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Principles of Design Balance in design is similar to balance in physics. A large shape close to the center can be balanced by a small shape close to the edge. A large light toned shape will be balanced by a small dark toned shape (the darker the shape the heavier it appears to be) Graduation of size and direction produce linear perspective. Graduation of colour from warm to cool and tone from dark to light produce aerial perspective. Graduation can add interest and movement to a shape. A graduation from dark to light will cause the eye to move along a shape. Repetition with variation is interesting, without variation repetition can become monotonous. If you wish to create interest, any repeating element should include a degree of variation. Contrast is the juxtaposition of opposing elements eg. Opposite colours on the colour wheel – red/green, blue/ orange etc. Contrast in tone or value – light /dark. Contrast in direction – horizontal/vertical. The major contrast in a painting should be located at the center of interest. Too much contrast scattered throughout a painting can destroy unity and make a work difficult to look at. Unless a feeling of chaos and confusion are what you are seeking, it is a good idea to carefully consider where to place your areas of maximum contrast. Harmony in painting is the visually satisfying effect of combining similar, related elements. Eg. Adjacent colurs on the colour wheel, similar shapes etc. Dominance gives a painting interest, counteracting confusion and monotony. Dominance can be applied to one or more of the elements to give emphasis. Relating the design elements to the idea being expressed in a painting reinforces the principal of unity. Eg. A painting with an active aggressive subject would work better with a dominant oblique direction, course, rough texture, angular lines etc. whereas a quiet passive subject would benefit from horizontal lines, soft texture and less tonal contrast. Unity in a painting also refers to the visual linking of various elements of the work.

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What is Fluorescence? Fluorescence is the ability of certain chemicals to give off visible light after absorbing radiation which is not normally visible, such as ultraviolet light. This property has led to a variety of uses. Let’s shed some further light on this topic; consider the omnipresent “fluorescent” lights. Just how do they work? Fluorescent tubes contain a small amount of mercury vapor. The application of an electric current causes a stream of electrons to traverse the tube. These collide with the mercury atoms which become energized and consequently emit ultraviolet light. The inside of the tube is coated with a fluorescent material, such as calcium chlorophosphate, which converts the invisible ultraviolet light into visible light. The same idea is used to produce color television pictures. The screen is coated with tiny dots of substances which fluoresce in different colours when they are excited by a beam of electrons which is used to scan the picture. But fluorescent materials had practical uses even before we dreamed of color television. One of the most amazing of all fluorescent materials is a synthetic compound, appropriately called fluorescein. Under ultraviolet light it produces an intense yellow-green fluorescence which during World War II was responsible for saving the lives of many downed flyers. Over a million pounds of the stuff were manufactured in 1943 and distributed to airmen in little packets to use as a sea marker. Since the fluorescence is so potent that it can be seen when the concentration of fluorescein is as little as 25 parts per billion, rescue planes easily spotted the men in the ocean. Aircraft carriers also made extensive use of fluorescein. The signal men on deck wore clothes and waved flags treated with the compound which was then made to glow by illumination with ultraviolet light. The incoming pilots could clearly see the deck and the need to use runway lights which would have drawn the attention of enemy aircraft was eliminated. Certain natural substances also fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Urine and moose fur are interesting examples. Prisoners have actually made use of this property of urine and have used it as a secret ink. What about the moose fur? Well, in Canada and Sweden there are hundreds of accidents each year involving the collision of automobiles with moose. Some of these result in fatalities. Some car manufacturers are now considering fitting their vehicles with UV emitting headlights to reduce moose collisions! How’s that for putting the right chemistry to work.

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February 3, 2010 | 9 Few things in my life have brought me as much joy as watching sea otters play in the waters near Monterey, Calif. So when I heard this week that the frisky yet endangered critters may be slightly expanding their habitat, I figured everyone would think that was good news. Once hunted into near-extinction for their fur, the southern, or California, sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) now numbers around 2,600 to 2,700 animals, all of which live in a fairly small habitat range off the central California coast. The problem is that their extant habitat is the only place the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) grants them protected status. (Although they are also protected under California state law and the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act, those laws do not govern habitat.) Everything south of their current habitat is designated a "no-otter zone". The origins of this restriction shouldn’t surprise anyone. When otters were first listed as a threatened species under the ESA, they were protected everywhere, according to Allison Ford, executive director of The Otter Project in Monterey, Calif. But in order to protect species, the ESA requires the creation of a recovery plan. In this case the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wanted to try to move some otters to a new habitat. This "experimental population" would protect the southern otter from extinction in a catastrophic event, such as a major oil spill. But in order to create a new habitat for the otters, the government also created a no-otter zone, an area where the animals would not be able to impact the fishing or oil industries. Unfortunately, "the experimental population never thrived," Ford says. But the otter-free zone remains. And now some otters are swimming past that imaginary line in the surf in search of sea urchins and other tasty marine life in the forbidden zone. Fishermen are not happy with the encroachment. "Based on historic action, we think eventually they’ll wipe out the shellfish industry in California," Vern Goehring, executive director of the California Sea Urchin Commission, told the Associated Press. So why are sea otters swimming into verboten territory? "Food supply is always an impediment to otter survival and expansion," Ford says. "Scientists believe that food limitation is an issue in certain parts of the otter’s range." Ford says that large, bachelor otters "tend to go back and forth over the no-otter line. Certainly, abundant prey that otters like to eat exists in the no-otter zone," and because humans tend to like the same foods, that creates conflict. "Otters eat voraciously," Ford says. "They have a strong appetite, and eat 25 percent of their body weight every day." Otters do not have blubber, and use their fur and their high metabolisms to keep warm. Otters can impact fisheries and the industry’s ability to operate at the same productivity levels it is used to, Ford says, adding: "Sea urchin is where the big conflict is." But she points out that the very reason there is a sea urchin industry is because otters no longer exist in their historic habitats. "Otters are a keystone species, and they maintain sea urchins, which in turn eat kelp. When otters were removed from the ecosystem, you lost the kelp, which hurt total biodiversity." Restoring sea otters in other areas of California, Ford says, could actually increase biodiversity and create additional fishing markets. No matter what happens, the sea otter expansion won’t be anything that happens overnight. Populations have dipped slightly the past two years, and only a few dozen otters make their way regularly into the sans otter zone. But for now, that’s enough to get some people worried—and angry. Image: Sea otter, via Wikipedia

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This is a video made by a group of students from the Department of Media & Communication, RUPP, Cambodia. Using a Weak Password Avoid simple names or words you can find in a dictionary, even with numbers tacked on the end. Instead, mix upper- and lower-case letters, numbers, and symbols. A password should have at least eight characters. One good technique is to insert numbers or symbols in the middle of a word, such as this variant on the word “houses”: hO27usEs! Leaving Your Full Birth Date in Your Profile It’s an ideal target for identity thieves, who could use it to obtain more information about you and potentially gain access to your bank or credit card account. If you’ve already entered a birth date, go to your profile page and click on the Info tab, then on Edit Information. Under the Basic Information section, choose to show only the month and day or no birthday at all. Overlooking Useful Privacy Controls For almost everything in your Facebook profile, you can limit access to only your friends, friends of friends, or yourself. Restrict access to photos, birth date, religious views, and family information, among other things. You can give only certain people or groups access to items such as photos, or block particular people from seeing them. Consider leaving out contact info, such as phone number and address, since you probably don’t want anyone to have access to that information anyway. Posting Your Child’s Name in a Caption Don’t use a child’s name in photo tags or captions. If someone else does, delete it by clicking on Remove Tag. If your child isn’t on Facebook and someone includes his or her name in a caption, ask that person to remove the name Mentioning That You’ll Be Away From Home That’s like putting a “no one’s home” sign on your door. Wait until you get home to tell everyone how awesome your vacation was and be vague about the date of any trip. Letting Search Engines Find You To help prevent strangers from accessing your page, go to the Search section of Facebook’s privacy controls and select Only Friends for Facebook search results. Be sure the box for public search results isn’t checked. Permitting Youngsters to Use Facebook Unsupervised Facebook limits its members to ages 13 and over, but children younger than that do use it. If you have a young child or teenager on Facebook, the best way to provide oversight is to become one of their online friends. Use your e-mail address as the contact for their account so that you receive their notifications and monitor their activities. “What they think is nothing can actually be pretty serious,” says Charles Pavelites, a supervisory special agent at the Internet Crime Complaint Center. For example, a child who posts the comment “Mom will be home soon, I need to do the dishes” every day at the same time is revealing too much about the parents’ regular comings and goings Copyrighted 2009, Consumers Union of U.S., Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Bass, Blue Nose Bluenose Bass is a large fish, growing to over 50 kg, found in temperate waters of New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and South America. They are particularly vulnerable to fishing pressure because they are long lived, mature late, and exhibit schooling and spawning aggregation behaviors making them easier to catch. Bluenose Bass sold in the U.S. primarily comes from New Zealand, but a small commercial Bluenose Bass fishery also occurs in Australia. Both fisheries are managed through total allowable catch limits. In New Zealand, abundance of Bluenose Bass has declined to low levels over the last decade, likely as a result of unsustainable catch rates, and there is a relatively high probability that the population is overfished. In Australia, abundance levels of Bluenose Bass populations appear to be more stable. The majority of Bluenose Bass are caught with bottom longlines or other hook-and-line gear, which may cause moderate habitat damage and result in medium levels of bycatch.

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Scallop, Mexican Bay Mexican Bay Scallops are distributed from Baja California, Mexico to Northern Peru, including both sides of the Baja California Peninsula. They grow quickly, reach sexual maturity around 6 months of age and produce many eggs. After heavy fishing pressure that caused numbers to drop considerably, Mexican Bay Scallops are now at healthy levels of abundance particularly in the main fishing area of Magdalena Bay, Mexico. In Magdalena Bay, they are collected by hand by commercial divers, causing no damage to the seafloor and little to no bycatch.

