zoe, fromSouth Africa, in 2012. (Her parents had both died in 2004.) In 2015 she was assisting a man to transport eight refugees on the Greek island of Kos. She prevented thieves from stealing the refugees' boat engine, but caused a high-speed car chase. At a police station, the motor thieves accused her of illegally transporting refugees. She was arrested, but released a few hours later with no charges. Controversy regarding opinions on homosexuality In an interview in", "In an interview in 2002 for the Swedish gay magazineQX, she alienated many gay and some heterosexual fans by alleging that she knew homosexual people who had become heterosexual through prayers. She also said that homosexuality would always remain \"unnatural\" to her. Four years later, her comment was brought up when she participated in the Swedish national selection for theEurovision Song Contestin March 2006. During a press conference a journalist tried to ask her about her opinions on homosexuality, but she did not answer. On 15 March 2006Rickard Engfors, who was Carola's cooperating partner during theMelodifestivalenandEurovision Song Contest 2006, said \"Carola doesn't hate gays. If she did, I wouldn't work for her. She is a fantastic person.\" During an exclusive interview for one of the Eurovision-related websites before the 2006 contest, Carola was also questioned about this, and she stated that she \"would love for every gay person to feel that she loves them\" and that she does not think that \"being gay", "that \"being gay is a sickness\". She went on to criticize thetabloidsfor misinterpreting her original words and making an issue out of it. Later in the interview, she also commented on one of her supporting dancers being gay and his boyfriend being \"great\". In 2008, she spoke to the newspaperAftonbladetand again revisited her opinions about homosexuality, which she insisted have evolved over the past two decades and are very inclusive. She said, \"I actually invited gays fromQXto my 25-year anniversary , butQXturned it down. What can I do? I love all people. I love the gays. So I am definitely not homophobic in any way. We are here for the music and I have no wacky opinions. And I feel love from many homosexuals too.\" In 2014, while participating on the TV showSå mycket bättre, she revealed that she had a romance with a woman in the 1980s. She said \"I remember when I hung out with a girl actually in the '80s. We were definitely not a couple, but I tested. It was a bit hard because I felt an extreme attraction", "extreme attraction and a force in that, but I chose not to go further\". On the 2019 series ofSå mycket bättre, she was asked about possibly having a relation with a woman in the future, and she said that it is a possibility. Discography Dubbing Awards Häggkvist was awarded theIllis quorummedal by theGovernment of Swedenon 13 July 2023. References External links", "The Sound of Music The Sound of Musicis amusicalwith music byRichard Rodgers, lyrics byOscar Hammerstein II, and a book byHoward LindsayandRussel Crouse. It is based on the 1949 memoir ofMaria von Trapp,The Story of the Trapp Family Singers. Set in Austria on the eve of theAnschlussin 1938, the musical tells the story of Maria, who takes a job as governess to a large family while she decides whether to become a nun. She falls in love with the children, and eventually their widowed father,Captain von Trapp. He is ordered to accept a commission in the German Navy, but he opposes the Nazis. He and Maria decide on a plan to flee Austria with the children. Many songs from the musical have becomestandards, including \"Do-Re-Mi\", \"My Favorite Things\", \"Edelweiss\", \"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\", and the title song \"The Sound of Music\". The originalBroadwayproduction, starringMary MartinandTheodore Bikel, opened in 1959and won fiveTony Awards, including Best Musical, out of nine nominations. The first London production opened", "production opened at thePalace Theatrein 1961. The show has enjoyed numerous productions and revivals since then. It was adapted as a1965 film musicalstarringJulie AndrewsandChristopher Plummer, which won fiveAcademy Awards, including Best Picture.The Sound of Musicwas the last musical written byRodgers and Hammerstein, as Oscar Hammerstein died of stomach cancer nine months after the Broadway premiere. History After viewingThe Trapp Family, a 1956West Germanfilm about thevon Trapp family, and its 1958 sequel (The Trapp Family in America), stage directorVincent J. Donehuethought that the project would be perfect for his friendMary Martin; Broadway producersLeland Haywardand Richard Halliday (Martin's husband) agreed.The producers originally envisioned a non-musical play that would be written byLindsay and Crouseand that would feature songs from the repertoire of the Trapp Family Singers. Then they decided to add an original song or two, perhaps byRodgers and Hammerstein. But it was soon agreed that the", "agreed that the project should feature all new songs and be a musical rather than a play. Details of the history of the von Trapp family were altered for the musical. The realGeorg von Trappdid live with his family in a villa inAigen, a suburb ofSalzburg. He wrote to theNonnberg Abbeyin 1926 asking for a nun to help tutor his sick daughter, and theMother AbbesssentMaria. His wife,Agathe Whitehead, had died in 1922. The real Maria and Georg married at the Nonnberg Abbey in 1927. Lindsay and Crouse altered the story so that Maria was governess to all of the children, whose names and ages were changed, as was Maria's original surname (the show used \"Rainer\" instead of \"Kutschera\"). The von Trapps spent some years in Austria after Maria and the Captain married and he was offered a commission inGermany's navy. Since von Trapp opposed the Nazis by that time, the family left Austria after theAnschluss, going by train toItalyand then traveling on to London and the United States.To make the story more dramatic,", "more dramatic, Lindsay and Crouse had the family, soon after Maria's and the Captain's wedding, escape over the mountains to Switzerland on foot. Synopsis Act I InSalzburg,Federal State of Austria, just beforeWorld War II, nuns fromNonnberg Abbeysing theDixit Dominus. One of thepostulants, Maria Rainer, is on the nearby mountainside, regretting leaving the beautiful hills (\"The Sound of Music\"). She returns late to the abbey where the MotherAbbessand the other nuns have been considering what to do about the free-spirit (\"Maria\"). Maria explains her lateness, saying she was raised on that mountain, and apologizes for singing in the garden without permission. The Mother Abbess joins her in song (\"My Favorite Things\"). The Mother Abbess tells her that she should spend some time outside theabbeyto decide whether she is suited for themonasticlife. She will act as thegovernessto the seven children of a widower,Austro-Hungarian Navysubmarine CaptainGeorg von Trapp. Maria arrives at the villa of Captain von Trapp.", "Captain von Trapp. He explains her duties and summons the children with aboatswain's call. They march in, clad in uniforms. He teaches her their individual signals on the call, but she openly disapproves of this militaristic approach. Alone with them, she breaks through their wariness and teaches them the basics of music (\"Do-Re-Mi\"). Rolf, a young messenger, delivers a telegram and then meets with the eldest child, Liesl, outside the villa. He claims he knows what is right for her because he is a year older than she (\"Sixteen Going on Seventeen\"). They kiss, and he runs off, leaving her squealing with joy. Meanwhile, the housekeeper, Frau Schmidt, gives Maria material to make new clothes, as Maria had given all her possessions to the poor. Maria sees Liesl slipping in through the window, wet from a sudden thunderstorm, but agrees to keep her secret. The other children are frightened by the storm. Maria sings \"The Lonely Goatherd\" to distract them. Captain von Trapp arrives a month later fromViennawith", "fromViennawith Baroness Elsa Schrader and Max Detweiler. Elsa tells Max that something is preventing the Captain from marrying her. He opines that only poor people have the time for great romances (\"How Can Love Survive\"). Rolf enters, looking for Liesl, and greets them with \"Heil\". The Captain orders him away, saying that he is Austrian, not German. Maria and the childrenleapfrogin, wearing play-clothes that she made from the old drapes in her room. Infuriated, the Captain sends them off to change. She tells him that the children need him to show his love for them, and he angrily orders her back to the abbey. As she apologizes, they hear the children singing \"The Sound of Music\", which she had taught them, to welcome Elsa Schrader. He joins in and embraces them. Alone with Maria, he asks her to stay, thanking her for bringing music back into his house. Elsa is suspicious of her until she explains that she will be returning to the abbey in September. The Captain gives a party to introduce Elsa, and guests", "Elsa, and guests argue over theAnschluss(the Nazi German annexation of Austria). Kurt asks Maria to teach him to dance theLändler. When he fails to negotiate a complicated figure, the Captain steps in to demonstrate. He and Maria dance until they come face-to-face; and she breaks away, embarrassed and confused. Discussing the expected marriage between Elsa and the Captain, Brigitta tells Maria that she thinks Maria and the Captain are really in love with each other. Elsa asks the Captain to allow the children to say goodnight to the guests with a song (\"So Long, Farewell\"). Max is amazed at their talent and wants them for the Kaltzburg Festival, which he is organizing. The guests leave for the dining room, and Maria slips out the front door with her luggage. At the abbey, Maria says that she is ready to take hermonastic vows; but the Mother Abbess realizes that she is running away from her feelings. She tells her to face the Captain and discover if they love each other, and tells her to search for and find", "search for and find the life she was meant to live (\"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\"). Act II Max teaches the children how to sing on stage. When the Captain tries to lead them, they complain that he is not doing it as Maria did. He tells them that he has asked Elsa to marry him. They try to cheer themselves up by singing \"My Favorite Things\" but are unsuccessful until they hear Maria singing on her way to rejoin them. Learning of the wedding plans, she decides to stay only until the Captain can arrange for another governess. Max and Elsa argue with the Captain about the imminentAnschluss, trying to convince him that it is inevitable (\"No Way to Stop It\"). When he refuses to compromise on his opposition to it, Elsa breaks off the engagement. Alone, the Captain and Maria finally admit their love, desiring only to be \"An Ordinary Couple\". As they marry, the nuns reprise \"Maria\" against the wedding processional. While Maria and the Captain are on their honeymoon, Max prepares the children to perform at the Kaltzburg", "at the Kaltzburg Festival. Herr Zeller, theGauleiterof the region, demands to know why they are not flying theFlag of Nazi Germanynow that theAnschlusshas occurred. The Captain and Maria return early from their honeymoon before the Festival. In view of the Nazi German occupation, the Captain decides the children should not sing at the event. Max argues that they would sing for Austria, but the Captain points out that it no longer exists. Maria and Liesl discuss romantic love; Maria predicts that in a few years Liesl will be married (\"Sixteen Going on Seventeen (Reprise)\"). Rolf enters with a telegram that offers the Captain a commission in theGerman Navy, and Liesl is upset to discover that Rolf is now a committedNazi. The Captain consults Maria and decides that they must secretly flee Austria. German Admiral von Schreiber arrives to find out why Captain von Trapp has not answered the telegram. He explains that the German Navy holds him in high regard, offers him the commission, and tells him to report", "tells him to report immediately toBremerhavento assume command. Maria says that he cannot leave immediately, as they are all singing in the Festival concert; and the Admiral agrees to wait. At the concert, after the von Trapps sing an elaborate reprise of \"Do-Re-Mi\", Max brings out the Captain's guitar. Captain von Trapp sings \"Edelweiss\", as a goodbye to his homeland, while usingAustria's national floweras a symbol to declare his loyalty to the country. Max asks for an encore and announces that this is the von Trapp family's last chance to sing together, as the honor guard waits to escort the Captain to his new command. While the judges decide on the prizes, the von Trapps sing \"So Long, Farewell\" (reprise), leaving the stage in small groups. Max then announces the runners-up, stalling as much as possible. When he announces that the first prize goes to the von Trapps and they do not appear, theNazisstart a search. The family hides at the Abbey, and Sister Margaretta tells them that the borders have been", "borders have been closed. Rolf comes upon them and calls his lieutenant, but after seeing Liesl he changes his mind and tells him they aren't there. The Nazis leave, and the von Trapps flee over theAlpsas the nuns reprise \"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\". Musical numbers Characters and casts Characters Original casts Notable replacements Productions Original productions The Sound of Musicpremiered at New Haven'sShubert Theatrewhere it played an eight-performance tryout in October and November 1959 before another short tryout in Boston.The musical then opened onBroadwayat theLunt-Fontanne Theatreon November 16, 1959, moved to theMark Hellinger Theatreon November 6, 1962, and closed on June 15, 1963, after 1,443 performances. The director wasVincent J. Donehue, and the choreographer wasJoe Layton. The original cast includedMary Martinas Maria,Theodore Bikelas Captain Georg von Trapp,Patricia Newayas Mother Abbess,Kurt Kasznaras Max Detweiler,Marion Marloweas Elsa Schrader, Brian Davies as Rolf,Lauri Petersas Liesl", "Petersas Liesl andMuriel O'Malleyas Sister Margaretta.Patricia Brooks,June CardandTatiana Troyanoswere ensemble members in the original production. The show tied for theTony Awardfor Best Musical withFiorello!. Other awards included Martin for Best Actress in a Musical, Neway for Best Featured Actress, Best Scenic Design (Oliver Smith) and Best Conductor And Musical Director (Frederick Dvonch). Bikel and Kasznar were nominated for acting awards, and Donehue was nominated for his direction. The entire children's cast was nominated for Best Featured Actress category as a single nominee, even though two of the children (Kurt and Friedrich) were boys. Martha Wrightreplaced Martin in the role of Maria on Broadway in October 1961, followed by Karen Gantz in July 1962, Jeannie Carson in August 1962andNancy Dussaultin September 1962.Jon Voight, who later married co-star Lauri Peters, was a replacement for Rolf from September 1961 to June 1962.The national tour starredFlorence Hendersonas Maria andBeatrice Krebsas", "andBeatrice Krebsas Mother Abbess. It opened at theGrand Riviera Theater, Detroit, on February 27, 1961, and closed November 23, 1963, at theO'Keefe Centre, Toronto. Henderson was succeeded by Barbara Meister in June 1962. Theodore Bikel was not satisfied playing the role of the Captain, and Bikel did not like to play the same role over and over again. In his autobiography, he writes: \"I promised myself then that if I could afford it, I would never do a run as long as that again.\"The original Broadwaycast albumsold three million copies. The musical premiered in London'sWest Endat thePalace Theatreon May 18, 1961, and ran for 2,385 performances. It was directed by Jerome Whyte and used the original New York choreography, supervised by Joe Layton, and the original sets designed by Oliver Smith. The cast includedJean Baylessas Maria, followed by Sonia Rees, Roger Dann as Captain von Trapp,Constance Shacklockas Mother Abbess,Eunice Gaysonas Elsa Schrader, Harold Kasket as Max Detweiler, Barbara Brown as Liesl,", "Brown as Liesl, Nicholas Bennett as Rolf andOlive Gilbertas Sister Margaretta. 1981 London revival In 1981, at producer Ross Taylor's urging,Petula Clarkagreed to star in a revival of the show at theApollo Victoria TheatreinLondon'sWest End.Michael Jaystonplayed Captain von Trapp,Honor Blackmanwas the Baroness andJune Bronhillplayed the Mother Abbess. Other notable cast members includedHelen Anker,John BennettandMartina Grant.Despite her misgivings that, at age 49, she was too old to play the role convincingly, Clark opened to unanimous rave reviews and the largest advance sale in the history of British theatre at that time. Maria von Trapp, who attended the opening night performance, described Clark as \"the best\" Maria ever. Clark extended her initial six-month contract to thirteen months. Playing to 101 percent ofseating capacity, the show set the highest attendance figure for a single week (October 26–31, 1981) of any British musical production in history (as recorded inThe Guinness Book of Theatre).It", "Book of Theatre).It was the first stage production to incorporate the two additional songs (\"Something Good\" and \"I Have Confidence\") that Richard Rodgers composed for the film version.\"My Favorite Things\" had a similar context to the film version, while the short verse \"A Bell is No Bell\" was extended into a full-length song for Maria and the Mother Abbess. \"The Lonely Goatherd\" was set in a new scene at a village fair. The cast recording of this production was the first to be recorded digitally. It was released on CD for the first time in 2010 by the UK label Pet Sounds and included two bonus tracks from the original single issued byEpicto promote the production. 1998 Broadway revival DirectorSusan H. Schulmanstaged the first Broadway revival ofThe Sound of Music, withRebecca Lukeras Maria andMichael Siberryas Captain von Trapp. It also featuredPatti Cohenouras Mother Abbess,Jan Maxwellas Elsa Schrader,Fred Applegateas Max Detweiler,Dashiell Eavesas Rolf,Patricia Conollyas Frau Schmidt andLaura Benanti, in", "Benanti, in her Broadway debut, as Luker'sunderstudy. Later, Luker and Siberry were replaced byRichard Chamberlainas the Captain and Benanti as Maria.Lou Taylor Puccimade his Broadway debut as the understudy for Kurt von Trapp. The production opened on March 12, 1998, at theMartin Beck Theatre, and closed on June 20, 1999, after 533 performances. This production was nominated for aTony Awardfor Best Revival of a Musical.It then toured in North America. 2006 London revival AnAndrew Lloyd Webberproduction opened on November 15, 2006, at theLondon Palladium, produced by Live Nation'sDavid IanandJeremy Sams. Following failed negotiations with Hollywood starScarlett Johansson,the role of Maria was cast through a UK talent search reality TV show calledHow Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?The talent show was produced by (and featured) Andrew Lloyd Webber and also featured presenter/comedianGraham Nortonand a judging panel ofDavid Ian,John BarrowmanandZoë Tyler. Connie Fisherwas selected by public voting as the", "voting as the winner of the show. In early 2007, Fisher suffered from a heavy cold that prevented her from performing for two weeks. To prevent further disruptions, an alternate Maria,Aoife Mulholland, a fellow contestant onHow Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?, played Maria on Monday evenings and Wednesday matinee performances.Simon Shepherdwas originally cast as Captain von Trapp, but after two preview performances he was withdrawn from the production, andAlexander Hansonmoved into the role in time for the official opening date along withLesley Garrettas the Mother Abbess. After Garrett left,Margaret Preecetook the role. The cast also featuredLauren Wardas the Baroness,Ian Gelderas Max,Sophie Bouldas Liesl, andNeil McDermottas Rolf. Other notable replacements includedSimon BurkeandSimon MacCorkindaleas the Captain and newcomer Amy Lennox as Liesl.Summer Strallenreplaced Fisher in February 2008,with Mulholland portraying Maria on Monday evenings and Wednesday matinees. The revival received enthusiastic", "enthusiastic reviews, especially for Fisher, Preece, Bould and Garrett. A cast recording of the London Palladium cast was released.The production closed on February 21, 2009, after a run of over two yearsand was followed by a UK national tour, described below. Other notable productions 1960s to 2000 The first Australian production opened atMelbourne'sPrincess Theatrein 1961 and ran for three years. The production was directed by Charles Hickman, with musical numbers staged by Ernest Parham. The cast includedJune Bronhillas Maria,Peter Gravesas Captain von Trapp andRosina Raisbeckas Mother Abbess. A touring company then played for years, with Vanessa Lee (Graves' wife) in the role of Maria. The cast recording made in 1961 was the first time a major overseas production featuring Australian artists was transferred to disc. In 1988, the Moon Troupe ofTakarazuka Revueperformed the musical at the Bow Hall (Takarazuka,Hyōgo). Harukaze Hitomi and Gou Mayuka starred.A 1990New York City Operaproduction, directed", "directed byOscar Hammerstein II's son, James, featuredDebby Booneas Maria,Laurence Guittardas Captain von Trapp, andWerner Klempereras Max. An Australian revival played in the Lyric Theatre,Sydney, New South Wales, from November 1999 to February 2000.Lisa McCuneplayed Maria,John Waterswas Captain von Trapp,Bert Newtonwas Max,Eilene Hannanwas Mother Abbess andRachel Marleywas Marta. This production was based on the 1998 Broadway revival staging.The production then toured until February 2001, in Melbourne,Brisbane,PerthandAdelaide.Rachael Becktook over as Maria in Perth and Adelaide, andRob Guesttook over as Captain von Trapp in Perth. 21st century An Austrian production premiered in 2005 at theVolksoper Wienin German. It was directed and choreographed by Renaud Doucet. The cast included Sandra Pires as Maria, Kurt Schreibmayer and Michael Kraus as von Trapp, withHeidi Brunneras Mother Abbess. The song \"Do-Re-Mi\" was rewritten as \"C wie Cellophanpapier\", replacing the solfège syllables with the German letter", "the German letter notation C through H and selecting mnemonics that begin with each letter.The production is still in the repertoire of the Volksoper with performances each season; performances are scheduled for 2024. TheSalzburg Marionette Theatrehas toured extensively with their version that features the recorded voices of Broadway singers such asChristiane Nollas Maria.The tour began inDallas, Texas, in 2007and continued in Salzburg in 2008.The director isRichard Hamburger.In 2008, a Brazilian production with Kiara Sasso as Maria and Herson Capri as the Captain played inRio de JaneiroandSão Paulo,and a Dutch production was mounted with Wieneke Remmers as Maria, directed by John Yost. Andrew Lloyd Webber,David IanandDavid MirvishpresentedThe Sound of Musicat thePrincess of Wales Theatrein Toronto from 2008 to 2010. The role of Maria was chosen by the public through a television show,How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, which was produced by Lloyd Webber and Ian and aired in mid-2008.Elicia", "in mid-2008.Elicia MacKenziewonand played the role six times a week, while the runner-up in the TV show, Janna Polzin, played Maria twice a week.Captain von Trapp was played byBurke Moses. The show ran for more than 500 performances. It was Toronto's longest running revival ever. A UK tour began in 2009 and visited more than two dozen cities before ending in 2011. The original cast includedConnie Fisheras Maria,Michael Praedas Captain von Trapp andMargaret Preeceas the Mother Abbess. Kirsty Malpass was the alternate Maria.Jason Donovanassumed the role of Captain Von Trapp, andVerity Rushworthtook over as Maria, in early 2011.Lesley Garrettreprised her role as Mother Abbess for the tour's final engagement inWimbledonin October 2011. A production ran at the Ópera-Citi theater inBuenos Aires, Argentina in 2011. The cast included Laura Conforte as Maria and Diego Ramos as Captain Von Trapp.A Spanish national tour began in November 2011 at theAuditorio de TenerifeinSanta Cruz de Tenerifein theCanary Islands. The", "Islands. The tour visited 29 Spanish cities, spending one year inMadrid'sGran Víaat the Teatro Coliseum, and one season at the Tívoli Theatre inBarcelona. It was directed by Jaime Azpilicueta and starred Silvia Luchetti as Maria and Carlos J. Benito as Captain Von Trapp. A production was mounted at theOpen Air Theatre, Regent's Parkfrom July to September 2013.It starred Charlotte Wakefield as Maria, with Michael Xavier as Captain von Trapp andCaroline Keiffas Elsa.It received enthusiastic reviews and became the highest-grossing production ever at the theatre.In 2014, the show was nominated for Best Musical Revival at theLaurence Olivier Awardsand Wakefield was nominated for Best Actress in a Musical. A brief South Korean production played in 2014The same year, a Spanish language translation opened at Teatro de la Universidad in San Juan, under the direction of Edgar García. It starredLourdes Roblesas Maria andBraulio Castilloas Captain Von Trapp, withDagmaras Elsa.A production (in Thai:มนต์รักเพลงสวรรค์) ran", "ran at Muangthai ratchadalai Theatre,Bangkok, Thailand, in April 2015 in the Thai language. The production replaced the song \"Ordinary couple\" with \"Something Good\". A North American tour, directed byJack O'Brienand choreographed by Danny Mefford, began at theAhmanson Theatrein Los Angeles in September 2015. The tour ran until July 2017.Kerstin Andersonplayed Maria, with Ben Davis as Capt. von Trapp andAshley Brownas Mother Abess. The production has received warm reviews.A UK tour produced byBill Kenwrightbegan in 2015 and toured into 2016. It was directed byMartin Connorand starredLucy O'Byrneas Maria.A 2016 Australian tour of the Lloyd Webber production, directed by Sams, included stops in Sydney,Brisbane, Melbourne and Adelaide. The cast includedAmy Lehpameras Maria,Cameron Daddoas Captain Von Trapp,Marina Prioras Baroness Schraeder andLorraine Baylyas Frau Schmidt. The choreographer wasArlene Phillips. Film adaptation On March 2, 1965,20th Century Foxreleased afilm adaptation of the musicalstarringJulie", "Andrewsas Maria Rainer andChristopher Plummeras Captain Georg von Trapp. It was produced and directed byRobert Wisewith the screenplay adaptation written byErnest Lehman. Two songs were written by Rodgers specifically for the film, \"I Have Confidence\" and \"Something Good\". The film won five Oscars at the38th Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Television adaptations Alive televised productionof the musical aired twice in December 2013 onNBC.It was directed byBeth McCarthy-MillerandRob Ashford.Carrie Underwoodstarred as Maria, withStephen Moyeras Captain von Trapp,Christian Borleas Max,Laura Benantias Elsa, andAudra McDonaldas the Mother Abbess.The production was released on DVD the same month. British networkITVpresented alive version of its ownon December 20, 2015. It starredKara Tointonas Maria,Julian Ovendenas Captain von Trapp,Katherine Kellyas the Baroness andAlexander Armstrongas Max. Reception Most reviews of the original Broadway production were favorable.Richard Watts Jr.of theNew York", "Jr.of theNew York Poststated that the show had \"strangely gentle charm that is wonderfully endearing.The Sound of Musicstrives for nothing in the way of smash effects, substituting instead a kind of gracious and unpretentious simplicity.\"TheNew York World-Telegram and SunpronouncedThe Sound of Music\"the loveliest musical imaginable. It places Rodgers and Hammerstein back in top form as melodist and lyricist. The Lindsay-Crouse dialogue is vibrant and amusing in a plot that rises to genuine excitement.\"TheNew York Journal American's review opined thatThe Sound of Musicis \"the most mature product of the team ... it seemed to me to be the full ripening of these two extraordinary talents\". Brooks AtkinsonofThe New York Timesgave a mixed assessment. He praised Mary Martin's performance, saying \"she still has the same common touch ... same sharp features, goodwill, and glowing personality that makes music sound intimate and familiar\" and stated that \"the best of theSound of Musicis Rodgers and Hammerstein in good", "Hammerstein in good form\". However, he said, the libretto \"has the hackneyed look of the musical theatre replaced withOklahoma!in 1943. It is disappointing to see the American musical stage succumbing to the clichés ofoperetta.\"Walter Kerr's review in theNew York Herald Tribunewas unfavorable: \"BeforeThe Sound of Musicis halfway through its promising chores it becomes not only too sweet for words but almost too sweet for music\", stating that the \"evening suffer from little children\". Cast recordings Columbia Masterworksrecorded the original Broadway cast album at theColumbia 30th Street Studioin New York City a week after the show's 1959 opening. The album was the label's first deluxe package in a gatefold jacket, priced $1 higher than previous cast albums. It was No. 1 onBillboard'sbest-selling albums chart for 16 weeks in 1960.It was released on CD from Sony in the Columbia Broadway Masterworks series.In 1959, singerPatti Pagerecordedthe title songfrom the show forMercury Recordson the day that the musical", "that the musical opened on Broadway. The 1961 London production was recorded byEMIand released on the HMV label and later re-issued on CD in 1997, on the Broadway Angel label. The 1965 film soundtrackwas released byRCA Victorand is one of the most successful soundtrack albums in history, having sold over 20 million copies worldwide.RCA Victoralso released an album of the 1998Broadwayrevival produced byHallmark Entertainmentand featuring the full revival cast, includingRebecca Luker,Michael Siberry,Jan MaxwellandFred Applegate.TheTelarclabel made a studio cast recording ofThe Sound of Music, with theCincinnati Pops Orchestraconducted byErich Kunzel(1987). The lead roles went to opera stars:Frederica von Stadeas Maria,Håkan Hagegårdas Captain von Trapp, andEileen Farrellas the Mother Abbess.The recording \"includes both the two new songs written for the film version and the three Broadway songs they replace, as well as a previously unrecorded verse of \"An Ordinary Couple\"\".The 2006 London revival was recorded", "was recorded and has been released on theDecca Broadwaylabel.There have been numerous studio cast albums and foreign cast albums issued, though many have only received regional distribution. According to the cast album database, there are 62 recordings of the score that have been issued over the years. Thesoundtrackfrom the 2013 NBC television production starringCarrie UnderwoodandStephen Moyerwas released on CD and digital download in December 2013 on theSony Masterworkslabel. Also featured on the album areAudra McDonald,Laura BenantiandChristian Borle. Awards and nominations Original Broadway production 1998 Broadway Revival Notes References Further reading External links", "Maria von Trapp Maria Augusta von TrappDHS(néeKutschera; 26 January 1905 – 28 March 1987), often styled as “Baroness”, was the stepmother and matriarch of theTrapp Family Singers.She wroteThe Story of the Trapp Family Singers, which was published in 1949 and was the inspiration for the 1956 West German filmThe Trapp Family, which in turn inspired the 1959 Broadway musicalThe Sound of Musicand its 1965film version. Biography Early life Maria was purportedly born on 26 January 1905 to Karl and Augusta (néeRainer) Kuczera.She claimed to have been delivered on a train on the night of the 25th, during her mother's return from her homeland ofTyrolto their family residence inVienna, Austria.She was baptized into theCatholic Churchon the 29th within theAlservorstadtparish and maternity hospital. Her father was ahotel commissionaire,born in Vienna,the son of Josef Kučera from aMoravianvillage,Vídeň.Karl was first married inGrazto Klara Rainer in 1887.The couple had a son Karl in 1888 before Klara's death a few months", "death a few months later.Maria's father remained a widower until he remarried to Klara's younger sister, Augusta, in 1903.Augusta died ofpulmonary tuberculosiswhen Maria was nearly 10 months old.Maria’s grief-stricken father left her with his cousin (and foster mother) inKagran,who also cared for Maria's half-brother Karl after his mother Klara had died. Maria's father then traveled the world, although Maria would visit him upon occasion at his apartment in Vienna. He changed the spelling of their surname toKutscherain 1914,dying at home later that year.Her foster mother's son-in-law, Uncle Franz, then became her guardian. Uncle Franz maltreated Maria and punished her for things she did not do; he was later found to be mentally ill. This changed Maria from a shy child into the teenage \"class cut-up\", figuring she may as well have fun if she was going to get in trouble either way. Despite this change, Maria continued to get good grades. After graduating from high school at 15, Maria ran away to stay with a", "away to stay with a friend, with the intent to become a tutor for children staying at nearby hotels. Because she looked so young, no one took her seriously. Finally, a hotel manager asked her to be umpire for a tennis tournament. Although she did not know what an umpire was and had never played tennis, she took the job. From this job, she saved enough money to enter the State Teachers College for Progressive Education in Vienna, where she also received a scholarship.She graduated from there at age 18 in 1923. In 1924, she enteredNonnberg Abbey, aBenedictinemonastery inSalzburg, as apostulant, intending to become a nun. Marriage While still teaching at the Abbey in 1926, Maria was asked to teachMaria Franziska von Trapp, one of seven children born to widowed naval commanderGeorg von Trapp.His first wife, the Anglo-Austrian heiressAgathe Whitehead, had earlier died in 1922 fromscarlet fever.Eventually, Maria began to look after the other children:Rupert,Agathe,Werner,Hedwig,Johanna, andMartina. Captain von", "Captain von Trapp saw how much she cared about his children and asked her to marry him, although he was 25 years her senior. Frightened, she fled back to Nonnberg Abbey to seek guidance from themother abbess,Virgilia Lütz, who advised her it was God's will that she should marry him. She then returned to the family and accepted his proposal. She wrote in her autobiography that she was very angry on her wedding day, both at God and at her new husband, because she really wanted to be a nun. \"I really and truly was not in love. I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after.\"They married atNonnberg Abbeyon 26 November 1927 and had three children together: Rosmarie (1929–2022), Eleonore (\"Lorli\") (1931–2021) andJohannes(born 1939). Medical problems The von Trapps enjoyed hiking. On one outing, they stayed overnight at a farmer's house. The next morning, they were informed that Maria and", "that Maria and two of Georg’s daughters, Johanna and Martina, hadscarlet fever. Johanna and Martina recovered, but the older Maria developedkidney stonesdue todehydration. Her stepdaughter, Maria Franziska, accompanied her to Vienna for a successful surgery, but Maria experienced lifelong kidney problems. Financial problems The family met with financial ruin in 1935. Georg had transferred his savings from a bank inLondonto an Austrian bank run by a friend named Frau Lammer. Austria was experiencing economic difficulties during aworldwide depressionbecause of theCrash of 1929, and Lammer's bank failed.To survive, the Trapps dismissed most of their servants, moved into the top floor of their house, and rented out the other rooms. TheArchbishop of Salzburg, Sigismund Waitz, sent FatherFranz Wasnerto stay with them as theirchaplainand this began their singing career. Early musical career and departure from Austria SopranoLotte Lehmannheard the family sing, and she suggested they perform at concerts. When", "at concerts. When theAustrian ChancellorKurt Schuschniggheard them over the radio, he invited them to perform in Vienna. After performing at a festival in 1935, they became a popular touring act. They experienced life under theNazisafter theannexation of Austriaby Germany in March 1938. Life became increasingly difficult as they witnessed hostility toward Jewish children by their classmates, the use of children against their parents, the advocacy of abortion both by Maria's doctor and by her son's school,and finally by the extension of an offer forGeorgto join theGerman Navy.They visitedMunichin the summer of 1938 and encounteredHitlerat a restaurant. In September, the family fled Austria forItalyvia train, then toEnglandand finally theUnited States. The Nazis made use of their abandoned home asHeinrich Himmler's headquarters. Initially calling themselves the \"Trapp Family Choir\", the von Trapps began to perform in the United States andCanada. They performed inNew York CityatThe Town Hallon 10 December", "Hallon 10 December 1938.TheNew York Timeswrote: There was something unusually lovable and appealing about the modest, serious singers of this little family aggregation as they formed a close semicircle about their self-effacing director for their initial offering, the handsome Mme. von Trapp in simple black, and the youthful sisters garbed in black and white Austrian folk costumes enlivened with red ribbons. It was only natural to expect work of exceeding refinement from them, and one was not disappointed in this. Charles Wagner was their first booking agent, then they signed on withFrederick Christian Schang. Thinking the name \"Trapp Family Choir\" too churchy, Schang Americanized their repertoire and, following his suggestion, the group changed its name to the \"Trapp Family Singers\".The family, which by then included all ten children, was soon touring the world giving concert performances.Alix Williamsonserved as the group's publicist for over two decades. After the war, they founded theTrapp Family", "theTrapp Family Austrian Relieffund, which sent food and clothing to the impoverished in Austria. Move to the United States In the 1940s, the family moved toStowe, Vermont, where they ran amusic campwhen they were not touring. In 1944, Maria Augusta, Maria Franziska, Johanna, Martina, Hedwig and Agathe applied for U.S. citizenship, whereas Georg never applied to become a citizen. Rupert and Werner became citizens by serving during World War II, while Rosmarie and Eleonore became citizens by virtue of their mother's citizenship. Johannes was born in the United States inPhiladelphiaon the 17 January 1939 during a concert tour.Georg von Trapp died in 1947 in Vermont after suffering lung cancer. The family made a series of 78-rpm records forRCA Victorin the 1950s, some of which were later issued onRCA CamdenLPs. There were also a few later recordings released on LPs, including some stereo sessions. In 1957, the Trapp Family Singers disbanded and went their separate ways. Maria and three of her children became", "her children became missionaries inPapua New Guinea. In 1965, Maria moved back to Vermont to manage theTrapp Family Lodge, which had been namedCor Unum. She began turning over management of the lodge to her son Johannes, although she was initially reluctant to do so.Hedwig returned to Austria and worked as a teacher inUmhausen. Death Maria von Trapp died of heart failure on 28 March 1987, aged 82, inMorrisville, Vermont, three days following surgery.She is interred in the family cemetery at the lodge, along with her husband and five of her step-children. Decorations and awards The family has won the following awards: Children Adaptations of the autobiography Maria von Trapp's book,The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949, was a best-seller. It was made into two successful German / Austrian films: The book was then adapted intoThe Sound of Music, a 1959Broadwaymusical byRodgers and Hammerstein, starringMary MartinandTheodore Bikel. It was a success, running for more than three years. The", "three years. The musical was adapted in 1965 as a motion pictureof the same name, starringJulie Andrews. The film version set US box office records, and Maria von Trapp received about $500,000 ($5.28 million today) in royalties. Maria von Trapp made acameo appearancein the movie version ofThe Sound of Music(1965). For an instant, she, her daughter Rosmarie, and Werner's daughter Barbara can be seen walking past an archway during the song, \"I Have Confidence\", at the line, \"I must stop these doubts, all these worries / If I don't, I just know I'll turn back.\" Maria von Trapp sang \"Edelweiss\" with Andrews onThe Julie Andrews Hourin 1973. In 1991, a 40 episodeanimeseries, titledTrapp Family Storyaired in Japan, her character referred to by her maiden name (Maria Kutschera), voiced byMasako Katsuki. She was portrayed in the 2015 filmThe von Trapp Family: A Life of MusicbyYvonne Catterfeld. Authored books References External links", "Astrological sign InWestern astrology,astrological signsare the twelve 30-degree sectors that make upEarth's 360-degree orbit around the Sun. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as theFirst Point of Aries, which is thevernal equinox. The astrological signs areAries,Taurus,Gemini,Cancer,Leo,Virgo,Libra,Scorpio,Sagittarius,Capricorn,Aquarius, andPisces. The Westernzodiacoriginated inBabylonian astrology, and was later influenced by theHellenisticculture. Each sign was named after a constellationthe sunannually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popularsun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with theconstellationsthey were named after byaxial precessionof the Earth whileHindu astrologymeasurements correct for this shifting.Astrology (i.e. a system of omina based on celestial appearances) was developed inChineseandTibetancultures as well but these astrologies are not", "astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky. Astrology is apseudoscience.Scientific investigations of thetheoreticalbasis andexperimentalverification of claimshave shown it to have no scientific validity orexplanatory power. More plausible explanations for the apparent correlation between personality traits and birth months exist, such as theinfluence of seasonal birth in humans. According toastrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of \"as above, so below\", so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression.Scientific astronomyused the same sectors of the eclipticas Western astrology until the 19th century. Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiac's names and symbols remain mostly consistent. Western astrology measures fromEquinoxandSolsticepoints (points relating to equal, longest, and shortest days of thetropical year),", "thetropical year), whileHindu astrologymeasures along the equatorial plane (sidereal year). Western zodiac signs History Western astrologyis a direct continuation ofHellenistic astrologyas recorded in Ptolemy'sTetrabiblosin the 2nd century. Hellenistic astrology in turn was partly based on concepts fromBabylonian tradition. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction.This division of the ecliptic originated in the Babylonian \"ideal calendar\" found in the old compendiumMUL.APINand its combination with the Babylonianlunar calendar,represented as the \"path of the moon\" in MUL.APIN. In a way, the zodiac is the idealisation of an ideal lunar calendar. By the 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomy and its system of celestial omens influenced the culture ofancient Greece, as did the astronomy of Egypt by late 2nd century BC. This resulted, unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and the creation", "and the creation ofHoroscopic astrology, employing the use of theAscendant(the rising degree of the ecliptic, at the time of birth), and of the twelvehouses. Association of the astrological signs withEmpedocles' four classicalelementswas another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs. The body of the Hellenistic astrological tradition as it stood by the 2nd century is described inPtolemy'sTetrabiblos. This is the seminal work for later astronomical tradition not only in the West but also in India and the Islamic sphere and has remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings. Western astrological correspondence chart The following table shows the approximate dates of the twelve astrological signs, along with the classicaland modernrulerships of each sign. By definition,Ariesstarts at theFirst Point of Arieswhich is the location of the Sun at theMarch equinox. The precise date of the Equinox varies from year", "varies from year to year but is always between 19 March and 21 March. The consequence is the start date of Aries and therefore the start date of all the other signs can change slightly from year to year. The following Western astrology table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude with the Latin names. The longitudeintervals, are treated as closed for the first endpoint (a) and open for the second (b) – for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus, not part of Aries. The signs are occasionally numbered 0 through 11 in place of symbols in astronomical works. The twelve signs are positioned in a circular pattern, creating a pattern of oppositions related to different philosophically polarized attributes. Fire and air elements are generally 180 degrees opposed in Western astrology, as well as earth and water elements.Not all systems of astrology have four elements, notably the Sepher Yetzirah describes only three elements emanating from a central divine source.Spring signs are", "signs are opposite to autumn ones, winter signs are opposite to summer ones and vice versa. Polarity InWestern astrology, the polarity divides the zodiac in half and refers to the alignment of a sign'senergyas either positive or negative, with various attributes associated to them as a result.Positive polaritysigns, also called active, yang, expressive, or masculine signs, are the six odd-numbered signs of the zodiac:Aries,Gemini,Leo,Libra,Sagittarius, andAquarius. Positive signs make up the fire and air triplicities.Negative polaritysigns, also called passive, yin, receptive, or feminine signs,are the six even-numbered signs of the zodiac:Taurus,Cancer,Virgo,Scorpio,Capricorn, andPisces. Negative signs make up the earth and water triplicities. The three modalities The modality or mode of a given sign refers to its position in theseasonit is found in. Each of the four elements manifests in three modalities:cardinal,fixed, andmutable.Since each modality comprehends four signs, they are also known as", "are also known as Quadruplicities.For example, the signAriesis found in the first month of spring in theNorthern Hemisphere, so practitioners of astrology describe it as having a cardinal modality.The combination of element and modality provides the signs with their unique characterizations. For instance, Capricorn is the cardinal earth sign, impressing its association with action (cardinal modality) in the material world (earth element). Triplicities of the four elements The Greek philosopherEmpedoclesidentified fire, earth, air, and water aselementsin the fifth-century BC. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles, love and strife, which manipulate the elements into different mixtures that produce the different natures of things. He stated all the elements are equal, the same age, rule their own provinces, and possess their own individual character. Empedocles said that those born with nearly equal proportions of the elements are more intelligent and have the most", "and have the most exact perceptions. The elemental categories are called triplicities because eachclassical elementis associated with three signsThe four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent toHippocrates' personality types(sanguine = air; choleric = fire; melancholic = earth; phlegmatic = water). A modern approach looks at elements as \"the energy substance of experience\"and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords.The elements have grown in importance and some astrologers beginnatal chartinterpretations by studying the balance of elements in the location ofplanets(especially the Sun's and Moon's ascendant signs) and the position ofanglesin the chart. Celestial body rulerships Rulership is the connection betweenplanetand correlated sign andhouse.The conventional rulerships are as follows: Dignity and detriment, exaltation and fall A traditional belief of astrology, known asessential dignity, is the idea that the Sun, Moon, and planets are more powerful", "are more powerful and effective in some signs than others because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony. By contrast, they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict. These categories are Dignity, Detriment, Exaltation, and Fall. In traditional astrology, other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership. These are known as Exaltation,Triplicity,Terms or bounds, and Face orDecan, which together are known as describing a planet'sEssential dignity, the quality or ability of one's true nature. In addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considersAccidental dignityof planets. This is placement byhousein the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's \"ability to act\". So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature.The twelfth is a cadent house as are the third, sixth and ninth", "sixth and ninth and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the first, fourth, seventh, or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (second, fifth, eighth, eleventh) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range ofAccidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth. Additional classifications Each sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler.The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity. The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity. While the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it, they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism. The first four", "The first four signs, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer, form the group of personal signs. The next four signs, Leo, Virgo, Libra, and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs. The last four signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces, form the group of transpersonal signs. Dane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors,used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology. The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac (constellation factors). The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year. The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing, or the half of the year when darkness is increasing. The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness, or the half when there is more darkness than daylight. The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time", "the chosen time falls in, defined by the first two factors. Thus Western sign gallery Indian astrology In Indian astrology, there are five elements: fire, earth(Land), air, water, and ether. The master of fire is Mars, while Mercury is of land, Saturn of air, Venus of water, and Jupiter of ether. Jyotisharecognises twelve zodiac signs (Rāśi),that correspond to those in Western astrology. The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems. Nakshatras Anakshatra(Devanagari: नक्षत्र,Sanskritnakshatra, a metaphoricalcompoundofnaksha-'map/chart', andtra-'guard'), orlunar mansion, is one of the 27 divisions of the sky identified by prominent star(s), as used inHindu astronomyandastrology(Jyotisha).\"Nakshatra\" in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tulu and Tamil and Prakrit also, thus, it refers to stars themselves. Chinese zodiac signs Chinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (also known asshichen). A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its", "zodiac is its operation in a60-year cyclein combination with theFive PhasesofChinese astrology(Wood,Fire,Metal,WaterandEarth).Nevertheless, some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations: each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter. For example, in the year ofSnakeJupiter is in the Sign of Gemini, in the year ofHorseJupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on. So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar. Zodiac symbolism The following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes. The twelve signs InChinese astrology, the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of theRat, and there are many stories about theOrigins of the Chinese Zodiacwhich explain why this is so. When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements, they are traditionally called the", "called the twelveEarthly Branches. The Chinese zodiac follows thelunisolarChinese calendarand thus the \"changeover\" days in a month (when one sign changes to another sign) vary each year. The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order. The five elements The five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a60-yearcalendar. The five elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the tenHeavenly Stems. The yin/yang split seen in theGregorian calendarmeans years that end in an even number are Yang (representing masculine, active, and light), those that end with an odd number are Yin (representing feminine, passive and darkness), subject to Chinese New Year having passed. See also Notes References" ]