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JOHN THE PRESBYTER, author, also known as John the elder, said by some to have written some of the Johannine books of the Bible. To him also is attributed a Coptic version of the life of Saint PISENTIUS, bishop of Qift (Coptos), dating from the mid-seventh century. The text has reached us in only one codex (British Museum, London, Or. 7026, Budge, 1910, pp. 75-127). The Life of Pisentius is made up of miraculous episodes; these do not always appear in the same order in the different versions and may sometimes have additions or omissions—in some cases homiletic passages. De L. O'Leary (1930) identifies four versions: one in Sahidic Coptic, attributed to John the Presbyter; one in Bohairic Coptic, attributed to MOSES OF QIFT; and two in Arabic, one shorter than the other. O'Leary also gives a careful summary of the versions. The text is clearly based on a preexisting collection of episodes, so that it is later than the version attributed to Moses of Qift. The main feature of the version attributed to John the Presbyter is that it has the form of a real homily, with an added prologue, conclusion, and personal reflections by the author. These are of an encomiastic or moral nature, inserted between episodes or groups of episodes. The most interesting sections are the prologue (which also discusses the literary justification for the work), a digression on Jacob, another on Moses, to whom Pisentius is compared, and a third on the oratorical skill of Pisentius. Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

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[Editorial note: [...] indicates use of Coptic, Greek, Arabic, or Egyptian text. Original script is available for viewing in the PDF format of this article.] SULLAM (or scala). The Arabic term for a Coptic-Arabic dictionary is sullam (ladder; plural salalim), because the words are arranged to the left (Coptic) and the right (Arabic) in a manner that gives the impression of a ladder (Latin scala; Coptic [...] B, [...] [...] [...] S). Coptic lexicography started at the same time as Coptic grammar. Anba Yuhanna al-Samannudi, the author of the first grammar, also wrote the first known Coptic dictionary. Anba Yuhanna, who was bishop of Samannud (western Delta) in the middle of the thirteenth century, wrote Al-Sullam al-Kana’isi (or Scala Ecclesiastica), of which two versions survive, Sahidic (Munier, 1930, pp. 1-43) and Bohairic, both found in many manuscripts (Graf, 1947, pp. 372-74). It is not a dictionary but a glossary of terms in biblical and liturgical books, mainly the New Testament, a portion of the Old Testament, and some liturgical texts. The words are given with their Arabic translation in the order in which they occur, except repetitions. The sullam begins with the Gospel of St. John because of its easy style. Anba Yuhanna did not intend to write a dictionary in the modern sense of the term but a manual for his readers, to enable them to understand religious texts. The beginning of St. John’s Gospel runs as follows: [...] = fi, in; [...] = al-bady, the beginning; [...] = kan, kayin, was; [...] = al-kalimah, the word (Munier, 1930, p. 1). In the preface of his Bulghat al-Talibin (freely translated as “What Seekers Find”; Bauer, 1972, pp. 303-306) he announced his intention to write a poem of the muthallath kind (strophes with three rhymes) on words pronounced in the same way but written differently, but this has not survived. Abu Ishaq ibn al-‘Assal (full name al-Mu’taman Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn al-‘Assal), a member of the famous ‘Assal family (Mallon, 1906-1907), wrote a “rhymed” dictionary called al-Sullam al-Muqaffa wa-l-Dhahab al-Musaffa (The Rhymed Dictionary and the Purified Gold; Kircher, 1643, pp. 273-495, not quite complete). Words are classified by the last letter, as in Arabic dictionaries (e.g., the Sihah of al-Jawhari; Sidarus, 1978, p. 129). The order is last letter, then first letter, and then second letter, as in [...], leave her; [...], shirt (= [...]); [...], tambourine; [...], time; (. . . ) [...], except (Kircher, 1643, p. 443). Also words with affixes are listed; thus, [...], I have put thee, and [...], all of us, are found under [...] and [...]. As a matter of fact, their are no “rhymes” in his dictionary, as only the last letter is taken into consideration. His vocabulary is limited to religious texts (Graf, 1947, pp. 407-411). Abu Shakir ibn al-Rahib (full name al-Nushu’ Abu Shakir ibn Butrus al-Rahib, author of a grammar (MUQADDIMAH), wrote another “rhymed” scala, which he finished in 1263-1264. He used a larger number of liturgical books and two ancient scalae, as is revealed in the preface of his book. His scala is lost. As a sullam muqaffa, or rhymed scala, it was arranged after the last letter of the words. It comprised two parts: simple word forms and words with prefixes and suffixes (Sidarus, 1978, p. 130). An independent work is the anonymous Sahidic-Arabic Daraj as-Sullam (Book of Steps), called in Greek [...] and in Sahidic [...] (The Rung of the Ladder; Munier, 1930, pp. 67-249). Its contents are as follows: chapter 1, miscellanea, as particles, prepositions, nouns, and verbal forms; chapters 2-19, a classified part beginning with God, good qualities of men, the heavens, the earth, the sea and mountains, the whole universe; chapters 20-23, various subjects; chapters 24-26, words and sentences of the Old Testament (lacking in al-Samannudi’s scala); chapter 27, “difficult” words (hnlexic eumokh ibid., pp. 135-36). An anonymous Greek-Bohairic-Arabic vocabulary of the Vatican Library (Hebbelynck and van Lantschoot, 1937-1947, Vol. 2, 82-85) arranges the words by first letter, as the oldest Greek alphabetical dictionaries do: [...], letter a; [...], [...] (sic), unharmed; [...], injustice. There are two other copies in the National Library in Paris (Mallon, 1910, pp. 87-88), the first dated 1318 and the second from the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Greek lexicography, like the Coptic, began with the explanation of difficult passages as they occurred in the text. Alphabetical arrangement was a relatively late development. The first alphabetical dictionary in the world was perhaps Glaukias’ lexicon, dating from 180 B.c. In the beginning, the alphabetical order was not strictly observed, for only the first letter was taken into consideration, and later the second and even the third. The lexicon by Hesychius Alexandrinus (fifth or sixth century AD.) was entirely alphabetical (Schwyzer, 1939, p. 29). So it seems that the alphabetical arrangement in Coptic lexicography was an independent attempt to arrange words in alphabetical order. Furthermore, the demotic “alphabetical” word list had nothing to do with Coptic classification, as there was no real alphabet with a fixed order of signs in demotic (Volten, 1952, pp. 496-508). The scalae hitherto published are not free of mistakes—mistakes of the author, the copyist, the editor, and the printer. Here are but two examples: [...] lioness (B) = al-labwa, which elsewhere (S, B) is [...] bear (fem.), from Greek [...] (masc./fem.) (Vycichl, 1983, p. 16), a confusion due to the fact that there were no bears in Egypt. In this case the definite article has been put in twice: [...]-[...]-[...], Bohairic [...] and Sahidic [...]. S [...], basin for ablutions (?) = al-kirnib (Munier, 1930, p. 174)—between al-mathara, vessel for ablutions, and satl (= satl), bucket, pail—should be spelt [...] = Greek [...], water for ablution ([...], hand, before consonant [...], [...], to clean, from a pre-Greek root [...]). In other cases, such as Coptic manuscripts from the eighth century, the spelling of Copto-Greek (chiefly) words reflects phonetic changes of the spoken language. Three well-known cases need to be mentioned. [...] and [...] are interchangeable: S [...], liver = [...] ([...]). Copto-Greek [...] = [...], and sometimes vice versa: [...], welcome (greeting) = [...], be happy, and S [...], 96 (Crum, 1939, p. 273) = phonetically *pset-ase. [...] and [...]. often interchange with transcribed [...] and [...]: thus, [...], demon, genius = [...], and [...] (Munier, 1930, p. 165) = S [...] (ibid., p. 167) = [...], cabbage. But there are other cases as well, such as insertions of an auxiliary vowel (written [...]) in a three-consonant cluster: thus, S [...], sow (ibid., p. 113) = Latin scrofa, and S [...], vault of heaven = Greek [...], ball, vault of heaven. Also [...], sparrow, appears as S [...], bird = [...] (‘usfur) (ibid., p. 114). The group ks ([...]) was often pronounced nks in the final position and later, with an auxiliary vowel, -niks: [...] whip, appears as S [...] (ibid., p. 171), still without auxiliary vowel, but [...], appears as S [...] (ibid., p. 116), and [...], wasp, is S [...] instead of S [...] (ibid., p. 115). A similar case is S [...], apocalypse, from [...] today pronounced abu ghalamsis. The group [...] is often written [...], probably influenced by [...] ([...]), but, a frequent conjunction. Thus, one finds S, B [...], palace, from [...] = Latin palatium. S [...], B [...], pupil of the eye, is nothing else than S, B [...], child, in this case the “girl of the eye” as in Egyptian [...]wn.t im.t ir.t, the girl in the eye, or Greek [...], girl, pupil of eye (Vycichl, 1983, p. 7). The Copto-Greek words of the scalae often represent Greek postclassical forms. B [...], October, is neither Latin, nor modern [...] or a similar form, but a postclassical form. One can compare Armenian Hoktember and Russian Oktyabr’ (*Oktembri) There are four S words for “water”: [...] ([...]), [...] ([...]), [...] ([...]), and [...] (Munier, 1930, p. 109). [...] ([...]) is the classical word; [...] ([...]), literally “the new, fresh one,” is the current expression in modern Greek; [...] (nama) is “running water”; and p-[...] is the autochthonous Coptic word for “water” (S). [...] and [...] are translated (az-zalzalah), the earthquake (ibid., p. 107). The etymologies are quite clear: [...] + [...], earthquake, and the autochthonous Coptic form derives from S [...], to move, and the old word S [...], earth. This S [...] is another word than Old Coptic [...], creator of the earth (Vycichl, 1983, p. 82). S [...], the pictures = Arabic (as-suwar) (Munier, 1930, p. 122) derives from Greek [...], little picture (Stephanus, 1831-1865, Vol. 4, p. 42: “imaguncula vel protome”). The Copto-Greek form is influenced by Greek [...], harbor. Another problem is [...], he-ass = al-himar, and [...], she-ass = al-atanah (Munier, 1930, p. 112). The normal spelling of these words would be [...] (accusative) and [...] (neuter nominative or accusative); compare modern Greek [...], ass, and [...], little ass (Demetrakos, 1936, Vol. 3, p. 1535). The word occurs in Egyptian Greek as [...], donkey, in a text of the sixth or seventh century AD. (Grenfell and Hunt, 1901, p. 153). Also [...] occurs in modern Greek (ibid.). Coptic vocabularies reveal that in some cases names of animals are derived from names of the corresponding Egyptian (theriomorphic) gods. A name of the crocodile was [...] (Crum, 1939, p. 63) = at-timsah, wrongly = at-tirsah, turtle (Kircher, 1643, p. 171), but the same word occurs as [...], soul of Ephot, in a Greek-Coptic glossary = [...] (Bell and Crum, 1925, p. 197). According to Epiphanius, the Egyptians called crocodiles [...] from Egyptian Nfr [...]tp, epithet of several gods, not only Suchos (Vycichl, 1983, p. 49). The initial n was considered the plural article—thus, B [...], crocodile. In the chapter on languages and peoples one reads B [...] (Assyrios) = [...] (Suryani), Syrian, (Kircher, 1643, p. 80). This translation is due to an old confusion between Syria and Assyria (Cannuyer, 1985, p. 133) and not to a misunderstanding, for as with Armenian Asorikh, Asorestan is northern Syria, because of the “Assyrian Christians” in the region of Edessa (Froundjian, 1952, p. 58), so called after their coreligionists in Assyria, the northern part of Mesopotamia. Another strange term is [...], Armenian (Kircher, 1643, p. 80). This is of course a mistake. The preceding word is [...], Georgian (compare Persian Gurji). So B [...] stands for *[...] an Iberian, because [...], a people of the Caucasus, are considered the ancestors of the Georgians. They descend from Iber, and Iberos is attested as a personal name ([...]). One must read [...], a Georgian. Coptic glossaries were highly appreciated in the Middle Ages and even in modern times as they permitted their readers access to the sense of the Holy Scriptures in Coptic. The situation is however somewhat different for modern scholars. They prefer to collect words in religious sources from original texts and not from secondhand glossaries. But ordered lexicons containing words from daily life are constantly referred to, mainly for natural history, geography, and, of course, dictionaries (Crum, 1939; Vycichl, 1983). These lexicons were written at a time when Coptic, both Sahidic and Bohairic, had undergone major changes, phonetically and lexically. The spoken language was full of Arabic words, as one can see from a medical papyrus (Chassinat, 1921) or a treatise on alchemy (Stern, 1885). There seem to be only very few words of Arabic origin in the scalae; for example, B [...], rice (Kircher, 1643, p. 194) modern Arabic ar-ruzz, a medieval and modern form of urz (with many variants) from Greek [...]. Another word is S [...], almond (Munier, 1930, p. 164), from Arabic jillawz, kind of hazel nut; compare Tunisian zelluz, almond, from jillawz. S [...], apricot (ibid., p. 164), derives from Latin praecox, accusative praecoce(m), precocious; hence Greek [...] and Arabic barquq, apricot (Near East), plum (North Africa) with a change p:b. In this context one must mention Kircher’s Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta (1643). Although it certainly does not meet modern standards, it was for its time excellent and marks the very beginning of Coptic studies in Europe. Champollion used it 180 yea rs later for deciphering the hieroglyphs. Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

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Shoah exhibits educate, provoke sad memories HAMILTON — It was difficult for Emmy Weisz to watch the documentary on Anne Frank. As a child in Amsterdam, just one year younger than Frank, Weisz had walked the same streets, stepped inside the same buildings as the famed diarist. But Weisz attended the opening of Anne Frank: A History for Today because she knows it is important to share these stories and educate the community. The official opening, presented in partnership with Temple Anshe Sholom and the Canada Netherlands Friendship Association, took place Nov. 18. Anne Frank: A History for Today is one of two travelling exhibitions brought to Hamilton’s Temple Anshe Sholom by the Hamilton Jewish Federation Holocaust Education Committee. Anne Frank: A History for Today juxtaposes the Frank family’s story against world events before, during and after the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party. The exhibit includes photographs of the Frank family and the other occupants of the secret annex. Making its Canadian première, Dutch Resistance Art and Official Propaganda, about the period from 1940 to 1945, conveys the Nazi oppression of Holland and its citizens during the occupation. The exhibit is based on three collections from the archives of the Anne Frank Center in New York City, with original propaganda posters distributed by the Nazi-controlled Dutch government; linoleum and woodcut prints by Marie de Zaaijer, and original drawings by Dutch artist Henri Pieck. The exhibits are on display until Friday, Nov. 30. Dignitaries who spoke at the opening ceremony included Hamilton Jewish Federation president Larry Szpirglas, the temple’s Rabbi Jordan Cohen, the honorary consul for the Netherlands, Richard ter Vrugt, MP David Sweet, Hamilton Mayor Bob Bratina, MPP Ted McMeekin and Mario Silva, incoming Canadian chair, Task Force for International Co-operation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance and Research. Szpirglas expressed hope that these exhibits will serve as springboards for discussions about respect, inclusion and social cohesion, as well as conversations about bullying, racism and prejudice. Sweet, who along with Silva received a humanitarian award from the committee, called the exhibit an “important and meaningful educational initiative.” He said he’s sometimes asked, “Why people don’t just move on?” in regard to the Holocaust. “Any people who have suffered near total annihilation should be assured that for eternity their loss will be remembered,” he said. The opening ceremony also included students from Waterdown District High School and St. Jean de Brebeuf Catholic High School speaking about the exhibits, which were housed at the schools for one month before moving to the temple. Students were trained as docents, and hundreds of community members and students toured the exhibits. Weisz, 82, was a hidden child in Holland. Her father was killed, as were 42 of her close relatives. Her two step-siblings were also hidden. Her mom survived by lying about being Jewish. In May 1943, Weisz escaped on her own into hiding. She estimates she hid in 36 different places, having to flee many times after being betrayed. She was often in one room by herself with just one book to keep her company. “I read Ben Hur so many times,” she said while touring the exhibit. “Often there was a Bible. I became quite the expert in the New Testament.” Once, one of the daughters living in a home where she was hiding was dating a police officer. He warned the family that police would be coming around that evening. That night, Weisz spent hours hiding in a ditch on top of a mountain and watched many children being taken away. She remembers how she felt when she was liberated in April 1945. “I was so sure cruelty like that would never happen again,” she said. “But of course, it has.” Weisz married her husband, Erich, in Holland, and they moved to Canada in 1954. They had two children. After living in Vancouver, Toronto and Barrie, they settled in Hamilton in 1961.

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One of my favorite science fiction ideas is in a short story called Light of Other Days about something called “slow glass.” Light took decades to pass through. In this story, the idea was that people could buy glass windows that took so long for the light to pass through, that they could nostalgically watch long gone scenes, such as their children playing outside as toddlers long after they had gone off to college, or green fields with horses where now ugly cities grew. It was about the speed of light. Here is a concept that is similar. Instead of slow windows, it is slow walls. RavenBrick has made a nanotech wall that can slow down the day’s heat coming into a building. Using phase-changing material at the molecular level, you get to transfer the warmth of the sun’s heat from the afternoon well into the night. RavenBrick makes several clean tech materials for building that greatly reduce energy needs, most notably windows that turn off the sun, like Sage Electrochromics windows do. The one that is new to me is this “slow wall”. They claim that their glass-clad Smart Wall: RavenSkin could literally reduce your heating bill to zero! (Coupled with good building design, of course, you can’t expect a zero bill if you put leaky windows in their wall!) Their wall can delay solar heat gain from hot afternoons, to later that night, when you need it more. This helps regulate the internal temperatures of buildings. It has excellent R-values to begin with (R-11 or more) so it insulates like a normal wall limiting the conduction and convection of heat. The magic – or science fiction – part is achieved by converting incoming sunlight to infrared, and then directing the flow of energy inward only when you want it to come through the walls. The problem with super well-insulated buildings is that sometimes you do want the suns heat getting in, and regular insulated walls are dumb walls that don’t know when to send the heat in and when to shut it out. The Smart Wall knows because you can tell it. Susan Kraemer writes at CleanTechnica, CSP-Today, PV-Insider , SmartGridUpdate and GreenProphet and has been published at Ecoseed, NRDC OnEarth, MatterNetwork, Celsius, EnergyNow and Scientific American. As a former serial entrepreneur in product design she brings an innovator's perspective on inventing a carbon-constrained civilization: If necessity is the mother of invention: solving climate change is the mother of all necessities! As a lover of history and sci fi, she enjoys chronicling the strange future we are creating in these interesting times. Follow Susan @dotcommodity on twitter.