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[ "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica(English:The Mathematical Principles ofNatural Philosophy)often referred to as simply thePrincipia(/prɪnˈsɪpiə,prɪnˈkɪpiə/), is a book byIsaac Newtonthat expoundsNewton's laws of motionand hislaw of universal gravitation. ThePrincipiais written inLatinand comprises three volumes, and was authorized,imprimatur, bySamuel Pepys, then-President of theRoyal Societyon 5 July 1686 and first published in 1687. ThePrincipiais considered one of the most important works in thehistory of science.The French mathematical physicistAlexis Clairautassessed it in 1747: \"The famous book ofMathematical Principles of Natural Philosophymarked the epoch of a great revolution in physics. The method followed by its illustrious author Sir Newton ... spread the light of mathematics on a science which up to then had remained in the darkness of conjectures and hypotheses.\"The French scientistJoseph-Louis Lagrangedescribed it as \"the greatest production of a human mind\",and French polymathPierre-Simon Laplacestated that \"ThePrincipiais pre-eminent above any other production of human genius\".Newton's work has also been called the \"greatest scientific work in history\", and the \"supreme expression in human thought of the mind's ability to hold the universe fixed as an object of contemplation\". A more recent assessment has been that while acceptance of Newton's laws was not immediate, by the end of the century after publication in 1687, \"no one could deny that a science had emerged that, at least in certain respects, so far exceeded anything that had ever gone before that it stood alone as the ultimate exemplar of science generally\". ThePrincipiaforms a mathematical foundation for the theory ofclassical mechanics. Among other achievements, it explainsJohannes Kepler'slaws of planetary motion, which Kepler had first obtainedempirically. In formulating his physical laws, Newton developed and used mathematical methods now included in the field ofcalculus, expressing them in the form ofgeometricpropositions about \"vanishingly small\" shapes.In a revised conclusion to thePrincipia(see§ General Scholium), Newton emphasized the empirical nature of the work with the expressionHypotheses non fingo(\"I frame/feign no hypotheses\"). After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition,Newton published two further editions, during 1713with errors of the 1687 corrected, and an improved versionof 1726. Contents Expressed aim and topics covered The Preface of the work states: ... Rational Mechanics will be the sciences of motion resulting from any forces whatsoever, and of the forces required to produce any motion, accurately proposed and demonstrated ... And therefore we offer this work as mathematical principles of his philosophy. For all the difficulty of philosophy seems to consist in this—from the phenomena of motions to investigate the forces of Nature, and then from these forces to demonstrate the other phenomena ... ThePrincipiadeals primarily with massive bodies in motion, initially under a variety of conditions and hypothetical laws of force in both non-resisting and resisting media, thus offering criteria to decide, by observations, which laws of force are operating in phenomena that may be observed. It attempts to cover hypothetical or possible motions both of celestial bodies and of terrestrial projectiles. It explores difficult problems of motions perturbed by multiple attractive forces. Its third and final book deals with the interpretation of observations about the movements of planets and their satellites. The book: The opening sections of thePrincipiacontain, in revised and extended form, nearlyall of the content of Newton's 1684 tractDe motu corporum in gyrum. ThePrincipiabegin with \"Definitions\"and \"Axioms or Laws of Motion\",and continues in three books: Book 1,De motu corporum Book 1, subtitledDe motu corporum(On the motion of bodies) concerns motion in the absence of any resisting medium. It opens with a collection of mathematicallemmason \"the method of first and last ratios\",a geometrical form of infinitesimal calculus. The second section establishes relationships between centripetal forces and the law of areas now known asKepler's second law(Propositions 1–3),and relates circular velocity and radius of path-curvature to radial force(Proposition 4), and relationships between centripetal forces varying as the inverse-square of the distance to the center and orbits of conic-section form (Propositions 5–10). Propositions 11–31establish properties of motion in paths of eccentric conic-section form including ellipses, and their relationship with inverse-square central forces directed to a focus and includeNewton's theorem about ovals(lemma 28). Propositions 43–45are demonstration that in an eccentric orbit under centripetal force where theapsemay move, a steady non-moving orientation of the line of apses is an indicator of an inverse-square law of force. Book 1 contains some proofs with little connection to real-world dynamics. But there are also sections with far-reaching application to the solar system and universe: Propositions 57–69deal with the \"motion of bodies drawn to one another by centripetal forces\". This section is of primary interest for its application to theSolar System, and includes Proposition 66along with its 22 corollaries:here Newton took the first steps in the definition and study of the problem of the movements of three massive bodies subject to their mutually perturbing gravitational attractions, a problem which later gained name and fame (among other reasons, for its great difficulty) as thethree-body problem. Propositions 70–84deal with the attractive forces of spherical bodies. The section contains Newton's proof that a massive spherically symmetrical body attracts other bodies outside itself as if all its mass were concentrated at its centre. This fundamental result, called theShell theorem, enables the inverse square law of gravitation to be applied to the real solar system to a very close degree of approximation. Book 2, part 2 ofDe motu corporum Part of the contents originally planned for the first book was divided out into a second book, which largely concerns motion through resisting mediums. Just as Newton examined consequences of different conceivable laws of attraction in Book 1, here he examines different conceivable laws of resistance; thusSection 1discusses resistance in direct proportion to velocity, andSection 2goes on to examine the implications of resistance in proportion to the square of velocity. Book 2 also discusses (inSection 5) hydrostatics and the properties of compressible fluids; Newton also derivesBoyle's law.The effects of air resistance on pendulums are studied inSection 6, along with Newton's account of experiments that he carried out, to try to find out some characteristics of air resistance in reality by observing the motions of pendulums under different conditions. Newton compares the resistance offered by a medium against motions of globes with different properties (material, weight, size). In Section 8, he derives rules to determine the speed of waves in fluids and relates them to the density and condensation (Proposition 48;this would become very important in acoustics). He assumes that these rules apply equally to light and sound and estimates that the speed of sound is around 1088 feet per second and can increase depending on the amount of water in air. Less of Book 2 has stood the test of time than of Books 1 and 3, and it has been said that Book 2 was largely written to refute a theory ofDescarteswhich had some wide acceptance before Newton's work (and for some time after). According to Descartes's theory of vortices, planetary motions were produced by the whirling of fluidvorticesthat filled interplanetary space and carried the planets along with them.Newton concluded Book 2by commenting that the hypothesis of vortices was completely at odds with the astronomical phenomena, and served not so much to explain as to confuse them. Book 3,De mundi systemate Book 3, subtitledDe mundi systemate(On the system of the world), is an exposition of many consequences of universal gravitation, especially its consequences for astronomy. It builds upon the propositions of the previous books and applies them with further specificity than in Book 1 to the motions observed in the Solar System. Here (introduced by Proposition 22,and continuing in Propositions 25–35) are developedseveral of the features and irregularitiesof the orbital motion of the Moon, especially thevariation. Newton lists the astronomical observations on which he relies,and establishes in a stepwise manner that the inverse square law of mutual gravitation applies to Solar System bodies, starting with the satellites of Jupiterand going on by stages to show that the law is of universal application.He also gives starting at Lemma 4and Proposition 40the theory of the motions of comets, for which much data came fromJohn FlamsteedandEdmond Halley, and accounts for the tides,attempting quantitative estimates of the contributions of the Sunand Moonto the tidal motions; and offers the first theory of theprecession of the equinoxes.Book 3 also considers theharmonic oscillatorin three dimensions, and motion in arbitrary force laws. In Book 3 Newton also made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System, modified in a somewhat modern way, since already in the mid-1680s he recognised the \"deviation of the Sun\" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.For Newton, \"the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World\",and that this centre \"either is at rest, or moves uniformly forward in a right line\".Newton rejected the second alternative after adopting the position that \"the centre of the system of the world is immoveable\", which \"is acknowledg'd by all, while some contend that the Earth, others, that the Sun is fix'd in that centre\".Newton estimated the mass ratios Sun:Jupiter and Sun:Saturn,and pointed out that these put the centre of the Sun usually a little way off the common center of gravity, but only a little, the distance at most \"would scarcely amount to one diameter of the Sun\". Commentary on thePrincipia The sequence of definitions used in setting up dynamics in thePrincipiais recognisable in many textbooks today. Newton first set out the definition of mass The quantity of matter is that which arises conjointly from its density and magnitude. A body twice as dense in double the space is quadruple in quantity. This quantity I designate by the name of body or of mass. This was then used to define the \"quantity of motion\" (today calledmomentum), and the principle of inertia in which mass replaces the previous Cartesian notion ofintrinsic force. This then set the stage for the introduction of forces through the change in momentum of a body. Curiously, for today's readers, the exposition looks dimensionally incorrect, since Newton does not introduce the dimension of time in rates of changes of quantities. He defined space and time \"not as they are well known to all\". Instead, he defined \"true\" time and space as \"absolute\"and explained: Only I must observe, that the vulgar conceive those quantities under no other notions but from the relation they bear to perceptible objects. And it will be convenient to distinguish them into absolute and relative, true and apparent, mathematical and common. ... instead of absolute places and motions, we use relative ones; and that without any inconvenience in common affairs; but in philosophical discussions, we ought to step back from our senses, and consider things themselves, distinct from what are only perceptible measures of them. To some modern readers it can appear that some dynamical quantities recognised today were used in thePrincipiabut not named. The mathematical aspects of the first two books were so clearly consistent that they were easily accepted; for example,LockeaskedHuygenswhether he could trust the mathematical proofs and was assured about their correctness. However, the concept of an attractive force acting at a distance received a cooler response. In his notes, Newton wrote that the inverse square law arose naturally due to the structure of matter. However, he retracted this sentence in the published version, where he stated that the motion of planets is consistent with an inverse square law, but refused to speculate on the origin of the law. Huygens andLeibniznoted that the law was incompatible with the notion of theaether. From a Cartesian point of view, therefore, this was a faulty theory. Newton's defence has been adopted since by many famous physicists—he pointed out that the mathematical form of the theory had to be correct since it explained the data, and he refused to speculate further on the basic nature of gravity. The sheer number of phenomena that could be organised by the theory was so impressive that younger \"philosophers\" soon adopted the methods and language of thePrincipia. Rules of Reason Perhaps to reduce the risk of public misunderstanding, Newton included at the beginning of Book 3 (in the second (1713) and third (1726) editions) a section titled \"Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy\". In the four rules, as they came finally to stand in the 1726 edition, Newton effectively offers a methodology for handling unknown phenomena in nature and reaching towards explanations for them. The four Rules of the 1726 edition run as follows (omitting some explanatory comments that follow each): This section of Rules for philosophy is followed by a listing of \"Phenomena\", in which are listed a number of mainly astronomical observations, that Newton used as the basis for inferences later on, as if adopting a consensus set of facts from the astronomers of his time. Both the \"Rules\" and the \"Phenomena\" evolved from one edition of thePrincipiato the next. Rule 4 made its appearance in the third (1726) edition; Rules 1–3 were present as \"Rules\" in the second (1713) edition, and predecessors of them were also present in the first edition of 1687, but there they had a different heading: they were not given as \"Rules\", but rather in the first (1687) edition the predecessors of the three later \"Rules\", and of most of the later \"Phenomena\", were all lumped together under a single heading \"Hypotheses\" (in which the third item was the predecessor of a heavy revision that gave the later Rule 3). From this textual evolution, it appears that Newton wanted by the later headings \"Rules\" and \"Phenomena\" to clarify for his readers his view of the roles to be played by these various statements. In the third (1726) edition of thePrincipia, Newton explains each rule in an alternative way and/or gives an example to back up what the rule is claiming. The first rule is explained as a philosophers' principle of economy. The second rule states that if one cause is assigned to a natural effect, then the same cause so far as possible must be assigned to natural effects of the same kind: for example, respiration in humans and in animals, fires in the home and in the Sun, or the reflection of light whether it occurs terrestrially or from the planets. An extensive explanation is given of the third rule, concerning the qualities of bodies, and Newton discusses here the generalisation of observational results, with a caution against making up fancies contrary to experiments, and use of the rules to illustrate the observation of gravity and space. General Scholium TheGeneral Scholiumis a concluding essay added to the second edition, 1713 (and amended in the third edition, 1726).It is not to be confused with theGeneral Scholiumat the end of Book 2, Section 6, which discusses his pendulum experiments and resistance due to air, water, and other fluids. Here Newton used the expressionhypotheses non fingo, \"I formulate no hypotheses\",in response to criticisms of the first edition of thePrincipia. (\"Fingo\"is sometimes nowadays translated \"feign\" rather than the traditional \"frame,\" although \"feign\" does not properly translate \"fingo\"). Newton's gravitational attraction, an invisibleforce able to act over vast distances, had led to criticism that he had introduced \"occultagencies\" into science.Newton firmly rejected such criticisms and wrote that it was enough that the phenomena implied gravitational attraction, as they did; but the phenomena did not so far indicate the cause of this gravity, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things not implied by the phenomena: such hypotheses \"have no place in experimental philosophy\", in contrast to the proper way in which \"particular propositions are inferr'd from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction\". Newton also underlined his criticism of the vortex theory of planetary motions, of Descartes, pointing to its incompatibility with the highly eccentric orbits of comets, which carry them \"through all parts of the heavens indifferently\". Newton also gave theological argument. From the system of the world, he inferred the existence of a god, along lines similar to what is sometimes called theargument from intelligent or purposive design. It has been suggested that Newton gave \"an oblique argument for a unitarian conception of God and an implicit attack on the doctrine of theTrinity\".The General Scholium does not address or attempt to refute the church doctrine; it simply does not mention Jesus, the Holy Ghost, or the hypothesis of the Trinity. Publishing the book Halley and Newton's initial stimulus In January 1684,Edmond Halley,Christopher WrenandRobert Hookehad a conversation in which Hooke claimed to not only have derived the inverse-square law but also all the laws of planetary motion. Wren was unconvinced, Hooke did not produce the claimed derivation although the others gave him time to do it, and Halley, who could derive the inverse-square law for the restricted circular case (by substituting Kepler's relation into Huygens' formula for the centrifugal force) but failed to derive the relation generally, resolved to ask Newton. Halley's visits to Newton in 1684 thus resulted from Halley's debates about planetary motion with Wren and Hooke, and they seem to have provided Newton with the incentive and spur to develop and write what becamePhilosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Halley was at that time a Fellow and Council member of theRoyal Societyin London (positions that in 1686 he resigned to become the Society's paid Clerk).Halley's visit to Newton in Cambridge in 1684 probably occurred in August.When Halley asked Newton's opinion on the problem of planetary motions discussed earlier that year between Halley, Hooke and Wren,Newton surprised Halley by saying that he had already made the derivations some time ago; but that he could not find the papers. (Matching accounts of this meeting come from Halley andAbraham De Moivreto whom Newton confided.) Halley then had to wait for Newton to \"find\" the results, and in November 1684 Newton sent Halley an amplified version of whatever previous work Newton had done on the subject. This took the form of a 9-page manuscript,De motu corporum in gyrum(Of the motion of bodies in an orbit): the title is shown on some surviving copies, although the (lost) original may have been without a title. Newton's tractDe motu corporum in gyrum, which he sent to Halley in late 1684, derived what is now known as the three laws of Kepler, assuming an inverse square law of force, and generalised the result to conic sections. It also extended the methodology by adding the solution of a problem on the motion of a body through a resisting medium. The contents ofDe motuso excited Halley by their mathematical and physical originality and far-reaching implications for astronomical theory, that he immediately went to visit Newton again, in November 1684, to ask Newton to let the Royal Society have more of such work.The results of their meetings clearly helped to stimulate Newton with the enthusiasm needed to take his investigations of mathematical problems much further in this area of physical science, and he did so in a period of highly concentrated work that lasted at least until mid-1686. Newton's single-minded attention to his work generally, and to his project during this time, is shown by later reminiscences from his secretary and copyist of the period, Humphrey Newton. His account tells of Isaac Newton's absorption in his studies, how he sometimes forgot his food, or his sleep, or the state of his clothes, and how when he took a walk in his garden he would sometimes rush back to his room with some new thought, not even waiting to sit before beginning to write it down.Other evidence also shows Newton's absorption in thePrincipia: Newton for years kept up a regular programme of chemical or alchemical experiments, and he normally kept dated notes of them, but for a period from May 1684 to April 1686, Newton's chemical notebooks have no entries at all.So, it seems that Newton abandoned pursuits to which he was formally dedicated and did very little else for well over a year and a half, but concentrated on developing and writing what became his great work. The first of the three constituent books was sent to Halley for the printer in spring 1686, and the other two books somewhat later. The complete work, published by Halley at his own financial risk,appeared in July 1687. Newton had also communicatedDe motuto Flamsteed, and during the period of composition, he exchanged a few letters with Flamsteed about observational data on the planets, eventually acknowledging Flamsteed's contributions in the published version of thePrincipiaof 1687. Preliminary version The process of writing that first edition of thePrincipiawent through several stages and drafts: some parts of the preliminary materials still survive, while others are lost except for fragments and cross-references in other documents. Surviving materials show that Newton (up to some time in 1685) conceived his book as a two-volume work. The first volume was to be titledDe motu corporum, Liber primus, with contents that later appeared in extended form as Book 1 of thePrincipia. A fair-copy draft of Newton's planned second volumeDe motu corporum, Liber Secundussurvives, its completion dated to about the summer of 1685. It covers the application of the results ofLiber primusto the Earth, the Moon, the tides, the Solar System, and the universe; in this respect, it has much the same purpose as the final Book 3 of thePrincipia, but it is written much less formally and is more easily read. It is not known just why Newton changed his mind so radically about the final form of what had been a readable narrative inDe motu corporum, Liber Secundusof 1685, but he largely started afresh in a new, tighter, and less accessible mathematical style, eventually to produce Book 3 of thePrincipiaas we know it. Newton frankly admitted that this change of style was deliberate when he wrote that he had (first) composed this book \"in a popular method, that it might be read by many\", but to \"prevent the disputes\" by readers who could not \"lay aside the prejudices\", he had \"reduced\" it \"into the form of propositions (in the mathematical way) which should be read by those only, who had first made themselves masters of the principles established in the preceding books\".The final Book 3 also contained in addition some further important quantitative results arrived at by Newton in the meantime, especially about the theory of the motions of comets, and some of the perturbations of the motions of the Moon. The result was numbered Book 3 of thePrincipiarather than Book 2 because in the meantime, drafts ofLiber primushad expanded and Newton had divided it into two books. The new and final Book 2 was concerned largely with the motions of bodies through resisting mediums. But theLiber Secundusof 1685 can still be read today. Even after it was superseded by Book 3 of thePrincipia, it survived complete, in more than one manuscript. After Newton's death in 1727, the relatively accessible character of its writing encouraged the publication of an English translation in 1728 (by persons still unknown, not authorised by Newton's heirs). It appeared under the English titleA Treatise of the System of the World.This had some amendments relative to Newton's manuscript of 1685, mostly to remove cross-references that used obsolete numbering to cite the propositions of an early draft of Book 1 of thePrincipia. Newton's heirs shortly afterwards published the Latin version in their possession, also in 1728, under the (new) titleDe Mundi Systemate, amended to update cross-references, citations and diagrams to those of the later editions of thePrincipia, making it look superficially as if it had been written by Newton after thePrincipia, rather than before.TheSystem of the Worldwas sufficiently popular to stimulate two revisions (with similar changes as in the Latin printing), a second edition (1731), and a \"corrected\" reprintof the second edition (1740). Halley's role as publisher The text of the first of the three books of thePrincipiawas presented to the Royal Society at the close of April 1686. Hooke made some priority claims (but failed to substantiate them), causing some delay. When Hooke's claim was made known to Newton, who hated disputes, Newton threatened to withdraw and suppress Book 3 altogether, but Halley, showing considerable diplomatic skills, tactfully persuaded Newton to withdraw his threat and let it go forward to publication.Samuel Pepys, as president, gave hisimprimaturon 30 June 1686, licensing the book for publication. The Society had just spent its book budget onDe Historia piscium,and the cost of publication was borne by Edmund Halley (who was also then acting as publisher of thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society):the book appeared in summer 1687.After Halley had personally financed the publication ofPrincipia, he was informed that the society could no longer afford to provide him the promised annual salary of £50. Instead, Halley was paid with leftover copies ofDe Historia piscium. Historical context Beginnings of the Scientific Revolution Nicolaus Copernicushad moved the Earth away from the center of the universe with theheliocentrictheory for which he presented evidence in his bookDe revolutionibus orbium coelestium(On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres) published in 1543.Johannes Keplerwrote the bookAstronomia nova(A new astronomy) in 1609, setting out the evidence that planets move inellipticalorbits with the Sun at onefocus, and that planets do not move with constant speed along this orbit. Rather, their speed varies so that the line joining the centres of the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. To these two laws he added a third a decade later, in his 1619 bookHarmonices Mundi(Harmonies of the world). This law sets out a proportionality between the third power of the characteristic distance of a planet from the Sun and the square of the length of its year. The foundation of modern dynamics was set out in Galileo's bookDialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo(Dialogue on the two main world systems) where the notion of inertia was implicit and used. In addition, Galileo's experiments with inclined planes had yielded precise mathematical relations between elapsed time and acceleration, velocity or distance for uniform and uniformly accelerated motion of bodies. Descartes' book of 1644Principia philosophiae(Principles of philosophy) stated that bodies can act on each other only through contact: a principle that induced people, among them himself, to hypothesize a universal medium as the carrier of interactions such as light and gravity—theaether. Newton was criticized for apparently introducing forces that acted at distance without any medium.Not until the development ofparticle theorywas Descartes' notion vindicated when it was possible to describe all interactions, like thestrong,weak, andelectromagneticfundamental interactions, using mediatinggauge bosonsand gravity through hypothesizedgravitons. Newton's role Newton had studied these books, or, in some cases, secondary sources based on them, and taken notes entitledQuaestiones quaedam philosophicae(Questions about philosophy) during his days as an undergraduate. During this period (1664–1666) he created the basis of calculus and performed the first experiments in the optics of colour. At this time, his proof that white light was a combination of primary colours (found via prismatics) replaced the prevailing theory of colours and received an overwhelmingly favourable response and occasioned bitter disputes withRobert Hookeand others, which forced him to sharpen his ideas to the point where he already composed sections of his later bookOpticksby the 1670s in response. Work on calculus is shown in various papers and letters, including two toLeibniz. He became a fellow of theRoyal Societyand the secondLucasian Professor of Mathematics(succeedingIsaac Barrow) atTrinity College,Cambridge. Newton's early work on motion In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by 1669 he had shown, for a circular case of planetary motion, that the force he called \"endeavour to recede\" (now calledcentrifugal force) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center.After his 1679–1680 correspondence with Hooke, described below, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J. Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The difference between the centrifugal and centripetal points of view, though a significant change of perspective, did not change the analysis.Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia in the 1660s: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published 1644. Controversy with Hooke Hooke publishedhis ideas about gravitationin the 1660s and again in 1674. He argued for an attracting principle of gravitation inMicrographiaof 1665, in a 1666 Royal Society lectureOn gravity, and again in 1674, when he published his ideas about theSystem of the Worldin somewhat developed form, as an addition toAn Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations.Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, along with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses.Hooke also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On these two aspects, Hooke stated in 1674: \"Now what these several degrees are I have not yet experimentally verified\" (indicating that he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow); and as to his whole proposal: \"This I only hint at present\", \"having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it\" (i.e., \"prosecuting this Inquiry\"). In November 1679, Hooke began an exchange of letters with Newton, of which the full text is now published.Hooke told Newton that Hooke had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence,and wished to hear from members about their researches, or their views about the researches of others; and as if to whet Newton's interest, he asked what Newton thought about various matters, giving a whole list, mentioning \"compounding the celestial motions of the planets of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body\", and \"my hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse\", and then a new hypothesis from Paris about planetary motions (which Hooke described at length), and then efforts to carry out or improve national surveys, the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge, and other items. Newton's reply offered \"a fansy of my own\" about a terrestrial experiment (not a proposal about celestial motions) which might detect the Earth's motion, by the use of a body first suspended in air and then dropped to let it fall. The main point was to indicate how Newton thought the falling body could experimentally reveal the Earth's motion by its direction of deviation from the vertical, but he went on hypothetically to consider how its motion could continue if the solid Earth had not been in the way (on a spiral path to the centre). Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of how the body would continue to move.A short further correspondence developed, and towards the end of it Hooke, writing on 6 January 1680 to Newton, communicated his \"supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance.\"(Hooke's inference about the velocity was actually incorrect.) In 1686, when the first book ofNewton'sPrincipiawas presented to theRoyal Society, Hooke claimed that Newton had obtained from him the \"notion\" of \"the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center\". At the same time (according toEdmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that \"the Demonstration of the Curves generated therby\" was wholly Newton's. A recent assessment about the early history of the inverse square law is that \"by the late 1660s\", the assumption of an \"inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons\".Newton himself had shown in the 1660s that for planetary motion under a circular assumption, force in the radial direction had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center.Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea, giving reasons including the citation of prior work by others before Hooke.Newton also firmly claimed that even if it had happened that he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, which it had not, he would still have some rights to it in view of his mathematical developments and demonstrations, which enabled observations to be relied on as evidence of its accuracy, while Hooke, without mathematical demonstrations and evidence in favour of the supposition, could only guess (according to Newton) that it was approximately valid \"at great distances from the center\". The background described above shows there was basis for Newton to deny deriving the inverse square law from Hooke. On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of thePrincipia, that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the Solar System. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1.Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679–80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: \"yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it ...\".) Newton's reawakening interest in astronomy received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680/1681, on which he corresponded withJohn Flamsteed. In 1759, decades after the deaths of both Newton and Hooke,Alexis Clairaut, mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, made his assessment after reviewing what Hooke had published on gravitation. \"One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory\", Clairaut wrote; \"The example of Hooke\" serves \"to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated\". Location of early edition copies It has been estimated that as many as 750 copiesof thefirst editionwere printed by the Royal Society, and \"it is quite remarkable that so many copies of this small first edition are still in existence ... but it may be because the original Latin text was more revered than read\".A survey published in 1953 located 189 surviving copieswith nearly 200 further copies located by the most recent survey published in 2020, suggesting that the initial print run was larger than previously thought.However, more recent book historical and bibliographical research has examined those prior claims, and concludes that Macomber's earlier estimation of 500 copies is likely correct. In 2016, a first edition sold for $3.7 million. The second edition (1713) were printed in 750 copies, and the third edition (1726) were printed in 1,250 copies. Afacsimileedition (based on the 3rd edition of 1726 but with variant readings from earlier editions and important annotations) was published in 1972 byAlexandre KoyréandI. Bernard Cohen. Later editions Second edition, 1713 Two later editions were published by Newton: Newton had been urged to make a new edition of thePrincipiasince the early 1690s, partly because copies of the first edition had already become very rare and expensive within a few years after 1687.Newton referred to his plans for a second edition in correspondence with Flamsteed in November 1694.Newton also maintained annotated copies of the first edition specially bound up with interleaves on which he could note his revisions; two of these copies still survive,but he had not completed the revisions by 1708. Newton had almost severed connections with one would-be editor,Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, and another,David Gregoryseems not to have met with his approval and was also terminally ill, dying in 1708. Nevertheless, reasons were accumulating not to put off the new edition any longer.Richard Bentley, master ofTrinity College, persuaded Newton to allow him to undertake a second edition, and in June 1708 Bentley wrote to Newton with a specimen print of the first sheet, at the same time expressing the (unfulfilled) hope that Newton had made progress towards finishing the revisions.It seems that Bentley then realised that the editorship was technically too difficult for him, and with Newton's consent he appointedRoger Cotes, Plumian professor of astronomy at Trinity, to undertake the editorship for him as a kind of deputy (but Bentley still made the publishing arrangements and had the financial responsibility and profit). The correspondence of 1709–1713 shows Cotes reporting to two masters, Bentley and Newton, and managing (and often correcting) a large and important set of revisions to which Newton sometimes could not give his full attention.Under the weight of Cotes' efforts, but impeded by priority disputes between Newton and Leibniz,and by troubles at the Mint,Cotes was able to announce publication to Newton on 30 June 1713.Bentley sent Newton only six presentation copies; Cotes was unpaid; Newton omitted any acknowledgement to Cotes. Among those who gave Newton corrections for the Second Edition were:Firmin Abauzit, Roger Cotes and David Gregory. However, Newton omitted acknowledgements to some because of the priority disputes.John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, suffered this especially. The Second Edition was the basis of the first edition to be printed abroad, which appeared in Amsterdam in 1714. Third edition, 1726 After his serious illness in 1722 and after the appearance of a reprint of the second edition in Amsterdam in 1723, the 80-year-old Newton began to revise once again the Principia in the fall of 1723. The third edition was published 25 March 1726, under the stewardship ofHenry Pemberton, M.D., a man of the greatest skill in these matters...; Pemberton later said that this recognition was worth more to him than the two hundred guinea award from Newton. In 1739–1742, two French priests, Pères Thomas LeSeur andFrançois Jacquier(of theMinimorder, but sometimes erroneously identified asJesuits), produced with the assistance ofJ.-L. Calandrinian extensively annotated version of thePrincipiain the 3rd edition of 1726. Sometimes this is referred to as theJesuit edition: it was much used, and reprinted more than once in Scotland during the 19th century. Émilie du Châteletalso made a translation of Newton'sPrincipiainto French. Unlike LeSeur and Jacquier's edition, hers was a complete translation of Newton's three books and their prefaces. She also included a Commentary section where she fused the three books into a much clearer and easier to understand summary. She included an analytical section where she applied the new mathematics of calculus to Newton's most controversial theories. Previously, geometry was the standard mathematics used to analyse theories. Du Châtelet's translation is the only complete one to have been done in French and hers remains the standard French translation to this day. Translations Four full English translations of Newton'sPrincipiahave appeared, all based on Newton's 3rd edition of 1726. The first, from 1729, by Andrew Motte,was described by Newton scholarI. Bernard Cohen(in 1968) as \"still of enormous value in conveying to us the sense of Newton's words in their own time, and it is generally faithful to the original: clear, and well written\".The 1729 version was the basis for several republications, often incorporating revisions, among them a widely used modernised English version of 1934, which appeared under the editorial name ofFlorian Cajori(though completed and published only some years after his death). Cohen pointed out ways in which the 18th-century terminology and punctuation of the 1729 translation might be confusing to modern readers, but he also made severe criticisms of the 1934 modernised English version, and showed that the revisions had been made without regard to the original, also demonstrating gross errors \"that provided the final impetus to our decision to produce a wholly new translation\". The second full English translation, into modern English, is the work that resulted from this decision by collaborating translators I. Bernard Cohen, Anne Whitman, and Julia Budenz; it was published in 1999 with a guide by way of introduction. The third such translation is due to Ian Bruce, and appears, with many other translations of mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries, on his website. The fourth complete English translation is due toCharles Leedham-Green, professor emeritus of mathematics atQueen Mary University of London, and was published in 2021 byCambridge University Press.Prof. Leedham-Green was motivated to produce that translation, on which he worked for twenty years, in part because of his dissatisfaction with the work of Cohen, Whitman, and Budenz, whose translation of thePrincipiahe found unnecessarily obscure. Leedham-Green's aim was to convey Newton's own reasoning and arguments in a way intelligible to a modern mathematical scientist. His translation is heavily annotated and his explanatory notes make use of the modern secondary literature on some of the more difficult technical aspects of Newton's work. Dana Densmore and William H. Donahue have published a translation of the work's central argument, published in 1996, along with expansion of included proofs and ample commentary.The book was developed as a textbook for classes atSt. John's Collegeand the aim of this translation is to be faithful to the Latin text. Varia In 1977, the spacecraftVoyager 1and2left earth for the interstellar space carrying a picture of a page from Newton'sPrincipia Mathematica, as part of theGolden Record, a collection of messages from humanity to extraterrestrials. In 2014, BritishastronautTim Peakenamed his upcoming mission to theInternational Space StationPrincipiaafter the book, in \"honour of Britain's greatest scientist\".Tim Peake'sPrincipialaunched on 15 December 2015 aboardSoyuz TMA-19M. See also References Further reading External links Latin versions First edition (1687) Second edition (1713) Third edition (1726) Later Latin editions English translations Other links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b951b5420>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "James II of England James II and VII(14 October 1633O.S.– 16 September 1701) wasKing of EnglandandIrelandasJames IIandKing of ScotlandasJames VIIfrom the death of his elder brother,Charles II, on 6 February 1685, until he was deposed in the 1688Glorious Revolution. The lastCatholicmonarch ofEngland,Scotland, andIreland, his reign is now remembered primarily for conflicts over religion. However, it also involved struggles over the principles ofabsolutismanddivine right of kings, with his deposition ending a century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of theEnglish Parliamentover the Crown. James succeeded to the throne with widespread support, largely due to a reluctance to undermine the principle of hereditary succession, and the belief that a Catholic monarchy was purely temporary. However, tolerance of his personal views did not extend to Catholicism in general, and both the English andScottish parliamentsrefused to pass measures viewed as undermining the primacy of theProtestantreligion. His attempts to impose them by decree met with opposition, and as a result, it has been argued it was a political principle, rather than a religious one, that ultimately led to his removal. In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis. Firstly, the birth of James's son and heirJames Francis Edward Stuarton 10 June raised the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, excluding his Protestant daughterMaryand her husbandWilliam III, Prince of Orange, who was also his nephew. Secondly, the prosecution of theSeven Bishopswas seen as an assault on theChurch of England, and their acquittal on 30 June destroyed his political authority. Ensuing anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland led to a general feeling that only James's removal could prevent another civil war. Leading members of the English political classinvited Williamto assume the English throne. When William landed inBrixhamon 5 November 1688, James's army deserted and he went into exile in France on 23 December. In February 1689, a specialConvention Parliamentheld James had \"vacated\" the English throne and installed William and Mary as joint monarchs, thereby establishing the principlesovereigntyderived from Parliament, not birth. James landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689 in an attempt to recover his kingdoms, but, despite a simultaneousrising in Scotland, in April aScottish Conventionfollowed England in ruling that James had \"forfeited\" the throne, which was offered to William and Mary. After his defeat at theBattle of the Boynein July 1690, James returned to France, where he spent the rest of his life in exile atSaint-Germain, protected byLouis XIV. While contemporary opponents often portrayed him as an absolutist tyrant, some 20th century historians have praised James for advocating religious tolerance, although more recent scholarship has tended to take a middle ground between these views. Early life Birth James, second surviving son of KingCharles Iand his wife,Henrietta Maria of France, was born atSt James's Palacein London on 14 October 1633.Later that same year, he was baptized byWilliam Laud, the AnglicanArchbishop of Canterbury.He was educated by private tutors, along with his older brother, the future KingCharles II, and the two sons of theDuke of Buckingham,Georgeand Francis Villiers.At the age of three, James was appointedLord High Admiral; the position was initially honorary, but became a substantive office after theRestoration, when James was an adult.He was designatedDuke of Yorkat birth,invested with theOrder of the Garterin 1642,and formally created Duke of York in January 1644. Wars of the Three Kingdoms In August 1642, long running political disputes between Charles I and his opponents inParliamentled to theFirst English Civil War. James and his brother Charles were present at theBattle of Edgehillin October, and narrowly escaped capture by Parliamentarian cavalry.He spent most of the next four years in theRoyalistwartime capital ofOxford,where he was made aMaster of Artsby the University on 1 November 1642 and served as colonel of a volunteer regiment of foot.Following thesurrender of Oxfordin June 1646, James was taken to London and held with his younger siblingsHenry,ElizabethandHenriettainSt James's Palace. Frustrated by their inability to agree terms with Charles I, and with his brother Charles out of reach inFrance, Parliament considered making James king. James was ordered by his father to escape, and, with the help ofJoseph Bampfield, in April 1648 successfully evaded his guards and crossed the North Sea toThe Hague.Following their victory in the 1648Second English Civil War, Parliament ordered theexecution of Charles Iin January 1649.TheCovenanterregime proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland, and after lengthy negotiations agreed to provide troops to restore him to the English throne. Theinvasionended in defeat atWorcesterin September 1651. Although Charles managed to escape capture and to return to the exiled court in Paris, the Royalist cause appeared hopeless. Exile in France James, like his brother, sought refuge in France, serving in the French army underTurenneagainst theFronde, and later against their Spanish allies.In the French army James had his first true experience of battle, in which, according to one observer, he \"ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done\".Turenne's favour led to James being given command of a captured Irish regiment in December 1652, then appointed Lieutenant-General in 1654. In 1657, France, then engaged in theFranco-Spanish War (1635–1659), agreed an alliance with theCommonwealth of England, and when Charles responded by signing atreaty with Spain, James was expelled from France.James quarrelled with his brother over this choice, but ultimately joined Spanish forces inFlandersled by the French exileCondé. Given command of six regiments of British volunteers,he fought against his former French comrades at theBattle of the Dunes. After France and Spain made peace with the 1659Treaty of the Pyrenees, James considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy, but declined the position. Soon after, the 1660Stuart Restorationreturned his brother to the English throne as Charles II. Restoration First marriage After the collapse of theCommonwealthin 1660, Charles II was restored to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland. Although James was theheir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children.On 31 December 1660, following his brother's restoration, James was createdDuke of Albanyin Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York.Upon his return to England, James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement toAnne Hyde, the daughter of Charles's chief minister,Edward Hyde. In 1659, while trying to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne.Anne became pregnant in 1660, but following theRestorationand James's return to power, no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry acommoner, no matter what he had pledged beforehand.Although nearly everyone, including Anne's father, urged the two not to marry, the couple married secretly, then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London. The couple's first child,Charles, was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further children.Only two daughters survived:Mary(born 30 April 1662) andAnne(born 6 February 1665).Samuel Pepyswrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father, and played with them \"like an ordinary private father of a child\", a contrast to the distant parenting common with royalty at the time. James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions.Even so, he kept mistresses, includingArabella ChurchillandCatherine Sedley, and was reputed to be \"the most unguarded ogler of his time\".Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary that James \"did eye my wife mightily\".James's taste in women was often maligned, withGilbert Burnetfamously remarking that James's mistresses must have been \"given him by his priests as a penance\".Anne Hyde died in 1671. Military and political offices and royal slavery After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor ofPortsmouthandLord Warden of the Cinque Ports.Charles II also made his brother the Governor of the Royal Adventurers into Africa (later shortened to theRoyal African Company) in October 1660, an office James retained until after the Glorious Revolution when he was forced to resign. When James commanded theRoyal Navyduring theSecond Anglo-Dutch War(1665–1667) he immediately directed the fleet towards the capture of forts off the African coast that would facilitate English involvement in theslave trade(indeed English attacks on such forts occupied by the Dutch precipitated the war itself).James remained Admiral of the Fleet during theThird Anglo-Dutch War(1672–1674), during which significant fighting also occurred off the African coast.Following theraid on the Medwayin 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast.The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (positions granted him by Charles II upon his restoration), gave James enough money to keep a sizable court household. In 1664, Charles II granted American territory between theDelawareandConnecticutrivers to James. Following its capture by the British, the former Dutch territory ofNew Netherlandand its principal port,New Amsterdam, were renamed theProvinceandCity of New Yorkin James's honour. James gave part of the colony to proprietorsGeorge CarteretandJohn Berkeley.Fort Orange, 150 miles (240 km) north on theHudson River, was renamedAlbanyafter James's Scottish title.In 1683, James became the Governor of theHudson's Bay Company, but did not take an active role in its governance. In September 1666, Charles II put James in charge of firefighting operations during theGreat Fire of London, in the absence of action by Lord MayorThomas Bloodworth. This was not a political office, but his actions and leadership were noteworthy. \"The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire\", wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September. In 1672, the Royal African Company received a new charter from Charles II. It set up forts and factories, maintained troops, and exercised martial law in West Africa in pursuit of trade in gold, silver and African slaves. In the 1680s, the RAC transported about 5,000 slaves a year to markets primarily in the English Caribbean across the Atlantic. Many werebrandedon the chest with the letters \"DY\" for \"Duke of York\", the RAC's Governor.As historian William Pettigrew writes, the RAC \"shipped more enslaved African women, men, and children to the Americas than any other single institution during the entire period of the transatlantic slave trade\". Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage James's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church, and both he and his wife Anne became drawn to that faith.James took CatholicEucharistin 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for almost a decade as he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676.In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, includingJohn ChurchillandGeorge Legge, as well asFrench Protestantssuch asLouis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham. Growing fears of Roman Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a newTest Actin 1673.Under this Act, all civil and military officials were required to take an oath (in which they were required to disavow the doctrine oftransubstantiationand denounce certain practices of the Roman Church as superstitious and idolatrous) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of theChurch of England.James refused to perform either action, instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral. His conversion to Roman Catholicism was thereby made public. King Charles II opposed James's conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised in the Church of England.Nevertheless, he allowed the widowed James to marryMary of Modena, a fifteen-year-old Italian princess.James and Mary weremarried by proxyin a Roman Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673.On 21 November, Mary arrived in England andNathaniel Crew,Bishop of Oxford, performed a brief Anglican service that did little more than recognise the marriage by proxy.Many British people, distrustful of Catholicism, regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of thePapacy.James was noted for his deep devotion, once remarking, \"If occasion were, I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment.\" Exclusion Crisis In 1677, King Charles II arranged for James's daughter Mary to marry the Protestant PrinceWilliam III of Orange, son of Charles's and James's sisterMary. James reluctantly acquiesced after his brother and nephew had agreed to the marriage.Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife,Catherine of Braganza, to produce any children. AdefrockedAnglican clergyman,Titus Oates, spoke of a \"Popish Plot\" to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne.The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation. In England, theEarl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism, proposed anExclusion Billthat would have excluded James from the line of succession.Some members of Parliament even proposed to pass the crown to Charles's illegitimate son,James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth.In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament.Two furtherParliamentswere elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason.The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two-party system: theWhigswere those who supported the Bill, while theTorieswere those who opposed it. Ultimately, the succession was not altered, but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy-making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother's government. On the orders of the King, James left England forBrussels.In 1680, he was appointedLord High Commissioner of Scotlandand took up residence at theHolyrood Palacein Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee the royal government.James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death.The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in the English Parliament, including theEarl of Danby, a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him. On 6 May 1682, James narrowly escaped the sinking ofHMSGloucester, in which between 130 and 250 people perished.James argued with the pilot about the navigation of the ship before it ran aground on a sandbank, and then delayed abandoning ship, which may have contributed to the death toll. Return to favour In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles II and his brother and spark arepublicanrevolution to re-establish a government of theCromwellian style.The conspiracy, known as theRye House Plot, backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James.Several notableWhigs, including theEarl of Essexand the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated.Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot and implicated fellow conspirators, but later recanted.Essex committed suicide, and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into exile in continental Europe.Charles II reacted to the plot by increasing the repression of Whigs anddissenters.Taking advantage of James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto thePrivy Councilin 1684.While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Roman Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed. Reign Accession to the throne Charles II died on 6 February 1685 fromapoplexy, after supposedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed.Having no legitimate children, he was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to James's accession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession.He wished to proceed quickly to the coronation, and he and Mary were crowned atWestminster Abbeyon 23 April 1685. The newParliamentthat assembled in May 1685, which gained the name of \"Loyal Parliament\", was initially favourable to James, who had stated that most former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule.Most of Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the earls ofClarendonandRochester, and the demotion ofHalifax.Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of the proceeds oftonnage and poundageand the customs duties.James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed with his policies. Two rebellions Soon after becoming king, James faced arebellion in southern Englandled by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and anotherrebellion in Scotlandled byArchibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll.Monmouth and Argyll both began their expeditions fromHolland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, the Prince of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland where he raised recruits, mainly from his own clan, theCampbells.The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll was captured atInchinnanon 18 June 1685.Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, he never posed a credible threat to James.Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation. Monmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King atLyme Regison 11 June.He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army.Monmouth's soldiers attacked the King's army at night, in an attempt at surprise, but were defeated at theBattle of Sedgemoor.The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels.Monmouth was captured and later executed at theTower of Londonon 15 July.The King's judges—most notably,George Jeffreys—condemned many of the rebels totransportationandindentured servitudein theWest Indiesin a series of trials that came to be known as theBloody Assizes.Around 250 of the rebels were executed.While both rebellions were defeated easily, they hardened James's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch. Religious liberty and dispensing power To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety by enlarging hisstanding army.This alarmed his subjects, not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime.Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of hisdispensing powerto allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act.When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliamentproroguedin November 1685, never to meet again in his reign.At the beginning of 1686, two papers were found in Charles II's strong box and his closet, in his own hand, stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism. James published these papers with a declaration signed by hissign manualand challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles's arguments: \"Let me have a solid answer, and in a gentlemanlike style; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church.\" The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king. James advocatedrepealof thepenal lawsin all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it.James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, \"whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property\".In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Roman Catholics but not for rebellious Presbyterian Covenanters.Presbyterians would later call this period \"The Killing Time\". James allowed Roman Catholics to occupy the highest offices of his kingdoms, and received at his court thepapal nuncio,Ferdinando d'Adda, the first representative from Rome to London since the reign ofMary I.Edward Petre, James'sJesuitconfessor, was a particular object of Anglican ire.When the King'sSecretary of State, theEarl of Sunderland, began replacing office-holders at court with \"Papist\" favourites, James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters.Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's brothers-in-law (the Hydes) and their supporters.Roman Catholics made up no more than one-fiftieth of the English population.In May 1686, James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common-law courts that showed he had the power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter, as well as the Solicitor General,Heneage Finch.The case ofGodden v Halesaffirmed his dispensing power,with eleven out of the twelve judges ruling in the king's favour after six judges were dismissed for refusing to promise to support the king. In 1687, James issued theDeclaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing both Roman Catholics and ProtestantDissenters.In the summer of 1687 he attempted to increase support for his tolerationist policy by a speaking tour of the western counties of England. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester in which he said, \"suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different opinions as for being of different complexions.\"At the same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Roman Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians. In 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against theSupreme Governor of their church.While the Declaration elicited some thanks from its beneficiaries, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges.James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education.At theUniversity of Oxford, he offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions inChrist ChurchandUniversity College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force the Fellows ofMagdalen Collegeto elect as their PresidentAnthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be a Roman Catholic,which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to elect someone of their own choosing. In 1687, James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters, so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. He instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the Crown opposed to his plan, appointing newlord-lieutenants of countiesand remodelling the corporations governing towns andlivery companies.In October, James gave orders for the lord-lieutenants to provide three standard questions to allJustices of the Peace: 1. Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the Penal Laws? 2. Would they assist candidates who would do so? 3. Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence? During the first three months of 1688, hundreds of those who gave negative replies to those questions were dismissed.Corporations were purged by agents, known as the Regulators, who were given wide discretionary powers, in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine.Most of the regulators wereBaptists, and the new town officials that they recommended includedQuakers, Baptists,Congregationalists,Presbyteriansand Roman Catholics, as well asAnglicans.Finally, on 24 August 1688, James ordered the issue ofwrits for a general election.However, upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England, James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lord-lieutenants to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations, as part of the concessions he made to win support. Deposition and the Glorious Revolution In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches.Whenseven bishops, including theArchbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried forseditious libel.Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir,James Francis Edward, on 10 June that year.When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon, but when the prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Roman Catholic dynasty, such men had to reconsider their position.Threatened by a Roman Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child wassupposititiousand had been smuggled into the Queen's bedchamber in a warming pan.They had already entered into negotiations with the Prince of Orange when it became known the Queen was pregnant, and the birth of a son reinforced their convictions. On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant noblesinvited William, Prince of Orange, to come to England with an army.By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade.Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of KingLouis XIVof France, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention.When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, includingChurchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughterAnne.James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority.On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, first throwing theGreat Seal of the Realminto theRiver Thames.He was captured inKent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William let him escape on 23 December.James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a pension. William summoned aConvention Parliamentto decide how to handle James's flight. It convened on 22 January 1689.While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectivelyabdicated, and that the throne had thereby become vacant.To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. On 11 April 1689, theParliament of Scotlanddeclared James to have forfeited the throne of Scotland as well.The Convention Parliament issued aDeclaration of Righton 12 February that denounced James for abusing his power, and proclaimed many limitations on royal authority. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the Crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments.The Declaration was the basis for theBill of Rightsenacted later in 1689. The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic. Attempt to regain the throne War in Ireland With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689.TheIrish Parliamentdid not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massivebill of attainderagainst those who had rebelled against him.At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland.James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at theBattle of the Boyneon 1 July 1690O.S.when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control.James fled to France once more, departing fromKinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms.Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland asSéamus an Chacaor \"James the shit\".Despite this popular perception, later historianBreandán Ó Buachallaargues that \"Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry\",and both Ó Buachalla and fellow-historianÉamonn Ó Ciardhaargue that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes in Ireland. Return to exile, death and legacy In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château ofSaint-Germain-en-Laye.James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including theEarl of Melfort; most, but not all, were Roman Catholic.In 1692, James's last child,Louisa Maria Teresa, was born.Some supporters in Englandattempted to assassinateWilliam III to restore James to the throne in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular.In the same year, Louis XIV offered to have JameselectedKing of Poland. James rejected the offer, fearing that accepting the Polish crown might (in the minds of the English people) disqualify him from being King of England. After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much assistance to James. During his last years, James lived as an austerepenitent.He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England, specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State, one Commissioner of the Treasury, the Secretary at War, with the majority of the officers in the army. James died aged 67 of abrain haemorrhageon 16 September 1701 atSaint-Germain-en-Laye.James's heart was placed in a silver-gilt locket and given to the convent atChaillot, and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to theScots Collegein Paris. His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to the parish church of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and theEnglish Jesuit college at Saint-Omer, while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris. The rest of James's body was laid to rest in a triplesarcophagus(consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead) at the St Edmund's Chapel in the Church of the EnglishBenedictinesin theRue Saint-Jacques, Paris, with a funeral oration byHenri-Emmanuel de Roquette.James was not buried, but put in one of the side chapels. Lights were kept burning round his coffin until theFrench Revolution. In 1734, theArchbishop of Parisheard evidence to support James's canonisation, but nothing came of it.During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided. Later Hanover succession James's younger daughterAnnesucceeded when William died in 1702. TheAct of Settlementprovided that, if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished, the crown would go to a German cousin,Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and to her Protestant heirs.Sophia was a granddaughter ofJames VI and Ithrough his eldest daughter,Elizabeth Stuart, the sister ofCharles I. Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (less than two months after the death of Sophia), she was succeeded byGeorge I, Sophia's son, the Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin. Subsequent uprisings and pretenders James's sonJames Francis Edwardwas recognised as king at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James II's remaining supporters (later known asJacobites) as \"James III and VIII\".He led arisingin Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I's accession, but was defeated.His sonCharles Edward Stuartled aJacobite rising in 1745, but was again defeated.The risings were the last serious attempts to restore the Stuart dynasty. Charles's claims passed to his younger brotherHenry Benedict Stuart, theDean of the College of Cardinalsof the Roman Catholic Church.Henry was the last of James II's legitimate descendants. He died childless, and no relative has publicly acknowledged theJacobite claimsince his death in 1807. Historiography Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised sinceWhighistorians, led byLord Macaulay, cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as \"tyranny which approached to insanity\".Subsequent scholars, such asG. M. Trevelyan(Macaulay's great-nephew) andDavid Ogg, while more balanced than Macaulay, still characterised James as a tyrant, his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud, and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history.In 1892,A. W. Wardwrote for theDictionary of National Biographythat James was \"obviously a political and religious bigot\", although never devoid of \"a vein of patriotic sentiment\"; \"his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow-catholics in the first instance, and the recovery of England for catholicism in the second, the governing objects of his policy.\" Hilaire Belloc, a writer and Catholic apologist, broke with this tradition in 1928, casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience, and his enemies \"men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English\".However, he observed that James \"concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth, and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made.\" By the 1960s and 1970s,Maurice Ashleyand Stuart Prall began to reconsider James's motives in granting religious toleration, while still taking note of James's autocratic rule.Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy, Ashley contending that \"history is, after all, the story of human beings and individuals, as well as of the classes and the masses.\"He cast James II and William III as \"men of ideals as well as human weaknesses\".John Miller, writing in 2000, accepted the claims of James's absolutism, but argued that \"his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics. Any 'absolutist' methods ... were essentially means to that end.\" In 2004,W. A. Speckwrote in the newOxford Dictionary of National Biographythat \"James was genuinely committed to religious toleration, but also sought to increase the power of the crown.\"He added that, unlike the government of the Netherlands, \"James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government. He resisted any check on the monarch's power. That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688. He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch.\" Tim Harris'sconclusions from his 2006 book summarised the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II: The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time ... Was he an egotistical bigot ... a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects (at least in England and Scotland) ... simply naïve, or even perhaps plain stupid, unable to appreciate the realities of political power ... Or was he a well-intentioned and even enlightened ruler—an enlightened despot well ahead of his time, perhaps—who was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects? In 2009,Steven Pincusconfronted that scholarly ambivalence in1688: The First Modern Revolution.Pincus claims that James's reign must be understood within a context of economic change and European politics, and makes two major assertions about James II. The first of these is that James purposefully \"followed the French Sun King, Louis XIV, in trying to create a modern Catholic polity. This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern, centralizing, and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus.\"The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus, expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange's armed invasion of England. Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical. Instead, readers are shown an intelligent, clear-thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with, and lost out to, alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model, feared French power, and were outraged by James's authoritarianism. Scott Sowerbycountered Pincus's thesis in 2013 inMaking Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution.He noted that English taxes remained low during James II's reign, at about 4% of the English national income, and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV's France, where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP.Sowerby also contends that James's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists, including Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who were attracted by the king's push for a new \"Magna Carta for liberty of conscience\".The king was overthrown, in Sowerby's view, largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed \"holy league\" to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe.Sowerby presents James's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were sceptical of the king's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden agenda to overthrow English Protestantism. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles The official style of James in England was \"James the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland,Defender of the Faith, etc.\" Theclaim to Francewas only nominal, and was asserted by every English king fromEdward IIItoGeorge III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. In Scotland, he was \"James the Seventh, by the Grace of God, King of Scotland, England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.\" James was createdDuke of Normandyby King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660. In 1734 theArchbishop of Parisopened the cause for the canonisation of James as a saint, making him aServant of Godamong Catholics. Honours Arms Prior to his accession, James's coat of arms was theroyal arms(which he later inherited), differenced by alabelof three pointsErmine.His arms as king were:Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly,Azurethreefleurs-de-lisOr(for France) andGulesthree lionspassant guardantinpaleOr (for England); II Or a lionrampantwithin a doubletressureflory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringedArgent(for Ireland). Family tree In four generations of Stuarts, there were seven reigning monarchs (not including Hanover'sGeorge I). James II was the fourth Stuart monarch in England, the second of his generation and the father of two more. Issue Legitimate issue Illegitimate issue Notes References Sources Further reading External links" ]