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Benefits of touch typing on task performance: I assume that when comparing skilled individuals, two handed touch typing on a traditional keyboard is faster, more reliable, and more automatic, than the other methods of text input that you mention (e.g., phone or tablet keyboards). These advantages are discussed here. - Faster input means that ideas can be expressed more quickly. - Visual attention does not need to be allocated to the keyboard which permits more attention to be placed on the content or the screen. - The greater reliability and automaticity mean that less attention needs to be allocated to the task of typing than to other methods. - A more consistent keyboard layout across devices further justifies the investment in learning touch typing. For further discussion of the cognitive and performance benefits of skilled touch typing, check out Yechiam et al (2003). Discussing the benefits of touch typing over visual typing, they state: One main distinction of the touch-typing strategy appears to be the ability to look at the screen while typing and to devote a minimal level of visual search to the keyboard (Cooper, 1983). This ability is gained through the memorization of key positions and finger trajectories, which makes touch-typing a difficult skill to acquire. Other differences between touch-typing and visually guided typing include touch typists' (a) use of all fingers of both hands, as opposed to the use of one hand of only some of the fingers; (b) fixed assignment of fingers to keys; (c) reduced arm movements; and (d) fixed locations of the palms (Crooks, 1964). Broader cognitive benefits of touch typing: While I have not read any specific research testing the idea, I think the benefits of touch typing relate to its superiority as a text entry method and not as some broader tool for brain integration. A large body of research on psychomotor and cognitive performance suggests that transfer across disparate domains tends to be minimal. The domains would need to have some overlapping elements. More broadly, there is a strong link between unemployment and depression (e.g., Frese & Mohr, 1987). Engaging in meaningful or enjoyable activity might help improve mood in some cases (e.g., juggling, mastering some other new skill). However, I don't think the mechanism of that mood improvement would be hemispheric brain balancing. - Cooper, W. E. (1983). Introduction. In W. E. Cooper (Ed.), Cognitive aspects of skilled typewriting (pp. 1-38). New York: Springer-Verlag. - Crooks, M. (1964). Touch typing for teachers. London: Pitman. - Frese, M., & Mohr, G. (1987). Prolonged unemployment and depression in older workers: A longitudinal study of intervening variables. Social Science & Medicine, 25(2), 173-178. PDF - Yechiam, E., Erev, I., Yehene, V., & Gopher, D. (2003). Melioration and the transition from touch-typing training to everyday use. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 45(4), 671-684.

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A trio of superstar health innovators have a message for the broken U.S health care system: broaden the definition of health to include basic life necessities, bring care to where people live and study how it’s done in poor countries where you can’t always rely on expensive tests and drugs to make people better. The persuasive new report on “re-aligning health with care” is written by Harvard doctors Paul Farmer (co-founder of the medical nonprofit Partners in Health) and Heidi Behforouz (executive director of the Prevention And Access To Care And Treatment [PACT] program) and Rebecca Onie, CEO of the nonprofit Health Leads. In it, they argue that with some rethinking, the U.S. can deliver better care at a lower price. They lay out the central problem here: The health care system is in crisis, driven chiefly by escalating costs, suboptimal health outcomes, scarce primary care resources, and rising poverty. At the same time…a growing number of health providers around the globe have learned to deliver high-quality health care at low cost. Now we need to align our resources in the United States to bring this knowledge fully to bear in saving dollars and lives. Sounds great, but how to do it? The key, they write in the Summer 2012 edition of the Stanford Social Innovation Review is to change the way we view the “product” of health care, the places it’s delivered and the providers who dole out patient care. Health Includes Basic Needs The authors cite a 2007 study at Johns Hopkins Medical Center in which 98 percent of pediatric residents said that referring well-child patients for help with basic needs could improve the children’s health. “But how many of those residents routinely screened their patients for food sufficiency? Only 11 percent.” The moral: Health care is much bigger than just prescribing medicine. This is the founding principle of Rebecca Onie’s Health Leads, a group that recruits student volunteers to support doctors prescribing food, heat and other basics to low-income patients. In Brazil, they deal with this problem through a program that routinely sends low-income children home after hospitalizations with resources to make sure they have access to nutrition, sanitation and psychological support, the paper notes. But in the U.S., the current system provides few incentives to connect patients with basic needs. For example, the authors write that Medicaid reimbursements are specifically forbidden when it comes to getting patients plugged in to social services, or helping them obtain food stamps or energy assistance. Health Workers In The Community Paul Farmer is an authority on radically rethinking where care is provided. In Haiti’s Central Plateau, with just one doctor for every 50,000 people, Farmer helped pioneer the concept of paying community health workers, or accompagnateurs, to visit the homes of patients to make sure they take their medicines, but also attend to other critical needs, like transportation, shoddy housing and emotional support. Based on this model, the PACT program was launched in Boston to serve the sickest and most vulnerable HIV-positive and chronically ill patients in the city. That model, in turn, has expanded to help other poor, chronically sick patients who live in “the shadow of Harvard’s finest hospitals.” Beyond The M.D. By expanding the ranks of community health workers, the authors note, doctors, nurses, social workers and other professionals can “practice to the top of their license” and spend more time doing what they’re trained to do. This “task-shifting” also saves money and reduces inefficiencies. The paper concludes: It is by no means a new discovery that poverty and poor health are linked or that health resources are more likely to be used if they are offered conveniently to the recipient, or that a goal as complex and ambitious as “health” can be effectively pursued only with a multidisciplinary team of workers. But what’s new is this: The U.S. health care system has reached a tipping point. Reform is in the air with primary care especially positioned for transformation. “Health” is a bold, expansive aspiration. Let’s make sure what we call “health care” is broad enough to get the job done.

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Gwayasdums village is a small community located on Gilford Island. The village is the traditional home of the Kwikwasut'inuxw people, though throughout the historic era a number of groups have used the site as a winter village. Other Kwakwaka'wakw groups that identify closely with Gilford Island are the Gwawa'enuxw, the Haxwa'mis and the Dzawada'enuxw. These three groups, along with the Kwikwasut'inuxw, formed an informally related cluster of social groupings collectively known as Qui'kwasi ki la or "living inside the mountains". The groups had their own potlatch ring, and they used Gwayasdums as a winter village. Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

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NASA / JPL-Caltech / STScI / ESA This image of a pair of colliding galaxies called NGC 6240 shows them in a rare, short-lived phase of their evolution just before they merge into a single, larger galaxy. Click on the image for a larger version. Nothing draws a crowd like a spectacular crash - whether it's a NASCAR auto race or a galactic collision. Over the past month, Internet users voted for a cosmic smash-up as their favorite target for a future close-up from the Hubble Space Telescope, and this week you can feast your eyes on two fantastic images of galaxies in gridlock. The first "train wreck" comes from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. This is a biggie: Two huge galaxies, each anchored by a central black hole that's millions of times as massive as the sun, are moving toward an imminent pile-up. Exactly how imminent? Millions of years after the scene captured in this image - a time span that's a mere blink of the eye on the cosmic scale. "One of the most exciting things about the image is that this object is unique," Stephanie Bush of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, says in a news release about the observations. "Merging is a quick process, especially when you get to the train wreck that is happening. There just aren't many galactic mergers at this stage in the nearby universe." Spitzer's image of NGC 6240, which is 400 million light-years away in the constellation Ophiuchus, highlights the bursts of infrared radiation as the dust and gas from the two galaxies slam together. All that pressure creates new generations of hot stars, blazing away in infrared wavelengths even though the radiation in visible wavelengths is obscured by dust clouds. Because of this phenomenon, these starry swirls are known as luminous infrared galaxies. In the news release, the Spitzer science team point to the streams of stars being ripped off the galaxies - "tidal tails" that extend into space in all directions. And this is just the warmup act: Bush and her colleagues expect the galactic black holes to hit head-on. That would upgrade NGC 6240's status to that of an ultra-luminous infrared galaxy, thousands of times as bright in infrared as our own Milky Way. The findings are detailed in The Astrophysical Journal. In addition to Bush, the paper's co-authors include Zhong Wang, Margarita Karovska and Giovanni Fazio, all of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. This week's other galactic crash was witnessed by the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope in Chile. Two galaxies are piling into each other 70 million light-years away in the constellation Libra, and just as in the case of NGC 6240, the clashing clouds of gas and dust are sparking waves of stellar fireworks. |This color composite image from the ESO Very Large Telescope in Chile shows Arp 261. Click on the picture for a larger version. These galaxies, collectively known as Arp 261, aren't as big as the monsters in NGC 6240. They're on the scale of dwarf galaxies, similar to the Magellanic Clouds orbiting the Milky Way. In this week's image advisory, the ESO says the focus of research in this picture actually isn't the wide-screen view of smashing galaxies, but a detailed look at an unusually long-lasting, X-ray-emitting supernova. This image adds little white bars to highlight the location of the supernova. The picture also includes other objects at a wide range of distances. If you click on a higher-resolution view, you'll be able to make out a sprinkling of background galaxies on the right side of the picture. Those galaxies may be 50 to 100 times farther away than Arp 261, the ESO says. Toward the top left corner of the picture, you can see two red-green-blue streaks. Those are two small asteroids in our solar system's main asteroid belt. The streaks are multicolored because the ESO's picture was taken through different color filters - and the asteroids were moving through the telescope field even as the exposures were switched from one filter to the next. Correction for 3:30 p.m. ET March 18: I fixed a bad link to the Saturn transit story ... Sorry about that! After reading all the perceptive comments below, I've also edited the item to straighten something out about the timing of events at NGC 6240. We will likely see an even more spectacular pile-up there millions of years from now, but because the galaxies are so distant, and because the speed of light is finite, that phase of the pile-up will have happened hundreds of millions of years earlier.

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Since its origin, the Scouting program has been an educational experience concerned with values. In 1910, the first activities for Scouts were designed to build character, physical fitness, practical skills, and service. These elements were part of the original Cub Scout program and continue to be part of Cub Scouting today Character development should extend into every aspect of a boy's life. Character development should also extend into every aspect of Cub Scouting. Cub Scout leaders should strive to use Cub Scouting's 12 core values throughout all elements of the program—service projects, ceremonies, games, skits, songs, crafts, and all the other activities enjoyed at den and pack meetings Cub Scouting's 12 Core Values Contributing service and showing responsibility to local, state, and national communities. Being kind and considerate, and showing concern for the well-being of others. Being helpful and working together with others toward a common goal Being brave and doing what is right regardless of our fears, the difficulties, or the consequences. Having inner strength and confidence based on our trust in God. ||Health and Fitness: Being personally committed to keeping our minds and bodies clean and fit. Telling the truth and being worthy of trust. Sticking with something and not giving up, even if it is difficult. Being cheerful and setting our minds to look for and find the best in all situations. Using human and other resources to their fullest. Showing regard for the worth of something or someone. Fulfilling our duty to God, country, other people, and ourselves. |12 Core Values and the Scout Law Boy Scouts learn and strive to live by the Scout Law: A Scout is trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly, courteous, kind, obedient, cheerful, thrifty, brave, clean, and reverent Many of the core values of Cub Scouting relate directly to the Scout Law: |Health and Fitness Character can be defined as the collection of core values by an individual that leads to moral commitment and action. Character development should challenge Cub Scouts to experience core values in six general areas: God, world, country, community, family, and self. Character is "values in action." The goals of the Cub Scout leader are - to seek out and maximize the many opportunities to incorporate character development - to convince the young Cub Scout that character is important to the individual, to his family, community, country, world, and God Character development should not be viewed as something done occasionally as part of a separate program, or as part of only one area of life. For in reality, character development is a part of everything a Cub Scout does. Character development lessons can be found in every aspect of the Cub Scouting experience. When it comes to developing character, the complete person must be considered. Character development involves at least three critical areas: - Know (thought) - Commit (feeling) - Practice (behavior) In Cub Scouting, addressing these three critical areas and relating them to values is referred to as Character Connections. Character Connections asks the Cub Scout to: Character development includes moral knowledge—both awareness and reasoning. For example, children must understand what honesty means and they must be able to reason about and interpret each situation, and then decide how to apply the principles of honesty. What do I think or know about the core value? How does the context of this situation affect this core value? What are some historical, literary, or religious examples representing the core value? Character development includes attention to moral motivation. Children must be committed to doing what they know is right. They must be able to understand the perspectives of others, to consider how others feel, and to develop an active moral conscience. Why is this core value important? What makes living out this core value different? What will it take to live out this core value? Character development includes the development of moral habits through guided practice. Children need opportunities to practice the social and emotional skills necessary for doing what is right but difficult, and to experience the core values in their lives. How can I act according to this core value? How do I live out this core value? How can I practice this value at school, at home, and with my friends? To make Character Connections an integral part of Cub Scouting, the 12 core values are being integrated throughout the boys' handbooks and advancement program. Program support for character development can be found in Cub Scout Program Helps, in the Cub Scout Leader Book, and at your monthly roundtable meetings. - Core values are the basis of good character development. - Character must be broadly defined to include thinking, feeling, and behavior. - Core values should be promoted throughout all phases of life.

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|Domestic violence is spousal/partner relationship violence between adults. Family violence is not ok, it creates a fearful environment for every member of the family. If there are children in the home where domestic violence is occurring, even if the children are not being battered, they are being exposed to violence and are suffering from emotional abuse, which is reportable child abuse. - 10 million children every year witness domestic violence abuse. - An abused, battered person may leave and go back seven or more times before - Staying with the abuser for the sake of children is wrong. - Children model your behavior. - Children deserve a childhood free from violence. As difficult as it is to listen to this tape, think about these children. This is reality for these children. This is reportable child abuse. If you are aware of children or adolescents who are living in a domestic violent home, please call your local (C.P.S.) Child Protective Services hotline and request they investigate. If anyone you know is in imminent danger from domestic violence, call 911 Please visit these websites to become better educated about domestic violence and abuse: - The National Domestic Violence Hotline: 1-800-799-7233 (1-800-799-safe) or TTY-1-800-707-3224 - The National Sexual Assault Hotline: - The National Teen Dating Abuse Hotline:

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For those seeking to understand and manage ecosystems, a key idea has resonated for more than two decades: spatial variation is essential for ecological sustainability over time. Now a new book examines the impact of that revelation. The Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability at Michigan State University integrates ecology with socioeconomics, demography and other disciplines for ecological sustainability from local, national to global scales. Coupled Human and Natural Systems(CHANS) are integrated systems in which humans and natural components interact. CHANS research has recently emerged as an exciting and integrative field of cross-disciplinary scientific inquiry to find sustainable solutions that both benefit the environment and enable people to thrive. Visit CHANS-Net, the international network of research on coupled human and natural systems, for information and ways to engage.

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I’ve just watched the last instalment of Dan Snow’s latest series. After Trafalgar the Royal Navy was riding the crest of a wave. Dominant in all of the world’s oceans, the ironclad era and the advent of engine propulsion spurred it on to new heights. But away from the ships, a sea change too place in the culture of those who served in the Royal Navy. Whilst still worshipping the memory of Nelson, officers began to place obedience far above initiative – the value that Nelson had tried to instill among his Captains. As the Navy became the darling of British society, it also became more stratified socially, which stifled meritocracy. One man in the early Twentieth Century tried to change all of this. Admiral Jackie Fisher became First Sea Lord with a comprehensive plan to modernise all aspects of the Royal Navy. His mantra was ‘if you want peace, prepare for war’ – put simply, he wanted to make the Royal Navy so large and so powerful, that no-one would dare challenge it. Soon 25% of all Government expenditure was being spent on the Navy. Chief among this spending was the new Class of Battleship – the Dreadnought. Far better armed and armoured than any ship previously, she rendered all other ships virtually obsolete. An arms race developed in Europe, with the Kaiser’s Germany attempting to challenge British Naval supremacy. Although the German Navy had less than half the amount of Dreadnoughts as Britain, in 1916 the German fleet attempted to draw the British Grand Fleet into battle. Although the Grand Fleet suffered heavy losses at Jutland, the battle was a strategic victory for the British – the sheer amount of ships flying the white ensign prevented the Germans from challenging them again. The British failings at Jutland had been caused by a slowness to adapt to the new technology of battle – poor communications combined with rigid obedience led to ships failing to act decisively, and un-necessary losses. Although Jutland led to bursting of the 100 year ‘Trafagar bubble’, it also shook the Royal Navy out of its complacency. Never the less, after the First World War Britain was no longer the world’s dominant Naval power. This episode ends the series nicely, but I do feel that it concludes very abruptly. British Naval power did not suddenly end after 1918 – the size of the Royal Navy in 1940 still prevented Nazi Germany from invading Britain. I would argue that it was through the symbolic loss of the Royal Oak, the Hood, Prince of Wales and Renown that Britain really lost her naval superpower status. The decline may have begun at Jutland, but it was only in the latter stages of the Second World War that the US Navy eclipsed the Royal Navy. All in all, this has been a thought-provoking series that has discussed a key part of British history. I have been impressed with how well Dan Snow has put across some complicated ideas in very simple and understandable ways. Many of them are extremely relevant today. On the down side, perhaps it did ignore earlier and later factors outside of the series arbitrary start and end dates. An earlier episode on Tudor sea power and a later one on the Second World War would have made much more sense. How about a similar series, looking at the British Army since Cromwell? Catch the last episode here on BBC iplayer

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Determining death, when minutes matter Death, so the maxim goes, is one of life's certainties. But in this era of high-tech medical interventions, determining the precise moment of death isn't always cut-and-dried. That determination is vitally important, however, when the deceased could be an organ donor. Organs: Medical experts all around the world are now taking a closer look at the length of time doctors should wait to determine death before organs are removed for transplantation. One of those experts is Dr. James Bernat, a Dartmouth neurologist and a national authority on medical ethics. Most vital organ transplants come from donors after they've experienced brain death. "The brain-dead donor is the ideal organ donor because circulation continues," Bernat explains. "So the organs are perfused by the beating heart up to the very moment that they're procured." Over the last two decades, however, "donation after circulatory death" (DCD) has become increasingly common. In such cases, organs are removed from deceased donors some period of time after their hearts stop beating and their blood stops circulating. DCD, Bernat says, "has become a very common phenomenon that now represents 20 to 25 percent of all deceased organ donation." In the U.S. and Canada, DCD protocols allow for organ transplantation in "controlled" situations, in which circulatory death occurs after the donor has been removed from life support. In controlled situations, doctors know exactly what interventions and medications the donor received before death—but even so, uncertainties remain. The most pressing question is how long doctors should wait after the heart has stopped before removing organs. In some situations, auto-resuscitation—the spontaneous return of a heartbeat—can occur after a person's heart has stopped beating. So a surgeon must wait long enough to ensure that the patient has died, but not so long that the organs begin to decay. Heart: According to Bernat, some hospitals wait just 65 seconds after the heart stops beating before organs are removed. Others wait 5 minutes or more. "Individual hospitals that start programs in DCD develop their own protocols," he explains. "The whole thing is kind of ad hoc, and it cries out for some kind of national standards." After circulation stops, a waiting period of 2 to 5 minutes is prudent. In an attempt to establish standards, Bernat convened a group of experts from across the U.S. and Canada in late 2008 at the request of the Health Resources Services Administration, a division of the Department of Health and Human Services. Their recommendations were published in Critical Care Medicine a few months ago. Bernat and his colleagues urge that the cessation of circulation, not just heartbeat, be used to determine death for DCD. After circulation stops, a waiting period of 2 to 5 minutes before removing organs is a prudent choice given current data, the group stated. That recommendation applies specifically to controlled situations. Many European countries allow for DCD in uncontrolled situations. In those cases, the deceased donor has suffered cardiac arrest, often outside a hospital, and can't be revived. The U.S. may consider uncontrolled DCD protocols in the future, Bernat says. His group hopes to meet again to discuss death determination in those instances. Standards: Bernat decries the fact "that doctors practicing in one state are using different standards of death determination than in another state. There's really a pressing need," Bernat concludes, "for some type of standardization." If you'd like to offer feedback about these articles, we'd welcome getting your comments at DartMed@Dartmouth.edu. These articles may not be reproduced or reposted without permission. To inquire about permission, contact DartMed@Dartmouth.edu.