[ "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica(English:The Mathematical Principles ofNatural Philosophy)often referred to as simply thePrincipia(/prɪnˈsɪpiə,prɪnˈkɪpiə/), is a book byIsaac Newtonthat expoundsNewton's laws of motionand hislaw of universal gravitation. ThePrincipiais written inLatinand comprises three volumes, and was authorized,imprimatur, bySamuel Pepys, then-President of theRoyal Societyon 5 July 1686 and first published in 1687. ThePrincipiais considered one of the most important works in thehistory of science.The French mathematical physicistAlexis Clairautassessed it in 1747: \"The famous book ofMathematical Principles of Natural Philosophymarked the epoch of a great revolution in physics. The method followed by its illustrious author Sir Newton ... spread the light of mathematics on a science which up to then had remained in the darkness of conjectures and hypotheses.\"The French scientistJoseph-Louis Lagrangedescribed it as \"the greatest production", "greatest production of a human mind\",and French polymathPierre-Simon Laplacestated that \"ThePrincipiais pre-eminent above any other production of human genius\".Newton's work has also been called the \"greatest scientific work in history\", and the \"supreme expression in human thought of the mind's ability to hold the universe fixed as an object of contemplation\". A more recent assessment has been that while acceptance of Newton's laws was not immediate, by the end of the century after publication in 1687, \"no one could deny that a science had emerged that, at least in certain respects, so far exceeded anything that had ever gone before that it stood alone as the ultimate exemplar of science generally\". ThePrincipiaforms a mathematical foundation for the theory ofclassical mechanics. Among other achievements, it explainsJohannes Kepler'slaws of planetary motion, which Kepler had first obtainedempirically. In formulating his physical laws, Newton developed and used mathematical methods now included in the field", "in the field ofcalculus, expressing them in the form ofgeometricpropositions about \"vanishingly small\" shapes.In a revised conclusion to thePrincipia(see§ General Scholium), Newton emphasized the empirical nature of the work with the expressionHypotheses non fingo(\"I frame/feign no hypotheses\"). After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition,Newton published two further editions, during 1713with errors of the 1687 corrected, and an improved versionof 1726. Contents Expressed aim and topics covered The Preface of the work states: ... Rational Mechanics will be the sciences of motion resulting from any forces whatsoever, and of the forces required to produce any motion, accurately proposed and demonstrated ... And therefore we offer this work as mathematical principles of his philosophy. For all the difficulty of philosophy seems to consist in this—from the phenomena of motions to investigate the forces of Nature, and then from these forces to demonstrate the other phenomena ...", "other phenomena ... ThePrincipiadeals primarily with massive bodies in motion, initially under a variety of conditions and hypothetical laws of force in both non-resisting and resisting media, thus offering criteria to decide, by observations, which laws of force are operating in phenomena that may be observed. It attempts to cover hypothetical or possible motions both of celestial bodies and of terrestrial projectiles. It explores difficult problems of motions perturbed by multiple attractive forces. Its third and final book deals with the interpretation of observations about the movements of planets and their satellites. The book: The opening sections of thePrincipiacontain, in revised and extended form, nearlyall of the content of Newton's 1684 tractDe motu corporum in gyrum. ThePrincipiabegin with \"Definitions\"and \"Axioms or Laws of Motion\",and continues in three books: Book 1,De motu corporum Book 1, subtitledDe motu corporum(On the motion of bodies) concerns motion in the absence of any resisting", "of any resisting medium. It opens with a collection of mathematicallemmason \"the method of first and last ratios\",a geometrical form of infinitesimal calculus. The second section establishes relationships between centripetal forces and the law of areas now known asKepler's second law(Propositions 1–3),and relates circular velocity and radius of path-curvature to radial force(Proposition 4), and relationships between centripetal forces varying as the inverse-square of the distance to the center and orbits of conic-section form (Propositions 5–10). Propositions 11–31establish properties of motion in paths of eccentric conic-section form including ellipses, and their relationship with inverse-square central forces directed to a focus and includeNewton's theorem about ovals(lemma 28). Propositions 43–45are demonstration that in an eccentric orbit under centripetal force where theapsemay move, a steady non-moving orientation of the line of apses is an indicator of an inverse-square law of force. Book 1 contains", "Book 1 contains some proofs with little connection to real-world dynamics. But there are also sections with far-reaching application to the solar system and universe: Propositions 57–69deal with the \"motion of bodies drawn to one another by centripetal forces\". This section is of primary interest for its application to theSolar System, and includes Proposition 66along with its 22 corollaries:here Newton took the first steps in the definition and study of the problem of the movements of three massive bodies subject to their mutually perturbing gravitational attractions, a problem which later gained name and fame (among other reasons, for its great difficulty) as thethree-body problem. Propositions 70–84deal with the attractive forces of spherical bodies. The section contains Newton's proof that a massive spherically symmetrical body attracts other bodies outside itself as if all its mass were concentrated at its centre. This fundamental result, called theShell theorem, enables the inverse square law of", "square law of gravitation to be applied to the real solar system to a very close degree of approximation. Book 2, part 2 ofDe motu corporum Part of the contents originally planned for the first book was divided out into a second book, which largely concerns motion through resisting mediums. Just as Newton examined consequences of different conceivable laws of attraction in Book 1, here he examines different conceivable laws of resistance; thusSection 1discusses resistance in direct proportion to velocity, andSection 2goes on to examine the implications of resistance in proportion to the square of velocity. Book 2 also discusses (inSection 5) hydrostatics and the properties of compressible fluids; Newton also derivesBoyle's law.The effects of air resistance on pendulums are studied inSection 6, along with Newton's account of experiments that he carried out, to try to find out some characteristics of air resistance in reality by observing the motions of pendulums under different conditions. Newton compares the", "Newton compares the resistance offered by a medium against motions of globes with different properties (material, weight, size). In Section 8, he derives rules to determine the speed of waves in fluids and relates them to the density and condensation (Proposition 48;this would become very important in acoustics). He assumes that these rules apply equally to light and sound and estimates that the speed of sound is around 1088 feet per second and can increase depending on the amount of water in air. Less of Book 2 has stood the test of time than of Books 1 and 3, and it has been said that Book 2 was largely written to refute a theory ofDescarteswhich had some wide acceptance before Newton's work (and for some time after). According to Descartes's theory of vortices, planetary motions were produced by the whirling of fluidvorticesthat filled interplanetary space and carried the planets along with them.Newton concluded Book 2by commenting that the hypothesis of vortices was completely at odds with the", "at odds with the astronomical phenomena, and served not so much to explain as to confuse them. Book 3,De mundi systemate Book 3, subtitledDe mundi systemate(On the system of the world), is an exposition of many consequences of universal gravitation, especially its consequences for astronomy. It builds upon the propositions of the previous books and applies them with further specificity than in Book 1 to the motions observed in the Solar System. Here (introduced by Proposition 22,and continuing in Propositions 25–35) are developedseveral of the features and irregularitiesof the orbital motion of the Moon, especially thevariation. Newton lists the astronomical observations on which he relies,and establishes in a stepwise manner that the inverse square law of mutual gravitation applies to Solar System bodies, starting with the satellites of Jupiterand going on by stages to show that the law is of universal application.He also gives starting at Lemma 4and Proposition 40the theory of the motions of comets, for", "of comets, for which much data came fromJohn FlamsteedandEdmond Halley, and accounts for the tides,attempting quantitative estimates of the contributions of the Sunand Moonto the tidal motions; and offers the first theory of theprecession of the equinoxes.Book 3 also considers theharmonic oscillatorin three dimensions, and motion in arbitrary force laws. In Book 3 Newton also made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System, modified in a somewhat modern way, since already in the mid-1680s he recognised the \"deviation of the Sun\" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.For Newton, \"the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World\",and that this centre \"either is at rest, or moves uniformly forward in a right line\".Newton rejected the second alternative after adopting the position that \"the centre of the system of the world is immoveable\", which \"is acknowledg'd by all, while some contend that the Earth, others, that the Sun is fix'd", "the Sun is fix'd in that centre\".Newton estimated the mass ratios Sun:Jupiter and Sun:Saturn,and pointed out that these put the centre of the Sun usually a little way off the common center of gravity, but only a little, the distance at most \"would scarcely amount to one diameter of the Sun\". Commentary on thePrincipia The sequence of definitions used in setting up dynamics in thePrincipiais recognisable in many textbooks today. Newton first set out the definition of mass The quantity of matter is that which arises conjointly from its density and magnitude. A body twice as dense in double the space is quadruple in quantity. This quantity I designate by the name of body or of mass. This was then used to define the \"quantity of motion\" (today calledmomentum), and the principle of inertia in which mass replaces the previous Cartesian notion ofintrinsic force. This then set the stage for the introduction of forces through the change in momentum of a body. Curiously, for today's readers, the exposition looks", "exposition looks dimensionally incorrect, since Newton does not introduce the dimension of time in rates of changes of quantities. He defined space and time \"not as they are well known to all\". Instead, he defined \"true\" time and space as \"absolute\"and explained: Only I must observe, that the vulgar conceive those quantities under no other notions but from the relation they bear to perceptible objects. And it will be convenient to distinguish them into absolute and relative, true and apparent, mathematical and common. ... instead of absolute places and motions, we use relative ones; and that without any inconvenience in common affairs; but in philosophical discussions, we ought to step back from our senses, and consider things themselves, distinct from what are only perceptible measures of them. To some modern readers it can appear that some dynamical quantities recognised today were used in thePrincipiabut not named. The mathematical aspects of the first two books were so clearly consistent that they were", "that they were easily accepted; for example,LockeaskedHuygenswhether he could trust the mathematical proofs and was assured about their correctness. However, the concept of an attractive force acting at a distance received a cooler response. In his notes, Newton wrote that the inverse square law arose naturally due to the structure of matter. However, he retracted this sentence in the published version, where he stated that the motion of planets is consistent with an inverse square law, but refused to speculate on the origin of the law. Huygens andLeibniznoted that the law was incompatible with the notion of theaether. From a Cartesian point of view, therefore, this was a faulty theory. Newton's defence has been adopted since by many famous physicists—he pointed out that the mathematical form of the theory had to be correct since it explained the data, and he refused to speculate further on the basic nature of gravity. The sheer number of phenomena that could be organised by the theory was so impressive that", "so impressive that younger \"philosophers\" soon adopted the methods and language of thePrincipia. Rules of Reason Perhaps to reduce the risk of public misunderstanding, Newton included at the beginning of Book 3 (in the second (1713) and third (1726) editions) a section titled \"Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy\". In the four rules, as they came finally to stand in the 1726 edition, Newton effectively offers a methodology for handling unknown phenomena in nature and reaching towards explanations for them. The four Rules of the 1726 edition run as follows (omitting some explanatory comments that follow each): This section of Rules for philosophy is followed by a listing of \"Phenomena\", in which are listed a number of mainly astronomical observations, that Newton used as the basis for inferences later on, as if adopting a consensus set of facts from the astronomers of his time. Both the \"Rules\" and the \"Phenomena\" evolved from one edition of thePrincipiato the next. Rule 4 made its appearance in the third (1726)", "in the third (1726) edition; Rules 1–3 were present as \"Rules\" in the second (1713) edition, and predecessors of them were also present in the first edition of 1687, but there they had a different heading: they were not given as \"Rules\", but rather in the first (1687) edition the predecessors of the three later \"Rules\", and of most of the later \"Phenomena\", were all lumped together under a single heading \"Hypotheses\" (in which the third item was the predecessor of a heavy revision that gave the later Rule 3). From this textual evolution, it appears that Newton wanted by the later headings \"Rules\" and \"Phenomena\" to clarify for his readers his view of the roles to be played by these various statements. In the third (1726) edition of thePrincipia, Newton explains each rule in an alternative way and/or gives an example to back up what the rule is claiming. The first rule is explained as a philosophers' principle of economy. The second rule states that if one cause is assigned to a natural effect, then the same", "then the same cause so far as possible must be assigned to natural effects of the same kind: for example, respiration in humans and in animals, fires in the home and in the Sun, or the reflection of light whether it occurs terrestrially or from the planets. An extensive explanation is given of the third rule, concerning the qualities of bodies, and Newton discusses here the generalisation of observational results, with a caution against making up fancies contrary to experiments, and use of the rules to illustrate the observation of gravity and space. General Scholium TheGeneral Scholiumis a concluding essay added to the second edition, 1713 (and amended in the third edition, 1726).It is not to be confused with theGeneral Scholiumat the end of Book 2, Section 6, which discusses his pendulum experiments and resistance due to air, water, and other fluids. Here Newton used the expressionhypotheses non fingo, \"I formulate no hypotheses\",in response to criticisms of the first edition of thePrincipia. (\"Fingo\"is", "(\"Fingo\"is sometimes nowadays translated \"feign\" rather than the traditional \"frame,\" although \"feign\" does not properly translate \"fingo\"). Newton's gravitational attraction, an invisibleforce able to act over vast distances, had led to criticism that he had introduced \"occultagencies\" into science.Newton firmly rejected such criticisms and wrote that it was enough that the phenomena implied gravitational attraction, as they did; but the phenomena did not so far indicate the cause of this gravity, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things not implied by the phenomena: such hypotheses \"have no place in experimental philosophy\", in contrast to the proper way in which \"particular propositions are inferr'd from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction\". Newton also underlined his criticism of the vortex theory of planetary motions, of Descartes, pointing to its incompatibility with the highly eccentric orbits of comets, which carry them \"through all parts of the", "all parts of the heavens indifferently\". Newton also gave theological argument. From the system of the world, he inferred the existence of a god, along lines similar to what is sometimes called theargument from intelligent or purposive design. It has been suggested that Newton gave \"an oblique argument for a unitarian conception of God and an implicit attack on the doctrine of theTrinity\".The General Scholium does not address or attempt to refute the church doctrine; it simply does not mention Jesus, the Holy Ghost, or the hypothesis of the Trinity. Publishing the book Halley and Newton's initial stimulus In January 1684,Edmond Halley,Christopher WrenandRobert Hookehad a conversation in which Hooke claimed to not only have derived the inverse-square law but also all the laws of planetary motion. Wren was unconvinced, Hooke did not produce the claimed derivation although the others gave him time to do it, and Halley, who could derive the inverse-square law for the restricted circular case (by substituting", "(by substituting Kepler's relation into Huygens' formula for the centrifugal force) but failed to derive the relation generally, resolved to ask Newton. Halley's visits to Newton in 1684 thus resulted from Halley's debates about planetary motion with Wren and Hooke, and they seem to have provided Newton with the incentive and spur to develop and write what becamePhilosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Halley was at that time a Fellow and Council member of theRoyal Societyin London (positions that in 1686 he resigned to become the Society's paid Clerk).Halley's visit to Newton in Cambridge in 1684 probably occurred in August.When Halley asked Newton's opinion on the problem of planetary motions discussed earlier that year between Halley, Hooke and Wren,Newton surprised Halley by saying that he had already made the derivations some time ago; but that he could not find the papers. (Matching accounts of this meeting come from Halley andAbraham De Moivreto whom Newton confided.) Halley then had to wait for", "had to wait for Newton to \"find\" the results, and in November 1684 Newton sent Halley an amplified version of whatever previous work Newton had done on the subject. This took the form of a 9-page manuscript,De motu corporum in gyrum(Of the motion of bodies in an orbit): the title is shown on some surviving copies, although the (lost) original may have been without a title. Newton's tractDe motu corporum in gyrum, which he sent to Halley in late 1684, derived what is now known as the three laws of Kepler, assuming an inverse square law of force, and generalised the result to conic sections. It also extended the methodology by adding the solution of a problem on the motion of a body through a resisting medium. The contents ofDe motuso excited Halley by their mathematical and physical originality and far-reaching implications for astronomical theory, that he immediately went to visit Newton again, in November 1684, to ask Newton to let the Royal Society have more of such work.The results of their meetings", "of their meetings clearly helped to stimulate Newton with the enthusiasm needed to take his investigations of mathematical problems much further in this area of physical science, and he did so in a period of highly concentrated work that lasted at least until mid-1686. Newton's single-minded attention to his work generally, and to his project during this time, is shown by later reminiscences from his secretary and copyist of the period, Humphrey Newton. His account tells of Isaac Newton's absorption in his studies, how he sometimes forgot his food, or his sleep, or the state of his clothes, and how when he took a walk in his garden he would sometimes rush back to his room with some new thought, not even waiting to sit before beginning to write it down.Other evidence also shows Newton's absorption in thePrincipia: Newton for years kept up a regular programme of chemical or alchemical experiments, and he normally kept dated notes of them, but for a period from May 1684 to April 1686, Newton's chemical", "Newton's chemical notebooks have no entries at all.So, it seems that Newton abandoned pursuits to which he was formally dedicated and did very little else for well over a year and a half, but concentrated on developing and writing what became his great work. The first of the three constituent books was sent to Halley for the printer in spring 1686, and the other two books somewhat later. The complete work, published by Halley at his own financial risk,appeared in July 1687. Newton had also communicatedDe motuto Flamsteed, and during the period of composition, he exchanged a few letters with Flamsteed about observational data on the planets, eventually acknowledging Flamsteed's contributions in the published version of thePrincipiaof 1687. Preliminary version The process of writing that first edition of thePrincipiawent through several stages and drafts: some parts of the preliminary materials still survive, while others are lost except for fragments and cross-references in other documents. Surviving", "Surviving materials show that Newton (up to some time in 1685) conceived his book as a two-volume work. The first volume was to be titledDe motu corporum, Liber primus, with contents that later appeared in extended form as Book 1 of thePrincipia. A fair-copy draft of Newton's planned second volumeDe motu corporum, Liber Secundussurvives, its completion dated to about the summer of 1685. It covers the application of the results ofLiber primusto the Earth, the Moon, the tides, the Solar System, and the universe; in this respect, it has much the same purpose as the final Book 3 of thePrincipia, but it is written much less formally and is more easily read. It is not known just why Newton changed his mind so radically about the final form of what had been a readable narrative inDe motu corporum, Liber Secundusof 1685, but he largely started afresh in a new, tighter, and less accessible mathematical style, eventually to produce Book 3 of thePrincipiaas we know it. Newton frankly admitted that this change of style", "change of style was deliberate when he wrote that he had (first) composed this book \"in a popular method, that it might be read by many\", but to \"prevent the disputes\" by readers who could not \"lay aside the prejudices\", he had \"reduced\" it \"into the form of propositions (in the mathematical way) which should be read by those only, who had first made themselves masters of the principles established in the preceding books\".The final Book 3 also contained in addition some further important quantitative results arrived at by Newton in the meantime, especially about the theory of the motions of comets, and some of the perturbations of the motions of the Moon. The result was numbered Book 3 of thePrincipiarather than Book 2 because in the meantime, drafts ofLiber primushad expanded and Newton had divided it into two books. The new and final Book 2 was concerned largely with the motions of bodies through resisting mediums. But theLiber Secundusof 1685 can still be read today. Even after it was superseded by Book 3", "by Book 3 of thePrincipia, it survived complete, in more than one manuscript. After Newton's death in 1727, the relatively accessible character of its writing encouraged the publication of an English translation in 1728 (by persons still unknown, not authorised by Newton's heirs). It appeared under the English titleA Treatise of the System of the World.This had some amendments relative to Newton's manuscript of 1685, mostly to remove cross-references that used obsolete numbering to cite the propositions of an early draft of Book 1 of thePrincipia. Newton's heirs shortly afterwards published the Latin version in their possession, also in 1728, under the (new) titleDe Mundi Systemate, amended to update cross-references, citations and diagrams to those of the later editions of thePrincipia, making it look superficially as if it had been written by Newton after thePrincipia, rather than before.TheSystem of the Worldwas sufficiently popular to stimulate two revisions (with similar changes as in the Latin", "as in the Latin printing), a second edition (1731), and a \"corrected\" reprintof the second edition (1740). Halley's role as publisher The text of the first of the three books of thePrincipiawas presented to the Royal Society at the close of April 1686. Hooke made some priority claims (but failed to substantiate them), causing some delay. When Hooke's claim was made known to Newton, who hated disputes, Newton threatened to withdraw and suppress Book 3 altogether, but Halley, showing considerable diplomatic skills, tactfully persuaded Newton to withdraw his threat and let it go forward to publication.Samuel Pepys, as president, gave hisimprimaturon 30 June 1686, licensing the book for publication. The Society had just spent its book budget onDe Historia piscium,and the cost of publication was borne by Edmund Halley (who was also then acting as publisher of thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society):the book appeared in summer 1687.After Halley had personally financed the publication ofPrincipia, he", "ofPrincipia, he was informed that the society could no longer afford to provide him the promised annual salary of £50. Instead, Halley was paid with leftover copies ofDe Historia piscium. Historical context Beginnings of the Scientific Revolution Nicolaus Copernicushad moved the Earth away from the center of the universe with theheliocentrictheory for which he presented evidence in his bookDe revolutionibus orbium coelestium(On the revolutions of the heavenly spheres) published in 1543.Johannes Keplerwrote the bookAstronomia nova(A new astronomy) in 1609, setting out the evidence that planets move inellipticalorbits with the Sun at onefocus, and that planets do not move with constant speed along this orbit. Rather, their speed varies so that the line joining the centres of the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. To these two laws he added a third a decade later, in his 1619 bookHarmonices Mundi(Harmonies of the world). This law sets out a proportionality between the third power of the", "third power of the characteristic distance of a planet from the Sun and the square of the length of its year. The foundation of modern dynamics was set out in Galileo's bookDialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo(Dialogue on the two main world systems) where the notion of inertia was implicit and used. In addition, Galileo's experiments with inclined planes had yielded precise mathematical relations between elapsed time and acceleration, velocity or distance for uniform and uniformly accelerated motion of bodies. Descartes' book of 1644Principia philosophiae(Principles of philosophy) stated that bodies can act on each other only through contact: a principle that induced people, among them himself, to hypothesize a universal medium as the carrier of interactions such as light and gravity—theaether. Newton was criticized for apparently introducing forces that acted at distance without any medium.Not until the development ofparticle theorywas Descartes' notion vindicated when it was possible to describe", "to describe all interactions, like thestrong,weak, andelectromagneticfundamental interactions, using mediatinggauge bosonsand gravity through hypothesizedgravitons. Newton's role Newton had studied these books, or, in some cases, secondary sources based on them, and taken notes entitledQuaestiones quaedam philosophicae(Questions about philosophy) during his days as an undergraduate. During this period (1664–1666) he created the basis of calculus and performed the first experiments in the optics of colour. At this time, his proof that white light was a combination of primary colours (found via prismatics) replaced the prevailing theory of colours and received an overwhelmingly favourable response and occasioned bitter disputes withRobert Hookeand others, which forced him to sharpen his ideas to the point where he already composed sections of his later bookOpticksby the 1670s in response. Work on calculus is shown in various papers and letters, including two toLeibniz. He became a fellow of theRoyal Societyand", "theRoyal Societyand the secondLucasian Professor of Mathematics(succeedingIsaac Barrow) atTrinity College,Cambridge. Newton's early work on motion In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by 1669 he had shown, for a circular case of planetary motion, that the force he called \"endeavour to recede\" (now calledcentrifugal force) had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center.After his 1679–1680 correspondence with Hooke, described below, Newton adopted the language of inward or centripetal force. According to Newton scholar J. Bruce Brackenridge, although much has been made of the change in language and difference of point of view, as between centrifugal or centripetal forces, the actual computations and proofs remained the same either way. They also involved the combination of tangential and radial", "and radial displacements, which Newton was making in the 1660s. The difference between the centrifugal and centripetal points of view, though a significant change of perspective, did not change the analysis.Newton also clearly expressed the concept of linear inertia in the 1660s: for this Newton was indebted to Descartes' work published 1644. Controversy with Hooke Hooke publishedhis ideas about gravitationin the 1660s and again in 1674. He argued for an attracting principle of gravitation inMicrographiaof 1665, in a 1666 Royal Society lectureOn gravity, and again in 1674, when he published his ideas about theSystem of the Worldin somewhat developed form, as an addition toAn Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations.Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, along with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might", "applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses.Hooke also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On these two aspects, Hooke stated in 1674: \"Now what these several degrees are I have not yet experimentally verified\" (indicating that he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow); and as to his whole proposal: \"This I only hint at present\", \"having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it\" (i.e., \"prosecuting this Inquiry\"). In November 1679, Hooke began an exchange of letters with Newton, of which the full text is now published.Hooke told Newton that Hooke had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence,and wished to hear from members about their researches, or their views about the researches of others; and as if to whet Newton's interest, he asked what Newton thought", "what Newton thought about various matters, giving a whole list, mentioning \"compounding the celestial motions of the planets of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body\", and \"my hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse\", and then a new hypothesis from Paris about planetary motions (which Hooke described at length), and then efforts to carry out or improve national surveys, the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge, and other items. Newton's reply offered \"a fansy of my own\" about a terrestrial experiment (not a proposal about celestial motions) which might detect the Earth's motion, by the use of a body first suspended in air and then dropped to let it fall. The main point was to indicate how Newton thought the falling body could experimentally reveal the Earth's motion by its direction of deviation from the vertical, but he went on hypothetically to consider how its motion could continue if the solid Earth had not been in the way (on a spiral", "way (on a spiral path to the centre). Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of how the body would continue to move.A short further correspondence developed, and towards the end of it Hooke, writing on 6 January 1680 to Newton, communicated his \"supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance.\"(Hooke's inference about the velocity was actually incorrect.) In 1686, when the first book ofNewton'sPrincipiawas presented to theRoyal Society, Hooke claimed that Newton had obtained from him the \"notion\" of \"the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center\". At the same time (according toEdmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that \"the Demonstration of the Curves generated therby\" was wholly Newton's. A recent assessment about the early", "about the early history of the inverse square law is that \"by the late 1660s\", the assumption of an \"inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons\".Newton himself had shown in the 1660s that for planetary motion under a circular assumption, force in the radial direction had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center.Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea, giving reasons including the citation of prior work by others before Hooke.Newton also firmly claimed that even if it had happened that he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, which it had not, he would still have some rights to it in view of his mathematical developments and demonstrations, which enabled observations to be relied on as evidence of its accuracy, while Hooke, without mathematical demonstrations and", "demonstrations and evidence in favour of the supposition, could only guess (according to Newton) that it was approximately valid \"at great distances from the center\". The background described above shows there was basis for Newton to deny deriving the inverse square law from Hooke. On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of thePrincipia, that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the Solar System. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1.Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679–80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: \"yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had", "as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it ...\".) Newton's reawakening interest in astronomy received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680/1681, on which he corresponded withJohn Flamsteed. In 1759, decades after the deaths of both Newton and Hooke,Alexis Clairaut, mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, made his assessment after reviewing what Hooke had published on gravitation. \"One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory\", Clairaut wrote; \"The example of Hooke\" serves \"to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated\". Location of early edition copies It has been estimated that as many as 750 copiesof thefirst editionwere printed by the Royal Society, and \"it is quite remarkable that so many copies of this small first edition are still in existence ... but it may be because the original Latin text was more revered than", "more revered than read\".A survey published in 1953 located 189 surviving copieswith nearly 200 further copies located by the most recent survey published in 2020, suggesting that the initial print run was larger than previously thought.However, more recent book historical and bibliographical research has examined those prior claims, and concludes that Macomber's earlier estimation of 500 copies is likely correct. In 2016, a first edition sold for $3.7 million. The second edition (1713) were printed in 750 copies, and the third edition (1726) were printed in 1,250 copies. Afacsimileedition (based on the 3rd edition of 1726 but with variant readings from earlier editions and important annotations) was published in 1972 byAlexandre KoyréandI. Bernard Cohen. Later editions Second edition, 1713 Two later editions were published by Newton: Newton had been urged to make a new edition of thePrincipiasince the early 1690s, partly because copies of the first edition had already become very rare and expensive within a", "expensive within a few years after 1687.Newton referred to his plans for a second edition in correspondence with Flamsteed in November 1694.Newton also maintained annotated copies of the first edition specially bound up with interleaves on which he could note his revisions; two of these copies still survive,but he had not completed the revisions by 1708. Newton had almost severed connections with one would-be editor,Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, and another,David Gregoryseems not to have met with his approval and was also terminally ill, dying in 1708. Nevertheless, reasons were accumulating not to put off the new edition any longer.Richard Bentley, master ofTrinity College, persuaded Newton to allow him to undertake a second edition, and in June 1708 Bentley wrote to Newton with a specimen print of the first sheet, at the same time expressing the (unfulfilled) hope that Newton had made progress towards finishing the revisions.It seems that Bentley then realised that the editorship was technically too difficult", "too difficult for him, and with Newton's consent he appointedRoger Cotes, Plumian professor of astronomy at Trinity, to undertake the editorship for him as a kind of deputy (but Bentley still made the publishing arrangements and had the financial responsibility and profit). The correspondence of 1709–1713 shows Cotes reporting to two masters, Bentley and Newton, and managing (and often correcting) a large and important set of revisions to which Newton sometimes could not give his full attention.Under the weight of Cotes' efforts, but impeded by priority disputes between Newton and Leibniz,and by troubles at the Mint,Cotes was able to announce publication to Newton on 30 June 1713.Bentley sent Newton only six presentation copies; Cotes was unpaid; Newton omitted any acknowledgement to Cotes. Among those who gave Newton corrections for the Second Edition were:Firmin Abauzit, Roger Cotes and David Gregory. However, Newton omitted acknowledgements to some because of the priority disputes.John Flamsteed, the", "Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, suffered this especially. The Second Edition was the basis of the first edition to be printed abroad, which appeared in Amsterdam in 1714. Third edition, 1726 After his serious illness in 1722 and after the appearance of a reprint of the second edition in Amsterdam in 1723, the 80-year-old Newton began to revise once again the Principia in the fall of 1723. The third edition was published 25 March 1726, under the stewardship ofHenry Pemberton, M.D., a man of the greatest skill in these matters...; Pemberton later said that this recognition was worth more to him than the two hundred guinea award from Newton. In 1739–1742, two French priests, Pères Thomas LeSeur andFrançois Jacquier(of theMinimorder, but sometimes erroneously identified asJesuits), produced with the assistance ofJ.-L. Calandrinian extensively annotated version of thePrincipiain the 3rd edition of 1726. Sometimes this is referred to as theJesuit edition: it was much used, and reprinted more than once in Scotland", "once in Scotland during the 19th century. Émilie du Châteletalso made a translation of Newton'sPrincipiainto French. Unlike LeSeur and Jacquier's edition, hers was a complete translation of Newton's three books and their prefaces. She also included a Commentary section where she fused the three books into a much clearer and easier to understand summary. She included an analytical section where she applied the new mathematics of calculus to Newton's most controversial theories. Previously, geometry was the standard mathematics used to analyse theories. Du Châtelet's translation is the only complete one to have been done in French and hers remains the standard French translation to this day. Translations Four full English translations of Newton'sPrincipiahave appeared, all based on Newton's 3rd edition of 1726. The first, from 1729, by Andrew Motte,was described by Newton scholarI. Bernard Cohen(in 1968) as \"still of enormous value in conveying to us the sense of Newton's words in their own time, and it is", "own time, and it is generally faithful to the original: clear, and well written\".The 1729 version was the basis for several republications, often incorporating revisions, among them a widely used modernised English version of 1934, which appeared under the editorial name ofFlorian Cajori(though completed and published only some years after his death). Cohen pointed out ways in which the 18th-century terminology and punctuation of the 1729 translation might be confusing to modern readers, but he also made severe criticisms of the 1934 modernised English version, and showed that the revisions had been made without regard to the original, also demonstrating gross errors \"that provided the final impetus to our decision to produce a wholly new translation\". The second full English translation, into modern English, is the work that resulted from this decision by collaborating translators I. Bernard Cohen, Anne Whitman, and Julia Budenz; it was published in 1999 with a guide by way of introduction. The third such", "The third such translation is due to Ian Bruce, and appears, with many other translations of mathematical works of the 17th and 18th centuries, on his website. The fourth complete English translation is due toCharles Leedham-Green, professor emeritus of mathematics atQueen Mary University of London, and was published in 2021 byCambridge University Press.Prof. Leedham-Green was motivated to produce that translation, on which he worked for twenty years, in part because of his dissatisfaction with the work of Cohen, Whitman, and Budenz, whose translation of thePrincipiahe found unnecessarily obscure. Leedham-Green's aim was to convey Newton's own reasoning and arguments in a way intelligible to a modern mathematical scientist. His translation is heavily annotated and his explanatory notes make use of the modern secondary literature on some of the more difficult technical aspects of Newton's work. Dana Densmore and William H. Donahue have published a translation of the work's central argument, published in 1996,", "published in 1996, along with expansion of included proofs and ample commentary.The book was developed as a textbook for classes atSt. John's Collegeand the aim of this translation is to be faithful to the Latin text. Varia In 1977, the spacecraftVoyager 1and2left earth for the interstellar space carrying a picture of a page from Newton'sPrincipia Mathematica, as part of theGolden Record, a collection of messages from humanity to extraterrestrials. In 2014, BritishastronautTim Peakenamed his upcoming mission to theInternational Space StationPrincipiaafter the book, in \"honour of Britain's greatest scientist\".Tim Peake'sPrincipialaunched on 15 December 2015 aboardSoyuz TMA-19M. See also References Further reading External links Latin versions First edition (1687) Second edition (1713) Third edition (1726) Later Latin editions English translations Other links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b951b5420>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "James II of England James II and VII(14 October 1633O.S.– 16 September 1701) wasKing of EnglandandIrelandasJames IIandKing of ScotlandasJames VIIfrom the death of his elder brother,Charles II, on 6 February 1685, until he was deposed in the 1688Glorious Revolution. The lastCatholicmonarch ofEngland,Scotland, andIreland, his reign is now remembered primarily for conflicts over religion. However, it also involved struggles over the principles ofabsolutismanddivine right of kings, with his deposition ending a century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of theEnglish Parliamentover the Crown. James succeeded to the throne with widespread support, largely due to a reluctance to undermine the principle of hereditary succession, and the belief that a Catholic monarchy was purely temporary. However, tolerance of his personal views did not extend to Catholicism in general, and both the English andScottish parliamentsrefused to pass measures viewed as undermining the primacy of", "the primacy of theProtestantreligion. His attempts to impose them by decree met with opposition, and as a result, it has been argued it was a political principle, rather than a religious one, that ultimately led to his removal. In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis. Firstly, the birth of James's son and heirJames Francis Edward Stuarton 10 June raised the prospect of a Catholic dynasty, excluding his Protestant daughterMaryand her husbandWilliam III, Prince of Orange, who was also his nephew. Secondly, the prosecution of theSeven Bishopswas seen as an assault on theChurch of England, and their acquittal on 30 June destroyed his political authority. Ensuing anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland led to a general feeling that only James's removal could prevent another civil war. Leading members of the English political classinvited Williamto assume the English throne. When William landed inBrixhamon 5 November 1688, James's army deserted and he went into exile in France on 23 December. In", "on 23 December. In February 1689, a specialConvention Parliamentheld James had \"vacated\" the English throne and installed William and Mary as joint monarchs, thereby establishing the principlesovereigntyderived from Parliament, not birth. James landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689 in an attempt to recover his kingdoms, but, despite a simultaneousrising in Scotland, in April aScottish Conventionfollowed England in ruling that James had \"forfeited\" the throne, which was offered to William and Mary. After his defeat at theBattle of the Boynein July 1690, James returned to France, where he spent the rest of his life in exile atSaint-Germain, protected byLouis XIV. While contemporary opponents often portrayed him as an absolutist tyrant, some 20th century historians have praised James for advocating religious tolerance, although more recent scholarship has tended to take a middle ground between these views. Early life Birth James, second surviving son of KingCharles Iand his wife,Henrietta Maria of France, was born", "of France, was born atSt James's Palacein London on 14 October 1633.Later that same year, he was baptized byWilliam Laud, the AnglicanArchbishop of Canterbury.He was educated by private tutors, along with his older brother, the future KingCharles II, and the two sons of theDuke of Buckingham,Georgeand Francis Villiers.At the age of three, James was appointedLord High Admiral; the position was initially honorary, but became a substantive office after theRestoration, when James was an adult.He was designatedDuke of Yorkat birth,invested with theOrder of the Garterin 1642,and formally created Duke of York in January 1644. Wars of the Three Kingdoms In August 1642, long running political disputes between Charles I and his opponents inParliamentled to theFirst English Civil War. James and his brother Charles were present at theBattle of Edgehillin October, and narrowly escaped capture by Parliamentarian cavalry.He spent most of the next four years in theRoyalistwartime capital ofOxford,where he was made aMaster", "he was made aMaster of Artsby the University on 1 November 1642 and served as colonel of a volunteer regiment of foot.Following thesurrender of Oxfordin June 1646, James was taken to London and held with his younger siblingsHenry,ElizabethandHenriettainSt James's Palace. Frustrated by their inability to agree terms with Charles I, and with his brother Charles out of reach inFrance, Parliament considered making James king. James was ordered by his father to escape, and, with the help ofJoseph Bampfield, in April 1648 successfully evaded his guards and crossed the North Sea toThe Hague.Following their victory in the 1648Second English Civil War, Parliament ordered theexecution of Charles Iin January 1649.TheCovenanterregime proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland, and after lengthy negotiations agreed to provide troops to restore him to the English throne. Theinvasionended in defeat atWorcesterin September 1651. Although Charles managed to escape capture and to return to the exiled court in Paris, the Royalist", "Paris, the Royalist cause appeared hopeless. Exile in France James, like his brother, sought refuge in France, serving in the French army underTurenneagainst theFronde, and later against their Spanish allies.In the French army James had his first true experience of battle, in which, according to one observer, he \"ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done\".Turenne's favour led to James being given command of a captured Irish regiment in December 1652, then appointed Lieutenant-General in 1654. In 1657, France, then engaged in theFranco-Spanish War (1635–1659), agreed an alliance with theCommonwealth of England, and when Charles responded by signing atreaty with Spain, James was expelled from France.James quarrelled with his brother over this choice, but ultimately joined Spanish forces inFlandersled by the French exileCondé. Given command of six regiments of British volunteers,he fought against his former French comrades at theBattle of the Dunes. After France and Spain made peace", "Spain made peace with the 1659Treaty of the Pyrenees, James considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy, but declined the position. Soon after, the 1660Stuart Restorationreturned his brother to the English throne as Charles II. Restoration First marriage After the collapse of theCommonwealthin 1660, Charles II was restored to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland. Although James was theheir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children.On 31 December 1660, following his brother's restoration, James was createdDuke of Albanyin Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York.Upon his return to England, James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement toAnne Hyde, the daughter of Charles's chief minister,Edward Hyde. In 1659, while trying to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne.Anne became pregnant in 1660, but following theRestorationand James's return to power,", "return to power, no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry acommoner, no matter what he had pledged beforehand.Although nearly everyone, including Anne's father, urged the two not to marry, the couple married secretly, then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London. The couple's first child,Charles, was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further children.Only two daughters survived:Mary(born 30 April 1662) andAnne(born 6 February 1665).Samuel Pepyswrote that James was fond of his children and his role as a father, and played with them \"like an ordinary private father of a child\", a contrast to the distant parenting common with royalty at the time. James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions.Even so, he kept mistresses, includingArabella ChurchillandCatherine Sedley, and was reputed to be \"the most unguarded ogler of his time\".Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary that James \"did eye my wife mightily\".James's taste", "taste in women was often maligned, withGilbert Burnetfamously remarking that James's mistresses must have been \"given him by his priests as a penance\".Anne Hyde died in 1671. Military and political offices and royal slavery After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor ofPortsmouthandLord Warden of the Cinque Ports.Charles II also made his brother the Governor of the Royal Adventurers into Africa (later shortened to theRoyal African Company) in October 1660, an office James retained until after the Glorious Revolution when he was forced to resign. When James commanded theRoyal Navyduring theSecond Anglo-Dutch War(1665–1667) he immediately directed the fleet towards the capture of forts off the African coast that would facilitate English involvement in theslave trade(indeed English attacks on such forts occupied by the Dutch precipitated the war itself).James remained Admiral of the Fleet during theThird Anglo-Dutch", "Anglo-Dutch War(1672–1674), during which significant fighting also occurred off the African coast.Following theraid on the Medwayin 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast.The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (positions granted him by Charles II upon his restoration), gave James enough money to keep a sizable court household. In 1664, Charles II granted American territory between theDelawareandConnecticutrivers to James. Following its capture by the British, the former Dutch territory ofNew Netherlandand its principal port,New Amsterdam, were renamed theProvinceandCity of New Yorkin James's honour. James gave part of the colony to proprietorsGeorge CarteretandJohn Berkeley.Fort Orange, 150 miles (240 km) north on theHudson River, was renamedAlbanyafter James's Scottish title.In 1683, James became the Governor of theHudson's Bay Company, but did not take an active role in its governance. In September 1666, Charles II put", "Charles II put James in charge of firefighting operations during theGreat Fire of London, in the absence of action by Lord MayorThomas Bloodworth. This was not a political office, but his actions and leadership were noteworthy. \"The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire\", wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September. In 1672, the Royal African Company received a new charter from Charles II. It set up forts and factories, maintained troops, and exercised martial law in West Africa in pursuit of trade in gold, silver and African slaves. In the 1680s, the RAC transported about 5,000 slaves a year to markets primarily in the English Caribbean across the Atlantic. Many werebrandedon the chest with the letters \"DY\" for \"Duke of York\", the RAC's Governor.As historian William Pettigrew writes, the RAC \"shipped more enslaved African women, men, and children to the Americas than any other single institution during the entire", "during the entire period of the transatlantic slave trade\". Conversion to Roman Catholicism and second marriage James's time in France had exposed him to the beliefs and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church, and both he and his wife Anne became drawn to that faith.James took CatholicEucharistin 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for almost a decade as he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676.In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, includingJohn ChurchillandGeorge Legge, as well asFrench Protestantssuch asLouis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham. Growing fears of Roman Catholic influence at court led the English Parliament to introduce a newTest Actin 1673.Under this Act, all civil and military officials were required to take an oath (in which they were required to disavow the doctrine oftransubstantiationand denounce certain practices of the Roman Church as superstitious and idolatrous) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of", "the auspices of theChurch of England.James refused to perform either action, instead choosing to relinquish the post of Lord High Admiral. His conversion to Roman Catholicism was thereby made public. King Charles II opposed James's conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised in the Church of England.Nevertheless, he allowed the widowed James to marryMary of Modena, a fifteen-year-old Italian princess.James and Mary weremarried by proxyin a Roman Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673.On 21 November, Mary arrived in England andNathaniel Crew,Bishop of Oxford, performed a brief Anglican service that did little more than recognise the marriage by proxy.Many British people, distrustful of Catholicism, regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of thePapacy.James was noted for his deep devotion, once remarking, \"If occasion were, I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment.\" Exclusion Crisis In 1677, King Charles II arranged", "Charles II arranged for James's daughter Mary to marry the Protestant PrinceWilliam III of Orange, son of Charles's and James's sisterMary. James reluctantly acquiesced after his brother and nephew had agreed to the marriage.Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife,Catherine of Braganza, to produce any children. AdefrockedAnglican clergyman,Titus Oates, spoke of a \"Popish Plot\" to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne.The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation. In England, theEarl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism, proposed anExclusion Billthat would have excluded James from the line of succession.Some members of Parliament even proposed to pass the crown to Charles's illegitimate son,James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth.In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved", "II dissolved Parliament.Two furtherParliamentswere elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason.The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two-party system: theWhigswere those who supported the Bill, while theTorieswere those who opposed it. Ultimately, the succession was not altered, but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy-making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother's government. On the orders of the King, James left England forBrussels.In 1680, he was appointedLord High Commissioner of Scotlandand took up residence at theHolyrood Palacein Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee the royal government.James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death.The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in the English Parliament, including theEarl of Danby, a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him. On 6 May 1682, James narrowly", "James narrowly escaped the sinking ofHMSGloucester, in which between 130 and 250 people perished.James argued with the pilot about the navigation of the ship before it ran aground on a sandbank, and then delayed abandoning ship, which may have contributed to the death toll. Return to favour In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles II and his brother and spark arepublicanrevolution to re-establish a government of theCromwellian style.The conspiracy, known as theRye House Plot, backfired upon its conspirators and provoked a wave of sympathy for the King and James.Several notableWhigs, including theEarl of Essexand the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated.Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot and implicated fellow conspirators, but later recanted.Essex committed suicide, and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into exile in continental Europe.Charles II reacted to the plot by increasing the repression of Whigs anddissenters.Taking advantage of James's rebounding", "James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto thePrivy Councilin 1684.While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Roman Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed. Reign Accession to the throne Charles II died on 6 February 1685 fromapoplexy, after supposedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed.Having no legitimate children, he was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to James's accession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession.He wished to proceed quickly to the coronation, and he and Mary were crowned atWestminster Abbeyon 23 April 1685. The newParliamentthat assembled in May 1685, which gained the name of \"Loyal Parliament\", was initially favourable to James, who had stated that most former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule.Most of Charles's officers", "Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the earls ofClarendonandRochester, and the demotion ofHalifax.Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of the proceeds oftonnage and poundageand the customs duties.James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed with his policies. Two rebellions Soon after becoming king, James faced arebellion in southern Englandled by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and anotherrebellion in Scotlandled byArchibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll.Monmouth and Argyll both began their expeditions fromHolland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, the Prince of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland where he raised recruits, mainly from his own clan, theCampbells.The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll was captured atInchinnanon 18 June 1685.Having arrived with fewer than", "with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, he never posed a credible threat to James.Argyll was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation. Monmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King atLyme Regison 11 June.He attempted to raise recruits but was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army.Monmouth's soldiers attacked the King's army at night, in an attempt at surprise, but were defeated at theBattle of Sedgemoor.The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels.Monmouth was captured and later executed at theTower of Londonon 15 July.The King's judges—most notably,George Jeffreys—condemned many of the rebels", "many of the rebels totransportationandindentured servitudein theWest Indiesin a series of trials that came to be known as theBloody Assizes.Around 250 of the rebels were executed.While both rebellions were defeated easily, they hardened James's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch. Religious liberty and dispensing power To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety by enlarging hisstanding army.This alarmed his subjects, not only because of the trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime.Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of hisdispensing powerto allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act.When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliamentproroguedin November 1685, never to meet again in his reign.At the beginning of 1686, two papers were found in", "were found in Charles II's strong box and his closet, in his own hand, stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism. James published these papers with a declaration signed by hissign manualand challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles's arguments: \"Let me have a solid answer, and in a gentlemanlike style; and it may have the effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church.\" The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king. James advocatedrepealof thepenal lawsin all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it.James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, \"whoever should preach in a conventicle", "in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property\".In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Roman Catholics but not for rebellious Presbyterian Covenanters.Presbyterians would later call this period \"The Killing Time\". James allowed Roman Catholics to occupy the highest offices of his kingdoms, and received at his court thepapal nuncio,Ferdinando d'Adda, the first representative from Rome to London since the reign ofMary I.Edward Petre, James'sJesuitconfessor, was a particular object of Anglican ire.When the King'sSecretary of State, theEarl of Sunderland, began replacing office-holders at court with \"Papist\" favourites, James began to lose the confidence of many of his Anglican supporters.Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's brothers-in-law (the Hydes) and their supporters.Roman Catholics made up no more than", "up no more than one-fiftieth of the English population.In May 1686, James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common-law courts that showed he had the power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter, as well as the Solicitor General,Heneage Finch.The case ofGodden v Halesaffirmed his dispensing power,with eleven out of the twelve judges ruling in the king's favour after six judges were dismissed for refusing to promise to support the king. In 1687, James issued theDeclaration of Indulgence, also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate the effect of laws punishing both Roman Catholics and ProtestantDissenters.In the summer of 1687 he attempted to increase support for his tolerationist policy by a speaking tour of the western counties of England. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester in which he said, \"suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned,", "be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different opinions as for being of different complexions.\"At the same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Roman Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians. In 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against theSupreme Governor of their church.While the Declaration elicited some thanks from its beneficiaries, it left the Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges.James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education.At theUniversity of Oxford, he offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions inChrist ChurchandUniversity College, two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force the Fellows", "force the Fellows ofMagdalen Collegeto elect as their PresidentAnthony Farmer, a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be a Roman Catholic,which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to elect someone of their own choosing. In 1687, James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters, so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. He instituted a wholesale purge of those in offices under the Crown opposed to his plan, appointing newlord-lieutenants of countiesand remodelling the corporations governing towns andlivery companies.In October, James gave orders for the lord-lieutenants to provide three standard questions to allJustices of the Peace: 1. Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the Penal Laws? 2. Would they assist candidates who would do so? 3. Would they accept the Declaration of Indulgence? During the first three months of", "three months of 1688, hundreds of those who gave negative replies to those questions were dismissed.Corporations were purged by agents, known as the Regulators, who were given wide discretionary powers, in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine.Most of the regulators wereBaptists, and the new town officials that they recommended includedQuakers, Baptists,Congregationalists,Presbyteriansand Roman Catholics, as well asAnglicans.Finally, on 24 August 1688, James ordered the issue ofwrits for a general election.However, upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England, James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lord-lieutenants to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations, as part of the concessions he made to win support. Deposition and the Glorious Revolution In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches.Whenseven", "churches.Whenseven bishops, including theArchbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried forseditious libel.Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir,James Francis Edward, on 10 June that year.When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as a temporary phenomenon, but when the prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Roman Catholic dynasty, such men had to reconsider their position.Threatened by a Roman Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child wassupposititiousand had been smuggled into the Queen's bedchamber in a warming pan.They had already entered into negotiations with the Prince of Orange when it became known the Queen was pregnant, and the birth of a son reinforced their convictions. On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant noblesinvited William, Prince of", "William, Prince of Orange, to come to England with an army.By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade.Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of KingLouis XIVof France, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention.When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, includingChurchill, defected and joined William, as did James's own daughterAnne.James lost his nerve and declined to attack the invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority.On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, first throwing theGreat Seal of the Realminto theRiver Thames.He was captured inKent; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William let him escape on 23 December.James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him a palace and a pension. William summoned aConvention Parliamentto decide how to handle James's flight. It convened on 22 January 1689.While", "January 1689.While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectivelyabdicated, and that the throne had thereby become vacant.To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. On 11 April 1689, theParliament of Scotlanddeclared James to have forfeited the throne of Scotland as well.The Convention Parliament issued aDeclaration of Righton 12 February that denounced James for abusing his power, and proclaimed many limitations on royal authority. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the Crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments.The Declaration was the basis for theBill of Rightsenacted later in 1689. The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne,", "the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic. Attempt to regain the throne War in Ireland With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689.TheIrish Parliamentdid not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massivebill of attainderagainst those who had rebelled against him.At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland.James worked to build an army in Ireland, but was ultimately defeated at theBattle of the Boyneon 1 July 1690O.S.when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control.James fled to France once more, departing fromKinsale, never to return to any of his former kingdoms.Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland asSéamus an Chacaor \"James the shit\".Despite this popular perception, later historianBreandán Ó", "historianBreandán Ó Buachallaargues that \"Irish political poetry for most of the eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry\",and both Ó Buachalla and fellow-historianÉamonn Ó Ciardhaargue that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes in Ireland. Return to exile, death and legacy In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château ofSaint-Germain-en-Laye.James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including theEarl of Melfort; most, but not all, were Roman Catholic.In 1692, James's last child,Louisa Maria Teresa, was born.Some supporters in Englandattempted to assassinateWilliam III to restore James to the throne in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular.In the same year, Louis XIV offered to have JameselectedKing of Poland. James rejected the offer, fearing that accepting the Polish crown might (in the minds of the English people) disqualify him from being King of England. After", "of England. After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much assistance to James. During his last years, James lived as an austerepenitent.He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England, specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State, one Commissioner of the Treasury, the Secretary at War, with the majority of the officers in the army. James died aged 67 of abrain haemorrhageon 16 September 1701 atSaint-Germain-en-Laye.James's heart was placed in a silver-gilt locket and given to the convent atChaillot, and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to theScots Collegein Paris. His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to the parish church of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and theEnglish Jesuit college at Saint-Omer, while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris. The rest of James's body was laid to rest in a triplesarcophagus(consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead) at the St Edmund's", "at the St Edmund's Chapel in the Church of the EnglishBenedictinesin theRue Saint-Jacques, Paris, with a funeral oration byHenri-Emmanuel de Roquette.James was not buried, but put in one of the side chapels. Lights were kept burning round his coffin until theFrench Revolution. In 1734, theArchbishop of Parisheard evidence to support James's canonisation, but nothing came of it.During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided. Later Hanover succession James's younger daughterAnnesucceeded when William died in 1702. TheAct of Settlementprovided that, if the line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished, the crown would go to a German cousin,Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and to her Protestant heirs.Sophia was a granddaughter ofJames VI and Ithrough his eldest daughter,Elizabeth Stuart, the sister ofCharles I. Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (less than two months after the death of Sophia), she was succeeded byGeorge I, Sophia's son, the Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin.", "second cousin. Subsequent uprisings and pretenders James's sonJames Francis Edwardwas recognised as king at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James II's remaining supporters (later known asJacobites) as \"James III and VIII\".He led arisingin Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I's accession, but was defeated.His sonCharles Edward Stuartled aJacobite rising in 1745, but was again defeated.The risings were the last serious attempts to restore the Stuart dynasty. Charles's claims passed to his younger brotherHenry Benedict Stuart, theDean of the College of Cardinalsof the Roman Catholic Church.Henry was the last of James II's legitimate descendants. He died childless, and no relative has publicly acknowledged theJacobite claimsince his death in 1807. Historiography Historical analysis of James II has been somewhat revised sinceWhighistorians, led byLord Macaulay, cast James as a cruel absolutist and his reign as \"tyranny which approached to insanity\".Subsequent scholars, such asG. M.", "such asG. M. Trevelyan(Macaulay's great-nephew) andDavid Ogg, while more balanced than Macaulay, still characterised James as a tyrant, his attempts at religious tolerance as a fraud, and his reign as an aberration in the course of British history.In 1892,A. W. Wardwrote for theDictionary of National Biographythat James was \"obviously a political and religious bigot\", although never devoid of \"a vein of patriotic sentiment\"; \"his conversion to the church of Rome made the emancipation of his fellow-catholics in the first instance, and the recovery of England for catholicism in the second, the governing objects of his policy.\" Hilaire Belloc, a writer and Catholic apologist, broke with this tradition in 1928, casting James as an honourable man and a true advocate for freedom of conscience, and his enemies \"men in the small clique of great fortunes ... which destroyed the ancient monarchy of the English\".However, he observed that James \"concluded the Catholic church to be the sole authoritative voice on earth,", "voice on earth, and thenceforward ... he not only stood firm against surrender but on no single occasion contemplated the least compromise or by a word would modify the impression made.\" By the 1960s and 1970s,Maurice Ashleyand Stuart Prall began to reconsider James's motives in granting religious toleration, while still taking note of James's autocratic rule.Modern historians have moved away from the school of thought that preached the continuous march of progress and democracy, Ashley contending that \"history is, after all, the story of human beings and individuals, as well as of the classes and the masses.\"He cast James II and William III as \"men of ideals as well as human weaknesses\".John Miller, writing in 2000, accepted the claims of James's absolutism, but argued that \"his main concern was to secure religious liberty and civil equality for Catholics. Any 'absolutist' methods ... were essentially means to that end.\" In 2004,W. A. Speckwrote in the newOxford Dictionary of National Biographythat \"James", "\"James was genuinely committed to religious toleration, but also sought to increase the power of the crown.\"He added that, unlike the government of the Netherlands, \"James was too autocratic to combine freedom of conscience with popular government. He resisted any check on the monarch's power. That is why his heart was not in the concessions he had to make in 1688. He would rather live in exile with his principles intact than continue to reign as a limited monarch.\" Tim Harris'sconclusions from his 2006 book summarised the ambivalence of modern scholarship towards James II: The jury will doubtless remain out on James for a long time ... Was he an egotistical bigot ... a tyrant who rode roughshod over the will of the vast majority of his subjects (at least in England and Scotland) ... simply naïve, or even perhaps plain stupid, unable to appreciate the realities of political power ... Or was he a well-intentioned and even enlightened ruler—an enlightened despot well ahead of his time, perhaps—who was merely", "was merely trying to do what he thought was best for his subjects? In 2009,Steven Pincusconfronted that scholarly ambivalence in1688: The First Modern Revolution.Pincus claims that James's reign must be understood within a context of economic change and European politics, and makes two major assertions about James II. The first of these is that James purposefully \"followed the French Sun King, Louis XIV, in trying to create a modern Catholic polity. This involved not only trying to Catholicize England ... but also creating a modern, centralizing, and extremely bureaucratic state apparatus.\"The second is that James was undone in 1688 far less by Protestant reaction against Catholicization than by nationwide hostile reaction against his intrusive bureaucratic state and taxation apparatus, expressed in massive popular support for William of Orange's armed invasion of England. Pincus presents James as neither naïve nor stupid nor egotistical. Instead, readers are shown an intelligent, clear-thinking", "clear-thinking strategically motivated monarch whose vision for a French authoritarian political model and alliance clashed with, and lost out to, alternative views that favoured an entrepreneurial Dutch economic model, feared French power, and were outraged by James's authoritarianism. Scott Sowerbycountered Pincus's thesis in 2013 inMaking Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution.He noted that English taxes remained low during James II's reign, at about 4% of the English national income, and thus it was unlikely that James could have built a bureaucratic state on the model of Louis XIV's France, where taxes were at least twice as high as a proportion of GDP.Sowerby also contends that James's policies of religious toleration attracted substantial support from religious nonconformists, including Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians, who were attracted by the king's push for a new \"Magna Carta for liberty of conscience\".The king was overthrown, in Sowerby's view, largely", "view, largely because of fears among the Dutch and English elites that James might be aligning himself with Louis XIV in a supposed \"holy league\" to destroy Protestantism across northern Europe.Sowerby presents James's reign as a struggle between those who believed that the king was sincerely devoted to liberty of conscience and those who were sceptical of the king's espousals of toleration and believed that he had a hidden agenda to overthrow English Protestantism. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles The official style of James in England was \"James the Second, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland,Defender of the Faith, etc.\" Theclaim to Francewas only nominal, and was asserted by every English king fromEdward IIItoGeorge III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. In Scotland, he was \"James the Seventh, by the Grace of God, King of Scotland, England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.\" James was createdDuke of Normandyby", "of Normandyby King Louis XIV of France on 31 December 1660. In 1734 theArchbishop of Parisopened the cause for the canonisation of James as a saint, making him aServant of Godamong Catholics. Honours Arms Prior to his accession, James's coat of arms was theroyal arms(which he later inherited), differenced by alabelof three pointsErmine.His arms as king were:Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly,Azurethreefleurs-de-lisOr(for France) andGulesthree lionspassant guardantinpaleOr (for England); II Or a lionrampantwithin a doubletressureflory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringedArgent(for Ireland). Family tree In four generations of Stuarts, there were seven reigning monarchs (not including Hanover'sGeorge I). James II was the fourth Stuart monarch in England, the second of his generation and the father of two more. Issue Legitimate issue Illegitimate issue Notes References Sources Further reading External links" ]

[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1819", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Whitman" ]

[ "Queen Victoria Victoria(Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) wasQueen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandfrom 20 June 1837 untilher deathin 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days—which waslonger than those of any of her predecessors—constituted theVictorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within theUnited Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of theBritish Empire. In 1876, theBritish Parliamentvoted to grant her the additional title ofEmpress of India. Victoria was the daughter ofPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn(the fourth son ofKing George III), andPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she wasraised under close supervisionby her mother and hercomptroller,John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without survivinglegitimateissue. Victoria, aconstitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards ofpersonal morality. Victoria marriedher first cousin,Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria thesobriquet\"grandmother of Europe\". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion,British republicanismtemporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. HerGoldenandDiamondjubileeswere times of public celebration. Victoria died atOsborne Houseon theIsle of Wight, at the age of 81. The lastBritish monarchof theHouse of Hanover, she was succeeded by her sonEdward VIIof theHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Early life Birth and ancestry Victoria's father wasPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son ofKing George IIIandQueen Charlotte. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niecePrincess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter ofGeorge, Prince Regent(who would become George IV). Princess Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated asuccession crisisthat brought pressure on Prince Edward and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent marriedPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl(1804–1856) andFeodora(1807–1872)—by her first marriage toEmich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brotherLeopoldwas Princess Charlotte's widower and later the firstking of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria was born at 4:15 a.m. on Monday 24 May 1819 atKensington Palacein London. Victoria was christened privately by theArchbishop of Canterbury,Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.She was baptisedAlexandrinaafter one of her godparents, TsarAlexander I of Russia, andVictoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Prince Regent. At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV);Frederick, Duke of York;William, Duke of Clarence(later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William married in 1818, in a joint ceremony with his brother Edward, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter,Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821. Heir presumptive Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria becameheir presumptive. TheRegency Act 1830made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that aregencycould be avoided. Victoria later described her childhood as \"rather melancholy\".Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called \"Kensington System\", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineeringcomptroller,Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and herKing Charles Spaniel,Dash.Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,but she spoke only English at home. In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit theMalvern Hills, stopping at towns and greatcountry housesalong the way.Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.William compared the journeys toroyal progressesand was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.AtRamsgatein October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy herprivate secretary.As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household. By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her toPrince Albert,the son of his brotherErnest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit ofPrince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son ofthe Prince of Orange.Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, \" is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful.\"Alexander, on the other hand, she described as \"very plain\". Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her \"best and kindest adviser\",to thank him \"for the prospect ofgreathappiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see.\"However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time. Accession and early reign Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and aregencywas avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.In her diary she wrote, \"I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me theArchbishop of CanterburyandLord Conynghamwere here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) andalone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently thatIamQueen.\"Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again. Since 1714,Britainhad shared a monarch withHanoverin Germany, but underSalic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother,Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, becameKing of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child. At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by theWhigprime ministerLord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.Charles Grevillesupposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was \"passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one\", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.Her coronationtook place on 28 June 1838 atWestminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.She became the first sovereign to take up residence atBuckingham Palaceand inherited the revenues of the duchies ofLancasterandCornwallas well as being granted acivil listallowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts. At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting,Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.Victoria believed the rumours.She hated Conroy, and despised \"that odious Lady Flora\",because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess in the Kensington System.At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.Conroy, the Hastings family, and the oppositionToriesorganised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as \"Mrs. Melbourne\". In 1839, Melbourne resigned afterRadicalsand Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution ofJamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with theabolition of slavery.The Queen commissioned a Tory,Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of theRoyal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen'sladies of the bedchamberwere wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the \"bedchamber crisis\", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office. Marriage and public life Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required bysocial conventionto live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.The Duchess was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised \"torment for many years\", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a \"schocking alternative\".Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock. Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. They felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived atWindsor.They were married on 10 February 1840, in theChapel RoyalofSt James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could havehopedto have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such aHusband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life! Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House inBelgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's auntPrincess Augustain 1840, the Duchess was given bothClarence HouseandFrogmore House.Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved. During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-oldEdward Oxfordattempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.He was tried forhigh treason, foundnot guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over theHastings affairand thebedchamber crisis.Her daughter, also namedVictoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,viewed breast-feeding with disgust,and thought newborn babies were ugly.Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children:Albert Edward,Alice,Alfred,Helena,Louise,Arthur,LeopoldandBeatrice. The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, BaronessLouise LehzenfromHanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoriaand had supported her against the Kensington System.Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter Victoria's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended. On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage alongThe Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted totransportation for life,John William Beanalso tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840.Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed alongConstitution Hill, London.In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer,Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation. Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the1841 general electionthe Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced. In 1845, Ireland was hit by apotato blight.In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as theGreat Famine.In Ireland, Victoria was labelled \"The Famine Queen\".In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £230,000 and £8.5million in 2022)to theBritish Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,and supported theMaynooth Grantto a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount toBattersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century. By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of theCorn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also asConservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade orientedliberal conservative\"Peelites\"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced byLord John Russell. Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and theHouse of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with KingLouis Philippe IatChâteau d'Euin Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting ofHenry VIII of EnglandandFrancis I of Franceon theField of the Cloth of Goldin 1520.When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.Louis Philippe was deposed in therevolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety ofOsborne House,a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.Demonstrations byChartistsandIrish nationalistsfailed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism. Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.She found particularly offensive theForeign Secretary,Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of PresidentLouis-Napoleon Bonaparte'scoup in Francewithout consulting the Prime Minister.The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led byLord Derby. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic,chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.Victoria may have hadpostnatal depressionafter many of her pregnancies.Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her \"continuance of hysterics\" over a \"miserable trifle\". In early 1855, the government ofLord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in theCrimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister. Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.Napoleon III met the couple atBoulogneand accompanied them to Paris.They visited theExposition Universelle(a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild theGreat Exhibition) andNapoleon I's tomb atLes Invalides(to which his remains had only beenreturnedin 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at thePalace of Versailles.This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years. On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain calledFelice Orsiniattempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port ofCherbourgon 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of theRoyal Navyin comparison to theFrench Navy.Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office. Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter marriedPrince Frederick William of Prussiain London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlargingPrussianstate.The Queen felt \"sick at heart\" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; \"It really makes me shudder\", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, \"when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one.\"Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild,Wilhelm, who would become the last German emperor. Widowhood and isolation In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for \"wickedly\" estranging her from her mother.To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son,Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying inKillarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him. By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.He was diagnosed withtyphoid feverbyWilliam Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales'sphilandering. He had been \"killed by that dreadful business\", she said.She entered a state ofmourningand wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.Her seclusion earned her the nickname \"widow of Windsor\".Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances. Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847,Balmoral Castle. In March 1864, a protester stuck a notice on the railings ofBuckingham Palacethat announced \"these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business\".Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of theRoyal Horticultural SocietyatKensingtonand take a drive through London in an open carriage. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland,John Brown.Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as \"Mrs. Brown\".The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movieMrs. Brown. A painting by SirEdwin Henry Landseerdepicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at theRoyal Academy, and Victoria published a book,Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly. Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended theState Opening of Parliamentfor the first time since Albert's death.The following year she supported the passing of theReform Act 1867which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,though she was not in favour of votes for women.Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced byBenjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. \"Everyone likes flattery,\" he said, \"and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel.\"With the phrase \"we authors, Ma'am\", he complimented her.Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival,William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were \"a public meeting rather than a woman\". In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of theThird French Republic.A republican rally inTrafalgar Squaredemanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with anabscessin her arm, whichJoseph Listersuccessfully lanced and treated with his new antisepticcarbolic acidspray.In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.To general rejoicing, he recovered.Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving inSt Paul's Cathedralon 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided. On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MPFeargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,and abirching.As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further. Empress of India After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, theBritish East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on theIndian subcontinentwere formally incorporated into theBritish Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.She wrote of \"her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war\",and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state \"should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration\".At her behest, a reference threatening the \"undermining of native religions and customs\" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom. In the1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed thePublic Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with thepresbyterianChurch of Scotlandthan theepiscopalChurch of England.Disraeli also pushed theRoyal Titles Act 1876through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title \"Empress of India\" from 1 May 1876.The new title was proclaimed at theDelhi Durbarof 1 January 1877. On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had marriedLouis of Hesse, died ofdiphtheriainDarmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as \"almost incredible and most mysterious\".In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth ofPrincess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her \"poor old 60th birthday\". She felt \"aged\" by \"the loss of my beloved child\". Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during theRusso-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with theCongress of Berlin.Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as theAnglo-Zulu Warand theSecond Anglo-Afghan War. \"Ifweare tomaintainour position as afirst-ratePower\", she wrote, \"we must ... bePreparedforattacksandwars,somewhereorother, CONTINUALLY.\"Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: \"It is not in our custom to annexe countries\", she said, \"unless we are obliged & forced to do so.\"To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by \"fast falling tears\",and erected a memorial tablet \"placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I.\" On 2 March 1882,Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,shot at the Queen as her carriage leftWindsor railway station.Gordon Chesney Wilsonand another schoolboy fromEton Collegestruck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was \"worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved\". On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, SirHenry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.Ponsonby andRandall Davidson,Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.The manuscript was destroyed.In early 1884, Victoria did publishMore Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her \"devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown\".On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died inCannes. He was \"the dearest of my dear sons\", she lamented.The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love withPrince Henry of Battenbergat the wedding of Victoria's granddaughterPrincess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhineto Henry's brotherPrince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her. Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.She thought his government was \"the worst I have ever had\", and blamed him for the death ofGeneral Gordonduring theSiege of Khartoum.Gladstone was replaced byLord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a \"half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man\".Gladstone attempted to passa bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.Inthe ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden and Diamond Jubilees In 1887, theBritish EmpirecelebratedVictoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service inWestminster Abbey.By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.Two days later on 23 June,she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom wasAbdul Karim. He was soon promoted to \"Munshi\": teaching herUrduand acting as a clerk.Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.EquerryFrederick Ponsonby(the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported toLord Elgin,Viceroy of India, \"the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do.\"Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death. Victoria's eldest daughter becameempress consort of Germanyin 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor asWilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer inautocracy. Victoria thought he had \"little heart orZartgefühl – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped \". Gladstone returned to power after the1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MPHenry Labouchèreto theCabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointedLord Roseberyas prime minister.His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign. On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as thelongest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide withher Diamond Jubilee,which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of theColonial Secretary,Joseph Chamberlain.The prime ministers of all theself-governingDominionswere invited to London for the festivities.One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event. The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen. Declining health and death Victoria regularly holidayed in mainland Europe. In 1889, during a stay inBiarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to visit Spain by briefly crossing the border.By April 1900, theBoer Warwas so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war. In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred (\"Affie\"), died. \"Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too\", she wrote in her journal. \"It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another.\" Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.Rheumatismin her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.Through early January, she felt \"weak and unwell\",and by mid-January she was \"drowsy dazed, confused\".Herfavourite petPomeranian, Turi, was laid on her bed as a last request.She died aged 81 on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, in the presence of her eldest son, Albert Edward, and grandson Wilhelm II. Albert Edward immediately succeeded as Edward VII. In 1897, Victoria had written instructions forher funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,and white instead of black.On 25 January, Edward VII and Wilhelm II, together with Prince Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her physician and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.Items ofjewelleryplaced on Victoria included the wedding ring of Brown's mother, which Brown gave Victoria in 1883.Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, inSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in theRoyal Mausoleum, Frogmore, atWindsor Great Park. With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was thelongest-reigning British monarchand thelongest-reigningqueen regnantin world history, until her great-great-granddaughterElizabeth IIsurpassed her on 9 September 2015.She was the last monarch of Britain from theHouse of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband'sHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy Reputation According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailedjournal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy,Lord Eshertranscribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited byA. C. Benson,Hector Bolitho,George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher,Roger Fulford, andRichard Houghamong others. In her later years, Victoria was stout, dowdy, and about five feet (1.5 metres) tall, but she projected a grand image.She was unpopular during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such asLytton Strachey'sQueen Victoriaof 1921, are now considered out of date.The biographies written byElizabeth LongfordandCecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking. Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modernconstitutional monarchyin Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of theHouse of Commonsat the expense of theHouse of Lordsand the monarch.In 1867,Walter Bagehotwrote that the monarch only retained \"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn\".As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the \"family monarchy\", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified. Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname \"the grandmother of Europe\".Of thegrandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting diseasehaemophilia Band at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers.Royal haemophiliacsdescended from Victoria included her great-grandsons,Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia;Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; andInfante Gonzalo of Spain.The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led tomodern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At the end of her reign, the Queen's fullstylewas: \"Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandQueen,Defender of the Faith, Empress of India\". Honours British honours Foreign honours Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Family Issue Ancestry Family tree Notes References Citations Bibliography Primary sources Further reading External links", "1819 1819(MDCCCXIX) was acommon year starting on Fridayof theGregorian calendarand acommon year starting on Wednesdayof theJulian calendar, the 1819th year of theCommon Era(CE) andAnno Domini(AD) designations, the 819th year of the2nd millennium, the 19th year of the19th century, and the 10th and last year of the1810sdecade. As of the start of 1819, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January–March April–June July–September October–December Date unknown Births January–June July–December Date unknown Deaths January–June July–December Date unknown References", "Walt Whitman Walter Whitman Jr.(/ˈhwɪtmən/; May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist. He is considered one of the most influential poets inAmerican literature. Whitman incorporated bothtranscendentalismandrealismin his writings and is often called the father offree verse.His work was controversial in his time, particularly his 1855 poetry collectionLeaves of Grass, which was described by some as obscene for its overt sensuality. Whitman was born inHuntingtononLong Islandand lived inBrooklynas a child and through much of his career. At age 11, he left formal schooling to go to work. He worked as a journalist, a teacher, and a government clerk. Whitman's major poetry collection,Leaves of Grass, first published in 1855, was financed with his own money and became well known. The work was an attempt to reach out to the common person with an Americanepic. Whitman continued expanding and revisingLeaves of Grassuntil his death in 1892. During theAmerican Civil War, he went toWashington, D.C., and worked in hospitals caring for the wounded. His poetry often focused on both loss and healing. On theassassinationofAbraham Lincoln, whomWhitman greatly admired, he authored two poems, \"O Captain! My Captain!\" and \"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd\", andgave a series of lectures on Lincoln. After suffering astroketowards the end of his life, Whitman moved toCamden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. When he died at age 72, his funeral was a public event. Whitman's influence on poetry remains strong. Art historianMary Berensonwrote, \"You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, withoutLeaves of Grass... He has expressed that civilization, 'up to date,' as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him.\"ModernistpoetEzra Poundcalled Whitman \"America's poet... HeisAmerica.\"According to thePoetry Foundation, he is \"America's world poet—a latter-day successor toHomer,Virgil,Dante, andShakespeare.\" Life and work Early life Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, inWest Hills, New York, the second of nine children ofQuakerparents Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman,of English and Dutch descent respectively.He was immediately nicknamed \"Walt\" to distinguish him from his father.At the age of four, Whitman moved with his family from Huntington toBrooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments.Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family's difficult economic struggles.One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by theMarquis de Lafayetteduring a celebration of the setting of theBrooklyn Apprentices' Library's cornerstone by Lafayette in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825.Whitman later worked as a librarian at that institution. At the age of 11, Whitman ended his formal schoolingand sought employment to assist his family, which was struggling economically. He was an office boy for two lawyers and later was anapprenticeandprinter's devilfor the weekly Long Island newspaper thePatriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements.There, Whitman learned about the printing press andtypesetting.He may have written \"sentimental bits\" of filler material for occasional issues.Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of theQuakerministerElias Hicksto create a plaster mold of his head.Clements left thePatriotshortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy. Career The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, inBrooklyn.His family moved back toWest Hills, New York, onLong Islandin the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leadingWhigweekly newspaper theLong-Island Star.While at theStar, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances,and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in theNew-York Mirror.At the age of 16 in May 1835, Whitman left theStarand Brooklyn.He moved to New York City to work as acompositorthough, in later years, Whitman could not remember where.He attempted to find further work but had difficulty, in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district,and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to thePanic of 1837.In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living inHempstead, Long Island.Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher. After his teaching attempts, Whitman returned toHuntington, New York, to found his own newspaper, theLong-Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839.There are no known surviving copies of theLong-Islanderpublished under Whitman.By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter inJamaica, Queens, with theLong Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton.He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841.One story, possiblyapocryphal, tells of Whitman's being chased away from a teaching job inSouthold, New York, in 1840. After a local preacher called him a \"Sodomite\", Whitman was allegedlytarred and feathered. BiographerJustin Kaplannotes that the story is likely untrue, because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter.BiographerJerome Lovingcalls the incident a \"myth\".During this time, Whitman published a series of ten editorials, called \"Sun-Down Papers—From the Desk of a Schoolmaster\", in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career. Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at theNew World, working underPark Benjamin Sr.andRufus Wilmot Griswold.He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of theAuroraand from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of theBrooklyn Eagle.While working for the latter institution, many of his publications were in the area of music criticism, and it is during this time that he became a devoted lover ofItalian operathrough reviewing performances of works byBellini,Donizetti, andVerdi. This new interest had an impact on his writing in free verse. He later said, \"But for the opera, I could never have writtenLeaves of Grass.