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Darkness is our natural state. During the 200,000 years of human existence our species has only known electric light for .06% of that time. Yes there were candles and torches, but the thought of just flipping a switch to turn on all the lights in a room was inconceivable. Today we recognize the shapes of cities based on the lights they shine at our satellites. Here in Europe electricity is like oxygen. It is everywhere. We would never even consider paying for electricity at an airport or cafe to charge the batteries of our computers and mobile phones. But what is essential to remember is that this year, 2009, exactly 130 years after the invention of the electric light bulb, the technology still hasn’t spread to all corners of the globe. These students are studying under lamps at their city’s airport because it is the only place with stable electricity. Major African cities like Monrovia in Liberia, are powered completely by generators. The Centralization of Electricity Thomas Edison’s electric light bulb was really an ingenious invention, but from a business point of view it had a problem. You couldn’t use it without electricity. And so, to sell his electric lamps Edison realized that he would need to distribute electricity to the homes, offices, and warehouses that wanted electric light. Pearl Street Station was Edison’s first power generating station. To the right you can see the small neighborhood in Manhattan that it was able to provide electricity to. Edison came up with direct current to transmit electricity from power stations to nearby businesses and homes. The problem with direct current is that it is a very inefficient way of transmitting electricity over long distances. The direct current model would require a power station in every neighborhood. Still, Edison thought he came up with a master plan to provide electricity and electric light to the whole world. After all, who could challenge America’s greatest inventor? Nikola Tesla is one of Europe’s and one of science’s most intriguing characters. A Serbian, Tesla was born in the tiny village of Smiljan, which today still has a population of less than 500 and is now part of Croatia. (As Danica Radovanovic recently reminded me on Facebook, Tesla was one of many brilliant Serbian scientists to leave his country for elsewhere.) Tesla questioned Edison’s use of direct current to transmit electricity and instead proposed alternating current, which is far more efficient as it travels over long distances. What followed was the war of currents: Tesla and Edison went head to head. Europe’s greatest inventor of the time versus America’s greatest inventor of the time. And who lost? This poor elephant named Topsy. Tesla’s system of alternating current raises the voltage to a very high level as it travels across distances. Edison electrocuted Topsy as a scare tactic to show the public what would happen if they touched a high voltage cable. But what sealed the deal was the Niagara Falls hydroelectric power project, the biggest power generator of the time. In 1883, the Niagara Falls Power Company hired Nikola Tesla and his business partner George Westinghouse to design a system to generate alternating current and transmit it throughout New York. Had alternating current not won, then projects like China’s Three Gorges Dam, which will generate ten times as much electricity as Niagara Falls, would never exist. Alternating current led to the centralization of electricity. One of Edison’s arguments against alternating current is that a few major power generators are much more vulnerable than many spread all around the world. That remains true today, but the economics of centralized energy production and the allure of cheap energy won out in the end. The Centralization of Computing I wanted to briefly go over the history of electrification because its development so closely parallels what we are seeing today in the computing industry. This is not my own observation: it was first made in a book by Nicholas Carr called The Big Switch and the analogy is now commonly used by many when they explain the concept of cloud computing. Phase 1: Mainframe Computing This is the computer that the Internal Revenue Service used to process tax returns in the 1960’s. Mainframe computers at the time typically cost between $500,000 – $1 million. They were only available to programmers and researchers who had to wait hours if not days to use them because there was so much computing to be done and so few computers to do it. Phase 2: Personal Computing The second phase of computing began in 1977 with the Apple II computer, which brought computing into the home and personal office for the first time. Data was stored on audio cassette tapes. The first Apple II cost $1,300 with 4k of RAM and $2,600 with 48k of RAM. Today you can buy a gigabyte of RAM for $30 and a terabyte hard drive for $70. It had a one megahertz processor and the above ad from a 1977 issue of Scientific America touted its high resolution graphics; by which it meant a 280 by 192 pixels display with four colors: black, white, violet, and green. This is Gary. From the tags on the Flickr picture I assume he works in the IT department of some startup company. In many ways Gary’s position exemplifies the era of personal computing. Gary is in charge of maintaining a network of computers for just one company. He goes around to each computer and upgrades new versions of software. He creates new email accounts for new employees. He answers questions as they come up. And he backs up all the data to make sure it isn’t lost in case of a hard drive failure. (Increasingly Gary is able to nap while online services do that work for him.) Most of us still operate in the era of personal computing. We create content on our laptop and desktop computers. We store our information on our individual hard drives. And when we share documents it is usually with email. Phase 3: Cloud Computing The greatest evidence that we are entering the third chapter of computing is that laptop computers are becoming less powerful, not more. This is because today you don’t need a powerful computer; all you need is an internet connection. Google is even creating a free and open source operating system specifically targeted for cheap netbooks like the one above. In fact, increasingly we are leaving our laptops at home because smart phones are proving sufficient for most of our daily tasks. This week the big talk of town is a rumored Apple tablet, which might be announced tomorrow, though much more likely sometime during the first half of 2010. There have, in fact, been rumors of an Apple tablet computer for years, but only now does it make sense to release such a powerful product with so few features. A tablet PC does little except connect to the internet. But today all you need is a keyboard, screen, camera, and microphone to connect to the cloud. Word processing, image editing, spreadsheets, video editing, audio recording: all the applications are available online. So, what do we mean when we say “the cloud”? In many ways I think that the term is an unhelpful abstraction which masks the actual shift in infrastructure that is taking place. Increasingly computing and data storage are not taking place on our own computers, but rather at massive data centers like this one: The data center in the above video has about 40,000 computers. Here is just one: Machines like this process and store our emails, the photos we publish online, our blog posts, the videos we upload to YouTube, and even the voicemails we listen to from our mobile phones. DataCenterMap.org has a map-based directory of major data centers based around the world. When we speak of “the cloud” what we’re really referring to are these massive data centers, the thousands of computers they contain, and the countless software applications they make available to us through our browsers. And this visualization from New Scientist shows us how those applications interact with our laptops, cell phones, and tablets from the massive data centers that make up the cloud. 2009 is the 40th anniversary of the Internet, the 20th anniversary of the World Wide Web, and the 5th anniversary of what we call Web 2.0. The change is accelerating. Just look at these maps of internet users from 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2008. (Teddy points out that African internet users aren’t included on any of the maps.) Last year, for the first time ever, the United States was not the nation with the largest number of internet users. That now belongs to China. And, unless something drastic happens, China will continue to have the largest online presence for the rest of our lives. Internet World Statistics estimates that there are over 1.5 billion internet users. Last year Google announced that it had indexed its trillionth web page. Researchers at Microsoft estimate that “if you spent just one minute reading every website in existence, you’d be kept busy for 31,000 years. Without any sleep.” (“That explains a lot,” says Georgia.) Some researchers estimate that global internet usage already makes up five percent of the world’s energy consumption. Though this video has stirred up lots of debate about the statistics it cites (check out the 130+ comments on the post), its basic premise – that the internet has had a tremendous impact on human society – cannot be denied. The Centralization of Intelligence We have gone over the history of electrification and computing. I’d like to conclude with a brief history of collective intelligence. In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes was a controversial figure in part because he believed that intelligence came not from an all powerful god, but from each individual; and that if we could somehow bring each individual’s intelligence together to create a collective intelligence then we could shape society for the better. In 1938, HG Wells published World Brain, a collection of essays on the future organization of knowledge and education. Two years earlier the American Library Association had endorsed microfilm as a way to archive and store books, newspapers, manuscripts, and periodicals. Wells, inspired by advances in microfilm, imagined “a mental clearing house for the mind, a depot where knowledge and ideas are received, sorted, summarized, digested, clarified and compared.” Even before Wells published World Brain, Belgian author and peace activist Paul Otlet was already envisioning his own pre-cursor to Google Books: So how has collective intelligence changed in the era of cloud computing? What do we mean when we say “cloud intelligence?” For one thing, our relationship with software has become much more symbiotic. We depend on cloud software to make sense of the information around us; and cloud software depends on us to help it make sense of the ever-increasing amount of information we upload to the internet. Take Google Flu Trends, for instance, which can detect flu outbreaks faster than the Center for Disease Control by monitoring searches for symptoms. Another example of cloud intelligence is reCAPTCHA which has enlisted an army of millions of unknowing volunteers to help digitize books and the complete archive of the New York Times: (If you want to leave a comment on this post you’re forced to join Von Ahn‘s mission.) Another example of cloud intelligence is found in the active Astrometry group on Flickr. There are over 1,000 amateur astronomers in the group that help scientists keep an eye on the galaxies around us by regularly posting the photos they take from their telescopes. When members of the group publish a photograph of the nighttime sky an automated computer application scans their photos for recognizable stars, planets, and nebulae and labels them using Flickr’s notes function. Each photographer gains more information about the photograph that he or she took and Astrometry.net gets a new image of the nighttime sky to add to its ever-growing database. In an interview on the Flickr Developer Blog, project leader Christopher Stumm says that Astrometry.net is currently “using images from around the web to calculate the path comet Holmes took through the sky.” Chris Messina from San Francisco brings us another example of cloud intelligence from a recent shopping trip to OfficeMax where he and his girlfriend were hoping to buy some dry erase boards for their home office. The shopping trip wasn’t a success. Most of the boards were poor quality and when they did eventually find a product that suited their needs, it was damaged. Rather than moving on to the next office supply store Chris pulled out his iPhone and took a picture with the Amazon iphone application of the dry erase board they wanted to buy. The picture is then uploaded to one of Amazon’s massive data centers where it is posted on Mechanical Turk, a website that lists “human intelligence tasks” that pay anywhere from one penny to five dollars. Jeff, for example, will pay you one penny for every sermon time you find listed on a church website. Amazon is also willing to pay one penny to anyone who will look at the photo Chris uploaded from his iPhone application and identify that same product on the Amazon website. Chris will never know who did the work for him, but within minutes he received a message from Amazon with a link to the product he was looking for. I would imagine that just about every tourist who has been to London has taken a picture of Big Ben. It must be the most photographed clock tower in the world. Ten years ago we put those photographs in a photo album to share with our family and friends. More recently we’ve become accustomed to sharing them on Picasa, Flickr, or Twitter. But now the tourist snapshots we take are helping create a 3D model of the world: If the cloud is the world brain, then the cameras and microphones on our mobile phones and laptops are its eyes and ears. How many times have you been to a cafe or bar and heard a song that you liked but didn’t recognize? Today if you help the cloud listen, it will provide you with the information. Shazam identifies the song you are listening by sharing a small audio sample with your mobile phone. In turn Shazam is able to track the most popular songs as they come out. Google’s crowdsourced traffic application also highlights the symbiotic relationship between human intelligence and cloud intelligence. When you start the application Google will show you traffic conditions on many of the streets around you. In turn, you agree to let Google track your speed as you travel; thus updating their maps with more real-time traffic data. Just five years ago it would have cost at least hundreds of thousands of dollars to produce a video with actors on location based all around the world. Also, until very recently there was only one man in the world who could attract millions of views when dancing the moonwalk. Today we all can. All we have to do is upload a video to Eternal Moonwalk. The cloud is enabling a new possibilities of creative collaboration. What is the future of collective intelligence? All that we can be sure of is that all intelligence is always collective; whether it is the collective intelligence of the nucleotides that make up our DNA or the billions of neurons in our brain as they produce the thoughts in our heads right now. Above is a visualization of the internet made by the Opte Project. It is a map of us – the internet would not exist were it not for us, and we would each be very different without the internet. Just as each individual neuron in our brain is unaware that collectively it is part of a larger self, it is too easy for each of us to forget that, as internet users, we too form parts of a collective whole. And that collective whole is much greater – and different – than the sum of its parts. In many ways the cloud is leading to the centralization of power as it lures us into trusting just a few major corporations with our personal information. On the other hand it creates an architecture of participation that is enabling a larger percentage of the world population to become active citizens rather than just passive consumers. This podium I am speaking at right now was once the sole symbol of power in the room. Today a cloud of conversation floats all around us that no one person can control. It is up to you if you would like to participate or not. In the end, no matter how actively or passively we spend our time online, what we can all be sure of is that one day sooner or later our brain will stop functioning and our stay here on planet Earth will conclude. We will remain, of course, in the memories of our friends and family, and also in the bits and bytes of digital footprints that we leave in the cloud for the generations that follow. What they do with the information we leave behind – or, indeed, what the cloud itself does with the information – will depend on a new type of networked evolution that values sharing and community over proprietary protection.

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|Invasive red-eared sliders compete with native turtles for food, habitat and basking and nesting sites. Oregon’s aquatic invasive species Oregon terrestrial invasive species Rick Boatner, ODFW Invasive Species coordinator Martyne Reesman, ODFW Aquatic Invasive Species technician Invasive species are animals and plants that are not native to an ecosystem and that cause economic or environmental harm. While not all non-native species are invasive, many become a serious problem. They damage Oregon’s habitats and can aggressively compete with native species for food, water and habitat. Choose from the species lists above to learn about specific species. Visit the Oregon Department of Agriculture website to learn about invasive plants

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Pronunciation: (sir'ingks), [key] —pl. sy•rin•gesPronunciation: (su-rin'jēz), [key] syr•inx•es. 1. Ornith.the vocal organ of birds, situated at or near the bifurcation of the trachea into the bronchi. 2. (cap.) Class. Myth.a mountain nymph of Arcadia who was transformed, in order to protect her chastity from Pan, into the reed from which Pan then made the panpipe. 3. a panpipe. 4. a narrow corridor in an ancient Egyptian tomb. Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Copyright © 1997, by Random House, Inc., on Infoplease.

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|a fool or simpleton; ninny.| |a chattering or flighty, light-headed person.| The Greek and Roman god of poetry, prophecy, medicine, and light. Apollo represents all aspects of civilization and order. He was worshiped at the Delphic oracle, where a priestess gave forth his predictions. Zeus was his father, and Artemis was his sister. He is sometimes identified with Hyperion, the Titan he succeeded. Note: As a representative of controlled and ordered nature, Apollo is often contrasted with Dionysus, the god who represents wild, creative energies. Note: The sun was sometimes described as Apollo's chariot, riding across the sky.

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|Main Entry:||happy as a clam| |Part of Speech:||adj| |Example:||Happy as a clam refers to its being dug from its bed of sand only at low tide; at high tide it is quite safe from molestation.| |Etymology:||1830+; orig. happy-as-a-clam-at-full-tide| |an extraordinary or unusual thing, person, or event; an exceptional example or instance.| |a gadget; dingus; thingumbob.| Dictionary.com presents 366 FAQs, incorporating some of the frequently asked questions from the past with newer queries.

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lose one's touch No longer be able to do or handle something skillfully. For example, I used to make beautiful cakes but I seem to have lost my touch, or Dad had a real knack for letting someone down gently, but he's lost his touch. This expression alludes to the older sense of touch as a musician's skill on an instrument or an artist's skill in using a brush or chisel. [First half of 1900s] Also see lose touch. |a printed punctuation mark (‽), available only in some typefaces, designed to combine the question mark (?) and the exclamation point (!), indicating a mixture of query and interjection, as after a rhetorical question.| |a fool or simpleton; ninny.|

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Journal of Archaeological Science doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.11.016 Radiocarbon evidence indicates that migrants introduced farming to Britain Archaeologists disagree about how farming began in Britain. Some argue it was a result of indigenous groups adopting domesticates and cultigens via trade and exchange. Others contend it was the consequence of a migration of farmers from mainland Europe. To shed light on this debate, we used radiocarbon dates to estimate changes in population density between 8000 and 4000 cal BP. We found evidence for a marked and rapid increase in population density coincident with the appearance of cultigens around 6000 cal BP. We also found evidence that this increase occurred first in southern England and shortly afterwards in central Scotland. These findings are best explained by groups of farmers from the Continent independently colonizing England and Scotland, and therefore strongly support the migrant farmers hypothesis.

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19. Report and Recommendations to the President of the United States. Presidential Commission on Indian Reservation Economics, November 1984. 20. Shannon, Ruby W. "Friends" for the Indians. Anadarko, OK: Riverside Indian School, 1971. 21. Wall, C. Leon, and Beulah Widney Wall. Tomahawks over Chilocco. Oklahoma City, OK: Kin Lichee Press, 1979. 22. Native American Arts, pamphlets. 23. Circle of Voices. Wahpeton, ND: Circle of Nations School, 2000. 24. Pamphlet, on the Colorado Commission of Indian Affairs, 1983. 25. Pepper, Floy. Oregon Indian Treaties and the Law. Celileo Falls, OR: Oregon Law-Related Education Program, October 31, 1903. 26. English for American Indians. A Newsletter of the Office of Education Programs, Bureau of Indian Affairs, United States Department of the Interior. University of Utah, Fall 1970. 27. Hodgkinson, Harold L, and Janice Hamilton Outtz, Anita M. Obarakpor. The Demographics of American Indians: One Percent of the People; Fifty Percent of the Diversity. November 1990. 28. Pamphlet, We, The First Americans, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.

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Date: March 1, 2012 Creator: Ilias, Shayerah Description: The proposed Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) is a new agreement for combating intellectual property rights (IPR) infringement. The ACTA negotiation concluded in October 2010, nearly three years after it began, and negotiating parties released a final text of the agreement in May 2011. Negotiated by the United States, Australia, Canada, the European Union and its 27 member states, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Morocco, New Zealand, Singapore, and Switzerland, the ACTA is intended to build on the IPR protection and enforcement obligations set forth in the 1995 World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement). Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department

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Date: November 17, 2005 Creator: Hanrahan, Charles E. Description: In May 2003, the United States, Canada, and Argentina initiated a formal challenge before the World Trade Organization (WTO) of the European Union’s (EU’s) de facto moratorium on approving new agricultural biotechnology products, in place since 1998. Although the EU effectively lifted the moratorium in May 2004 by approving a genetically engineered (GE) corn variety, the three countries are pursuing the case, in part because a number of EU member states continue to block approved biotech products. Because of delays, the WTO is expected to decide the case by December 2005. The moratorium reportedly cost U.S. corn growers some $300 million in exports to the EU annually. The EU moratorium, U.S. officials contend, threatened other agricultural exports not only to the EU, but also to other parts of the world where the EU approach to regulating agricultural biotechnology is taking hold. Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department

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Date: January 10, 2011 Creator: Ahearn, Raymond J. Description: Seventeen of the European Union's 27 member states share an economic and monetary union (EMU) with the euro as a single currency. These countries are effectively referred to as the Eurozone. What has become known as the Eurozone crisis began in early 2010 when financial markets were shaken by heightened concerns that the fiscal positions of a number of Eurozone countries, beginning with Greece, were unsustainable. This report provides background information and analysis on the future of the Eurozone in six parts, including discussions on the origins and design challenges of the Eurozone, proposals to define the Eurozone crisis, possible scenarios for the future of the Eurozone, and the implications of the Eurozone crisis for U.S. economic and political interests. Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department

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I read a very interesting piece in today’s Philadelphia Inquirer about the history of violence in America: Violence Vanquished. Here’s just one part of it: An even more intractable debate accompanied the rise and fall of lynching, one of the most gruesome forms of violence ever to take root in the United States. Today, we tend to remember lynching as a clandestine crime – a young black man pulled from his bed in the dark of night and brutalized or hanged in the Southern woods. For most of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, though, it was a community phenomenon of almost unthinkable cruelty, in which hundreds if not thousands of people gathered to watch a victim being disemboweled, castrated, tortured, or burned, and then killed. To modern sensibilities, the injustice once again seems obvious, as do the solutions: Prosecute lynchers, fight for racial justice, strengthen the rule of law, and mobilize public opinion to condemn rather than excuse outbursts of brutality. And yet it took more than 100 years for lynching to begin to disappear from American life, and even longer for Americans to fully acknowledge its horror. In the meantime, thousands of influential people, including many esteemed lawmakers, argued that lynching was a fact of life, a random act of violence about which nothing could be done. It was not until 2005 that the U.S. Senate, spearheaded by Mary Landrieu, apologized for failing to pass federal antilynching legislation, leaving hundreds of innocent people to be sacrificed to official inaction. Maybe there is hope. Eventually.