\" Throughout the 1840s, Whitman contributed freelance fiction and poetry to various periodicals,includingBrother Jonathanmagazine edited byJohn Neal.Whitman lost his position at theBrooklyn Eaglein 1848 after siding with the free-soil \"Barnburner\" wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper's owner,Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or \"Hunker\", wing of the party.Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of theFree Soil Party, which was concerned about the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen moving into the newly colonized western territories. AbolitionistWilliam Lloyd Garrisonderided the party philosophy as \"white manism\". In 1852, he serialized a novel,Life and Adventures of Jack Engle, in six installments of New York'sThe Sunday Dispatch.In 1858, Whitman published a 47,000 word series,Manly Health and Training, under the pen name Mose Velsor.Apparently he drew the name Velsor from Van Velsor, his mother's family name.This self-help guide recommends beards, nude sunbathing, comfortable shoes, bathing daily in cold water, eating meat almost exclusively, plenty of fresh air, and getting up early each morning. Present-day writers have calledManly Health and Training\"quirky\",\"so over the top\",\"a pseudoscientific tract\",and \"wacky\". Leaves of Grass Whitman claimed that after years of competing for \"the usual rewards\", he determined to become a poet.He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres that appealed to the cultural tastes of the period.As early as 1850, he began writing what would becomeLeaves of Grass,a collection of poetry that he would continue editing and revising until his death.Whitman intended to write a distinctly Americanepicand usedfree versewith acadencebased on the Bible.At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the already-printed first edition ofLeaves of Grass. George \"didn't think it worth reading\". Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition ofLeaves of Grasshimselfand had it printed at a local print shop during its employees' breaks from commercial jobs.A total of 795 copies were printed.No author is named; instead, facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer,but 500 lines into the body of the text he calls himself \"Walt Whitman, an American, one of the roughs, a kosmos, disorderly, fleshly, and sensual, no sentimentalist, no stander above men or women or apart from them, no more modest than immodest\".The inaugural volume of poetry was preceded by a prose preface of 827 lines. The succeeding untitled twelve poems totaled 2315 lines with 1336 lines belonging to the first untitled poem, later called \"Song of Myself\". The book received its strongest praise fromRalph Waldo Emerson, who wrote a flattering five-page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends.Emerson called it “the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed.”Emerson had called for the first truly American poet, saying that aspects of America \"are yet unsung. Yet America is a poem in our eyes.\" The first edition ofLeaves of Grasswas widely distributed and stirred up significant interest,in part due to Emerson's praise,but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly \"obscene\" nature of the poetry.GeologistPeter Lesleywrote to Emerson, calling the book \"trashy, profane & obscene\" and the author \"a pretentious ass\".Whitman embossed a quote from Emerson's letter, \"I greet you at the beginning of a great career\", in gold leaf on the spine of the second edition. Of this action,Laura Dassow Walls, professor emerita of English at theUniversity of Notre Dame,wrote: \"In one stroke, Whitman had given birth to the modern coverblurb, quite without Emerson's permission.\" On July 11, 1855, a few days afterLeaves of Grasswas published, Whitman's father died at the age of 65.In the months following the first edition ofLeaves of Grass, critical responses began focusing on what some found offensive sexual themes. Though the second edition was already printed and bound, the publisher almost did not release it.In the end, the edition went to retail, with 20 additional poems,in August 1856.Leaves of Grasswas revised and re-released in 1860,again in 1867, and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman's life. Several well-known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman, includingAmos Bronson AlcottandHenry David Thoreau. During the first publications ofLeaves of Grass, Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again, specifically with Brooklyn'sDaily Timesstarting in May 1857.As an editor, he oversaw the paper's contents, contributed book reviews, and wrote editorials.He left the job in 1859, though it is unclear whether he was fired or chose to leave.Whitman, who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals, left very little information about himself in the late 1850s. Civil War years As theAmerican Civil Warwas beginning, Whitman published his poem \"Beat! Beat! Drums!\" as a patriotic rally call for theUnion.Whitman's brother George had joined theUnionarmy in the51st New York Infantry Regimentand began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front.On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in theNew-York Tribuneincluded \"First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore\", which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George.He made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way.\"Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people\", Whitman later wrote,he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek.Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left forWashington, D.C., on December 28, 1862, with the intention of never returning to New York. In Washington, D.C., Whitman's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster's office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals.He would write of this experience in \"The Great Army of the Sick\", published in a New York newspaper in 1863and, 12 years later, in a book calledMemoranda During the War.He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post.Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson toSalmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book asLeaves of Grass. The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864. On September 30, 1864, Whitman's brother George was captured byConfederate forcesinVirginia,and another brother, Andrew Jackson, died oftuberculosiscompounded by alcoholism on December 3.That month, Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum.Whitman's spirits were raised, however, when he finally got a better-paying government post as a low-grade clerk in theBureau of Indian Affairsin theDepartment of the Interior, thanks to his friendWilliam Douglas O'Connor. O'Connor, a poet, daguerreotypist, and an editor atThe Saturday Evening Postwrote toWilliam Tod Otto, AssistantSecretary of the Interior, on Whitman's behalf.Whitman began the new appointment on January 24, 1865, with a yearly salary of $1,200.A month later, on February 24, 1865, George was released from capture and granted afurloughbecause of his poor health.By May 1, Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkshipand publishedDrum-Taps. Effective June 30, 1865, however, Whitman was fired from his job.His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior, formerIowaSenatorJames Harlan.Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who \"were seldom at their respective desks\", he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition ofLeaves of Grass.O'Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General's office on July 1.O'Connor, though, was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study,The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866.The fifty-cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot, established the poet's nickname and increased his popularity.Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of \"O Captain! My Captain!\", a conventional poem on thedeath of Abraham Lincoln, the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman's lifetime. Part of Whitman's role at the Attorney General's office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for presidentialpardons. \"There are real characters among them\", he later wrote, \"and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary.\"In August 1866, he took a month off to prepare a new edition ofLeaves of Grasswhich would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher.He hoped it would be its last edition.In February 1868,Poems of Walt Whitmanwas published in England thanks to the influence ofWilliam Michael Rossetti,with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved.The edition became popular in England, especially with endorsements from the highly respected writerAnne Gilchrist.Another edition ofLeaves of Grasswas issued in 1871, the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident.As Whitman's international fame increased, he remained at the attorney general's office until January 1872.He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother, who was now nearly eighty and struggling witharthritis.He also traveled and was invited toDartmouth Collegeto give the commencement address on June 26, 1872. Health decline and death After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873, Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brother—George Washington Whitman, an engineer—at 431 Stevens Street in Camden, New Jersey. His mother, having fallen ill, was also there and died that same year in May. Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed. He remained at his brother's home until buying his own in 1884.However, before purchasing his home, he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother's home on Stevens Street. While in residence there he was very productive, publishing three versions ofLeaves of Grassamong other works. He was also last fully physically active in this house, receiving bothOscar WildeandThomas Eakins. His other brother, Edward, an \"invalid\" since birth, lived in the house. When his brother and sister-in-law were forced to move for business reasons, he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street(now 330 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard).First taken care of by tenants, he was completely bedridden for most of his time in Mickle Street. During this time, he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davis—the widow of a sea captain. She was a neighbor, boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street.She moved in with Whitman on February 24, 1885, to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent. She brought with her a cat, a dog, two turtledoves, a canary, and other assorted animals.During this time, Whitman produced further editions ofLeaves of Grassin 1876, 1881, and 1889. While inSouth Jersey, Whitman spent a good portion of his time in the then quite pastoral community ofLaurel Springs, between 1876 and 1884, converting one of the Stafford Farm buildings to his summer home. The restored summer home has been preserved as a museum by the local historical society. Part of hisLeaves of Grasswas written here, and in hisSpecimen Dayshe wrote of the spring, creek and lake. To him, Laurel Lake was \"the prettiest lake in: either America or Europe\". As the end of 1891 approached, he prepared a final edition ofLeaves of Grass, a version that has been nicknamed the \"Deathbed Edition\". He wrote, \"L. of G.at last complete—after 33 y'rs of hackling at it, all times & moods of my life, fair weather & foul, all parts of the land, and peace & war, young & old.\"Preparing for death, Whitman commissioned agranitemausoleumshaped like a house for $4,000and visited it often during construction.In the last week of his life, he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote: \"I suffer all the time: I have no relief, no escape: it is monotony—monotony—monotony—in pain.\" Walt Whitman died on March 26, 1892,at his home in Camden, New Jersey at the age of 72.Anautopsyrevealed his lungs had diminished to one-eighth their normal breathing capacity, a result of bronchial pneumonia,and that an egg-sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs. The cause of death was officially listed as \"pleurisyof the left side, consumption of the right lung, generalmiliary tuberculosisand parenchymatousnephritis\".A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home; more than 1,000 people visited in three hours.Whitman's oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him.Four days after his death, he was buried in his tomb atHarleigh Cemeteryin Camden.Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery, with friends giving speeches, live music, and refreshments.Whitman's friend, the oratorRobert Ingersoll, delivered the eulogy.Later, the remains of Whitman's parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum.His brain was donated to theAmerican Anthropometric Societyin Philadelphia, but it was accidentally destroyed. Writing Whitman's work broke the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose-like.Its signature style deviates from the course set by his predecessors and includes \"idiosyncratic treatment of the body and the soul as well as of the self and the other.\"It uses unusual images and symbols, including rotting leaves, tufts of straw, and debris.Whitman openly wrote about death and sexuality, including prostitution.He is often labeled the father offree verse, though he did not invent it. Poetic theory Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition ofLeaves of Grass: \"The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it.\" He believed there was a vital,symbioticrelationship between the poet and society.He emphasized this connection especially in \"Song of Myself\" by using an all-powerful first-person narration.An American epic, it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity of the common people.Leaves of Grassalso responded to the impact of rapidurbanization in the United Stateson the masses. Lifestyle and beliefs Alcohol Whitman was a vocal proponent oftemperanceand in his youth rarely drank alcohol. He once stated he did not taste \"strong liquor\" until he was 30and occasionally argued forprohibition.His first novel,Franklin Evans, or The Inebriate, published November 23, 1842, is a temperance novel.Whitman wrote the novel at the height of the popularity of theWashingtonian movement, a movement that was plagued with contradictions, as wasFranklin Evans.Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the bookand called it \"damned rot\".He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while under the influence of alcohol.Even so, he wrote other pieces recommending temperance, includingThe Madmanand a short story \"Reuben's Last Wish\".Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol, enjoying local wines and champagne. Religion Whitman was deeply influenced bydeism. He denied any one faith was more important than another, and embraced all religions equally.In \"Song of Myself\", he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of them—a sentiment he further emphasized in his poem \"With Antecedents\", affirming: \"I adopt each theory, myth, god, and demi-god, / I see that the old accounts, bibles, genealogies, are true, without exception\".In 1874, he was invited to write a poem about theSpiritualismmovement, to which he responded: \"It seems to me nearly altogether a poor, cheap, crudehumbug.\"Whitman was a religious skeptic: though he accepted all churches, he believed in none.God, to Whitman, was bothimmanentandtranscendentand the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development.American Philosophy: An Encyclopediaclasses him as one of several figures who \"took a morepantheistorpandeistapproach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world.\" Sexuality Though biographers continue to debate Whitman's sexuality, he is usually described as eitherhomosexualorbisexualin his feelings and attractions. Whitman's sexual orientation is generally assumed on the basis of his poetry, though this assumption has been disputed. His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy, individualistic way common in American culture before themedicalizationof sexuality in the late 19th century.ThoughLeaves of Grasswas often labeled pornographic or obscene, only one critic remarked on its author's presumed sexual activity: in a November 1855 review,Rufus Wilmot Griswoldsuggested Whitman was guilty of \"that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians\".The manuscript of his love poem \"Once I Pass'd Through A Populous City\", written when Whitman was 29, indicates it was originally about a man.Late in his life, when Whitman was asked outright whether his \"Calamus\" poems were homosexual—John Addington Symondsinquired about \"athletic friendship\", \"the love of man for man\", or \"the Love of Friends\"—he chose not to respond. Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life. Some biographers have suggested that he did not actually engage in sexual relationships with males,while others cite letters, journal entries, and other sources that they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships.English poet and critic John Addington Symonds spent 20 years in correspondence trying to pry the answer from him.In 1890, Symonds wrote to Whitman: \"In your conception of Comradeship, do you contemplate the possible intrusion of those semi-sexual emotions and actions which no doubt do occur between men?\" In reply, Whitman denied that his work had any such implication, asserting \"hat the calamus part has even allow'd the possibility of such construction as mention'd is terrible—I am fain to hope the pages themselves are not to be even mention'd for such gratuitous and quite at this time entirely undream'd & unreck'd possibility of morbid inferences—wh' are disavow'd by me and seem damnable\", and insisting that he had fathered six illegitimate children. Some contemporary scholars are skeptical of the veracity of Whitman's denial or the existence of the children he claimed.In a letter dated August 21, 1890, Whitman claimed: \"I have had six children—two are dead.\" This claim has never been corroborated. Peter Doylemay be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman's life.Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866, and the two were inseparable for several years. Interviewed in 1895, Doyle said: \"We were familiar at once—I put my hand on his knee—we understood. He did not get out at the end of the trip—in fact went all the way back with me.\"In his notebooks, Whitman disguised Doyle's initials using the code \"16.4\" (P.D. being the 16th and 4th letters of the alphabet).Oscar Wildemet Whitman in the United States in 1882 and later told the homosexual-rights activistGeorge Cecil Ivesthat \"I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lips.\"The only explicit description of Whitman's sexual activities is secondhand. In 1924,Edward CarpentertoldGavin Arthurof a sexual encounter in his youth with Whitman, the details of which Arthur recorded in his journal. Another possible lover was Bill Duckett. As a teenager, he lived on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman, living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles. Duckett was 15 when Whitman bought his house at 328 Mickle Street. From at least 1880, Duckett and his grandmother, Lydia Watson, were boarders, subletting space from another family at 334 Mickle Street. Because of this proximity, Duckett and Whitman met as neighbors. Their relationship was close, with the youth sharing Whitman's money when he had it. Whitman described their friendship as \"thick\". Though some biographers describe Duckett as a boarder, others identify him as a lover.Their photograph together is described as \"modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait\", part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends, and encrypting male–male desire.Another young man with whom Whitman had an intense relationship was Harry Stafford, with whose family Whitman stayed when at Timber Creek, and whom he first met in 1876, when Stafford was 18. Whitman gave Stafford a ring, which was returned and re-given over the course of a stormy relationship lasting several years. Of that ring, Stafford wrote to Whitman: \"You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me, and that was death.\" There is also some evidence that Whitman had sexual relationships with women. He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress, Ellen Grey, in the spring of 1862, but it is not known whether it was also sexual. He still had a photograph of her decades later, when he moved to Camden, and he called her \"an old sweetheart of mine\".Toward the end of his life, he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from theNew York Heraldthat he had \"never had a love affair\".As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote, \"the discussion of Whitman's sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges.\" Shakespeare authorship Whitman was an adherent of theShakespeare authorship question, refusing to believe in the historical attribution of the works toWilliam ShakespeareofStratford-upon-Avon. In 1888, Whitman commented inNovember Boughs: Conceiv'd out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalism—personifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy, its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste, with its own peculiar air and arrogance (no mere imitation)—only one of the \"wolfish earls\" so plenteous in the plays themselves, or some born descendant and knower, might seem to be the true author of those amazing works—works in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature. Slavery Like many in theFree Soil Partywho were concerned about the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen exploiting the newly colonized western territories,Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported theWilmot Proviso.At first he was opposed toabolitionism, believing the movement did more harm than good. In 1846, he wrote that the abolitionists had, in fact, slowed the advancement of their cause by their \"ultraismand officiousness\".His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process, as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own.In 1856, in his unpublishedThe Eighteenth Presidency, addressing the men of the South, he wrote \"you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you\". Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that even free African-Americans should not voteand was concerned at the increasing number of African-Americans in the legislature; asDavid Reynoldsnotes, Whitman wrote in prejudiced terms of these new voters and politicians, calling them \"blacks, with about as much intellect and calibre (in the mass) as so many baboons.\"George Hutchinsonand David Drews have written that \"what little is known about the early development of Whitman's racial awareness suggests that he imbibed the prevailing white prejudices of his time and place, thinking of black people as servile, shiftless, ignorant, and given to stealing,\" but that despite his views remaining largely unchanged, \"readers of the twentieth century, including black ones, imagined him as a fervent antiracist.\" Nationalism Whitman is often described as America's national poet, creating an image of the United States for itself. \"Although he is often considered a champion of democracy and equality, Whitman constructs a hierarchy with himself at the head, America below, and the rest of the world in a subordinate position.\"In his study \"The Pragmatic Whitman: Reimagining American Democracy\", Stephen John Mack suggests that critics, who tend to ignore it, should look again at Whitman's nationalism: \"Whitman's seemingly mawkish celebrations of the United States one of those problematic features of his works that teachers and critics read past or explain away\" (xv–xvi). Nathanael O'Reilly in an essay on \"Walt Whitman's Nationalism in the First Edition ofLeaves of Grass\" claims that \"Whitman's imagined America is arrogant, expansionist, hierarchical, racist and exclusive; such an America is unacceptable to Native Americans, African-Americans, immigrants, the disabled, the infertile, and all those who value equal rights.\"Whitman's nationalism avoided issues concerning the treatment of Native Americans. As George Hutchinson and David Drews further suggest in an essay \"Racial attitudes\": \"Clearly, Whitman could not consistently reconcile the ingrained, even foundational, racist character of the United States with its egalitarian ideals. He could not even reconcile such contradictions in his own psyche.\" The authors concluded their essay with: Because of the radically democratic andegalitarianaspects of his poetry, readers generally expect, and desire for, Whitman to be among the literary heroes that transcended the racist pressures that abounded in all spheres of public discourse during the nineteenth century. He did not, at least not consistently; nonetheless his poetry has been a model for democratic poets of all nations and races, right up to our own day. How Whitman could have been so prejudiced, and yet so effective in conveying an egalitarian and antiracist sensibility in his poetry, is a puzzle yet to be adequately addressed. In reference to theMexican–American War, Whitman wrote in 1864 that Mexico was \"the only to whom we have ever really done wrong.\"In 1883, celebrating the 333rd anniversary of Santa Fe, Whitman argued that the indigenous and Spanish-Indian elements would supply leading traits in the \"composite American identity of the future.\" As to our aboriginal or Indian population—the Aztec in the South, and many a tribe in the North and West—I know it seems to be agreed that they must gradually dwindle as time rolls on, and in a few generations more leave only a reminiscence, a blank. But I am not at all clear about that. As America, from its many far-back sources and current supplies, develops, adapts, entwines, faithfully identifies its own—are we to see it cheerfully accepting and using all the contributions of foreign lands from the whole outside globe—and then rejecting the only ones distinctively its own—the autochthonic ones? As to the Spanish stock of our Southwest, it is certain to me that we do not begin to appreciate the splendor and sterling value of its race element. Who knows but that element, like the course of some subterranean river, dipping invisibly for a hundred or two years, is now to emerge in broadest flow and permanent action? Legacy and influence Whitman has been claimed as the first \"poet of democracy\" in the United States, a title meant to reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character. An American-British friend of Whitman,Mary Whitall Smith Costelloe, wrote: \"You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, withoutLeaves of Grass... He has expressed that civilization, 'up to date,' as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him.\"Andrew Carnegiecalled him \"the great poet of America so far\".Whitman considered himself a messiah-like figure in poetry.Others agreed: one of his admirers, William Sloane Kennedy, speculated that \"people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ\". Literary criticHarold Bloomwrote, as the introduction for the 150th anniversary ofLeaves of Grass: If you are American, then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother, even if, like myself, you have never composed a line of verse. You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States. They might includeMelville'sMoby-Dick,Twain'sAdventures of Huckleberry Finn, and Emerson's two series ofEssaysandThe Conduct of Life. None of those, not even Emerson's, are as central as the first edition ofLeaves of Grass. In his own time, Whitman attracted an influential coterie of disciples and admirers. Among his admirers were theEagle Street College, an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace on Eagle Street inBolton, England, to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman. The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites. Its members held an annual \"Whitman Day\" celebration around the poet's birthday. American poets Whitman is one of the most influential American poets.ModernistpoetEzra Poundcalled Whitman \"America's poet ... HeisAmerica.\"To poetLangston Hughes, who wrote \"I, too, sing America\", Whitman was a literary hero.Whitman'svagabondlifestyle was adopted by theBeat movementand its leaders such asAllen GinsbergandJack Kerouacin the 1950s and 1960s, as well as anti-war poets such asAdrienne Rich,Alicia Ostriker, andGary Snyder.Lawrence Ferlinghettinumbered himself among Whitman's \"wild children\", and the title of Ferlinghetti's 1961 collectionStarting from San Franciscois a reference to Whitman'sStarting from Paumanok.June Jordanpublished a pivotal essay entitled \"For the Sake of People's Poetry: Walt Whitman and the Rest of Us\", praising Whitman as a democratic poet whose works speak to ethnic minorities from all backgrounds.United States poet laureateJoy Harjo, who is a Chancellor of theAcademy of American Poets, counts Whitman among her influences. Latin American poets Whitman's poetry influenced Latin American and Caribbean poets in the 19th and 20th centuries, starting with Cuban poet, philosopher, and nationalist leaderJosé Martí, who published essays in Spanish on Whitman's writings in 1887.Álvaro Armando Vasseur's 1912 translations further raised Whitman's profile in Latin America.Peruvian vanguardistCésar Vallejo, Chilean poetPablo Neruda, and ArgentineJorge Luis Borgesacknowledged Walt Whitman's influence. European authors Some, likeOscar WildeandEdward Carpenter, viewed Whitman both as a prophet of a utopian future and of same-sex desire—the passion of comrades. This aligned with their own desires for a future of brotherlysocialism.Whitman also influencedBram Stoker, author ofDracula, and was a model for the character ofDracula. Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which, to Stoker, was Whitman, with whom he corresponded until Whitman's death. Film and television Whitman's life and verse have been referenced in a substantial number of works of film and video. In the movieBeautiful Dreamers(Hemdale Films, 1992) Whitman was portrayed byRip Torn. Whitman visits an insane asylum inLondon, Ontario, where some of his ideas are adopted as part of anoccupational therapyprogram. InDead Poets Society(1989) byPeter Weir, teacher John Keating inspires his students with the works of Whitman,ShakespeareandJohn Keats. Whitman's poem \"Yonnondio\" influenced both abook(Yonnondio: From the Thirties, 1974) byTillie Olsenand a sixteen-minute film,Yonnondio(1994) by Ali Mohamed Selim. Whitman's poem \"I Sing the Body Electric\" (1855) was used byRay Bradburyas the title of a short story and a short story collection. Bradbury's story was adapted for theTwilight Zoneepisode of May 18, 1962, in which a bereaved family buys a made-to-order robot grandmother to forever love and serve the family.\"I Sing the Body Electric\" inspired the showcase finale in the movieFame(1980), a diverse fusion of gospel, rock, and orchestra. Music and audio recordings Whitman's poetry has been set to music by more than 500 composers; indeed it has been suggested that his poetry has been set to music more than that of any other American poet except forEmily DickinsonandHenry Wadsworth Longfellow.Those who have set his poems to music includeJohn Adams;Ernst Bacon;Leonard Bernstein;Benjamin Britten;Rhoda Coghill;David Conte;Ronald Corp;George Crumb;Frederick Delius;Howard Hanson;Karl Amadeus Hartmann;Hans Werner Henze;Bernard Herrmann;Jennifer Higdon;Paul Hindemith;Ned Rorem;Howard Skempton;Eva Ruth Spalding;Williametta Spencer;Charles Villiers Stanford;Robert Strassburg;Ananda Sukarlan;Ivana Marburger Themmen;Rossini Vrionides;Ralph Vaughan Williams;Kurt Weill;Helen L. Weiss;Charles Wood; andRoger Sessions.Crossing, an opera composed byMatthew Aucoinand inspired by Whitman's Civil War diaries, premiered in 2015. In 2014, German publisher Hörbuch Hamburg issued the bilingual double-CD audio book of theKinder Adams/Children of Adamcycle, based on translations by Kai Grehn in the 2005Children of Adam from Leaves of Grass(Galerie Vevais), accompanying a collection of nude photography byPaul Cava. The audio release included a complete reading byIggy Pop, as well as readings byMarianne Sägebrecht;Martin Wuttke;Birgit Minichmayr;Alexander Fehling;Lars Rudolph;Volker Bruch;Paula Beer; Josef Osterndorf; Ronald Lippok;Jule Böwe; andRobert Gwisdek.In 2014 composerJohn ZornreleasedOn Leaves of Grass, an album inspired by and dedicated to Whitman. Namesake recognition Whitman's importance in American culture is reflected in schools, roads, rest stops, and bridges named after him. Among them are theWalt Whitman High SchoolinBethesda, MarylandandWalt Whitman High SchoolonLong Island,Walt Whitman Elementary School(Woodbury, New York), Walt Whitman Boulevard (Cherry Hill, New Jersey), and a service area on theNew Jersey TurnpikeinCherry Hill, to name a few. TheWalt Whitman Bridge, which crosses theDelaware RiverbetweenPhiladelphiaandGloucester City, New Jerseynear Whitman's home in Camden, New Jersey, was opened on May 16, 1957.Astatue of WhitmanbyJo Davidsonis located at the entrance to the Walt Whitman Bridge and another casting resides in theBear Mountain State Park. The controversy that surrounded the naming of the Walt Whitman bridge has been documented in a series of letters from members of the public, which are held in the University of Pennsylvania library.The web page about this matter states: \"The bridge was meant to be named after a person of note who had lived in New Jersey, but some area citizens opposed the name 'Walt Whitman Bridge'.... Many objecting to the choice of his name for the bridge saw Whitman's work as sympathizing with communist ideals and criticized him for his egalitarian view of humanity.\" In 1997, theWalt Whitman Community SchoolinDallasopened, becoming the first private high school catering to LGBT youth.His other namesakes include theWalt Whitman ShopsinHuntington Station, New York, near his birthplace, and Walt Whitman Road, which spans Huntington Station toMelvilleon Long Island. Whitman was inducted into theNew Jersey Hall of Famein 2009,and, in 2013, he was inducted into theLegacy Walk, an outdoor public display that celebratesLGBThistory and people. A coedsummer campfounded in 1948 inPiermont, New Hampshire, is named after Whitman. A crater onMercuryis named for him. Works See also References Sources External links Online editions Archives Exhibitions Historic sites Other external links" ]

[ "Queen Victoria Victoria(Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) wasQueen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandfrom 20 June 1837 untilher deathin 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days—which waslonger than those of any of her predecessors—constituted theVictorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within theUnited Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of theBritish Empire. In 1876, theBritish Parliamentvoted to grant her the additional title ofEmpress of India. Victoria was the daughter ofPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn(the fourth son ofKing George III), andPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she wasraised under close supervisionby her mother and hercomptroller,John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without survivinglegitimateissue. Victoria, aconstitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence", "to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards ofpersonal morality. Victoria marriedher first cousin,Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria thesobriquet\"grandmother of Europe\". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion,British republicanismtemporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. HerGoldenandDiamondjubileeswere times of public celebration. Victoria died atOsborne Houseon theIsle of Wight, at the age of 81. The lastBritish monarchof theHouse of Hanover, she was succeeded by her sonEdward VIIof theHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Early life Birth and ancestry Victoria's father wasPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son ofKing George IIIandQueen Charlotte. Until", "Charlotte. Until 1817, King George's only legitimate grandchild was Edward's niecePrincess Charlotte of Wales, the daughter ofGeorge, Prince Regent(who would become George IV). Princess Charlotte's death in 1817 precipitated asuccession crisisthat brought pressure on Prince Edward and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818, the Duke of Kent marriedPrincess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl(1804–1856) andFeodora(1807–1872)—by her first marriage toEmich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brotherLeopoldwas Princess Charlotte's widower and later the firstking of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria was born at 4:15 a.m. on Monday 24 May 1819 atKensington Palacein London. Victoria was christened privately by theArchbishop of Canterbury,Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.She was baptisedAlexandrinaafter one of her godparents, TsarAlexander I of Russia, andVictoria, after her", "after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Prince Regent. At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, Prince Regent (later George IV);Frederick, Duke of York;William, Duke of Clarence(later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.Prince George had no surviving children, and Prince Frederick had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William married in 1818, in a joint ceremony with his brother Edward, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died", "grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. She was fourth in line while William's second daughter,Princess Elizabeth, lived, from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821. Heir presumptive Prince Frederick died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; their next surviving brother succeeded to the throne as William IV, and Victoria becameheir presumptive. TheRegency Act 1830made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.King William distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that aregencycould be avoided. Victoria later described her childhood as \"rather melancholy\".Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called \"Kensington System\", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by", "devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineeringcomptroller,Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess's lover.The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and herKing Charles Spaniel,Dash.Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,but she spoke only English at home. In 1830, the Duchess and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit theMalvern Hills, stopping at towns and greatcountry housesalong the way.Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically", "enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.William compared the journeys toroyal progressesand was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.AtRamsgatein October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy herprivate secretary.As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household. By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her", "hoped to marry her toPrince Albert,the son of his brotherErnest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit ofPrince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son ofthe Prince of Orange.Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, \" is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful.\"Alexander, on the other hand, she described as \"very plain\". Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her \"best and kindest adviser\",to thank him \"for", "thank him \"for the prospect ofgreathappiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see.\"However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time. Accession and early reign Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and aregencywas avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.In her diary she wrote, \"I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me theArchbishop of CanterburyandLord Conynghamwere here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) andalone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted", "then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently thatIamQueen.\"Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again. Since 1714,Britainhad shared a monarch withHanoverin Germany, but underSalic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother,Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, becameKing of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child. At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by theWhigprime ministerLord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.Charles Grevillesupposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was \"passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one\", and Victoria probably", "Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.Her coronationtook place on 28 June 1838 atWestminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.She became the first sovereign to take up residence atBuckingham Palaceand inherited the revenues of the duchies ofLancasterandCornwallas well as being granted acivil listallowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts. At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting,Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.Victoria believed the rumours.She hated Conroy, and despised \"that odious Lady Flora\",because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess in the Kensington System.At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.Conroy,", "be a virgin.Conroy, the Hastings family, and the oppositionToriesorganised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as \"Mrs. Melbourne\". In 1839, Melbourne resigned afterRadicalsand Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution ofJamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with theabolition of slavery.The Queen commissioned a Tory,Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of theRoyal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen'sladies of the bedchamberwere wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the \"bedchamber crisis\", Victoria,", "crisis\", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office. Marriage and public life Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required bysocial conventionto live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.The Duchess was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised \"torment for many years\", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a \"schocking alternative\".Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock. Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839.", "in October 1839. They felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived atWindsor.They were married on 10 February 1840, in theChapel RoyalofSt James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could havehopedto have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such aHusband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life! Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half", "in the first half of her life.Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House inBelgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's auntPrincess Augustain 1840, the Duchess was given bothClarence HouseandFrogmore House.Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved. During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-oldEdward Oxfordattempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.He was tried forhigh treason, foundnot guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over theHastings affairand thebedchamber crisis.Her daughter, also namedVictoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being", "Queen hated being pregnant,viewed breast-feeding with disgust,and thought newborn babies were ugly.Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children:Albert Edward,Alice,Alfred,Helena,Louise,Arthur,LeopoldandBeatrice. The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, BaronessLouise LehzenfromHanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoriaand had supported her against the Kensington System.Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter Victoria's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended. On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage alongThe Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait", "attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted totransportation for life,John William Beanalso tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840.Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed alongConstitution Hill, London.In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer,Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation. Melbourne's support in the House of", "in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the1841 general electionthe Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced. In 1845, Ireland was hit by apotato blight.In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as theGreat Famine.In Ireland, Victoria was labelled \"The Famine Queen\".In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £230,000 and £8.5million in 2022)to theBritish Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,and supported theMaynooth Grantto a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount toBattersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century. By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of theCorn Laws. Many Tories—by", "Many Tories—by then known also asConservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade orientedliberal conservative\"Peelites\"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced byLord John Russell. Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and theHouse of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with KingLouis Philippe IatChâteau d'Euin Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting ofHenry VIII of EnglandandFrancis I of Franceon theField of the Cloth of Goldin 1520.When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.Louis Philippe was deposed in therevolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.At the height of a", "the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety ofOsborne House,a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.Demonstrations byChartistsandIrish nationalistsfailed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism. Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.She found particularly offensive theForeign Secretary,Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after", "was removed after he announced the British government's approval of PresidentLouis-Napoleon Bonaparte'scoup in Francewithout consulting the Prime Minister.The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led byLord Derby. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic,chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.Victoria may have hadpostnatal depressionafter many of her pregnancies.Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her", "Victoria about her \"continuance of hysterics\" over a \"miserable trifle\". In early 1855, the government ofLord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in theCrimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister. Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.Napoleon III met the couple atBoulogneand accompanied them to Paris.They visited theExposition Universelle(a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild theGreat Exhibition) andNapoleon I's tomb atLes Invalides(to which his remains had only beenreturnedin 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at thePalace of Versailles.This marked the first time that a reigning British monarch had been to Paris in over 400 years. On 14 January 1858, an", "14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain calledFelice Orsiniattempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port ofCherbourgon 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of theRoyal Navyin comparison to theFrench Navy.Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office. Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter marriedPrince Frederick William of Prussiain London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.The Queen and Albert", "Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlargingPrussianstate.The Queen felt \"sick at heart\" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; \"It really makes me shudder\", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, \"when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one.\"Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild,Wilhelm, who would become the last German emperor. Widowhood and isolation In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for \"wickedly\" estranging her from her mother.To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son,Albert", "their son,Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying inKillarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him. By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.He was diagnosed withtyphoid feverbyWilliam Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales'sphilandering. He had been \"killed by that dreadful business\", she said.She entered a state ofmourningand wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.Her seclusion earned her the nickname \"widow of Windsor\".Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances. Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and", "the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847,Balmoral Castle. In March 1864, a protester stuck a notice on the railings ofBuckingham Palacethat announced \"these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business\".Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of theRoyal Horticultural SocietyatKensingtonand take a drive through London in an open carriage. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland,John Brown.Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as \"Mrs. Brown\".The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movieMrs. Brown. A painting by SirEdwin Henry Landseerdepicting", "Landseerdepicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at theRoyal Academy, and Victoria published a book,Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly. Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended theState Opening of Parliamentfor the first time since Albert's death.The following year she supported the passing of theReform Act 1867which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,though she was not in favour of votes for women.Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced byBenjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. \"Everyone likes flattery,\" he said, \"and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel.\"With the phrase \"we authors, Ma'am\", he complimented her.Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival,William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria", "minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were \"a public meeting rather than a woman\". In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of theThird French Republic.A republican rally inTrafalgar Squaredemanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with anabscessin her arm, whichJoseph Listersuccessfully lanced and treated with his new antisepticcarbolic acidspray.In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.To general rejoicing, he recovered.Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a", "London and a grand service of thanksgiving inSt Paul's Cathedralon 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided. On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MPFeargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,and abirching.As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further. Empress of India After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, theBritish East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on theIndian subcontinentwere formally incorporated into theBritish Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.She wrote of \"her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war\",and insisted, urged on by", "urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state \"should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration\".At her behest, a reference threatening the \"undermining of native religions and customs\" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom. In the1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed thePublic Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with thepresbyterianChurch of Scotlandthan theepiscopalChurch of England.Disraeli also pushed theRoyal Titles Act 1876through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title \"Empress of India\" from 1 May 1876.The new title was proclaimed at theDelhi Durbarof 1 January 1877. On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had marriedLouis of Hesse,", "of Hesse, died ofdiphtheriainDarmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as \"almost incredible and most mysterious\".In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth ofPrincess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her \"poor old 60th birthday\". She felt \"aged\" by \"the loss of my beloved child\". Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during theRusso-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with theCongress of Berlin.Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as theAnglo-Zulu Warand theSecond Anglo-Afghan War. \"Ifweare tomaintainour position as afirst-ratePower\", she wrote, \"we must ... bePreparedforattacksandwars,somewhereorother, CONTINUALLY.\"Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: \"It is not in our custom to annexe", "custom to annexe countries\", she said, \"unless we are obliged & forced to do so.\"To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by \"fast falling tears\",and erected a memorial tablet \"placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I.\" On 2 March 1882,Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,shot at the Queen as her carriage leftWindsor railway station.Gordon Chesney Wilsonand another schoolboy fromEton Collegestruck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was \"worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved\". On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued", "and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, SirHenry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.Ponsonby andRandall Davidson,Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.The manuscript was destroyed.In early 1884, Victoria did publishMore Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her \"devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown\".On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died inCannes. He was \"the dearest of my dear sons\", she lamented.The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love withPrince Henry of Battenbergat the wedding of Victoria's granddaughterPrincess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhineto Henry's", "by Rhineto Henry's brotherPrince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her. Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.She thought his government was \"the worst I have ever had\", and blamed him for the death ofGeneral Gordonduring theSiege of Khartoum.Gladstone was replaced byLord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a \"half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man\".Gladstone attempted to passa bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.Inthe ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden and Diamond Jubilees In 1887, theBritish EmpirecelebratedVictoria's Golden", "Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service inWestminster Abbey.By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.Two days later on 23 June,she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom wasAbdul Karim. He was soon promoted to \"Munshi\": teaching herUrduand acting as a clerk.Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.EquerryFrederick Ponsonby(the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported toLord Elgin,Viceroy of India, \"the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do.\"Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death. Victoria's eldest daughter", "eldest daughter becameempress consort of Germanyin 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor asWilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer inautocracy. Victoria thought he had \"little heart orZartgefühl – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped \". Gladstone returned to power after the1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MPHenry Labouchèreto theCabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointedLord Roseberyas prime minister.His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign. On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as thelongest-reigning monarch in", "monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide withher Diamond Jubilee,which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of theColonial Secretary,Joseph Chamberlain.The prime ministers of all theself-governingDominionswere invited to London for the festivities.One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson Wilhelm II, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event. The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the", "affection for the 78-year-old Queen. Declining health and death Victoria regularly holidayed in mainland Europe. In 1889, during a stay inBiarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to visit Spain by briefly crossing the border.By April 1900, theBoer Warwas so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war. In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred (\"Affie\"), died. \"Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too\", she wrote in her journal. \"It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another.\" Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight.Rheumatismin her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.Through early January, she felt \"weak and unwell\",and by mid-January she was", "mid-January she was \"drowsy dazed, confused\".Herfavourite petPomeranian, Turi, was laid on her bed as a last request.She died aged 81 on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, in the presence of her eldest son, Albert Edward, and grandson Wilhelm II. Albert Edward immediately succeeded as Edward VII. In 1897, Victoria had written instructions forher funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,and white instead of black.On 25 January, Edward VII and Wilhelm II, together with Prince Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her physician and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family", "view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.Items ofjewelleryplaced on Victoria included the wedding ring of Brown's mother, which Brown gave Victoria in 1883.Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, inSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in theRoyal Mausoleum, Frogmore, atWindsor Great Park. With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was thelongest-reigning British monarchand thelongest-reigningqueen regnantin world history, until her great-great-granddaughterElizabeth IIsurpassed her on 9 September 2015.She was the last monarch of Britain from theHouse of Hanover; her son Edward VII belonged to her husband'sHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy Reputation According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailedjournal, which eventually encompassed 122", "encompassed 122 volumes.After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy,Lord Eshertranscribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited byA. C. Benson,Hector Bolitho,George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher,Roger Fulford, andRichard Houghamong others. In her later years, Victoria was stout, dowdy, and about five feet (1.5 metres) tall, but she projected a grand image.She was unpopular during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider", "known to the wider public.Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such asLytton Strachey'sQueen Victoriaof 1921, are now considered out of date.The biographies written byElizabeth LongfordandCecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking. Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modernconstitutional monarchyin Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of theHouse of Commonsat the expense of theHouse of Lordsand the monarch.In 1867,Walter Bagehotwrote that the monarch only retained \"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn\".As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the", "members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the \"family monarchy\", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified. Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname \"the grandmother of Europe\".Of thegrandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting diseasehaemophilia Band at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers.Royal haemophiliacsdescended from Victoria included her great-grandsons,Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia;Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; andInfante Gonzalo of Spain.The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led tomodern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even", "the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles At the end of her reign, the Queen's fullstylewas: \"Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandQueen,Defender of the Faith, Empress of India\". Honours British honours Foreign honours Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used theroyal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Family Issue Ancestry Family tree Notes References Citations Bibliography Primary sources Further reading External links", "1819 1819(MDCCCXIX) was acommon year starting on Fridayof theGregorian calendarand acommon year starting on Wednesdayof theJulian calendar, the 1819th year of theCommon Era(CE) andAnno Domini(AD) designations, the 819th year of the2nd millennium, the 19th year of the19th century, and the 10th and last year of the1810sdecade. As of the start of 1819, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January–March April–June July–September October–December Date unknown Births January–June July–December Date unknown Deaths January–June July–December Date unknown References", "Walt Whitman Walter Whitman Jr.(/ˈhwɪtmən/; May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist. He is considered one of the most influential poets inAmerican literature. Whitman incorporated bothtranscendentalismandrealismin his writings and is often called the father offree verse.His work was controversial in his time, particularly his 1855 poetry collectionLeaves of Grass, which was described by some as obscene for its overt sensuality. Whitman was born inHuntingtononLong Islandand lived inBrooklynas a child and through much of his career. At age 11, he left formal schooling to go to work. He worked as a journalist, a teacher, and a government clerk. Whitman's major poetry collection,Leaves of Grass, first published in 1855, was financed with his own money and became well known. The work was an attempt to reach out to the common person with an Americanepic. Whitman continued expanding and revisingLeaves of Grassuntil his death in 1892. During theAmerican Civil War, he went", "Civil War, he went toWashington, D.C., and worked in hospitals caring for the wounded. His poetry often focused on both loss and healing. On theassassinationofAbraham Lincoln, whomWhitman greatly admired, he authored two poems, \"O Captain! My Captain!\" and \"When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd\", andgave a series of lectures on Lincoln. After suffering astroketowards the end of his life, Whitman moved toCamden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. When he died at age 72, his funeral was a public event. Whitman's influence on poetry remains strong. Art historianMary Berensonwrote, \"You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, withoutLeaves of Grass... He has expressed that civilization, 'up to date,' as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him.\"ModernistpoetEzra Poundcalled Whitman \"America's poet... HeisAmerica.\"According to thePoetry Foundation, he is \"America's world poet—a latter-day successor toHomer,Virgil,Dante, andShakespeare.\" Life and", "Life and work Early life Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, inWest Hills, New York, the second of nine children ofQuakerparents Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman,of English and Dutch descent respectively.He was immediately nicknamed \"Walt\" to distinguish him from his father.At the age of four, Whitman moved with his family from Huntington toBrooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments.Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family's difficult economic struggles.One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by theMarquis de Lafayetteduring a celebration of the setting of theBrooklyn Apprentices' Library's cornerstone by Lafayette in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825.Whitman later worked as a librarian at that institution. At the age of 11, Whitman ended his formal schoolingand sought employment to assist his family, which was struggling economically. He was an office boy for two lawyers and later", "lawyers and later was anapprenticeandprinter's devilfor the weekly Long Island newspaper thePatriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements.There, Whitman learned about the printing press andtypesetting.He may have written \"sentimental bits\" of filler material for occasional issues.Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of theQuakerministerElias Hicksto create a plaster mold of his head.Clements left thePatriotshortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy. Career The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, inBrooklyn.His family moved back toWest Hills, New York, onLong Islandin the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leadingWhigweekly newspaper theLong-Island Star.While at theStar, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances,and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in theNew-York", "in theNew-York Mirror.At the age of 16 in May 1835, Whitman left theStarand Brooklyn.He moved to New York City to work as acompositorthough, in later years, Whitman could not remember where.He attempted to find further work but had difficulty, in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district,and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to thePanic of 1837.In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living inHempstead, Long Island.Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher. After his teaching attempts, Whitman returned toHuntington, New York, to found his own newspaper, theLong-Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839.There are no known surviving copies of theLong-Islanderpublished under Whitman.By the summer of 1839, he found a job as", "he found a job as a typesetter inJamaica, Queens, with theLong Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton.He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841.One story, possiblyapocryphal, tells of Whitman's being chased away from a teaching job inSouthold, New York, in 1840. After a local preacher called him a \"Sodomite\", Whitman was allegedlytarred and feathered. BiographerJustin Kaplannotes that the story is likely untrue, because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter.BiographerJerome Lovingcalls the incident a \"myth\".During this time, Whitman published a series of ten editorials, called \"Sun-Down Papers—From the Desk of a Schoolmaster\", in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career. Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at theNew World, working underPark Benjamin Sr.andRufus Wilmot", "Sr.andRufus Wilmot Griswold.He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of theAuroraand from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of theBrooklyn Eagle.While working for the latter institution, many of his publications were in the area of music criticism, and it is during this time that he became a devoted lover ofItalian operathrough reviewing performances of works byBellini,Donizetti, andVerdi. This new interest had an impact on his writing in free verse. He later said, \"But for the opera, I could never have writtenLeaves of Grass.\" Throughout the 1840s, Whitman contributed freelance fiction and poetry to various periodicals,includingBrother Jonathanmagazine edited byJohn Neal.Whitman lost his position at theBrooklyn Eaglein 1848 after siding with the free-soil \"Barnburner\" wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper's owner,Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or \"Hunker\", wing of the party.Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of", "convention of theFree Soil Party, which was concerned about the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen moving into the newly colonized western territories. AbolitionistWilliam Lloyd Garrisonderided the party philosophy as \"white manism\". In 1852, he serialized a novel,Life and Adventures of Jack Engle, in six installments of New York'sThe Sunday Dispatch.In 1858, Whitman published a 47,000 word series,Manly Health and Training, under the pen name Mose Velsor.Apparently he drew the name Velsor from Van Velsor, his mother's family name.This self-help guide recommends beards, nude sunbathing, comfortable shoes, bathing daily in cold water, eating meat almost exclusively, plenty of fresh air, and getting up early each morning. Present-day writers have calledManly Health and Training\"quirky\",\"so over the top\",\"a pseudoscientific tract\",and \"wacky\". Leaves of Grass Whitman claimed that after years of competing for \"the usual rewards\", he determined to become a poet.He first", "a poet.He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres that appealed to the cultural tastes of the period.As early as 1850, he began writing what would becomeLeaves of Grass,a collection of poetry that he would continue editing and revising until his death.Whitman intended to write a distinctly Americanepicand usedfree versewith acadencebased on the Bible.At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the already-printed first edition ofLeaves of Grass. George \"didn't think it worth reading\". Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition ofLeaves of Grasshimselfand had it printed at a local print shop during its employees' breaks from commercial jobs.A total of 795 copies were printed.No author is named; instead, facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer,but 500 lines into the body of the text he calls himself \"Walt Whitman, an American, one of the roughs, a kosmos, disorderly, fleshly, and sensual, no sentimentalist, no stander above men or", "above men or women or apart from them, no more modest than immodest\".The inaugural volume of poetry was preceded by a prose preface of 827 lines. The succeeding untitled twelve poems totaled 2315 lines with 1336 lines belonging to the first untitled poem, later called \"Song of Myself\". The book received its strongest praise fromRalph Waldo Emerson, who wrote a flattering five-page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends.Emerson called it “the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed.”Emerson had called for the first truly American poet, saying that aspects of America \"are yet unsung. Yet America is a poem in our eyes.\" The first edition ofLeaves of Grasswas widely distributed and stirred up significant interest,in part due to Emerson's praise,but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly \"obscene\" nature of the poetry.GeologistPeter Lesleywrote to Emerson, calling the book \"trashy, profane & obscene\" and the author \"a pretentious ass\".Whitman embossed", "embossed a quote from Emerson's letter, \"I greet you at the beginning of a great career\", in gold leaf on the spine of the second edition. Of this action,Laura Dassow Walls, professor emerita of English at theUniversity of Notre Dame,wrote: \"In one stroke, Whitman had given birth to the modern coverblurb, quite without Emerson's permission.\" On July 11, 1855, a few days afterLeaves of Grasswas published, Whitman's father died at the age of 65.In the months following the first edition ofLeaves of Grass, critical responses began focusing on what some found offensive sexual themes. Though the second edition was already printed and bound, the publisher almost did not release it.In the end, the edition went to retail, with 20 additional poems,in August 1856.Leaves of Grasswas revised and re-released in 1860,again in 1867, and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman's life. Several well-known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman, includingAmos Bronson AlcottandHenry David Thoreau. During", "Thoreau. During the first publications ofLeaves of Grass, Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again, specifically with Brooklyn'sDaily Timesstarting in May 1857.As an editor, he oversaw the paper's contents, contributed book reviews, and wrote editorials.He left the job in 1859, though it is unclear whether he was fired or chose to leave.Whitman, who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals, left very little information about himself in the late 1850s. Civil War years As theAmerican Civil Warwas beginning, Whitman published his poem \"Beat! Beat! Drums!\" as a patriotic rally call for theUnion.Whitman's brother George had joined theUnionarmy in the51st New York Infantry Regimentand began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front.On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in theNew-York Tribuneincluded \"First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore\", which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George.He made his way south", "made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way.\"Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people\", Whitman later wrote,he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek.Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left forWashington, D.C., on December 28, 1862, with the intention of never returning to New York. In Washington, D.C., Whitman's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster's office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals.He would write of this experience in \"The Great Army of the Sick\", published in a New York newspaper in 1863and, 12 years later, in a book calledMemoranda During the War.He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post.Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson", "from Emerson toSalmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book asLeaves of Grass. The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864. On September 30, 1864, Whitman's brother George was captured byConfederate forcesinVirginia,and another brother, Andrew Jackson, died oftuberculosiscompounded by alcoholism on December 3.That month, Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum.Whitman's spirits were raised, however, when he finally got a better-paying government post as a low-grade clerk in theBureau of Indian Affairsin theDepartment of the Interior, thanks to his friendWilliam Douglas O'Connor. O'Connor, a poet, daguerreotypist, and an editor atThe Saturday Evening Postwrote toWilliam Tod Otto, AssistantSecretary of the Interior, on Whitman's behalf.Whitman began the new appointment on January 24, 1865, with a yearly salary of $1,200.A month later, on", "month later, on February 24, 1865, George was released from capture and granted afurloughbecause of his poor health.By May 1, Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkshipand publishedDrum-Taps. Effective June 30, 1865, however, Whitman was fired from his job.His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior, formerIowaSenatorJames Harlan.Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who \"were seldom at their respective desks\", he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition ofLeaves of Grass.O'Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General's office on July 1.O'Connor, though, was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study,The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866.The fifty-cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot, established the poet's nickname and increased his popularity.Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of \"O Captain! My Captain!\", a conventional poem", "a conventional poem on thedeath of Abraham Lincoln, the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman's lifetime. Part of Whitman's role at the Attorney General's office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for presidentialpardons. \"There are real characters among them\", he later wrote, \"and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary.\"In August 1866, he took a month off to prepare a new edition ofLeaves of Grasswhich would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher.He hoped it would be its last edition.In February 1868,Poems of Walt Whitmanwas published in England thanks to the influence ofWilliam Michael Rossetti,with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved.The edition became popular in England, especially with endorsements from the highly respected writerAnne Gilchrist.Another edition ofLeaves of Grasswas issued in 1871, the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident.As Whitman's international fame increased,", "fame increased, he remained at the attorney general's office until January 1872.He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother, who was now nearly eighty and struggling witharthritis.He also traveled and was invited toDartmouth Collegeto give the commencement address on June 26, 1872. Health decline and death After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873, Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brother—George Washington Whitman, an engineer—at 431 Stevens Street in Camden, New Jersey. His mother, having fallen ill, was also there and died that same year in May. Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed. He remained at his brother's home until buying his own in 1884.However, before purchasing his home, he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother's home on Stevens Street. While in residence there he was very productive, publishing three versions ofLeaves of Grassamong other works. He was also last fully physically active in this house,", "in this house, receiving bothOscar WildeandThomas Eakins. His other brother, Edward, an \"invalid\" since birth, lived in the house. When his brother and sister-in-law were forced to move for business reasons, he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street(now 330 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard).First taken care of by tenants, he was completely bedridden for most of his time in Mickle Street. During this time, he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davis—the widow of a sea captain. She was a neighbor, boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street.She moved in with Whitman on February 24, 1885, to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent. She brought with her a cat, a dog, two turtledoves, a canary, and other assorted animals.During this time, Whitman produced further editions ofLeaves of Grassin 1876, 1881, and 1889. While inSouth Jersey, Whitman spent a good portion of his time in the then quite pastoral community ofLaurel Springs, between 1876 and 1884, converting", "1884, converting one of the Stafford Farm buildings to his summer home. The restored summer home has been preserved as a museum by the local historical society. Part of hisLeaves of Grasswas written here, and in hisSpecimen Dayshe wrote of the spring, creek and lake. To him, Laurel Lake was \"the prettiest lake in: either America or Europe\". As the end of 1891 approached, he prepared a final edition ofLeaves of Grass, a version that has been nicknamed the \"Deathbed Edition\". He wrote, \"L. of G.at last complete—after 33 y'rs of hackling at it, all times & moods of my life, fair weather & foul, all parts of the land, and peace & war, young & old.\"Preparing for death, Whitman commissioned agranitemausoleumshaped like a house for $4,000and visited it often during construction.In the last week of his life, he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote: \"I suffer all the time: I have no relief, no escape: it is monotony—monotony—monotony—in pain.\" Walt Whitman died on March 26, 1892,at his home in Camden, New", "home in Camden, New Jersey at the age of 72.Anautopsyrevealed his lungs had diminished to one-eighth their normal breathing capacity, a result of bronchial pneumonia,and that an egg-sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs. The cause of death was officially listed as \"pleurisyof the left side, consumption of the right lung, generalmiliary tuberculosisand parenchymatousnephritis\".A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home; more than 1,000 people visited in three hours.Whitman's oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him.Four days after his death, he was buried in his tomb atHarleigh Cemeteryin Camden.Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery, with friends giving speeches, live music, and refreshments.Whitman's friend, the oratorRobert Ingersoll, delivered the eulogy.Later, the remains of Whitman's parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum.His brain was donated to theAmerican Anthropometric Societyin", "Societyin Philadelphia, but it was accidentally destroyed. Writing Whitman's work broke the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose-like.Its signature style deviates from the course set by his predecessors and includes \"idiosyncratic treatment of the body and the soul as well as of the self and the other.\"It uses unusual images and symbols, including rotting leaves, tufts of straw, and debris.Whitman openly wrote about death and sexuality, including prostitution.He is often labeled the father offree verse, though he did not invent it. Poetic theory Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition ofLeaves of Grass: \"The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it.\" He believed there was a vital,symbioticrelationship between the poet and society.He emphasized this connection especially in \"Song of Myself\" by using an all-powerful first-person narration.An American epic, it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity", "the identity of the common people.Leaves of Grassalso responded to the impact of rapidurbanization in the United Stateson the masses. Lifestyle and beliefs Alcohol Whitman was a vocal proponent oftemperanceand in his youth rarely drank alcohol. He once stated he did not taste \"strong liquor\" until he was 30and occasionally argued forprohibition.His first novel,Franklin Evans, or The Inebriate, published November 23, 1842, is a temperance novel.Whitman wrote the novel at the height of the popularity of theWashingtonian movement, a movement that was plagued with contradictions, as wasFranklin Evans.Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the bookand called it \"damned rot\".He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while under the influence of alcohol.Even so, he wrote other pieces recommending temperance, includingThe Madmanand a short story \"Reuben's Last Wish\".Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol, enjoying local wines and champagne. Religion Whitman was", "Whitman was deeply influenced bydeism. He denied any one faith was more important than another, and embraced all religions equally.In \"Song of Myself\", he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of them—a sentiment he further emphasized in his poem \"With Antecedents\", affirming: \"I adopt each theory, myth, god, and demi-god, / I see that the old accounts, bibles, genealogies, are true, without exception\".In 1874, he was invited to write a poem about theSpiritualismmovement, to which he responded: \"It seems to me nearly altogether a poor, cheap, crudehumbug.\"Whitman was a religious skeptic: though he accepted all churches, he believed in none.God, to Whitman, was bothimmanentandtranscendentand the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development.American Philosophy: An Encyclopediaclasses him as one of several figures who \"took a morepantheistorpandeistapproach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world.\" Sexuality Though biographers continue", "continue to debate Whitman's sexuality, he is usually described as eitherhomosexualorbisexualin his feelings and attractions. Whitman's sexual orientation is generally assumed on the basis of his poetry, though this assumption has been disputed. His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy, individualistic way common in American culture before themedicalizationof sexuality in the late 19th century.ThoughLeaves of Grasswas often labeled pornographic or obscene, only one critic remarked on its author's presumed sexual activity: in a November 1855 review,Rufus Wilmot Griswoldsuggested Whitman was guilty of \"that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians\".The manuscript of his love poem \"Once I Pass'd Through A Populous City\", written when Whitman was 29, indicates it was originally about a man.Late in his life, when Whitman was asked outright whether his \"Calamus\" poems were homosexual—John Addington Symondsinquired about \"athletic friendship\", \"the love of man for man\", or \"the Love of", "or \"the Love of Friends\"—he chose not to respond. Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life. Some biographers have suggested that he did not actually engage in sexual relationships with males,while others cite letters, journal entries, and other sources that they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships.English poet and critic John Addington Symonds spent 20 years in correspondence trying to pry the answer from him.In 1890, Symonds wrote to Whitman: \"In your conception of Comradeship, do you contemplate the possible intrusion of those semi-sexual emotions and actions which no doubt do occur between men?\" In reply, Whitman denied that his work had any such implication, asserting \"hat the calamus part has even allow'd the possibility of such construction as mention'd is terrible—I am fain to hope the pages themselves are not to be even mention'd for such gratuitous and quite at this time entirely undream'd & unreck'd possibility of morbid inferences—wh'", "inferences—wh' are disavow'd by me and seem damnable\", and insisting that he had fathered six illegitimate children. Some contemporary scholars are skeptical of the veracity of Whitman's denial or the existence of the children he claimed.In a letter dated August 21, 1890, Whitman claimed: \"I have had six children—two are dead.\" This claim has never been corroborated. Peter Doylemay be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman's life.Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866, and the two were inseparable for several years. Interviewed in 1895, Doyle said: \"We were familiar at once—I put my hand on his knee—we understood. He did not get out at the end of the trip—in fact went all the way back with me.\"In his notebooks, Whitman disguised Doyle's initials using the code \"16.4\" (P.D. being the 16th and 4th letters of the alphabet).Oscar Wildemet Whitman in the United States in 1882 and later told the homosexual-rights activistGeorge Cecil Ivesthat \"I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my", "Whitman still on my lips.\"The only explicit description of Whitman's sexual activities is secondhand. In 1924,Edward CarpentertoldGavin Arthurof a sexual encounter in his youth with Whitman, the details of which Arthur recorded in his journal. Another possible lover was Bill Duckett. As a teenager, he lived on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman, living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles. Duckett was 15 when Whitman bought his house at 328 Mickle Street. From at least 1880, Duckett and his grandmother, Lydia Watson, were boarders, subletting space from another family at 334 Mickle Street. Because of this proximity, Duckett and Whitman met as neighbors. Their relationship was close, with the youth sharing Whitman's money when he had it. Whitman described their friendship as \"thick\". Though some biographers describe Duckett as a boarder, others identify him as a lover.Their photograph together is described as \"modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait\", part of", "portrait\", part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends, and encrypting male–male desire.Another young man with whom Whitman had an intense relationship was Harry Stafford, with whose family Whitman stayed when at Timber Creek, and whom he first met in 1876, when Stafford was 18. Whitman gave Stafford a ring, which was returned and re-given over the course of a stormy relationship lasting several years. Of that ring, Stafford wrote to Whitman: \"You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me, and that was death.\" There is also some evidence that Whitman had sexual relationships with women. He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress, Ellen Grey, in the spring of 1862, but it is not known whether it was also sexual. He still had a photograph of her decades later, when he moved to Camden, and he called her \"an old sweetheart of mine\".Toward the end of his life, he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from", "an allegation from theNew York Heraldthat he had \"never had a love affair\".As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote, \"the discussion of Whitman's sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges.\" Shakespeare authorship Whitman was an adherent of theShakespeare authorship question, refusing to believe in the historical attribution of the works toWilliam ShakespeareofStratford-upon-Avon. In 1888, Whitman commented inNovember Boughs: Conceiv'd out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalism—personifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy, its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste, with its own peculiar air and arrogance (no mere imitation)—only one of the \"wolfish earls\" so plenteous in the plays themselves, or some born descendant and knower, might seem to be the true author of those amazing works—works in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature. Slavery Like many in theFree Soil Partywho were concerned about the threat", "about the threat slavery would pose to free white labor and northern businessmen exploiting the newly colonized western territories,Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported theWilmot Proviso.At first he was opposed toabolitionism, believing the movement did more harm than good. In 1846, he wrote that the abolitionists had, in fact, slowed the advancement of their cause by their \"ultraismand officiousness\".His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process, as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own.In 1856, in his unpublishedThe Eighteenth Presidency, addressing the men of the South, he wrote \"you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you\". Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that even free African-Americans should not voteand was concerned at the increasing number of African-Americans in the legislature; asDavid Reynoldsnotes, Whitman wrote in prejudiced terms of", "prejudiced terms of these new voters and politicians, calling them \"blacks, with about as much intellect and calibre (in the mass) as so many baboons.\"George Hutchinsonand David Drews have written that \"what little is known about the early development of Whitman's racial awareness suggests that he imbibed the prevailing white prejudices of his time and place, thinking of black people as servile, shiftless, ignorant, and given to stealing,\" but that despite his views remaining largely unchanged, \"readers of the twentieth century, including black ones, imagined him as a fervent antiracist.\" Nationalism Whitman is often described as America's national poet, creating an image of the United States for itself. \"Although he is often considered a champion of democracy and equality, Whitman constructs a hierarchy with himself at the head, America below, and the rest of the world in a subordinate position.\"In his study \"The Pragmatic Whitman: Reimagining American Democracy\", Stephen John Mack suggests that critics,", "that critics, who tend to ignore it, should look again at Whitman's nationalism: \"Whitman's seemingly mawkish celebrations of the United States one of those problematic features of his works that teachers and critics read past or explain away\" (xv–xvi). Nathanael O'Reilly in an essay on \"Walt Whitman's Nationalism in the First Edition ofLeaves of Grass\" claims that \"Whitman's imagined America is arrogant, expansionist, hierarchical, racist and exclusive; such an America is unacceptable to Native Americans, African-Americans, immigrants, the disabled, the infertile, and all those who value equal rights.\"Whitman's nationalism avoided issues concerning the treatment of Native Americans. As George Hutchinson and David Drews further suggest in an essay \"Racial attitudes\": \"Clearly, Whitman could not consistently reconcile the ingrained, even foundational, racist character of the United States with its egalitarian ideals. He could not even reconcile such contradictions in his own psyche.\" The authors concluded", "authors concluded their essay with: Because of the radically democratic andegalitarianaspects of his poetry, readers generally expect, and desire for, Whitman to be among the literary heroes that transcended the racist pressures that abounded in all spheres of public discourse during the nineteenth century. He did not, at least not consistently; nonetheless his poetry has been a model for democratic poets of all nations and races, right up to our own day. How Whitman could have been so prejudiced, and yet so effective in conveying an egalitarian and antiracist sensibility in his poetry, is a puzzle yet to be adequately addressed. In reference to theMexican–American War, Whitman wrote in 1864 that Mexico was \"the only to whom we have ever really done wrong.\"In 1883, celebrating the 333rd anniversary of Santa Fe, Whitman argued that the indigenous and Spanish-Indian elements would supply leading traits in the \"composite American identity of the future.\" As to our aboriginal or Indian population—the Aztec in", "Aztec in the South, and many a tribe in the North and West—I know it seems to be agreed that they must gradually dwindle as time rolls on, and in a few generations more leave only a reminiscence, a blank. But I am not at all clear about that. As America, from its many far-back sources and current supplies, develops, adapts, entwines, faithfully identifies its own—are we to see it cheerfully accepting and using all the contributions of foreign lands from the whole outside globe—and then rejecting the only ones distinctively its own—the autochthonic ones? As to the Spanish stock of our Southwest, it is certain to me that we do not begin to appreciate the splendor and sterling value of its race element. Who knows but that element, like the course of some subterranean river, dipping invisibly for a hundred or two years, is now to emerge in broadest flow and permanent action? Legacy and influence Whitman has been claimed as the first \"poet of democracy\" in the United States, a title meant to reflect his ability", "reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character. An American-British friend of Whitman,Mary Whitall Smith Costelloe, wrote: \"You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, withoutLeaves of Grass... He has expressed that civilization, 'up to date,' as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him.\"Andrew Carnegiecalled him \"the great poet of America so far\".Whitman considered himself a messiah-like figure in poetry.Others agreed: one of his admirers, William Sloane Kennedy, speculated that \"people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ\". Literary criticHarold Bloomwrote, as the introduction for the 150th anniversary ofLeaves of Grass: If you are American, then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother, even if, like myself, you have never composed a line of verse. You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States. They might", "States. They might includeMelville'sMoby-Dick,Twain'sAdventures of Huckleberry Finn, and Emerson's two series ofEssaysandThe Conduct of Life. None of those, not even Emerson's, are as central as the first edition ofLeaves of Grass. In his own time, Whitman attracted an influential coterie of disciples and admirers. Among his admirers were theEagle Street College, an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace on Eagle Street inBolton, England, to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman. The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites. Its members held an annual \"Whitman Day\" celebration around the poet's birthday. American poets Whitman is one of the most influential American poets.ModernistpoetEzra Poundcalled Whitman \"America's poet ... HeisAmerica.\"To poetLangston Hughes, who wrote \"I, too, sing America\", Whitman was a literary hero.Whitman'svagabondlifestyle was adopted by theBeat movementand its leaders such asAllen GinsbergandJack Kerouacin", "Kerouacin the 1950s and 1960s, as well as anti-war poets such asAdrienne Rich,Alicia Ostriker, andGary Snyder.Lawrence Ferlinghettinumbered himself among Whitman's \"wild children\", and the title of Ferlinghetti's 1961 collectionStarting from San Franciscois a reference to Whitman'sStarting from Paumanok.June Jordanpublished a pivotal essay entitled \"For the Sake of People's Poetry: Walt Whitman and the Rest of Us\", praising Whitman as a democratic poet whose works speak to ethnic minorities from all backgrounds.United States poet laureateJoy Harjo, who is a Chancellor of theAcademy of American Poets, counts Whitman among her influences. Latin American poets Whitman's poetry influenced Latin American and Caribbean poets in the 19th and 20th centuries, starting with Cuban poet, philosopher, and nationalist leaderJosé Martí, who published essays in Spanish on Whitman's writings in 1887.Álvaro Armando Vasseur's 1912 translations further raised Whitman's profile in Latin America.Peruvian vanguardistCésar Vallejo,", "Vallejo, Chilean poetPablo Neruda, and ArgentineJorge Luis Borgesacknowledged Walt Whitman's influence. European authors Some, likeOscar WildeandEdward Carpenter, viewed Whitman both as a prophet of a utopian future and of same-sex desire—the passion of comrades. This aligned with their own desires for a future of brotherlysocialism.Whitman also influencedBram Stoker, author ofDracula, and was a model for the character ofDracula. Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which, to Stoker, was Whitman, with whom he corresponded until Whitman's death. Film and television Whitman's life and verse have been referenced in a substantial number of works of film and video. In the movieBeautiful Dreamers(Hemdale Films, 1992) Whitman was portrayed byRip Torn. Whitman visits an insane asylum inLondon, Ontario, where some of his ideas are adopted as part of anoccupational therapyprogram. InDead Poets Society(1989) byPeter Weir, teacher John Keating inspires his students with the works of", "with the works of Whitman,ShakespeareandJohn Keats. Whitman's poem \"Yonnondio\" influenced both abook(Yonnondio: From the Thirties, 1974) byTillie Olsenand a sixteen-minute film,Yonnondio(1994) by Ali Mohamed Selim. Whitman's poem \"I Sing the Body Electric\" (1855) was used byRay Bradburyas the title of a short story and a short story collection. Bradbury's story was adapted for theTwilight Zoneepisode of May 18, 1962, in which a bereaved family buys a made-to-order robot grandmother to forever love and serve the family.\"I Sing the Body Electric\" inspired the showcase finale in the movieFame(1980), a diverse fusion of gospel, rock, and orchestra. Music and audio recordings Whitman's poetry has been set to music by more than 500 composers; indeed it has been suggested that his poetry has been set to music more than that of any other American poet except forEmily DickinsonandHenry Wadsworth Longfellow.Those who have set his poems to music includeJohn Adams;Ernst Bacon;Leonard Bernstein;Benjamin Britten;Rhoda", "Britten;Rhoda Coghill;David Conte;Ronald Corp;George Crumb;Frederick Delius;Howard Hanson;Karl Amadeus Hartmann;Hans Werner Henze;Bernard Herrmann;Jennifer Higdon;Paul Hindemith;Ned Rorem;Howard Skempton;Eva Ruth Spalding;Williametta Spencer;Charles Villiers Stanford;Robert Strassburg;Ananda Sukarlan;Ivana Marburger Themmen;Rossini Vrionides;Ralph Vaughan Williams;Kurt Weill;Helen L. Weiss;Charles Wood; andRoger Sessions.Crossing, an opera composed byMatthew Aucoinand inspired by Whitman's Civil War diaries, premiered in 2015. In 2014, German publisher Hörbuch Hamburg issued the bilingual double-CD audio book of theKinder Adams/Children of Adamcycle, based on translations by Kai Grehn in the 2005Children of Adam from Leaves of Grass(Galerie Vevais), accompanying a collection of nude photography byPaul Cava. The audio release included a complete reading byIggy Pop, as well as readings byMarianne Sägebrecht;Martin Wuttke;Birgit Minichmayr;Alexander Fehling;Lars Rudolph;Volker Bruch;Paula Beer; Josef", "Beer; Josef Osterndorf; Ronald Lippok;Jule Böwe; andRobert Gwisdek.In 2014 composerJohn ZornreleasedOn Leaves of Grass, an album inspired by and dedicated to Whitman. Namesake recognition Whitman's importance in American culture is reflected in schools, roads, rest stops, and bridges named after him. Among them are theWalt Whitman High SchoolinBethesda, MarylandandWalt Whitman High SchoolonLong Island,Walt Whitman Elementary School(Woodbury, New York), Walt Whitman Boulevard (Cherry Hill, New Jersey), and a service area on theNew Jersey TurnpikeinCherry Hill, to name a few. TheWalt Whitman Bridge, which crosses theDelaware RiverbetweenPhiladelphiaandGloucester City, New Jerseynear Whitman's home in Camden, New Jersey, was opened on May 16, 1957.Astatue of WhitmanbyJo Davidsonis located at the entrance to the Walt Whitman Bridge and another casting resides in theBear Mountain State Park. The controversy that surrounded the naming of the Walt Whitman bridge has been documented in a series of letters from", "of letters from members of the public, which are held in the University of Pennsylvania library.The web page about this matter states: \"The bridge was meant to be named after a person of note who had lived in New Jersey, but some area citizens opposed the name 'Walt Whitman Bridge'.... Many objecting to the choice of his name for the bridge saw Whitman's work as sympathizing with communist ideals and criticized him for his egalitarian view of humanity.\" In 1997, theWalt Whitman Community SchoolinDallasopened, becoming the first private high school catering to LGBT youth.His other namesakes include theWalt Whitman ShopsinHuntington Station, New York, near his birthplace, and Walt Whitman Road, which spans Huntington Station toMelvilleon Long Island. Whitman was inducted into theNew Jersey Hall of Famein 2009,and, in 2013, he was inducted into theLegacy Walk, an outdoor public display that celebratesLGBThistory and people. A coedsummer campfounded in 1948 inPiermont, New Hampshire, is named after Whitman. A", "after Whitman. A crater onMercuryis named for him. Works See also References Sources External links Online editions Archives Exhibitions Historic sites Other external links" ]

[ "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_assistant_referee", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup#Officiating", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Costa#Spain" ]

[ "Video assistant referee Video assistant referee(VAR) is a system that helpsrefereesto decide better about players fouls, if a goal was valid, red card decisions, etc. insoccermatches. When the referee is going to review a play on the field at the VAR box, they outline a square with their hands, as if showing the outline of aTVscreen. It was used for the first time in the2016 FIFA Club World Cup.It was used for the first time for international matches in the2017 FIFA Confederations Cup.The first time VAR was used in theFIFA World Cupwas in the2018 World Cup. In March 2018, the VAR was permanentely written into theLaws of the Gameby theInternational Football Association Board(IFAB). There are 3 categories of decisions that can be reviewed: The referee can review the play on the field by going to the VAR box, listen to the VAR's recommendation, or completely ignore the VAR advice. The referee can only review the play on the field with recommendation of the VAR to prevent the referee from relying on it too much. Criticism The VAR system has been criticised by many people, mostly because of how much time is used up in reviews, overly relying on it, and causing confusion. ManagerMauricio Pochettinosaid \"it made everyone confused\". He also said that he felt sorry for the fans and for the referee after anFA Cupmatch. References", "2018 FIFA World Cup The2018 FIFA World Cupwas the 21stFIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for nationalfootballteams organized byFIFA. It took place inRussiafrom 14 June to 15 July 2018, after the country was awarded the hosting rights in late 2010. It was the eleventh time the championships had been held inEurope, the first time they were held inEastern Europe, and the first time they were held across two continents (Europe and Asia). At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it was the most expensive World Cup ever held until it was surpassed by the2022 World CupinQatar. The tournament phase involved 32 teams, of which 31 came throughqualifying competitions, while the host nationRussiaqualified automatically. Of the 32, 20 had also appeared in the2014 event, whileIcelandandPanamaeach made their debut at the World Cup. 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities.Germany, the defending champions, were eliminated in the group stage for the first time since1938. Host nationRussiawas eliminated in the quarter-finals. In thefinal,FranceplayedCroatiaon 15 July at theLuzhniki StadiuminMoscow. France won the match 4–2, claiming their second World Cup and becoming the fourth consecutive title won by a European team, afterItalyin2006,Spainin2010, andGermanyin2014. Croatian playerLuka Modrićwas voted the tournament's best player, winning theGolden Ball.England'sHarry Kanewon theGolden Bootas he scored the most goals during the tournament with six.Belgium'sThibaut Courtoiswon theGolden Glove, awarded to thegoalkeeperwith the best performance. It has been estimated that more than 3 million people attended games during the tournament. Host selection Thebidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournamentsbegan in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest.Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, butMexicolater withdrew from the proceedings,andIndonesia's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after theIndonesian governmentfailed to submit a letter to support the bid.During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFAnations (Australia,Japan, and theUnited States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and thus all UEFA nations were ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids:England,Russia,Netherlands/Belgium, andPortugal/Spain. The 22-memberFIFA Executive Committeeconvened inZürichon 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments.Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal/Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium/Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round. The voting results were: Host selection criticism The choice of Russia as host was controversial. Issues included the high level ofracismin Russian football,human rights abusesby Russian authorities,anddiscriminationagainstLGBTpeople in government (includinggay propaganda laws) along with wider Russian society.Russia's involvement in theongoing conflict in Ukrainehad also prompted calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following theannexation of Crimea.In 2014, FIFA presidentSepp Blatterstated that \"the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work\". Russia was criticised for alleged abuse of migrant labourers in the construction of World Cup venues,withHuman Rights Watchreporting cases where workers were left unpaid, made to work in dangerously cold conditions, or suffering reprisals for raising concerns.A few pundits claimed it was slave labour.In May 2017, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinoadmitted there had been human rights abuses of North Korean workers involved in the construction ofSaint Petersburg'sZenit Arena.By June 2017, at least 17 workers had died on World Cup construction sites, according toBuilding and Wood Workers' International.In August, a group of eight US senators called on FIFA to consider dismissing Russia as the World Cup host if an independent investigation verified allegations of North Koreans being subjected to forced labor. RacismandNeo-nazisymbols displayed in the past by some Russian football fans drew criticism,with documented incidents of racial chants, banners spewing hate-filled messages, and sometimes assaults on people from theCaucasusandCentral Asia.In March 2015, FIFA's then Vice PresidentJeffrey Webbsaid that Russia posed a huge challenge from a racism standpoint, and that a World Cup could not be held there under the current conditions.On July,United Nationsanti-discrimination official Yuri Boychenko said that Russian soccer authorities had failed to fully grasp what racism was and needed to do more to combat it.To address this as well as concerns ofhooliganismin general, Russian intelligence services blacklisted over 400 fans from entering the stadiums by June 2018, with 32 other countries also sending officers to help local police screen attendees for valid ID cards. Allegations ofcorruptionin the bidding processes and concerns over bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption by FIFA members for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups led to threats from England'sFAto boycott the tournament.They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win.FIFA appointedMichael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and producea reporton the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42-page summary of its findings as determined byGermanjudgeHans-Joachim Eckert. Eckert's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash.Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert's absolving Russia from blame.Greg Dykecalled for a re-examination of the affair andDavid Bernsteincalled for a boycott of the World Cup.Garcia criticised the summary as being \"materially incomplete\" with \"erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions\", and appealed to FIFA's Appeal Committee.The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned to protest of FIFA's conduct, citing a \"lack of leadership\" and lack of confidence in Eckert's independence. On 3 June 2015, theFBIconfirmed that federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and2022 World Cups.In an interview published on 7 June 2015,Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that \"should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled\".Prince William of Walesand formerBritish Prime MinisterDavid Cameronattended a meeting with FIFA vice-presidentChung Mong-joonin which a vote-trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup inEnglandwas discussed. Teams Qualification For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations—the 209FIFA member associationsexcept automatically qualified hosts Russia—applied to enter the qualifying process.ZimbabweandIndonesiawere later disqualified before playing their first matches,whileGibraltarandKosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition.Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup.The first qualification game, betweenTimor-LesteandMongolia, began inDilion 12 March 2015 as part of theAFC's qualification,and the main qualifying draw took place at theKonstantinovsky PalaceinStrelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015. Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming thesmallest country in terms of populationto reach the World Cup.Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments included:Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990;Morocco, who last competed in 1998;Peru, who last appeared in 1982;Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter-finals in 2002.Poland,Saudi Arabia,TunisiaandSwedenhave also returned after12 years. It was the first time threeNordic countries(Denmark, Iceland andSweden) and fourArab nations(Egypt, Morocco,Saudi ArabiaandTunisia) qualified for the World Cup. Notable teams that failed to qualify included: four-time championsItaly(for the first time since 1958), who were knocked out in a qualification play-off by quarter-finalists Sweden and were the highest-ranked team to not qualify; and theNetherlands, who were three-time runners-up and had finished in third place in 2014, had qualified for the last three World Cups, and failed to qualify for their second major tournament in a row, missing out on theUEFA Euro 2016as well. Four reigning continental champions:2017 Africa Cup of NationswinnersCameroon; two-timeCopa Américachampions and2017 Confederations Cuprunners-upChile;2016 OFC Nations CupwinnersNew Zealand; and2017 CONCACAF Gold Cupchampions theUnited States(for the first time since 1986) also failed to qualify. The other notable qualifying streaks broken were forGhanaandIvory Coast, both of which had qualified for the three previous tournaments.The lowest-ranked team to qualify was the host nation, Russia. Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in theFIFA World Rankingsat the time of the tournament. AFC(5) CAF(5) CONCACAF(3) CONMEBOL(5) OFC(0) UEFA(14) Draw The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18:00MSKat theState Kremlin Palacein Moscow.The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, by selecting one team from each of the four ranked pots. For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based entirely on theFIFA World Rankingsof October 2017. Pot one contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams. Pot two contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots three and four.This was different from previous draws, when only pot one was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group. The pots for the draw are shown below. Squads Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players, but in February 2018 this was increased to 35.From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom had to be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad could be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team's first match. These replacements did not need to have been named in the preliminary squad. For players named in the 35-player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the2018 UEFA Champions League Finalplayed on 26 May. Officiating On 29 March 2018,FIFAreleased the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches.On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who acted solely in this capacity in the tournament. RefereeFahad Al-MirdasiofSaudi Arabiawas removed on 30 May 2018 over amatch-fixingattempt,along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al-Abakry and Abdulah Al-Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of theUnited Arab Emiratesand Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list.Assistant refereeMarwa RangeofKenyaalso withdrew after theBBCreleased an investigation conducted by aGhanaianjournalistwhich implicated him in a bribery scandal. Video assistant referees Shortly after theInternational Football Association Board's decision to incorporatevideo assistant referees(VARs) into theLaws of the game(LOTG) on 16 March 2018, theFIFA Counciltook the much-anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament. VAR operations for all games were operated from a single headquarters in Moscow, which received live video of the games and were in radio contact with the on-field referees.Systems were in place for communicating VAR-related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums' large screens were used for the fans in attendance. VAR had a significant impact on several games.On 15 June 2018,Diego Costa's first goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision;the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal byAntoine Griezmann.A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, a phenomenon partially attributed to VAR.Overall, the new technology was both praised and criticised by commentators.FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition. Venues Russia proposed the following host cities:Kaliningrad,Kazan,Krasnodar,Moscow,Nizhny Novgorod,Rostov-on-Don,Saint Petersburg,Samara,Saransk,Sochi,Volgograd,Yaroslavl, andYekaterinburg.Each chosen city was located inEuropean Russia(except Yekaterinburg,which is located inAsiabut lies very close to the Europe-Asia border) in order to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: \"The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed.\" In October 2011, Russia reduced the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposedPodolskstadium in theMoscow Oblastwas cancelled by the regional government. Also, in the capital,Otkritie Arenawas competing withDynamo Stadiumover which would be constructed first. The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was reduced further to 11 and the number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, three (Luzhniki,YekaterinburgandSochi) had been extensively renovated and the other nine were brand new; $11.8 billion was spent on hosting the tournament. Sepp Blatter had said in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10.He also said, \"We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiumsin South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums\". In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA's inspection committee and its head,Chris Unger, visited St. Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the local organising committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums to be used during the tournament.Of the twelve venues, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium—the two largest stadiums in Russia—were used most; both hosted seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara each hosted six matches, including one quarter-final match each, while theOtkritie Stadiumin Moscow and theRostov Stadiumhosted five matches, including one round-of-16 match each.Volgograd,Kaliningrad,YekaterinburgandSaranskeach hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games. Stadiums Twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities were built or renovated for the FIFA World Cup. Between 2010 (when Russia were announced as hosts) and 2018, nine of the twelve stadiums were built (some in place of older, outdated venues) and the other three were renovated for the tournament. Team base camps Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team. Preparation and costs Budget At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018,the 2018 FIFA event was the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the $11.6 billion cost of the2014 FIFA World Cupin Brazil. TheRussian governmenthad originally earmarked abudgetof around $20 billion,which was later slashed to $10 billion, for World Cup preparations. Half was spent on transportation infrastructure.As part of the program to prepare for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program—\"Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure\"—was implemented with a total budget of ₽352.5 billion (rubles), with ₽170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, ₽35.1 billion from regional budgets, and ₽147.1 billion from investors.The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure costing ₽117.8 billion.Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in World Cup host cities. Costs continued to mount as preparations were underway. Infrastructure spending Platov International AirportinRostov-on-Donwas upgraded with automatedair traffic controlsystems. Modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, andmeteorologicalsupport systems were also installed.Koltsovo AirportinYekaterinburgwas upgraded with radio-engineering tools for flight operation and received a second runway.Saransk Airportreceived a new navigation system; two new hotels were constructed in the city—the Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) andFour Points by SheratonSaransk as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities.InSamara, new tram lines were laid.Khrabrovo AirportinKaliningradwas upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment.Renovation and upgraded radio-engineering tools for flight operations was completed in theMoscow,Saint Petersburg,Volgograd,Samara, Yekaterinburg,KazanandSochiairports.On 27 March, theRussian Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sectorof reported that all communications within its area of responsibility had been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches were hosted, hosting costs increased to over ₽7.4 billion, exceeding the ₽5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from thestateand regional budget. Volunteers Volunteer applications to the 2018 Russia Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications,and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers.They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the local organising committee based in 15 universities, and in volunteer centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in key areas, was given to those with knowledge of a foreign language and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals. Transport Freepublic transportservices were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking host cities, as well as services such as bus services within them. Schedule The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 without kick-off times, which were confirmed later.On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, FIFA adjusted six kick-off times. Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June againstSaudi Arabia, the two lowest-ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw.The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. TheKrestovsky Stadiumin Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play-off on 14 July. Opening ceremony The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding theopening match of the tournamentbetween hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia. At the start of the ceremony, Russian presidentVladimir Putingave a speech, welcoming the countries of the world to Russia and calling football a uniting force.Brazilian World Cup-winning strikerRonaldoentered the stadium with a child in a Russia jersey.Pop singerRobbie Williamsthen sang two of his songs solo before he and Russian sopranoAida Garifullinaperformed a duet.Dancers dressed in the flags of the 32 competing teams appeared carrying a sign with the name of each nation.At the end of the ceremony Ronaldo reappeared with the official match ball which had returned from theInternational Space Stationin early June. Young participants of the international children's social programmeFootball for Friendshipfrom 211 countries and regions took part in the opening ceremony of the FIFA World Cup at the Luzhniki stadium. Group stage Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in around-robin, with the top two teams advancing to theknockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico. For the first time since1938, Germany, the reigning champions, were eliminated in the first round. This was the third consecutive tournament in which the holders were eliminated in the first round, after Italy in2010and Spain in2014. No African team progressed to the second round for the first time since1982. The fair play criteria came into use for the first time when Japan qualified over Senegal because the team had received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France versus Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.All times listed below arelocal time. Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F Group G Group H Knockout stage In the knockout stages, if a match was level at the end of normal playing time,extra timewas played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by apenalty shoot-outto determine the winners.If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.Below is the bracket for the knockout round of the tournament, teams in bold denote match winners. Bracket Round of 16 Quarter-finals Semi-finals Third place play-off Final Statistics Goalscorers There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match. Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in1998.Goals scored from penalty shoot-outs are not counted towards an individual player's goal count. 6 goals 4 goals 3 goals 2 goals 1 goal 1 own goal Source: FIFA Discipline In total, only four players were sent off in the entire tournament, the fewest since1978.International Football Association Boardtechnical directorDavid Elleraystated a belief that this was due to the introduction ofVAR, since players would know that they would not be able to get away with anything under the new system. A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences: The following suspensions were served during the tournament: Final standings Awards The followingawardswere given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot (top scorer), Golden Ball (best overall player) and Golden Glove (best goalkeeper) awards were all sponsored byAdidas. Dream Team The users of FIFA.com elected their Fan Dream Team. Additionally, FIFA.com shortlisted 18 goals for users to vote on as the tournament's best.The poll closed on 23 July. The award was sponsored byHyundai. All-Star Team FIFA published anAll-Star Team, this year called theFantasy Team, based on player performances evaluated through statistical data. Prize money Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017. Marketing Branding The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at theInternational Space Stationand then projected onto Moscow'sBolshoi Theatreduring an evening television programme. Russian Sports MinisterVitaly Mutkosaid the logo was inspired by \"Russia's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation\", and FIFA president Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the \"heart and soul\" of the country.For branding, Portuguese design agency Brandia Central created materials in 2014, with a typeface calledDusha–душа(Russianfor 'soul') – designed by Brandia Central and edited by Adotbelow of the DSType Foundry in Portugal. Ticketing The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12:00Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017. The generalvisa policy of Russiadid not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship.Spectators were nonetheless required to register for a \"Fan-ID\", a special photo identification pass. A Fan-ID was required to enter the country visa-free, while a ticket, Fan-ID and a valid passport were required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan-IDs also granted World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, andtrain servicebetween host cities. Fan-ID was administered by theMinistry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, which could revoke thisaccreditationat any time to \"ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order\". Merchandise On 29 May 2018,Electronic Artsreleased a free update to their video gameFIFA 18that added content related to the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Theexpansionincluded a World Cup tournament mode with all teams and stadiums from the event, official television presentation elements, and World Cup-related content for the Ultimate Team mode. Paninicontinued their partnership with FIFA by producing stickers for their World Cupsticker album.Panini also developed an app for the 2018 World Cup where fans could collect and swap virtual stickers, with 5 million fans gathering digital stickers for the tournament. Symbols Mascot The tournament'sofficial mascotwas unveiled on 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select the mascot from three finalists—a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53% or approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka—ananthropomorphicwolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka's name is a portmanteau of the Russian wordsзабияка(\"hothead\") andзабивать(\"to score\"), and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is \"charming, confident and social\". Match ball The official match ball, the \"Telstar 18\", was unveiled on 9 November 2017. It was based on the name and design of the firstAdidasWorld Cup ball from1970.A special red-coloured variation, \"Telstar Mechta\", was used for the knockout stage of the tournament. The wordmechta(Russian:мечта) means \"dream\" or \"ambition\". Goalkeepers noted that the ball was slippery and prone to having unpredictable trajectory.In addition, two Telstar 18 balls popped in the midst of a first-roundmatchbetweenFranceandAustralia, leading to further discussions over the ball's performance. Music The official song of the tournament was \"Live It Up\", with vocals byWill Smith,Nicky JamandEra Istrefi, released on 25 May 2018. Its music video was released on 8 June 2018. Other controversies Thirty-three footballers who were alleged to be part of theRussian steroid programmeare listed in theMcLaren Report.On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA had fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football.On 22 May 2018, FIFA stated that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to support anti-doping rule violations.FIFA's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament, an action taken to reassure teams that samples would not be tampered with. Russia relaxed its visa rules during the World Cup, allowing Fan ID holders to enter and exit Russia without a visa through 31 December 2018. Traffickers exploited this system to bring foreign sex trafficking victims into the country, especially from Nigeria.Reutershad raised concerns about the victims' conditions, who had allegedly been forced into prostitution, with some of them enduring violent abuse.Russian authorities were accused of doing little to fix to the issue, allegedly because many locals blamed the victims for falling into prostitution. Response to Skripal poisoning In response to the March 2018poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British prime ministerTheresa Mayannounced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans.Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that the West are trying to \"take the World Cup out of Russia\".TheRussian Foreign MinistrydenouncedBoris Johnson's statements that compared the event to the1936 Olympicsheld inNazi Germanyas \"poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness\" and \"unacceptable and unworthy\" parallel towards Russia, a \"nation thatlost millions of lives in fighting Nazism\". Critical reception At the close of the World Cup, Russia was widely praised for its success in hosting the tournament, with Steve Rosenberg of theBBCdeeming it \"a resoundingpublic relationssuccess\" for Putin, adding: \"The stunning new stadiums, free train travel to venues and the absence of crowd violence has impressed visiting supporters. Russia has come across as friendly and hospitable: a stark contrast with the country's authoritarian image. All the foreign fans I have spoken to are pleasantly surprised.\" Despite the BritishForeign Officeand MPs repeatedly warning English football fans travelling to Russia of \"racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility\",fans who did travel said they received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia. FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated: \"Everyone discovered a beautiful country, a welcoming country, that is keen to show the world that everything that has been said before might not be true. A lot of preconceived ideas have been changed because people have seen the true nature of Russia.\"Infantino has proclaimed Russia 2018 to be \"the best World Cup ever.\" 98 percent of the stadiums were sold out, there were 3 billion viewers on TV around the world and 7 million fans visited the fan fests.It was the most viewed World Cup to date, and the thirdmost viewed television broadcast, surpassing theBeijing Olympics in 2008. Broadcasting rights FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters. After having tested the technology at limited matches of the2013 FIFA Confederations Cup,and the 2014 FIFA World Cup (via private tests and public viewings in the host city ofRio de Janeiro),the 2018 World Cup was the first World Cup in which all matches were produced in4Kultra high definition. Host Broadcast Services (HBS) stated that at least 75% of the broadcast cut of each match would come from 4K cameras (covering the majority of main angles), with instant replays and some camera angles being converted up from1080phigh definition sources with limited degradation in quality. These broadcasts were made available from selected rightsholders and television providers. In February 2018,UkrainianrightsholderUA:PBCstated that it would not broadcast the World Cup due to existing tensions with Russia amidst theRusso-Ukrainian War. This came in the wake of growing boycott of the tournament by theFootball Federation of Ukraineand sports ministerIhor Zhdanov.Additionally, the FFU refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets.However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match. Broadcast rights to the tournament in theMiddle Eastwere hampered by an ongoingdiplomatic crisis in Qatar, which saw Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates cut diplomatic ties with Qatar—the home country of FIFA's Middle East and Africa rightsholderbeIN Sports—in June 2017, over itsalleged state support of terrorist groups. On 2 June 2018, beIN pulled its channels fromDuandEtisalat, but with service to the latter restored later that day. Etisalat subsequently announced that it would air the World Cup in the UAE, and continue to offer beIN normally and without interruptions.In Saudi Arabia, beIN was banned from doing business; as a result, its channels and other content have been widely and illegally repackaged by a broadcaster identifying itself as \"beoutQ\". While FIFA attempted to negotiate the sale of a package consisting of Saudi matches and the final indirectly, they were unable to do so. On 12 July 2018, FIFA stated that it had \"engaged counsel to take legal action in Saudi Arabia and is working alongside other sports rights owners that have also been affected to protect its interests.\" In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men's World Cup whose English rights were held byFox Sports, and Spanish rights held byTelemundo. The elimination of theUnited Statesin the qualifiers led to concerns that U.S. interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced, noting that \"casual\" viewers of U.S. matches caused them to peak at 16.5 million in 2014, and determined how much Fox paid for the rights. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity amongHispanic and Latino Americans. Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of tournament coverage.Viewership was down overall compared to 2014; match scheduling and time zones were not as favourable to viewers in the Americas as they were in 2014. Many games aired in the morning hours, although Telemundo's broadcast of the Mexico-Sweden Group F match was announced as being its most-watched weekdaydaytimeprogram in the network's history. Unlike previous tournaments, where the rights were bundled with those of South Korea,Korean Central Televisionacquired rights to the 2018 World Cup within North Korea. Broadcasts only began with the round of 16, and matches were tape delayed and edited for time. In addition, matches involving Japan were excluded from the broadcasts, due tostrained relations and campaigns against the country. Sponsorship Audience A combined 3.572 billion unique viewers (live global 1-minute reach) – more than half of the global population aged four and over – tuned in to world football's ultimate competition, according to audience data for official broadcast coverage of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The average global live audience for every game of the tournament was 191 million viewers (for a cumulative live audience of 12.224 billion viewers), a 2.1% increase over the 2014 tournament average of 187 million viewers, including that average audience in the early stages (group stage and round of 16) were bigger than in 2014. However, in 2018, the audience was 15 percent smaller for the semi-finals, 17 percent for the third place play-off, and 5.1 percent for the final, which was watched by 517 million people on average (only in-home TV viewers), compared to 545 million in 2014. Presumably, the reason for that is the smaller countries involved in the top four games compared to those in 2014, and only one global region (Europe) being represented in 2018 (compared toSouth Americaand Europe in 2014). However the live global 1-minute reach of the final was 1.12 billion people (884.37 in-home TV viewers and 231.82 million out-of-home and (or) digital-only viewers). See also References External links", "Diego Costa Diego da Silva Costa(Spanish:,Portuguese:; born 7 October 1988)is a professionalfootballerwho plays as astrikerforCampeonato Brasileiro Série AclubGrêmio. Costa began his football career in his native Brazil before joiningBragain Portugal in 2006, aged 17. He never played for the club but spent time on loan atPenafiel, and signed with Atlético Madrid the following year. Over the next two seasons he had loan periods with Braga,Celta VigoandAlbacete. His form earned him a move to fellowLa LigaclubReal Valladolidin 2009, where he spent one season, finishing as their top goalscorer, before returning to Atlético Madrid. Costa struggled to maintain a regular starting role with Atlético, and spent more time on loan, this time atRayo Vallecano, where he finished as the club's highest scorer that season. In 2011, Costa returned to Atlético with a greater role. He blossomed as a goalscorer, and helped the team win a La Liga title, aCopa del Reytitle, and aUEFA Super Cup, as well as reaching the2014 UEFA Champions League final. In 2014, he was signed byPremier LeagueclubChelseain a deal worth €35 million (£32 million). In London, Costa won three trophies, including two Premier League titles and aLeague Cup. In 2018, following a rift with head coachAntonio Conte, Costa returned to Atlético Madrid in a club record transfer worth an initial €56 million,where he won aUEFA Europa Leaguetitle and anotherUEFA Super Cup. Costa is a dual citizen of Brazil and Spain. He played twice forBrazilin 2013, before declaring his desire to represent Spain, having been grantedSpanish citizenshipin September that year. He made his debut for Spain in March 2014, and has since won 24 caps and scored 10 goals, and has represented them at the2014and2018 FIFA World Cups. Known for his fiery temperament, Costa has been criticised and punished for several confrontations with opponents. Early life Costa was born inLagarto, Sergipe, Brazil, to parents José de Jesus and Josileide.His father named him in honour of Argentine footballerDiego Maradonadespitethe rivalry between the two nations, and he has an elder brother named Jair after Brazilian playerJairzinho.Despite regularly playingstreet football, Costa did not believe as a child that he would turn professional, in part due to the remote location of his hometown.He has since set up a football academy in his hometown, where he pays all the costs.Costa is a fan ofPalmeiras. Costa trialled unsuccessfully at his hometown teamAtlético Clube Lagartense.At age 15, he left Sergipe and moved toSão Paulo, to work in the store of his uncle Jarminho.Although he was never a professional, Jarminho had connections in football and recommended his nephew toBarcelona Esportivo Capela, a team from the south of the city set up as an alternative to drugs and gangs for youth of thefavelas.Before joining this team, he had never been coached in football.He turned professional at the club, earning around£100 per month,and competed in the under-18 Taça de São Paulo despite a four-month ban for slapping an opponent and dissent towards the referee. Although he was sent off in the first game of the tournament, he attracted the attention of renowned Portuguese agentJorge Mendes, who offered him a contract atBraga. Costa's father was apprehensive of sending his son to Europe, and suggested he instead sign for nearbyAssociação Desportiva São Caetano, but he was adamant that he would take the opportunity. Jair played on the same team as Diego, and was a slimmer, more technically able player, but had less focus; the two were often not fielded at the same time in order to prevent arguments. He never turned professional, but had a three-month trial atBasqueclubSalvatierra. Club career Early career Costa signed for his first European club in February 2006, Portugal'sBraga.He initially struggled with loneliness and the comparatively cold weather of northern Portugal.Out of action due to the club's lack of a youth team, he was loaned that summer toPenafielin thesecond division,managed by formerPortugal internationalRui Bento, who desired the \"rough diamond\". Through his negotiations with Spain'sAtlético Madrid,Mendes arranged Costa's transfer for€1.5 million and 50% of the player's rights in December 2006,but he remained on loan at Braga until the end ofthe season. Atlético defeated interest fromPortoandRecreativo de Huelvafor Costa's signature, with directorJesús García Pitarchadmitting that it was a risk to pay so much for an inexperienced player.After 5 goals in 13 games for Penafiel, he was recalled to Braga in January 2007.On 23 February, he came on in the 71st minute forZé Carlosand scored his first goal for the team, a last-minute goal for a 1–0 win atParmato advance2–0 on aggregateto the Last 16 of theUEFA Cup.His season ended after seven games due to ametatarsalinjury which ruled him out for six months. Costa was presented by Atlético Madrid presidentEnrique Cerezoon 10 July 2007 as \"the newKaká\".While scout Javier Hernández wished for him to return to fitness in theclub's reserves, García Pitarch instead suggested loaning Costa out immediately.He made his debut on 11 August in the Ciudad de Vigo tournament againstCelta de Vigo, replacingSimãoat half-time in apenalty shootoutvictory. Celta Vigo Later that month, Costa andMario Suárezwere loaned toSegunda Divisiónside Celta de Vigo for the season, and Costa became a regular in the team, managed by formerBallon d'OrwinnerHristo Stoichkov.In his seventh league match, he scored his first goal in Spanish football in a dominant home victory overXerez; after scoring, he showboated, causing a brawl which resulted in him being sent off. Costa was subsequently rested from Celta's away game at the same opposition. The event drew the wrath of Stoichkov, who unexpectedly left his position.Towards the middle of the season, he was involved in two further controversies: he struckMálagadefenderWeligtonin the head, causing an injury which required medical stitches, and was sent off againstSevilla Atléticofordivingand dissent, leaving his team to fight for a draw without him.The loyal strike partner ofQuincy Owusu-Abeyiedespite the pair not sharing a common language, he was dropped for CypriotIoannis Okkas.On 23 March 2008, Costa scored both Celta goals in a 2–1 win atNumancia, the latter after a long dribble;but later on in the campaign, he was sent off againstTenerifeatBalaídos, after which Celta went from winning 2–0 to drawing 2–2.The team barely avoided relegation, and Costa earned a reputation for being a disruptive influence. Albacete Despite earning a poor reputation for his conduct, Costa attracted interest fromSalamanca,Gimnàstic de Tarragonaand Málaga after his loan at Celta; García Pitarch ruled out any approach from the latter, fearing how Costa would behave on theCosta del Sol.After attending Atlético's pre-season tour of Mexico, he signed on loan forAlbacete, also of Segunda División, on 22 August 2008, signing a contract which would have a lower fee depending on how many games he played.He initially threatened to terminate his deal with theCastile-La Manchateam, on account of the quality of his teammates andthe city'slack of a beach.Nine days after signing, he scored a late winner in a 2–1 victory over Sevilla's reserves at theEstadio Carlos Belmonte.TheQueso Mecánicosuffered with financial problems during Costa's loan, with him threatening to strike unless their non-playing staff were paid in full.He was dropped to the bench by managerJuan Ignacio Martínezfor the home game againstReal Sociedadon 13 December as punishment for an argument with goalkeeperJonathan, but came on as a substitute to score another late winner. Costa was known for misbehaviour on and off the pitch while at Albacete. He was sent off away to Tenerife, after which he slandered the referee's mother and confronted his opponents.He pulledpractical jokeson his teammates and employers, earning him the moniker \"that fucking Brazilian\".However, he was a central figure as they avoided relegation, assisting twice in a 3–0 win at high-flyingRayo Vallecanoon 2 May 2009, despite missing a penalty. Valladolid In the summer of 2009, Costa was desired byBarcelonafor theirreserve team, an approach which Atlético rejected, citing that he remained in their plans.Frustrated by his lack of opportunities, however, a now overweight Costa argued with his management and attempted to negotiate a move to Brazil'sEsporte Clube Vitória. On 8 July 2009, Costa was sold toReal Valladolidas part of the deal that sentgoalkeeperSergio Asenjoin the opposite direction, with the transfer including a €1 million buy-back option that could be activated by Atlético at the end ofthe season.García Pitarch confessed that there was a verbal agreement that Costa would definitely return at the end of the campaign, and that the deal had been made to look permanent in order to give Costa more commitment to his new club. Initially, Costa had competition up front from fellow new signingsAlberto BuenoandManucho, signed fromReal MadridandManchester Unitedrespectively; he eventually forged a friendship with the latter, a fellowlusophone, from Angola.He started strong for theCastile and Leónside, scoring 6 times in his first 12 games,but only found the net once in the following five-and-a-half months as the campaign eventually ended inrelegationfromLa Liga. He was sent off in a goalless draw againstEspanyolon 24 March 2010 for a stamp onDídac Vilàin the first half. Atlético Madrid 2010–13 In June 2010, Costa returned to theColchoneros, initially as a backup toSergio AgüeroandDiego Forlán– Atlético also paid an undisclosed sum to Braga to buy all the residual 30% economic rights (the former also had to pay in excess of €833,000 in agent's fees toGestifute). He was an unused substitute as Atlético won the2010 UEFA Super Cupon 27 August. On 26 September, with the injured Agüero on thesubstitutes bench, Costa scored the game's only goal at home againstReal Zaragoza.On 3 April of the following year, already as a starter after managerQuique Sánchez Floresdemoted Forlán from his position, Costa scored all of his team's goals in a 3–2 win atOsasuna. In July 2011, duringAtlético's pre-season, Costa suffered a serious knee injury, going on to miss the majority ofthe season.The injury prevented him from passing a medical at Turkish clubBeşiktaş, having already agreed to transfer to them.On 23 January 2012, Costa was loaned to fellow league clubRayo Vallecanountil June;he scored four goals in his first three appearances, including two in a 5–3 away win againstLevante,eventually finishing his loan spell with 10 goals from 16 games. For the second time in his career, Costa was an unused substitute as Atlético won theUEFA Super Cupon 1 September 2012.That December, Costa was involved in several on-field altercations in two separate matches. The first was in a 0–2local derbyloss against Real Madrid where he avoided disciplinary action after spitting incidents between him andSergio Ramos.He wassent offin the following game atViktoria Plzeňin theUEFA Europa Leaguefor headbutting opponentDavid Limberský, and was handed a four-match ban byUEFA.This, however, did not deter coachDiego Simeonefrom continuing to start him, and he responded by scoring three goals in two home contests, againstDeportivo de La Coruñain the league (6–0)andGetafeinthe season'sCopa del Rey(3–0). After the Copa del Rey semi-finals againstSevilla, Costa took his goal tally in the competition to seven in as many matches,having scored three times in the tie. In the first leg he scored twopenaltiesin a 2–1 winand, in the second at theRamón Sánchez Pizjuán, scored one after an individual effort andassistedRadamel Falcaoin the other, also being involved in incidents which resulted in two opposing players –Gary MedelandGeoffrey Kondogbia– being sent off in the 2–2 draw. Costa scored Atlético's equalising goal in theCopa del Rey finalclash against city rivals Real Madrid on 17 May 2013,contributing to the 2–1 triumph – the first in 25 games in a streak stretching back to 1999 – and the tenth win in the tournament, confirmed byMiranda'sextra-timeheader.He and opponentCristiano Ronaldohad gone into the match as joint top scorers in the tournament,and thus Costa's eighth goal made him the top scorer. 2013–14 season In August 2013, Costa was heavily linked with a move toLiverpool, who allegedly matched his release clause of €25 million and offered him three times his salary at Atlético.Costa, however, chose to stay at the club and renewed his contract until 2018, while also doubling his wages;a few days after this, in the first match ofthe new seasonon 19 August, he scored a brace in a 3–1 win at Sevilla. On 24 September, Costa scored both goals in a 2–1 home triumph over Osasuna to help his team stay level on points with league leaders Barcelona through six games.Four days later, in the Madrid derby, he scored the only goal of the game to record a second win over Real at theSantiago Bernabéuin under five months.For his performances, he was crowned the inauguralLa Liga Player of the Monthfor September 2013.By his 25th birthday on 7 October, he had scored ten goals in eight league matches, equalling his tally from the previous season. All of those matches were won by Atlético, setting a new record for the best start to a season.On 23 November 2013, Costa scored an overhead volley from a cross byGabiin a win over Getafe; the goal was nominated for theFIFA Puskás Award. On 22 October 2013, Costa marked hisUEFA Champions Leaguedebut with two goals againstAustria Wien, the first coming after a fine individual effort in an eventual3–0 group stage away win.On 19 February 2014, in the first knockout round's first leg, he scored the game's only goal atMilan, scoring seven minutes from time after acorner kickfrom Gabi;he added a further two in the second match, helping Atlético to a 4–1 victory that put them into the quarter-finals for the first time in 17 years. On 30 April 2014, Costa won and converted a penalty in the second leg of theChampions League semi-finalagainstChelsea, as Atlético won 3–1 atStamford Bridgeand advanced tothe finalof the competition for the first time since1974.He finished the league season with 27 league goals to become the third highest scorer,and the team won the title for the first time since 1996, but he was substituted after 16 minutes of the last match of the season against Barcelona due to a hamstring injury.Atlético sought to cure this injury before the upcomingChampions League finalagainst Real Madrid by sending him toBelgradefor treatment with a horse placenta,and he was included in the starting line-up for the decisive match. However, he left the pitch after eight minutes in an eventual 1–4 loss;manager Diego Simeone later admitted a personal mistake in selecting the player to start the final despite his recent injury.Costa scored eight goals during the Champions League campaign, equalling the record held byVavásince 1959 for most in a season by an Atlético player, and in his entire career was in the top ten Atlético players by goal average.At the season'sLFP Awards, he was nominated for the league's Best Forward, losing out to Cristiano Ronaldo. Chelsea Having completed his medical in June,Chelsea announced on 1 July 2014 that they had agreed to meet the £32 million buy-out clause in Costa's contract.On 15 July, Chelsea confirmed the completion of the signing of Costa, who signed a five-year contract on a salary of £150,000 a week.On signing, Costa said, \"I am very happy to sign for Chelsea. Everybody knows it is a big club in a very competitive league, and I am very excited to get started in England with a fantastic coach and team-mates. Having played against Chelsea last season I know the high quality of the squad I am joining\".Following the departure of former Chelsea strikerDemba Ba, Costa inherited his number 19 shirt,the same number he wore at the 2014 World Cup for Spain and previously at Atlético. 2014–15 season Costa scored on his Chelsea debut on 27 July, running onto a through ball fromCesc Fàbregasin a 2–1 friendly win against Slovene clubOlimpija.His first competitive match was Chelsea's first game of theleague season, away toBurnleyon 18 August, scoring the team's equaliser in a 3–1 victory.He scored in his third consecutive match on 30 August, the first and last goals of a 6–3 win atEverton, the first goal coming after 35 seconds.Costa was given thePremier League Player of the Monthaward for August 2014.He completed his firstPremier League hat-trickin his fourth game of the season againstSwansea Cityas Chelsea continued their perfect start to the season with a 4–2 win.With seven, Costa holds the record for most goals in his first four Premier League matches, surpassing the tally of six by both Sergio Agüero andMicky Quinn.In spite of his form at the start of the season, Costa had been suffering from a recurring hamstring problem which limited his participation in training; managerJosé Mourinhosaid that it would not heal until mid-November. Costa scored his tenth goal of the league season to give Chelsea a 2–1 win away to Liverpool on 8 November, preserving their unbeaten start to the campaign.In January, Costa was charged bythe FAin relation to a stamp onEmre Canduring Chelsea's win over Liverpool in theLeague Cupsemi-finals, and was given a three-match ban.Costa won his first trophy for Chelsea on 1 March, as they defeatedTottenham Hotspur2–0 to win theLeague CupatWembley Stadium; he scored the second goal of the game. On 26 April, Costa was chosen of one of two forwards for the season'sPFA Team of the Year, alongside Tottenham'sHarry Kane. Five of Costa's Chelsea teammates were also in the selection.Due to injury, he was due to miss the remainder of the season, in which Chelsea won the league title with a 1–0 home win overCrystal Palaceon 3 May.However, he featured in their last match of the season on the 24th, replacing the injuredDidier Drogbaafter half an hour againstSunderland. Seven minutes later, he scored his 20th goal of the league campaign, an equalising penalty in an eventual 3–1 home win. With reports speculating that Costa wanting to leave Chelsea, Costa affirmed on 2 June 2015 after Chelsea's post-season tour that he had no desire to leaveLondon, saying, \"It's always a bit more difficult in the first season for adaptation, but I have no reason to leave this place, I love it, the fans love me, and I want to stay. It's really good to come in the first season and win two things . Next year I'll be ready to come back and, hopefully, win a couple more trophies.\" 2015–16 season Due to injury, Costa missed the2015 FA Community Shield, which Chelsea lost 1–0 torivalsArsenal.On 23 August, he scored his first goal of the campaign in a 2–3 win atWest Bromwich Albion, which was Chelsea's first victory of the campaign, set up by international teammatePedro.He scored his first Champions League goal for the team on 16 September, a volley from a Cesc Fàbregas ball in a 4–0 win overMaccabi Tel Aviv. Three days later, Costa was involved in controversy in a 2–0 home win over Arsenal; he repeatedly slappedLaurent Koscielnyand chest-bumped him to the ground, and then confrontedGabriel, who allegedly tried to kick him and was sent off, though footage fromESPN Brazillater showed that little to no contact actually took place.He escaped any punishment at the time. His conduct was deemed \"disgusting\" by visiting managerArsène Wenger,and teammateKurt Zoumainitially reacted by saying, \"Diego likes to cheat a lot,\" but later clarified that he meant that \"Diego is a player who puts pressure on his opponents\".As a consequence, on 21 September, he was charged with violent conduct by the FA.and the following day he was given a three-match suspension.Gabriel's red card was also rescinded, although he was given a one-match ban and £10,000 fine for improper conduct after failing to leave the pitch immediately. After this incident, theDaily Expresswrote that Costa was \"named as Premier League's dirtiest player\". After a 1–0 defeat atStoke Cityon 7 November, aBritannia Stadiumsteward made an allegation of assault against Costa, which was resolved without further action.Also that month, Costa was again involved in a skirmish with Liverpool'sMartin Škrtel, where he appeared to dig his boot into the Slovak defender's chest, but escaped punishment by the FA.On 29 November, Costa was an unused substitute in a match against Tottenham and threw his bib on the floor whenRuben Loftus-Cheekwas sent on at his expense. Mourinho told the media that, \"For me his behaviour is normal. A top player on the bench will not be happy.\" Costa,Oscarand Fàbregas were targeted by Chelsea supporters as the players whose poor form led to the dismissal of popular manager José Mourinho in December 2015.Costa scored twice in the first game under interim replacementGuus Hiddink, a 2–2 home draw againstWatford.Costa, who played in a protective mask after breaking his nose in training, improved his form under the Dutchman, scoring seven times in his first eight games under the new management. On 12 March 2016, Costa received his first red card in a Chelsea shirt near the end their 2–0 FA Cup quarter-final defeat to Everton for confronting opponentGareth Barry. Footage appeared to show Costa biting Barry during that confrontation after clashing heads. Earlier in the match, Costa appeared to spit in the direction of the referee after he was yellow carded for a clash with Barry.Later, both Costa and Barry denied that the bite occurred.Costa's two-match ban was extended to three, and he was fined £20,000.On 2 May, as Chelsea drew 2–2 against Tottenham to deny them the title, Costa was gouged in the eyes byMousa Dembéléduring a mass brawl; the Belgian received a retrospective six-match ban. 2016–17 season On 15 August 2016, Costa scored a late winner againstWest Ham Unitedto give Chelsea a 2–1 win in theirseason opener.During the match, he caught opposing goalkeeperAdriánwith a late challenge when already on a yellow card, but did not receive a second yellow and went on to score the winner; Adrián stated after the match that he was fortunate not to be seriously injured.On 15 October, he scored in a 3–0 over reigning Premier League championsLeicester City,and on 20 November Costa became the first player to reach ten league goals for the season, with the only one of the game atMiddlesbrough.With two goals and two assists for league leaders Chelsea, he was voted Premier League Player of the Month for the second time in November 2016, with his managerAntonio Contepicking up the equivalent. In January 2017, Costa fell out with Conte and was dropped from the team, amidst interest from theChinese Super League.A potential move toTianjin Quanjian F.C.was curtailed by the league limiting the number of foreign players in each team.He returned to Chelsea's starting line-up on 22 January, opening a 2–0 win overHull City, his 52nd goal on his 100th appearance.Costa was Chelsea's top scorer with 20 goals as they regained the Premier League title.On 27 May, he scored an equaliser in the2017 FA Cup Finalagainst Arsenal, a 2–1 loss. 2017–18 season \"Hi Diego, I hope you are well. Thanks for the seasono we spent together. Good luck for the next year but you are not in my plan.\" –Antonio Conteinforming Costa by text in June 2017 that he would no longer be involved with Chelsea In June 2017, Costa was told by Conte that he was not part of his plans for the coming season and that he was free to move to another team via text message.Although Costa was linked to potential moves to the likes ofMilan,Monaco, andEverton, he stated that he would only be open to moving back to his former team Atlético Madrid. Costa attempted to find a legal solution through his lawyer in pushing for a move back to Madrid,and said that Chelsea were treating him like a \"criminal\" by demanding a high transfer fee for his exit.He was excluded from training with the first-team, but was named in the Premier League squad, yet left out of the Champions League squad. Return to Atlético Madrid On 21 September 2017, Chelsea announced that Costa would return to Atlético at the start of the next transfer window in January 2018.On 26 September 2017, it was announced that after passing medical tests Costa signed a contract with Atlético. He was registered and became eligible to play after 1 January 2018, due to a transfer ban imposed on Atlético. On 3 January 2018, he scored on his return game againstLleida Esportiuin theCopa del Reyround of 16, just five minutes after being substituted on forÁngel Correain the 64th minute.Three days later in his first league game back, he started in a 2–0 win overGetafeat theWanda Metropolitanoand scored the second goal. However, having already been cautioned for a stray elbow onDjene Dakonam, he was cautioned for a second time for charging into the stands to celebrate his goal, thus being sent off.ESPN FCcredited Costa as being a key element inAntoine Griezmann's return to form, opining that Costa's \"physical presence at centre-forward has understandably distracted opposition defenders quite a lot. Griezmann has now taken up a roaming No. 10 role, with freedom to go where he feels best\"; Atlético manager Diego Simeone namechecked three of Atlético's players in particular–Costa,Koke, andFilipe Luís–who had helped Griezmann perform. Costa scored the only goal of Atlético's 1–0 home win in over Arsenal in the second leg of the Europa League semi-finals, sending them into the2018 UEFA Europa League Final2–1 on aggregate.He played in thefinalinLyon, a 3–0 win overOlympique de Marseille. In Atlético's first match of 2018–19, theUEFA Super Cupat theLilleküla Stadiumin Estonia, Costa scored twice – including in the first 50 seconds – in a 4–2 win after extra time against Real Madrid. On 6 April 2019, he was sent off in the 28th minute againstFC Barcelona, and was handed an 8-match ban for abusing a referee.On 18 June 2020, Costa marked his 200th club appearance forLos Colchoneroswhen he started in a huge 5–0 away win againstOsasuna.Costa scored his fifth goal of the season in a 1–0 home victory againstReal Betisto ensure his team a top four finish and qualification fornext season'sChampions League.On 29 December 2020, Costa and Atlético agreed to terminate their contract, making Costa a free-agent. Atlético Mineiro On 14 August 2021, Costa joined Brazilian clubAtlético Mineiro, signing a deal until December 2022.He scored on his debut on 29 August, coming off the bench in the second half and settling a 1–1leaguedraw toRed Bull Bragantino.On 16 January 2022, after only playing 19 times and scoring 5 goals, Diego Costa terminated his contract and became a free agent. Wolverhampton Wanderers On 12 September 2022, Costa joined Premier League clubWolverhampton Wanderersuntil the end of the 2022–23 season.On 1 October 2022, Costa made his debut for the club, coming on in the 58th minute in a 2–0 league defeat toWest Ham Unitedat theLondon Stadium.Costa made his 100th appearance in the Premier League, his 11th for Wolves, as a second-half substitute againstBournemouthatMolineuxon 18 February 2023.He suffered a knee injury in the first-half of Wolves's 1–0 home win againstTottenham Hotspurin the Premier League on 4 March 2023 and was carried off the pitch on a stretcher. On 15 April, Costa scored his first goal for Wolves in a 2–0 home win againstBrentford, his first goal in English football in nearly six years. On 3 June, Wolves announced that Costa was one of many players who would leave at the end of their contract. Botafogo On 12 August 2023, Costa signed for Brazilian clubBotafogo. International career Brazil On 5 March 2013, Costa was called up to theBrazil national teamby head coachLuiz Felipe ScolariforfriendlieswithItalyinGenevaandRussiain London, both taking place late in that month.He made his debut in the first match on 21 March, replacingFredmidway through the second half of the 2–2 draw.Four days later at Stamford Bridge, he replaced Kaká for the last 12 minutes of a 1–1 draw with Russia. Request to change teams In September 2013, theRoyal Spanish Football Federationmade an official request toFIFAfor permission to call up Costa for theSpain national team.He had been grantedSpanish nationalityin July.FIFA regulations currently permit players with more than one nationality to represent a second country if, like Costa, he had only represented his first country in friendly matches. On 29 October 2013, Costa declared that he wished to play international football for Spain, sending a letter to theBrazilian Football Confederation(CBF).Following the news, Scolari commented, \"A Brazilian player who refuses to wear the shirt of the Brazilian national team and compete in aWorld Cupin your country is automatically withdrawn. He is turning his back on a dream of millions, to represent our national team, the five-time champions in a World Cup in Brazil.\" The CBF judicial director, Carlos Eugênio Lopes, said, Spain On 28 February 2014, Spain managerVicente del Bosqueincluded Costa in the squad for a friendly against Italy.He finally made his debut on 5 March, playing the full 90 minutes at his club ground, theVicente Calderón Stadium, as the hosts won 1–0. Costa was named in Spain's 30-man provisional squad for the2014 World Cup,as well as the final list which was named on 31 May.He returned from the injury which had ended his club season by starting in a warm-up game againstEl Salvador, winning a penalty in a 2–0 victory.In the first match of the tournament, against theNetherlands, he again won a penalty, conceded byStefan de Vrijand converted byXabi Alonsofor a 1–0 lead but in an eventual 1–5 defeat;he was booed by Brazilian fans during the match.Costa then started in a 0–2 loss toChilemaking little impact as he was substituted forFernando Torresfor the second consecutive match, and Spain were eliminated.He was an unused substitute in the team's third match, a 3–0 defeat ofAustralia. Costa scored his first goal for Spain with the third in a 4–0UEFA Euro 2016 qualifyingwin away toLuxembourgon 12 October 2014.He did not feature again for Spain until 5 September 2015, when he was fouled bySlovakiagoalkeeperMatúš Kozáčikfor a penalty, whichAndrés Iniestaconverted for a 2–0 qualifying win at theEstadio Carlos TartiereinOviedo. He was booed when he was substituted forPaco Alcácerlater in the match.Del Bosque defended Costa from criticism, saying that he performed well against the Slovak defence.However, he was not included in the final squad for the tournament. On 5 September 2016, Costa scored his first international goals for nearly two years, in an 8–0 win overLiechtensteinat theEstadio Reino de Leónfor Spain's opening match of2018 World Cup qualification, the first being a header from a free-kick by his former Atlético teammateKoke.In May 2018, Costa was called up to Spain's squad for the2018 FIFA World Cup.In their opening game on 15 June inSochi, he scored his two first World Cup goals to help Spain secure a 3–3 draw againstPortugal.Five days later, he scored the winning goal of the match againstIran. Player profile Style of play and reception Friends and family recalled how Costa's style of play changed little over time, with his father stating how as a child, Costa would be furious whenever his team lost.Atlético scout Javier Hernández, on watching 17-year-old Costa play for Penafiel, was impressed by the young forward's determination and power, although found it evident that he was not observing a healthy lifestyle.Costa's Penafiel manager Rui Bento, who was atSporting CPwhen Cristiano Ronaldo broke into the team, rated Costa in the same calibre as the Portuguese winger.According to Atlético director Jesús García Pitarch, Costa ranks as one of the best signings of his career, alongsideMohamed Sissoko,MirandaandRicardo Oliveira. While on loan at Celta de Vigo, Costa drew comparisons to their former Egyptian strikerMido, who was also known for his temper.During his spell at Albacete, Costa was nicknamed after bullfighterCurro Romeroand theTasmanian devil.His manager Juan Ignacio Martínez conceded that Costa played as a model professional for 89 minutes per match, with only one minute per match being his downfall.Costa refers toJosé Luis Mendilibaras his greatest manager because of his fatherlike \"tough love\", respecting his talents while keeping strict discipline, once sending Costa to work in avineyardas a punishment. Earlier in his Atlético Madrid career, Costa's physical play was used in support ofRadamel Falcao, thus ensuring a lower goalscoring rate. After Falcao was sold in 2013, the attack was restructured around Costa by manager Diego Simeone. Simeone, who like Costa was known for his competitiveness and aggression, found ways to enhance his discipline while retaining his determination.In 2014, his club teammateDiego Godíndescribed Costa as the team's \"heartbeat\", commenting that he \"gives us everything,\" also adding: \"Sometimes things aren't going well and he is able to open up the game with his strength and technique.\" Nick Dorrington ofBleacher Reportdescribed him as a \"battering ram of a striker: Strong, quick and tireless in his pursuit of the ball,\" while the club's manager Simeone lauded his work-rate as being \"contagious\". Ahead of his competitive debut for Chelsea in August 2014,BBC SportpunditRobbie Savagedescribed Costa as \"the missing piece in the jigsaw\" for the \"clear favourites\" who \"could end up winning the title by five or six points\". He explained that Chelsea's defence was already the strongest in the league, but a poorer rate of shot-to-goal conversion had cost them the title. He praised Costa's stature and physical style of play which \"suits the Premier League down to the ground\" in the same role that Didier Drogba previously played at Chelsea,an opinion also voiced by the league's top scorer of all-time,Alan Shearer.Costa has also been attributed with a greater ability to keep possession of the ball than any Chelsea striker since Drogba first left the club in 2012.That same year, Henry Winter ofThe Telegraphnoted that Costa \"...has the technique, the strength and the burst of acceleration to destroy defences.\" Costa's size, technique, and strength, coupled with his link-up play and ability to hold up the ball with his back to goal allow him to be an effectivetarget-man;moreover, his constant movement and powerful running in thecentre-forwardrole allows him to distract opponents and in turn create space for teammates.Although he was initially known to be inconsistent in the earlier part of his career, due to his low goalscoring rate, he later established himself as a good finisher as his career progressed, which along with his composure in front of goal and ability inside the penalty box, made him a prolific goalscorer,and even saw him regarded by several pundits and managers as one of the best strikers in the world at his peak.In 2018, Simeone lauded Costa for the \"enthusiasm\" and \"aggression\" he brings to Atlético Madrid, as well as his \"speed, decisiveness, and physical strength.\" Discipline and controversies Costa has been the source of much controversy in his career due to confrontations with opponents, and has received multiple violent conduct charges fromThe Football Associationof England.Opposing managers have also opined that Costa himself intends to provoke his opponents.Danny MurphyofMatch of the Dayhas stated that Costa is targeted by players who \"wind him up,\" but he \"remains calm\", and is justified to taunt opponents who taunt him.Pat Nevin, a former Chelsea winger, believes that Costa's style of play is likely to cause himself \"a few injuries\".In August 2014, he was criticised by Everton managerRoberto Martínezfor taunting Everton'sSéamus Colemanfollowing his own goal, and stated Costa needed \"to understand the ethics\" of the Premier League.In October 2014, he clashed with Slovakia's Martin Škrtel in aEuro 2016 qualifier. In January 2015, following two stamp incidents involving Costa and Liverpool players for which Costa received a three-match ban by the FA, Liverpool managerBrendan Rodgersstated that he thought Costa had fouled his players when \"he could easily have hurdled over the player\" and \"there's no need to do it\".Costa described his style of play as \"strong but noble\", and refuted allegations that he deliberately aims to injure opponents. In late 2015, Costa was the subject of scrutiny for his comparatively poor start to his second season at Chelsea and his low scoring rate for Spain.French newspaperL'Equipenamed Costa as the most hated footballer in December 2015, based on his provocative and violent behaviour. Career statistics Club International Honours Atlético Madrid Chelsea Atlético Mineiro Grêmio Individual Records See also References General Notes References External links" ]

[ "Video assistant referee Video assistant referee(VAR) is a system that helpsrefereesto decide better about players fouls, if a goal was valid, red card decisions, etc. insoccermatches. When the referee is going to review a play on the field at the VAR box, they outline a square with their hands, as if showing the outline of aTVscreen. It was used for the first time in the2016 FIFA Club World Cup.It was used for the first time for international matches in the2017 FIFA Confederations Cup.The first time VAR was used in theFIFA World Cupwas in the2018 World Cup. In March 2018, the VAR was permanentely written into theLaws of the Gameby theInternational Football Association Board(IFAB). There are 3 categories of decisions that can be reviewed: The referee can review the play on the field by going to the VAR box, listen to the VAR's recommendation, or completely ignore the VAR advice. The referee can only review the play on the field with recommendation of the VAR to prevent the referee from relying on it too much.", "on it too much. Criticism The VAR system has been criticised by many people, mostly because of how much time is used up in reviews, overly relying on it, and causing confusion. ManagerMauricio Pochettinosaid \"it made everyone confused\". He also said that he felt sorry for the fans and for the referee after anFA Cupmatch. References", "2018 FIFA World Cup The2018 FIFA World Cupwas the 21stFIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for nationalfootballteams organized byFIFA. It took place inRussiafrom 14 June to 15 July 2018, after the country was awarded the hosting rights in late 2010. It was the eleventh time the championships had been held inEurope, the first time they were held inEastern Europe, and the first time they were held across two continents (Europe and Asia). At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it was the most expensive World Cup ever held until it was surpassed by the2022 World CupinQatar. The tournament phase involved 32 teams, of which 31 came throughqualifying competitions, while the host nationRussiaqualified automatically. Of the 32, 20 had also appeared in the2014 event, whileIcelandandPanamaeach made their debut at the World Cup. 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities.Germany, the defending champions, were eliminated in the group stage for the first time since1938. Host nationRussiawas", "nationRussiawas eliminated in the quarter-finals. In thefinal,FranceplayedCroatiaon 15 July at theLuzhniki StadiuminMoscow. France won the match 4–2, claiming their second World Cup and becoming the fourth consecutive title won by a European team, afterItalyin2006,Spainin2010, andGermanyin2014. Croatian playerLuka Modrićwas voted the tournament's best player, winning theGolden Ball.England'sHarry Kanewon theGolden Bootas he scored the most goals during the tournament with six.Belgium'sThibaut Courtoiswon theGolden Glove, awarded to thegoalkeeperwith the best performance. It has been estimated that more than 3 million people attended games during the tournament. Host selection Thebidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournamentsbegan in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest.Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, butMexicolater withdrew from the proceedings,andIndonesia's bid was rejected by FIFA in February", "by FIFA in February 2010 after theIndonesian governmentfailed to submit a letter to support the bid.During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFAnations (Australia,Japan, and theUnited States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and thus all UEFA nations were ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids:England,Russia,Netherlands/Belgium, andPortugal/Spain. The 22-memberFIFA Executive Committeeconvened inZürichon 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments.Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal/Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium/Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round. The voting results were: Host selection criticism The choice of Russia as host was controversial. Issues included the high level ofracismin Russian football,human rights abusesby Russian", "abusesby Russian authorities,anddiscriminationagainstLGBTpeople in government (includinggay propaganda laws) along with wider Russian society.Russia's involvement in theongoing conflict in Ukrainehad also prompted calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following theannexation of Crimea.In 2014, FIFA presidentSepp Blatterstated that \"the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work\". Russia was criticised for alleged abuse of migrant labourers in the construction of World Cup venues,withHuman Rights Watchreporting cases where workers were left unpaid, made to work in dangerously cold conditions, or suffering reprisals for raising concerns.A few pundits claimed it was slave labour.In May 2017, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinoadmitted there had been human rights abuses of North Korean workers involved in the construction ofSaint Petersburg'sZenit Arena.By June 2017, at least 17 workers had died on World Cup construction sites, according toBuilding and Wood", "toBuilding and Wood Workers' International.In August, a group of eight US senators called on FIFA to consider dismissing Russia as the World Cup host if an independent investigation verified allegations of North Koreans being subjected to forced labor. RacismandNeo-nazisymbols displayed in the past by some Russian football fans drew criticism,with documented incidents of racial chants, banners spewing hate-filled messages, and sometimes assaults on people from theCaucasusandCentral Asia.In March 2015, FIFA's then Vice PresidentJeffrey Webbsaid that Russia posed a huge challenge from a racism standpoint, and that a World Cup could not be held there under the current conditions.On July,United Nationsanti-discrimination official Yuri Boychenko said that Russian soccer authorities had failed to fully grasp what racism was and needed to do more to combat it.To address this as well as concerns ofhooliganismin general, Russian intelligence services blacklisted over 400 fans from entering the stadiums by June 2018,", "by June 2018, with 32 other countries also sending officers to help local police screen attendees for valid ID cards. Allegations ofcorruptionin the bidding processes and concerns over bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption by FIFA members for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups led to threats from England'sFAto boycott the tournament.They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win.FIFA appointedMichael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and producea reporton the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42-page summary of its findings as determined byGermanjudgeHans-Joachim Eckert. Eckert's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash.Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert's absolving Russia from blame.Greg Dykecalled for a re-examination of", "a re-examination of the affair andDavid Bernsteincalled for a boycott of the World Cup.Garcia criticised the summary as being \"materially incomplete\" with \"erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions\", and appealed to FIFA's Appeal Committee.The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned to protest of FIFA's conduct, citing a \"lack of leadership\" and lack of confidence in Eckert's independence. On 3 June 2015, theFBIconfirmed that federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and2022 World Cups.In an interview published on 7 June 2015,Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that \"should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled\".Prince William of Walesand formerBritish Prime MinisterDavid Cameronattended a meeting with FIFA vice-presidentChung Mong-joonin which a vote-trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup", "the 2018 World Cup inEnglandwas discussed. Teams Qualification For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations—the 209FIFA member associationsexcept automatically qualified hosts Russia—applied to enter the qualifying process.ZimbabweandIndonesiawere later disqualified before playing their first matches,whileGibraltarandKosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition.Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup.The first qualification game, betweenTimor-LesteandMongolia, began inDilion 12 March 2015 as part of theAFC's qualification,and the main qualifying draw took place at theKonstantinovsky PalaceinStrelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015. Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first", "for the first time, with the former becoming thesmallest country in terms of populationto reach the World Cup.Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments included:Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990;Morocco, who last competed in 1998;Peru, who last appeared in 1982;Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter-finals in 2002.Poland,Saudi Arabia,TunisiaandSwedenhave also returned after12 years. It was the first time threeNordic countries(Denmark, Iceland andSweden) and fourArab nations(Egypt, Morocco,Saudi ArabiaandTunisia) qualified for the World Cup. Notable teams that failed to qualify included: four-time championsItaly(for the first time since 1958), who were knocked out in a qualification play-off by quarter-finalists Sweden and were the highest-ranked team to not qualify; and theNetherlands, who were three-time runners-up and had finished in third place in 2014, had qualified for the last three World Cups, and failed to qualify", "failed to qualify for their second major tournament in a row, missing out on theUEFA Euro 2016as well. Four reigning continental champions:2017 Africa Cup of NationswinnersCameroon; two-timeCopa Américachampions and2017 Confederations Cuprunners-upChile;2016 OFC Nations CupwinnersNew Zealand; and2017 CONCACAF Gold Cupchampions theUnited States(for the first time since 1986) also failed to qualify. The other notable qualifying streaks broken were forGhanaandIvory Coast, both of which had qualified for the three previous tournaments.The lowest-ranked team to qualify was the host nation, Russia. Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in theFIFA World Rankingsat the time of the tournament. AFC(5) CAF(5) CONCACAF(3) CONMEBOL(5) OFC(0) UEFA(14) Draw The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18:00MSKat theState Kremlin Palacein Moscow.The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four, by selecting one team from each of the four ranked pots. For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based entirely", "pots based entirely on theFIFA World Rankingsof October 2017. Pot one contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams. Pot two contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots three and four.This was different from previous draws, when only pot one was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group. The pots for the draw are shown below. Squads Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players, but in February 2018 this was increased to 35.From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom had to be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad could be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team's first match. These replacements did not need to have been named in", "have been named in the preliminary squad. For players named in the 35-player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the2018 UEFA Champions League Finalplayed on 26 May. Officiating On 29 March 2018,FIFAreleased the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches.On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who acted solely in this capacity in the tournament. RefereeFahad Al-MirdasiofSaudi Arabiawas removed on 30 May 2018 over amatch-fixingattempt,along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al-Abakry and Abdulah Al-Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of theUnited Arab Emiratesand Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list.Assistant refereeMarwa RangeofKenyaalso withdrew after theBBCreleased an investigation conducted by aGhanaianjournalistwhich implicated him in a bribery scandal. Video assistant referees Shortly", "referees Shortly after theInternational Football Association Board's decision to incorporatevideo assistant referees(VARs) into theLaws of the game(LOTG) on 16 March 2018, theFIFA Counciltook the much-anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament. VAR operations for all games were operated from a single headquarters in Moscow, which received live video of the games and were in radio contact with the on-field referees.Systems were in place for communicating VAR-related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums' large screens were used for the fans in attendance. VAR had a significant impact on several games.On 15 June 2018,Diego Costa's first goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision;the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal byAntoine Griezmann.A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, a phenomenon", "a phenomenon partially attributed to VAR.Overall, the new technology was both praised and criticised by commentators.FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition. Venues Russia proposed the following host cities:Kaliningrad,Kazan,Krasnodar,Moscow,Nizhny Novgorod,Rostov-on-Don,Saint Petersburg,Samara,Saransk,Sochi,Volgograd,Yaroslavl, andYekaterinburg.Each chosen city was located inEuropean Russia(except Yekaterinburg,which is located inAsiabut lies very close to the Europe-Asia border) in order to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: \"The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed.\" In October 2011, Russia reduced the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposedPodolskstadium in theMoscow Oblastwas cancelled by the regional government. Also, in the capital,Otkritie", "capital,Otkritie Arenawas competing withDynamo Stadiumover which would be constructed first. The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was reduced further to 11 and the number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, three (Luzhniki,YekaterinburgandSochi) had been extensively renovated and the other nine were brand new; $11.8 billion was spent on hosting the tournament. Sepp Blatter had said in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10.He also said, \"We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiumsin South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums\". In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA's inspection committee and its head,Chris Unger, visited St. Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues.", "both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the local organising committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums to be used during the tournament.Of the twelve venues, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium—the two largest stadiums in Russia—were used most; both hosted seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara each hosted six matches, including one quarter-final match each, while theOtkritie Stadiumin Moscow and theRostov Stadiumhosted five matches, including one round-of-16 match each.Volgograd,Kaliningrad,YekaterinburgandSaranskeach hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games. Stadiums Twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities were built or renovated for the FIFA World Cup. Between 2010 (when Russia were announced as hosts) and 2018, nine of the twelve stadiums were built (some in place of older, outdated venues) and the other three were renovated for the tournament. Team base camps Base camps were", "Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team. Preparation and costs Budget At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018,the 2018 FIFA event was the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the $11.6 billion cost of the2014 FIFA World Cupin Brazil. TheRussian governmenthad originally earmarked abudgetof around $20 billion,which was later slashed to $10 billion, for World Cup preparations. Half was spent on transportation infrastructure.As part of the program to prepare for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program—\"Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure\"—was implemented with a total budget of ₽352.5 billion (rubles), with ₽170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, ₽35.1 billion from regional budgets, and ₽147.1 billion from investors.The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure costing ₽117.8", "costing ₽117.8 billion.Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in World Cup host cities. Costs continued to mount as preparations were underway. Infrastructure spending Platov International AirportinRostov-on-Donwas upgraded with automatedair traffic controlsystems. Modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, andmeteorologicalsupport systems were also installed.Koltsovo AirportinYekaterinburgwas upgraded with radio-engineering tools for flight operation and received a second runway.Saransk Airportreceived a new navigation system; two new hotels were constructed in the city—the Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) andFour Points by SheratonSaransk as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities.InSamara, new tram lines were laid.Khrabrovo AirportinKaliningradwas upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment.Renovation and upgraded radio-engineering tools for flight operations was completed in theMoscow,Saint Petersburg,Volgograd,Samara,", "Yekaterinburg,KazanandSochiairports.On 27 March, theRussian Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sectorof reported that all communications within its area of responsibility had been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches were hosted, hosting costs increased to over ₽7.4 billion, exceeding the ₽5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from thestateand regional budget. Volunteers Volunteer applications to the 2018 Russia Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications,and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers.They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the local organising committee based in 15 universities, and in volunteer centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in key areas, was given to those with knowledge of a foreign language and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals.", "Russian nationals. Transport Freepublic transportservices were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking host cities, as well as services such as bus services within them. Schedule The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 without kick-off times, which were confirmed later.On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, FIFA adjusted six kick-off times. Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June againstSaudi Arabia, the two lowest-ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw.The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. TheKrestovsky Stadiumin Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play-off on 14 July. Opening ceremony The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding theopening match of the tournamentbetween hosts", "hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia. At the start of the ceremony, Russian presidentVladimir Putingave a speech, welcoming the countries of the world to Russia and calling football a uniting force.Brazilian World Cup-winning strikerRonaldoentered the stadium with a child in a Russia jersey.Pop singerRobbie Williamsthen sang two of his songs solo before he and Russian sopranoAida Garifullinaperformed a duet.Dancers dressed in the flags of the 32 competing teams appeared carrying a sign with the name of each nation.At the end of the ceremony Ronaldo reappeared with the official match ball which had returned from theInternational Space Stationin early June. Young participants of the international children's social programmeFootball for Friendshipfrom 211 countries and regions took part in the opening ceremony of the FIFA World Cup at the Luzhniki stadium. Group stage Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in around-robin, with the top", "with the top two teams advancing to theknockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico. For the first time since1938, Germany, the reigning champions, were eliminated in the first round. This was the third consecutive tournament in which the holders were eliminated in the first round, after Italy in2010and Spain in2014. No African team progressed to the second round for the first time since1982. The fair play criteria came into use for the first time when Japan qualified over Senegal because the team had received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France versus Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.All times listed below arelocal time. Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F Group G Group H Knockout stage In the knockout stages, if a match was level at the end of normal playing time,extra timewas played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and", "minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by apenalty shoot-outto determine the winners.If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.Below is the bracket for the knockout round of the tournament, teams in bold denote match winners. Bracket Round of 16 Quarter-finals Semi-finals Third place play-off Final Statistics Goalscorers There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match. Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in1998.Goals scored from penalty shoot-outs are not counted towards an individual player's goal count. 6 goals 4 goals 3 goals 2 goals 1 goal 1 own goal Source: FIFA Discipline In total, only four players were sent off in the entire tournament, the fewest since1978.International Football Association Boardtechnical directorDavid Elleraystated a belief that this was due to the introduction ofVAR, since players would", "since players would know that they would not be able to get away with anything under the new system. A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences: The following suspensions were served during the tournament: Final standings Awards The followingawardswere given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot (top scorer), Golden Ball (best overall player) and Golden Glove (best goalkeeper) awards were all sponsored byAdidas. Dream Team The users of FIFA.com elected their Fan Dream Team. Additionally, FIFA.com shortlisted 18 goals for users to vote on as the tournament's best.The poll closed on 23 July. The award was sponsored byHyundai. All-Star Team FIFA published anAll-Star Team, this year called theFantasy Team, based on player performances evaluated through statistical data. Prize money Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017. Marketing Branding The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at theInternational Space Stationand then", "Stationand then projected onto Moscow'sBolshoi Theatreduring an evening television programme. Russian Sports MinisterVitaly Mutkosaid the logo was inspired by \"Russia's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation\", and FIFA president Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the \"heart and soul\" of the country.For branding, Portuguese design agency Brandia Central created materials in 2014, with a typeface calledDusha–душа(Russianfor 'soul') – designed by Brandia Central and edited by Adotbelow of the DSType Foundry in Portugal. Ticketing The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12:00Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017. The generalvisa policy of Russiadid not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship.Spectators were nonetheless required to register for a \"Fan-ID\", a special photo identification pass. A Fan-ID was required to enter the", "to enter the country visa-free, while a ticket, Fan-ID and a valid passport were required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan-IDs also granted World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, andtrain servicebetween host cities. Fan-ID was administered by theMinistry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, which could revoke thisaccreditationat any time to \"ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order\". Merchandise On 29 May 2018,Electronic Artsreleased a free update to their video gameFIFA 18that added content related to the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Theexpansionincluded a World Cup tournament mode with all teams and stadiums from the event, official television presentation elements, and World Cup-related content for the Ultimate Team mode. Paninicontinued their partnership with FIFA by producing stickers for their World Cupsticker album.Panini also developed an app for the 2018 World Cup where fans could collect and swap virtual stickers,", "virtual stickers, with 5 million fans gathering digital stickers for the tournament. Symbols Mascot The tournament'sofficial mascotwas unveiled on 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select the mascot from three finalists—a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53% or approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka—ananthropomorphicwolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka's name is a portmanteau of the Russian wordsзабияка(\"hothead\") andзабивать(\"to score\"), and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is \"charming, confident and social\". Match ball The official match ball, the \"Telstar 18\", was unveiled on 9 November 2017. It was based on the name and design of the firstAdidasWorld Cup ball from1970.A special red-coloured variation, \"Telstar Mechta\", was used for the knockout stage of the tournament. The wordmechta(Russian:мечта) means \"dream\" or \"ambition\". Goalkeepers", "Goalkeepers noted that the ball was slippery and prone to having unpredictable trajectory.In addition, two Telstar 18 balls popped in the midst of a first-roundmatchbetweenFranceandAustralia, leading to further discussions over the ball's performance. Music The official song of the tournament was \"Live It Up\", with vocals byWill Smith,Nicky JamandEra Istrefi, released on 25 May 2018. Its music video was released on 8 June 2018. Other controversies Thirty-three footballers who were alleged to be part of theRussian steroid programmeare listed in theMcLaren Report.On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA had fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football.On 22 May 2018, FIFA stated that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to support anti-doping rule violations.FIFA's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be", "would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament, an action taken to reassure teams that samples would not be tampered with. Russia relaxed its visa rules during the World Cup, allowing Fan ID holders to enter and exit Russia without a visa through 31 December 2018. Traffickers exploited this system to bring foreign sex trafficking victims into the country, especially from Nigeria.Reutershad raised concerns about the victims' conditions, who had allegedly been forced into prostitution, with some of them enduring violent abuse.Russian authorities were accused of doing little to fix to the issue, allegedly because many locals blamed the victims for falling into prostitution. Response to Skripal poisoning In response to the March 2018poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British prime ministerTheresa Mayannounced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans.Russia responded to the comments", "to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that the West are trying to \"take the World Cup out of Russia\".TheRussian Foreign MinistrydenouncedBoris Johnson's statements that compared the event to the1936 Olympicsheld inNazi Germanyas \"poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness\" and \"unacceptable and unworthy\" parallel towards Russia, a \"nation thatlost millions of lives in fighting Nazism\". Critical reception At the close of the World Cup, Russia was widely praised for its success in hosting the tournament, with Steve Rosenberg of theBBCdeeming it \"a resoundingpublic relationssuccess\" for Putin, adding: \"The stunning new stadiums, free train travel to venues and the absence of crowd violence has impressed visiting supporters. Russia has come across as friendly and hospitable: a stark contrast with the country's authoritarian image. All the foreign fans I have spoken to are pleasantly surprised.\" Despite the BritishForeign Officeand MPs repeatedly warning English football fans", "football fans travelling to Russia of \"racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility\",fans who did travel said they received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia. FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated: \"Everyone discovered a beautiful country, a welcoming country, that is keen to show the world that everything that has been said before might not be true. A lot of preconceived ideas have been changed because people have seen the true nature of Russia.\"Infantino has proclaimed Russia 2018 to be \"the best World Cup ever.\" 98 percent of the stadiums were sold out, there were 3 billion viewers on TV around the world and 7 million fans visited the fan fests.It was the most viewed World Cup to date, and the thirdmost viewed television broadcast, surpassing theBeijing Olympics in 2008. Broadcasting rights FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters. After having tested the technology", "the technology at limited matches of the2013 FIFA Confederations Cup,and the 2014 FIFA World Cup (via private tests and public viewings in the host city ofRio de Janeiro),the 2018 World Cup was the first World Cup in which all matches were produced in4Kultra high definition. Host Broadcast Services (HBS) stated that at least 75% of the broadcast cut of each match would come from 4K cameras (covering the majority of main angles), with instant replays and some camera angles being converted up from1080phigh definition sources with limited degradation in quality. These broadcasts were made available from selected rightsholders and television providers. In February 2018,UkrainianrightsholderUA:PBCstated that it would not broadcast the World Cup due to existing tensions with Russia amidst theRusso-Ukrainian War. This came in the wake of growing boycott of the tournament by theFootball Federation of Ukraineand sports ministerIhor Zhdanov.Additionally, the FFU refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and", "the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets.However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match. Broadcast rights to the tournament in theMiddle Eastwere hampered by an ongoingdiplomatic crisis in Qatar, which saw Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates cut diplomatic ties with Qatar—the home country of FIFA's Middle East and Africa rightsholderbeIN Sports—in June 2017, over itsalleged state support of terrorist groups. On 2 June 2018, beIN pulled its channels fromDuandEtisalat, but with service to the latter restored later that day. Etisalat subsequently announced that it would air the World Cup in the UAE, and continue to offer beIN normally and without interruptions.In Saudi Arabia, beIN was banned from doing business; as a result, its channels and other content have been widely and illegally repackaged by a broadcaster identifying itself as \"beoutQ\". While FIFA attempted to negotiate the sale of a package", "sale of a package consisting of Saudi matches and the final indirectly, they were unable to do so. On 12 July 2018, FIFA stated that it had \"engaged counsel to take legal action in Saudi Arabia and is working alongside other sports rights owners that have also been affected to protect its interests.\" In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men's World Cup whose English rights were held byFox Sports, and Spanish rights held byTelemundo. The elimination of theUnited Statesin the qualifiers led to concerns that U.S. interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced, noting that \"casual\" viewers of U.S. matches caused them to peak at 16.5 million in 2014, and determined how much Fox paid for the rights. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity amongHispanic and Latino Americans. Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant", "a significant amount of tournament coverage.Viewership was down overall compared to 2014; match scheduling and time zones were not as favourable to viewers in the Americas as they were in 2014. Many games aired in the morning hours, although Telemundo's broadcast of the Mexico-Sweden Group F match was announced as being its most-watched weekdaydaytimeprogram in the network's history. Unlike previous tournaments, where the rights were bundled with those of South Korea,Korean Central Televisionacquired rights to the 2018 World Cup within North Korea. Broadcasts only began with the round of 16, and matches were tape delayed and edited for time. In addition, matches involving Japan were excluded from the broadcasts, due tostrained relations and campaigns against the country. Sponsorship Audience A combined 3.572 billion unique viewers (live global 1-minute reach) – more than half of the global population aged four and over – tuned in to world football's ultimate competition, according to audience data for", "audience data for official broadcast coverage of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The average global live audience for every game of the tournament was 191 million viewers (for a cumulative live audience of 12.224 billion viewers), a 2.1% increase over the 2014 tournament average of 187 million viewers, including that average audience in the early stages (group stage and round of 16) were bigger than in 2014. However, in 2018, the audience was 15 percent smaller for the semi-finals, 17 percent for the third place play-off, and 5.1 percent for the final, which was watched by 517 million people on average (only in-home TV viewers), compared to 545 million in 2014. Presumably, the reason for that is the smaller countries involved in the top four games compared to those in 2014, and only one global region (Europe) being represented in 2018 (compared toSouth Americaand Europe in 2014). However the live global 1-minute reach of the final was 1.12 billion people (884.37 in-home TV viewers and 231.82 million out-of-home and", "out-of-home and (or) digital-only viewers). See also References External links", "Diego Costa Diego da Silva Costa(Spanish:,Portuguese:; born 7 October 1988)is a professionalfootballerwho plays as astrikerforCampeonato Brasileiro Série AclubGrêmio. Costa began his football career in his native Brazil before joiningBragain Portugal in 2006, aged 17. He never played for the club but spent time on loan atPenafiel, and signed with Atlético Madrid the following year. Over the next two seasons he had loan periods with Braga,Celta VigoandAlbacete. His form earned him a move to fellowLa LigaclubReal Valladolidin 2009, where he spent one season, finishing as their top goalscorer, before returning to Atlético Madrid. Costa struggled to maintain a regular starting role with Atlético, and spent more time on loan, this time atRayo Vallecano, where he finished as the club's highest scorer that season. In 2011, Costa returned to Atlético with a greater role. He blossomed as a goalscorer, and helped the team win a La Liga title, aCopa del Reytitle, and aUEFA Super Cup, as well as reaching the2014 UEFA", "the2014 UEFA Champions League final. In 2014, he was signed byPremier LeagueclubChelseain a deal worth €35 million (£32 million). In London, Costa won three trophies, including two Premier League titles and aLeague Cup. In 2018, following a rift with head coachAntonio Conte, Costa returned to Atlético Madrid in a club record transfer worth an initial €56 million,where he won aUEFA Europa Leaguetitle and anotherUEFA Super Cup. Costa is a dual citizen of Brazil and Spain. He played twice forBrazilin 2013, before declaring his desire to represent Spain, having been grantedSpanish citizenshipin September that year. He made his debut for Spain in March 2014, and has since won 24 caps and scored 10 goals, and has represented them at the2014and2018 FIFA World Cups. Known for his fiery temperament, Costa has been criticised and punished for several confrontations with opponents. Early life Costa was born inLagarto, Sergipe, Brazil, to parents José de Jesus and Josileide.His father named him in honour of Argentine", "honour of Argentine footballerDiego Maradonadespitethe rivalry between the two nations, and he has an elder brother named Jair after Brazilian playerJairzinho.Despite regularly playingstreet football, Costa did not believe as a child that he would turn professional, in part due to the remote location of his hometown.He has since set up a football academy in his hometown, where he pays all the costs.Costa is a fan ofPalmeiras. Costa trialled unsuccessfully at his hometown teamAtlético Clube Lagartense.At age 15, he left Sergipe and moved toSão Paulo, to work in the store of his uncle Jarminho.Although he was never a professional, Jarminho had connections in football and recommended his nephew toBarcelona Esportivo Capela, a team from the south of the city set up as an alternative to drugs and gangs for youth of thefavelas.Before joining this team, he had never been coached in football.He turned professional at the club, earning around£100 per month,and competed in the under-18 Taça de São Paulo despite a", "São Paulo despite a four-month ban for slapping an opponent and dissent towards the referee. Although he was sent off in the first game of the tournament, he attracted the attention of renowned Portuguese agentJorge Mendes, who offered him a contract atBraga. Costa's father was apprehensive of sending his son to Europe, and suggested he instead sign for nearbyAssociação Desportiva São Caetano, but he was adamant that he would take the opportunity. Jair played on the same team as Diego, and was a slimmer, more technically able player, but had less focus; the two were often not fielded at the same time in order to prevent arguments. He never turned professional, but had a three-month trial atBasqueclubSalvatierra. Club career Early career Costa signed for his first European club in February 2006, Portugal'sBraga.He initially struggled with loneliness and the comparatively cold weather of northern Portugal.Out of action due to the club's lack of a youth team, he was loaned that summer toPenafielin thesecond", "thesecond division,managed by formerPortugal internationalRui Bento, who desired the \"rough diamond\". Through his negotiations with Spain'sAtlético Madrid,Mendes arranged Costa's transfer for€1.5 million and 50% of the player's rights in December 2006,but he remained on loan at Braga until the end ofthe season. Atlético defeated interest fromPortoandRecreativo de Huelvafor Costa's signature, with directorJesús García Pitarchadmitting that it was a risk to pay so much for an inexperienced player.After 5 goals in 13 games for Penafiel, he was recalled to Braga in January 2007.On 23 February, he came on in the 71st minute forZé Carlosand scored his first goal for the team, a last-minute goal for a 1–0 win atParmato advance2–0 on aggregateto the Last 16 of theUEFA Cup.His season ended after seven games due to ametatarsalinjury which ruled him out for six months. Costa was presented by Atlético Madrid presidentEnrique Cerezoon 10 July 2007 as \"the newKaká\".While scout Javier Hernández wished for him to return to", "him to return to fitness in theclub's reserves, García Pitarch instead suggested loaning Costa out immediately.He made his debut on 11 August in the Ciudad de Vigo tournament againstCelta de Vigo, replacingSimãoat half-time in apenalty shootoutvictory. Celta Vigo Later that month, Costa andMario Suárezwere loaned toSegunda Divisiónside Celta de Vigo for the season, and Costa became a regular in the team, managed by formerBallon d'OrwinnerHristo Stoichkov.In his seventh league match, he scored his first goal in Spanish football in a dominant home victory overXerez; after scoring, he showboated, causing a brawl which resulted in him being sent off. Costa was subsequently rested from Celta's away game at the same opposition. The event drew the wrath of Stoichkov, who unexpectedly left his position.Towards the middle of the season, he was involved in two further controversies: he struckMálagadefenderWeligtonin the head, causing an injury which required medical stitches, and was sent off againstSevilla", "off againstSevilla Atléticofordivingand dissent, leaving his team to fight for a draw without him.The loyal strike partner ofQuincy Owusu-Abeyiedespite the pair not sharing a common language, he was dropped for CypriotIoannis Okkas.On 23 March 2008, Costa scored both Celta goals in a 2–1 win atNumancia, the latter after a long dribble;but later on in the campaign, he was sent off againstTenerifeatBalaídos, after which Celta went from winning 2–0 to drawing 2–2.The team barely avoided relegation, and Costa earned a reputation for being a disruptive influence. Albacete Despite earning a poor reputation for his conduct, Costa attracted interest fromSalamanca,Gimnàstic de Tarragonaand Málaga after his loan at Celta; García Pitarch ruled out any approach from the latter, fearing how Costa would behave on theCosta del Sol.After attending Atlético's pre-season tour of Mexico, he signed on loan forAlbacete, also of Segunda División, on 22 August 2008, signing a contract which would have a lower fee depending on how", "depending on how many games he played.He initially threatened to terminate his deal with theCastile-La Manchateam, on account of the quality of his teammates andthe city'slack of a beach.Nine days after signing, he scored a late winner in a 2–1 victory over Sevilla's reserves at theEstadio Carlos Belmonte.TheQueso Mecánicosuffered with financial problems during Costa's loan, with him threatening to strike unless their non-playing staff were paid in full.He was dropped to the bench by managerJuan Ignacio Martínezfor the home game againstReal Sociedadon 13 December as punishment for an argument with goalkeeperJonathan, but came on as a substitute to score another late winner. Costa was known for misbehaviour on and off the pitch while at Albacete. He was sent off away to Tenerife, after which he slandered the referee's mother and confronted his opponents.He pulledpractical jokeson his teammates and employers, earning him the moniker \"that fucking Brazilian\".However, he was a central figure as they avoided", "as they avoided relegation, assisting twice in a 3–0 win at high-flyingRayo Vallecanoon 2 May 2009, despite missing a penalty. Valladolid In the summer of 2009, Costa was desired byBarcelonafor theirreserve team, an approach which Atlético rejected, citing that he remained in their plans.Frustrated by his lack of opportunities, however, a now overweight Costa argued with his management and attempted to negotiate a move to Brazil'sEsporte Clube Vitória. On 8 July 2009, Costa was sold toReal Valladolidas part of the deal that sentgoalkeeperSergio Asenjoin the opposite direction, with the transfer including a €1 million buy-back option that could be activated by Atlético at the end ofthe season.García Pitarch confessed that there was a verbal agreement that Costa would definitely return at the end of the campaign, and that the deal had been made to look permanent in order to give Costa more commitment to his new club. Initially, Costa had competition up front from fellow new signingsAlberto BuenoandManucho,", "BuenoandManucho, signed fromReal MadridandManchester Unitedrespectively; he eventually forged a friendship with the latter, a fellowlusophone, from Angola.He started strong for theCastile and Leónside, scoring 6 times in his first 12 games,but only found the net once in the following five-and-a-half months as the campaign eventually ended inrelegationfromLa Liga. He was sent off in a goalless draw againstEspanyolon 24 March 2010 for a stamp onDídac Vilàin the first half. Atlético Madrid 2010–13 In June 2010, Costa returned to theColchoneros, initially as a backup toSergio AgüeroandDiego Forlán– Atlético also paid an undisclosed sum to Braga to buy all the residual 30% economic rights (the former also had to pay in excess of €833,000 in agent's fees toGestifute). He was an unused substitute as Atlético won the2010 UEFA Super Cupon 27 August. On 26 September, with the injured Agüero on thesubstitutes bench, Costa scored the game's only goal at home againstReal Zaragoza.On 3 April of the following year, already", "year, already as a starter after managerQuique Sánchez Floresdemoted Forlán from his position, Costa scored all of his team's goals in a 3–2 win atOsasuna. In July 2011, duringAtlético's pre-season, Costa suffered a serious knee injury, going on to miss the majority ofthe season.The injury prevented him from passing a medical at Turkish clubBeşiktaş, having already agreed to transfer to them.On 23 January 2012, Costa was loaned to fellow league clubRayo Vallecanountil June;he scored four goals in his first three appearances, including two in a 5–3 away win againstLevante,eventually finishing his loan spell with 10 goals from 16 games. For the second time in his career, Costa was an unused substitute as Atlético won theUEFA Super Cupon 1 September 2012.That December, Costa was involved in several on-field altercations in two separate matches. The first was in a 0–2local derbyloss against Real Madrid where he avoided disciplinary action after spitting incidents between him andSergio Ramos.He wassent offin the", "wassent offin the following game atViktoria Plzeňin theUEFA Europa Leaguefor headbutting opponentDavid Limberský, and was handed a four-match ban byUEFA.This, however, did not deter coachDiego Simeonefrom continuing to start him, and he responded by scoring three goals in two home contests, againstDeportivo de La Coruñain the league (6–0)andGetafeinthe season'sCopa del Rey(3–0). After the Copa del Rey semi-finals againstSevilla, Costa took his goal tally in the competition to seven in as many matches,having scored three times in the tie. In the first leg he scored twopenaltiesin a 2–1 winand, in the second at theRamón Sánchez Pizjuán, scored one after an individual effort andassistedRadamel Falcaoin the other, also being involved in incidents which resulted in two opposing players –Gary MedelandGeoffrey Kondogbia– being sent off in the 2–2 draw. Costa scored Atlético's equalising goal in theCopa del Rey finalclash against city rivals Real Madrid on 17 May 2013,contributing to the 2–1 triumph – the first in", "– the first in 25 games in a streak stretching back to 1999 – and the tenth win in the tournament, confirmed byMiranda'sextra-timeheader.He and opponentCristiano Ronaldohad gone into the match as joint top scorers in the tournament,and thus Costa's eighth goal made him the top scorer. 2013–14 season In August 2013, Costa was heavily linked with a move toLiverpool, who allegedly matched his release clause of €25 million and offered him three times his salary at Atlético.Costa, however, chose to stay at the club and renewed his contract until 2018, while also doubling his wages;a few days after this, in the first match ofthe new seasonon 19 August, he scored a brace in a 3–1 win at Sevilla. On 24 September, Costa scored both goals in a 2–1 home triumph over Osasuna to help his team stay level on points with league leaders Barcelona through six games.Four days later, in the Madrid derby, he scored the only goal of the game to record a second win over Real at theSantiago Bernabéuin under five months.For his", "five months.For his performances, he was crowned the inauguralLa Liga Player of the Monthfor September 2013.By his 25th birthday on 7 October, he had scored ten goals in eight league matches, equalling his tally from the previous season. All of those matches were won by Atlético, setting a new record for the best start to a season.On 23 November 2013, Costa scored an overhead volley from a cross byGabiin a win over Getafe; the goal was nominated for theFIFA Puskás Award. On 22 October 2013, Costa marked hisUEFA Champions Leaguedebut with two goals againstAustria Wien, the first coming after a fine individual effort in an eventual3–0 group stage away win.On 19 February 2014, in the first knockout round's first leg, he scored the game's only goal atMilan, scoring seven minutes from time after acorner kickfrom Gabi;he added a further two in the second match, helping Atlético to a 4–1 victory that put them into the quarter-finals for the first time in 17 years. On 30 April 2014, Costa won and converted a penalty", "converted a penalty in the second leg of theChampions League semi-finalagainstChelsea, as Atlético won 3–1 atStamford Bridgeand advanced tothe finalof the competition for the first time since1974.He finished the league season with 27 league goals to become the third highest scorer,and the team won the title for the first time since 1996, but he was substituted after 16 minutes of the last match of the season against Barcelona due to a hamstring injury.Atlético sought to cure this injury before the upcomingChampions League finalagainst Real Madrid by sending him toBelgradefor treatment with a horse placenta,and he was included in the starting line-up for the decisive match. However, he left the pitch after eight minutes in an eventual 1–4 loss;manager Diego Simeone later admitted a personal mistake in selecting the player to start the final despite his recent injury.Costa scored eight goals during the Champions League campaign, equalling the record held byVavásince 1959 for most in a season by an Atlético", "by an Atlético player, and in his entire career was in the top ten Atlético players by goal average.At the season'sLFP Awards, he was nominated for the league's Best Forward, losing out to Cristiano Ronaldo. Chelsea Having completed his medical in June,Chelsea announced on 1 July 2014 that they had agreed to meet the £32 million buy-out clause in Costa's contract.On 15 July, Chelsea confirmed the completion of the signing of Costa, who signed a five-year contract on a salary of £150,000 a week.On signing, Costa said, \"I am very happy to sign for Chelsea. Everybody knows it is a big club in a very competitive league, and I am very excited to get started in England with a fantastic coach and team-mates. Having played against Chelsea last season I know the high quality of the squad I am joining\".Following the departure of former Chelsea strikerDemba Ba, Costa inherited his number 19 shirt,the same number he wore at the 2014 World Cup for Spain and previously at Atlético. 2014–15 season Costa scored on his", "Costa scored on his Chelsea debut on 27 July, running onto a through ball fromCesc Fàbregasin a 2–1 friendly win against Slovene clubOlimpija.His first competitive match was Chelsea's first game of theleague season, away toBurnleyon 18 August, scoring the team's equaliser in a 3–1 victory.He scored in his third consecutive match on 30 August, the first and last goals of a 6–3 win atEverton, the first goal coming after 35 seconds.Costa was given thePremier League Player of the Monthaward for August 2014.He completed his firstPremier League hat-trickin his fourth game of the season againstSwansea Cityas Chelsea continued their perfect start to the season with a 4–2 win.With seven, Costa holds the record for most goals in his first four Premier League matches, surpassing the tally of six by both Sergio Agüero andMicky Quinn.In spite of his form at the start of the season, Costa had been suffering from a recurring hamstring problem which limited his participation in training; managerJosé Mourinhosaid that it", "that it would not heal until mid-November. Costa scored his tenth goal of the league season to give Chelsea a 2–1 win away to Liverpool on 8 November, preserving their unbeaten start to the campaign.In January, Costa was charged bythe FAin relation to a stamp onEmre Canduring Chelsea's win over Liverpool in theLeague Cupsemi-finals, and was given a three-match ban.Costa won his first trophy for Chelsea on 1 March, as they defeatedTottenham Hotspur2–0 to win theLeague CupatWembley Stadium; he scored the second goal of the game. On 26 April, Costa was chosen of one of two forwards for the season'sPFA Team of the Year, alongside Tottenham'sHarry Kane. Five of Costa's Chelsea teammates were also in the selection.Due to injury, he was due to miss the remainder of the season, in which Chelsea won the league title with a 1–0 home win overCrystal Palaceon 3 May.However, he featured in their last match of the season on the 24th, replacing the injuredDidier Drogbaafter half an hour againstSunderland. Seven minutes", "Seven minutes later, he scored his 20th goal of the league campaign, an equalising penalty in an eventual 3–1 home win. With reports speculating that Costa wanting to leave Chelsea, Costa affirmed on 2 June 2015 after Chelsea's post-season tour that he had no desire to leaveLondon, saying, \"It's always a bit more difficult in the first season for adaptation, but I have no reason to leave this place, I love it, the fans love me, and I want to stay. It's really good to come in the first season and win two things . Next year I'll be ready to come back and, hopefully, win a couple more trophies.\" 2015–16 season Due to injury, Costa missed the2015 FA Community Shield, which Chelsea lost 1–0 torivalsArsenal.On 23 August, he scored his first goal of the campaign in a 2–3 win atWest Bromwich Albion, which was Chelsea's first victory of the campaign, set up by international teammatePedro.He scored his first Champions League goal for the team on 16 September, a volley from a Cesc Fàbregas ball in a 4–0 win", "ball in a 4–0 win overMaccabi Tel Aviv. Three days later, Costa was involved in controversy in a 2–0 home win over Arsenal; he repeatedly slappedLaurent Koscielnyand chest-bumped him to the ground, and then confrontedGabriel, who allegedly tried to kick him and was sent off, though footage fromESPN Brazillater showed that little to no contact actually took place.He escaped any punishment at the time. His conduct was deemed \"disgusting\" by visiting managerArsène Wenger,and teammateKurt Zoumainitially reacted by saying, \"Diego likes to cheat a lot,\" but later clarified that he meant that \"Diego is a player who puts pressure on his opponents\".As a consequence, on 21 September, he was charged with violent conduct by the FA.and the following day he was given a three-match suspension.Gabriel's red card was also rescinded, although he was given a one-match ban and £10,000 fine for improper conduct after failing to leave the pitch immediately. After this incident, theDaily Expresswrote that Costa was \"named as", "was \"named as Premier League's dirtiest player\". After a 1–0 defeat atStoke Cityon 7 November, aBritannia Stadiumsteward made an allegation of assault against Costa, which was resolved without further action.Also that month, Costa was again involved in a skirmish with Liverpool'sMartin Škrtel, where he appeared to dig his boot into the Slovak defender's chest, but escaped punishment by the FA.On 29 November, Costa was an unused substitute in a match against Tottenham and threw his bib on the floor whenRuben Loftus-Cheekwas sent on at his expense. Mourinho told the media that, \"For me his behaviour is normal. A top player on the bench will not be happy.\" Costa,Oscarand Fàbregas were targeted by Chelsea supporters as the players whose poor form led to the dismissal of popular manager José Mourinho in December 2015.Costa scored twice in the first game under interim replacementGuus Hiddink, a 2–2 home draw againstWatford.Costa, who played in a protective mask after breaking his nose in training, improved his", "improved his form under the Dutchman, scoring seven times in his first eight games under the new management. On 12 March 2016, Costa received his first red card in a Chelsea shirt near the end their 2–0 FA Cup quarter-final defeat to Everton for confronting opponentGareth Barry. Footage appeared to show Costa biting Barry during that confrontation after clashing heads. Earlier in the match, Costa appeared to spit in the direction of the referee after he was yellow carded for a clash with Barry.Later, both Costa and Barry denied that the bite occurred.Costa's two-match ban was extended to three, and he was fined £20,000.On 2 May, as Chelsea drew 2–2 against Tottenham to deny them the title, Costa was gouged in the eyes byMousa Dembéléduring a mass brawl; the Belgian received a retrospective six-match ban. 2016–17 season On 15 August 2016, Costa scored a late winner againstWest Ham Unitedto give Chelsea a 2–1 win in theirseason opener.During the match, he caught opposing goalkeeperAdriánwith a late challenge", "a late challenge when already on a yellow card, but did not receive a second yellow and went on to score the winner; Adrián stated after the match that he was fortunate not to be seriously injured.On 15 October, he scored in a 3–0 over reigning Premier League championsLeicester City,and on 20 November Costa became the first player to reach ten league goals for the season, with the only one of the game atMiddlesbrough.With two goals and two assists for league leaders Chelsea, he was voted Premier League Player of the Month for the second time in November 2016, with his managerAntonio Contepicking up the equivalent. In January 2017, Costa fell out with Conte and was dropped from the team, amidst interest from theChinese Super League.A potential move toTianjin Quanjian F.C.was curtailed by the league limiting the number of foreign players in each team.He returned to Chelsea's starting line-up on 22 January, opening a 2–0 win overHull City, his 52nd goal on his 100th appearance.Costa was Chelsea's top scorer", "top scorer with 20 goals as they regained the Premier League title.On 27 May, he scored an equaliser in the2017 FA Cup Finalagainst Arsenal, a 2–1 loss. 2017–18 season \"Hi Diego, I hope you are well. Thanks for the seasono we spent together. Good luck for the next year but you are not in my plan.\" –Antonio Conteinforming Costa by text in June 2017 that he would no longer be involved with Chelsea In June 2017, Costa was told by Conte that he was not part of his plans for the coming season and that he was free to move to another team via text message.Although Costa was linked to potential moves to the likes ofMilan,Monaco, andEverton, he stated that he would only be open to moving back to his former team Atlético Madrid. Costa attempted to find a legal solution through his lawyer in pushing for a move back to Madrid,and said that Chelsea were treating him like a \"criminal\" by demanding a high transfer fee for his exit.He was excluded from training with the first-team, but was named in the Premier League", "the Premier League squad, yet left out of the Champions League squad. Return to Atlético Madrid On 21 September 2017, Chelsea announced that Costa would return to Atlético at the start of the next transfer window in January 2018.On 26 September 2017, it was announced that after passing medical tests Costa signed a contract with Atlético. He was registered and became eligible to play after 1 January 2018, due to a transfer ban imposed on Atlético. On 3 January 2018, he scored on his return game againstLleida Esportiuin theCopa del Reyround of 16, just five minutes after being substituted on forÁngel Correain the 64th minute.Three days later in his first league game back, he started in a 2–0 win overGetafeat theWanda Metropolitanoand scored the second goal. However, having already been cautioned for a stray elbow onDjene Dakonam, he was cautioned for a second time for charging into the stands to celebrate his goal, thus being sent off.ESPN FCcredited Costa as being a key element inAntoine Griezmann's return to", "return to form, opining that Costa's \"physical presence at centre-forward has understandably distracted opposition defenders quite a lot. Griezmann has now taken up a roaming No. 10 role, with freedom to go where he feels best\"; Atlético manager Diego Simeone namechecked three of Atlético's players in particular–Costa,Koke, andFilipe Luís–who had helped Griezmann perform. Costa scored the only goal of Atlético's 1–0 home win in over Arsenal in the second leg of the Europa League semi-finals, sending them into the2018 UEFA Europa League Final2–1 on aggregate.He played in thefinalinLyon, a 3–0 win overOlympique de Marseille. In Atlético's first match of 2018–19, theUEFA Super Cupat theLilleküla Stadiumin Estonia, Costa scored twice – including in the first 50 seconds – in a 4–2 win after extra time against Real Madrid. On 6 April 2019, he was sent off in the 28th minute againstFC Barcelona, and was handed an 8-match ban for abusing a referee.On 18 June 2020, Costa marked his 200th club appearance forLos", "appearance forLos Colchoneroswhen he started in a huge 5–0 away win againstOsasuna.Costa scored his fifth goal of the season in a 1–0 home victory againstReal Betisto ensure his team a top four finish and qualification fornext season'sChampions League.On 29 December 2020, Costa and Atlético agreed to terminate their contract, making Costa a free-agent. Atlético Mineiro On 14 August 2021, Costa joined Brazilian clubAtlético Mineiro, signing a deal until December 2022.He scored on his debut on 29 August, coming off the bench in the second half and settling a 1–1leaguedraw toRed Bull Bragantino.On 16 January 2022, after only playing 19 times and scoring 5 goals, Diego Costa terminated his contract and became a free agent. Wolverhampton Wanderers On 12 September 2022, Costa joined Premier League clubWolverhampton Wanderersuntil the end of the 2022–23 season.On 1 October 2022, Costa made his debut for the club, coming on in the 58th minute in a 2–0 league defeat toWest Ham Unitedat theLondon Stadium.Costa made", "Stadium.Costa made his 100th appearance in the Premier League, his 11th for Wolves, as a second-half substitute againstBournemouthatMolineuxon 18 February 2023.He suffered a knee injury in the first-half of Wolves's 1–0 home win againstTottenham Hotspurin the Premier League on 4 March 2023 and was carried off the pitch on a stretcher. On 15 April, Costa scored his first goal for Wolves in a 2–0 home win againstBrentford, his first goal in English football in nearly six years. On 3 June, Wolves announced that Costa was one of many players who would leave at the end of their contract. Botafogo On 12 August 2023, Costa signed for Brazilian clubBotafogo. International career Brazil On 5 March 2013, Costa was called up to theBrazil national teamby head coachLuiz Felipe ScolariforfriendlieswithItalyinGenevaandRussiain London, both taking place late in that month.He made his debut in the first match on 21 March, replacingFredmidway through the second half of the 2–2 draw.Four days later at Stamford Bridge, he", "Stamford Bridge, he replaced Kaká for the last 12 minutes of a 1–1 draw with Russia. Request to change teams In September 2013, theRoyal Spanish Football Federationmade an official request toFIFAfor permission to call up Costa for theSpain national team.He had been grantedSpanish nationalityin July.FIFA regulations currently permit players with more than one nationality to represent a second country if, like Costa, he had only represented his first country in friendly matches. On 29 October 2013, Costa declared that he wished to play international football for Spain, sending a letter to theBrazilian Football Confederation(CBF).Following the news, Scolari commented, \"A Brazilian player who refuses to wear the shirt of the Brazilian national team and compete in aWorld Cupin your country is automatically withdrawn. He is turning his back on a dream of millions, to represent our national team, the five-time champions in a World Cup in Brazil.\" The CBF judicial director, Carlos Eugênio Lopes, said, Spain On 28", "said, Spain On 28 February 2014, Spain managerVicente del Bosqueincluded Costa in the squad for a friendly against Italy.He finally made his debut on 5 March, playing the full 90 minutes at his club ground, theVicente Calderón Stadium, as the hosts won 1–0. Costa was named in Spain's 30-man provisional squad for the2014 World Cup,as well as the final list which was named on 31 May.He returned from the injury which had ended his club season by starting in a warm-up game againstEl Salvador, winning a penalty in a 2–0 victory.In the first match of the tournament, against theNetherlands, he again won a penalty, conceded byStefan de Vrijand converted byXabi Alonsofor a 1–0 lead but in an eventual 1–5 defeat;he was booed by Brazilian fans during the match.Costa then started in a 0–2 loss toChilemaking little impact as he was substituted forFernando Torresfor the second consecutive match, and Spain were eliminated.He was an unused substitute in the team's third match, a 3–0 defeat ofAustralia. Costa scored his", "Costa scored his first goal for Spain with the third in a 4–0UEFA Euro 2016 qualifyingwin away toLuxembourgon 12 October 2014.He did not feature again for Spain until 5 September 2015, when he was fouled bySlovakiagoalkeeperMatúš Kozáčikfor a penalty, whichAndrés Iniestaconverted for a 2–0 qualifying win at theEstadio Carlos TartiereinOviedo. He was booed when he was substituted forPaco Alcácerlater in the match.Del Bosque defended Costa from criticism, saying that he performed well against the Slovak defence.However, he was not included in the final squad for the tournament. On 5 September 2016, Costa scored his first international goals for nearly two years, in an 8–0 win overLiechtensteinat theEstadio Reino de Leónfor Spain's opening match of2018 World Cup qualification, the first being a header from a free-kick by his former Atlético teammateKoke.In May 2018, Costa was called up to Spain's squad for the2018 FIFA World Cup.In their opening game on 15 June inSochi, he scored his two first World Cup goals", "World Cup goals to help Spain secure a 3–3 draw againstPortugal.Five days later, he scored the winning goal of the match againstIran. Player profile Style of play and reception Friends and family recalled how Costa's style of play changed little over time, with his father stating how as a child, Costa would be furious whenever his team lost.Atlético scout Javier Hernández, on watching 17-year-old Costa play for Penafiel, was impressed by the young forward's determination and power, although found it evident that he was not observing a healthy lifestyle.Costa's Penafiel manager Rui Bento, who was atSporting CPwhen Cristiano Ronaldo broke into the team, rated Costa in the same calibre as the Portuguese winger.According to Atlético director Jesús García Pitarch, Costa ranks as one of the best signings of his career, alongsideMohamed Sissoko,MirandaandRicardo Oliveira. While on loan at Celta de Vigo, Costa drew comparisons to their former Egyptian strikerMido, who was also known for his temper.During his spell", "his spell at Albacete, Costa was nicknamed after bullfighterCurro Romeroand theTasmanian devil.His manager Juan Ignacio Martínez conceded that Costa played as a model professional for 89 minutes per match, with only one minute per match being his downfall.Costa refers toJosé Luis Mendilibaras his greatest manager because of his fatherlike \"tough love\", respecting his talents while keeping strict discipline, once sending Costa to work in avineyardas a punishment. Earlier in his Atlético Madrid career, Costa's physical play was used in support ofRadamel Falcao, thus ensuring a lower goalscoring rate. After Falcao was sold in 2013, the attack was restructured around Costa by manager Diego Simeone. Simeone, who like Costa was known for his competitiveness and aggression, found ways to enhance his discipline while retaining his determination.In 2014, his club teammateDiego Godíndescribed Costa as the team's \"heartbeat\", commenting that he \"gives us everything,\" also adding: \"Sometimes things aren't going well and", "going well and he is able to open up the game with his strength and technique.\" Nick Dorrington ofBleacher Reportdescribed him as a \"battering ram of a striker: Strong, quick and tireless in his pursuit of the ball,\" while the club's manager Simeone lauded his work-rate as being \"contagious\". Ahead of his competitive debut for Chelsea in August 2014,BBC SportpunditRobbie Savagedescribed Costa as \"the missing piece in the jigsaw\" for the \"clear favourites\" who \"could end up winning the title by five or six points\". He explained that Chelsea's defence was already the strongest in the league, but a poorer rate of shot-to-goal conversion had cost them the title. He praised Costa's stature and physical style of play which \"suits the Premier League down to the ground\" in the same role that Didier Drogba previously played at Chelsea,an opinion also voiced by the league's top scorer of all-time,Alan Shearer.Costa has also been attributed with a greater ability to keep possession of the ball than any Chelsea striker", "any Chelsea striker since Drogba first left the club in 2012.That same year, Henry Winter ofThe Telegraphnoted that Costa \"...has the technique, the strength and the burst of acceleration to destroy defences.\" Costa's size, technique, and strength, coupled with his link-up play and ability to hold up the ball with his back to goal allow him to be an effectivetarget-man;moreover, his constant movement and powerful running in thecentre-forwardrole allows him to distract opponents and in turn create space for teammates.Although he was initially known to be inconsistent in the earlier part of his career, due to his low goalscoring rate, he later established himself as a good finisher as his career progressed, which along with his composure in front of goal and ability inside the penalty box, made him a prolific goalscorer,and even saw him regarded by several pundits and managers as one of the best strikers in the world at his peak.In 2018, Simeone lauded Costa for the \"enthusiasm\" and \"aggression\" he brings to", "he brings to Atlético Madrid, as well as his \"speed, decisiveness, and physical strength.\" Discipline and controversies Costa has been the source of much controversy in his career due to confrontations with opponents, and has received multiple violent conduct charges fromThe Football Associationof England.Opposing managers have also opined that Costa himself intends to provoke his opponents.Danny MurphyofMatch of the Dayhas stated that Costa is targeted by players who \"wind him up,\" but he \"remains calm\", and is justified to taunt opponents who taunt him.Pat Nevin, a former Chelsea winger, believes that Costa's style of play is likely to cause himself \"a few injuries\".In August 2014, he was criticised by Everton managerRoberto Martínezfor taunting Everton'sSéamus Colemanfollowing his own goal, and stated Costa needed \"to understand the ethics\" of the Premier League.In October 2014, he clashed with Slovakia's Martin Škrtel in aEuro 2016 qualifier. In January 2015, following two stamp incidents involving Costa", "involving Costa and Liverpool players for which Costa received a three-match ban by the FA, Liverpool managerBrendan Rodgersstated that he thought Costa had fouled his players when \"he could easily have hurdled over the player\" and \"there's no need to do it\".Costa described his style of play as \"strong but noble\", and refuted allegations that he deliberately aims to injure opponents. In late 2015, Costa was the subject of scrutiny for his comparatively poor start to his second season at Chelsea and his low scoring rate for Spain.French newspaperL'Equipenamed Costa as the most hated footballer in December 2015, based on his provocative and violent behaviour. Career statistics Club International Honours Atlético Madrid Chelsea Atlético Mineiro Grêmio Individual Records See also References General Notes References External links" ]