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Free for educational use World Wide Web Year of production - 2005 Duration - 2min 10sec Tags - Internet, World Wide Web, design, emerging technologies, innovation, technology, technology and society, web protocols, web standards, see all tags On this Page How to Download the Video Clip About the Video Cliptop This interview with Stephen Mayne was recorded for the website From Wireless to Web, produced in 2005. Stephen Mayne is the founder and editor of independent news service crikey.com. You can view his full biography at From Wireless to Web The website is a selective history of broadcast media in Australia. Decade by decade, from radio and newsreels to TV and the internet, this history shows how the Australian broadcast media developed and shaped the way Australians see themselves. From Wireless to Web is a Film Australia production in association with Roar Film. This Module can be used to achieve some of outcomes of the NSW Information Processes and Technology Stage 6 syllabus; specifically the following outcomes: P4.1: describes the historical development of information systems and relates these to current and emerging technologies. H3.1: evaluates the effect of information systems on the individual, society and the environment. H4.1: proposes ways in which information systems will meet emerging needs. The advent of the World Wide Web radically changed the online experience. At last information could be interpreted and displayed in a standardised form across the vast 'web’ of different computer networks. Cyberspace was transformed, appearing as a seamless global information system, enabling users anywhere to search, browse and interact. Now the Internet and Web are redefining the nature of human communication, and challenging traditional limits to human relationships and communities. World Wide Web “What we are building now is the nervous system of mankind, which will link together the whole human race, for better or for worse, in a unity which no earlier age could have imagined.” (Arthur C Clarke, science fiction writer, Voices From the Sky, 1965) The Internet is a communications system formed by the interconnecting networks of computers around the world. But before the advent of the World Wide Web in 1992, only computer scientists with programming skills could make use of the Net. The World Wide Web – also known as 'www’, 'web’ or 'w3’ – is the virtual world of network-accessible information available to computers. The Web consists of a vast number of 'pages’, and links. Web pages can include text, graphics and images, videos and sound. In November 2004 Google claimed to cover 8,058,044,651 web pages. (Wikipedia 'Size Comparisons’) The web uses a special language and set of rules to create 'web pages’ – primarily Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) and the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). 'Browsers’ – software for searching and viewing information on the Web – interpret and display information coded in HTML across the vast 'web’ of different computer networks and systems. This creates an environment that, for users, appears like a seamless global information system, where people may search, browse and interact. The World Wide Web was 'invented’ in 1989 by British-born Tim Berners-Lee when he wrote the first 'web browser’ – software to interpret and display HTML (hyper text mark-up language) – thereby making the coded material on a multitude of different computers and operating systems uniformly readable in plain English. Berners-Lee was working at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory based in Switzerland at the time. As the international physics community used a diverse range of information systems and computer networks, Berners-Lee wanted to create an efficient way for the different networks to interconnect, share information and communicate with each other. Two years later, in 1992, CERN released the World Wide Web. - Discuss and research the meanings of the following terms: URLs, HTTP, XML/RDF, SMIL, SOAP, web accessibility and web applications. - Explain the difference between hypertext and hyperlinks. - The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the international organisation founded by Tim Berners-Lee that works on developing protocols and guidelines that ensure long-term growth for the web. Since 1994, W3C has produced more than ninety web standards, called W3C Recommendations that contribute to web interoperability. Develop a biography about Tim Berners-Lee for a newspaper feature article. - Web applications and dynamic web sites were major developments in the types of interactions that can occur on the web. One simple example is the use of ‘cookies’ to remember details about users so that on return to a specific site it is tailored to the needs of that user. The ability to search within websites is another example. It also enabled cost effective subscription based services such as Stephen Mayne’s niche website Crikey. The ability to develop ‘smarter’ and more personalised sites as well as providing an interface that allowed customers to access information/services via the web created greater incentive for individuals and organisations to use the web. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of web services. - Imagine you have volunteered as an AID worker in a developing country. The community in which you are working will soon have its first computer and internet access. Your role BEFORE the computer arrives is to explain to the community leaders how the internet works and the possible benefits for their community. Prepare what you are going to say. Rehearse your explanation in front of the class. Go to From Wireless to Web for more about the history of broadcast media in Australia. Go to HowStuffWorks, How Web Pages Work

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New in version 2.4. The cookielib module defines classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies. It is useful for accessing web sites that require small pieces of data - cookies - to be set on the client machine by an HTTP response from a web server, and then returned to the server in later HTTP requests. Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by RFC 2965 are handled. RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default. RFC 2109 cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the 'policy' in effect. Note that the great majority of cookies on the Internet are Netscape cookies. cookielib attempts to follow the de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that set out in the original Netscape specification), including taking note of the introduced with RFC 2965. Note: The various named parameters found in Set-Cookie: and Set-Cookie2: headers expires) are conventionally referred to as attributes. To distinguish them from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term cookie-attribute The module defines the following exception: The following classes are provided: The CookieJar class stores HTTP cookies. It extracts cookies from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses. CookieJar instances automatically expire contained cookies when necessary. Subclasses are also responsible for storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database. |filename, delayload=None, policy=None)| A CookieJar which can load cookies from, and perhaps save cookies to, a file on disk. Cookies are NOT loaded from the named file until either the load() or revert() method is called. Subclasses of this class are documented in section 18.22.2. |blocked_domains=None, allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False, rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False, strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True, strict_ns_unverifiable=False, strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal, strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False )| Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only. blocked_domains is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies from, nor return cookies to. allowed_domains if not None, this is a sequence of the only domains for which we accept and return cookies. For all other arguments, see the documentation for CookiePolicy and DefaultCookiePolicy objects. DefaultCookiePolicy implements the standard accept / reject rules for Netscape and RFC 2965 cookies. By default, RFC 2109 cookies (ie. cookies received in a Set-Cookie: header with a version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the RFC 2965 rules. However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or rfc2109_as_netscape is True, RFC 2109 cookies are 'downgraded' by the CookieJar instance to Netscape cookies, by setting the version attribute of the Cookie instance to 0. DefaultCookiePolicy also provides some parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy.

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OLYMPIA, Wash., January 9, 2008—The Department of Revenue has released Tax Exemptions 2008, a compendium of state and local tax exemptions. The legislatively mandated tax exemption study is updated every four years. It is available online. The 567 exemptions enacted since territorial days in 1854 represent an estimated $98.5 billion in state and local tax savings during the 2007 – 2009 biennium. Of this, about 54 percent, or $53.5 billion, involves state taxes and the remaining $45 billion are local taxes. The largest single exemption is the property tax exemption for intangibles, enacted in 1931. It accounts for 36.7 percent, or $36.2 billion, of the total. Intangibles include assets such as money, stocks, bonds, bank deposits, and the value of corporate trademarks. Were it not for this exemption, businesses and individuals would have to pay property taxes on their financial assets as well as their real estate. The second-largest is a use tax exemption on personal property owned by nonresidents who visit Washington and new residents who bring used household goods and vehicles with them. That one totals $24.8 billion, or 25.2 percent of the total. In third place is no sales tax on most services, at $5.2 billion or 5.3 percent. Sales tax on services was excluded from the tax base when the current tax code was enacted in 1935, when services were a relative small component of the economy. Fourth is exemption of employee income from taxation (no personal income tax) at $2.6 billion or 2.6 percent. Fifth largest is the voter-approved sales tax exemption on food, saving $2.2 billion or 2.3 percent over a two-year period. While business incentives receive a lot of public attention, they comprise a fairly small percentage of the total value of exemptions and preferential rates, $3.9 billion or 4 percent of the total. The report emphasizes that the revenue impacts reflect estimated savings to taxpayers but do not necessarily indicate the potential tax revenue that might generated in the absence of the exemptions. The report assesses whether or not a tax actually could be collected if the exemption were repealed. Because many of the exemptions are mandated by federal law or the state constitution, and other taxes would not be collected due to changes in taxpayer behavior if the exemptions were repealed, the report concludes that only about $14.8 billion in additional state or local government revenue could potentially be generated through repeal of exemptions. Most of this – $11.9 billion – would be generated by repealing sales and use tax exemptions, with 44 percent of that being the sales tax exemption for services.

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Black cap; black throat and lower neck (like a bib); white cheek patches; white chest and belly; gray back, wings, and tail; buffy patches on the flanks. 12 cm (4.75 in) in length. The Carolina Chickadee's call is chick-a-dee-dee-dee or a shortened version of the same. The song of this species is usually four whistled notes, fee-bee fee-bay. The breeding season begins in early April, peaks later that month until early May, and extends through mid-June. Breeding habitat includes a variety of wooded and forested areas. This species is a cavity nester and will nest in snags, trees, rotten fenceposts, or nest boxes. It will excavate its own cavity, use an old woodpecker cavity, or find a natural cavity. The cavity is lined with moss, plant material, down, and feathers. The female lays 5-8 (usually 6) eggs that both adults incubate for 11-12 days. The young are altricial and fledge 13-17 days after hatching. The Carolina Chickadee prefers forested or wooded habitats. It eats primarily insects and also spiders, fruits, and seeds. It forages by searching among tree branches, trunks, pine cones, and dead leaf clusters. It also frequents bird feeders. This species is a year-round resident, and does not migrate. The Carolina Chickadee is found mostly in the Southeast, but its range extends as far north as Delaware, central Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois and as far west as Oklahoma and central Texas. In the Southeast, this species is common to very common throughout except for extreme southern Florida. This species is common in the Southeast, and is not targeted for any special attention. The species most similar to the Carolina Chickadee is the Black-capped Chickadee. The Black-capped Chickadee is slightly larger and has a lower pitch to the chick-a-dee-dee-dee call. The Black-capped Chickadee also has a shorter song, being 2 or 3 whistled notes, fee-bee or fee-bee-bee. The song is the most reliable identifier, because their appearances are very similar. The bib of the Black-capped Chickadee is slightly larger and the buff color on the flanks is more extensive.

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In a victory for the gray wolves of the northern Rockies, a federal judge in Montana on Friday July 18 reinstated federal Endangered Species Act protections for wolves, thus preventing Idaho, Montana and Wyoming from implementing fall wolf hunts. The court ruled that conservation groups are likely to succeed on the majority of their claims that removal of wolves from the federal list of endangered species was unlawful. The decision notes that, while the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service had stated that genetic exchange between wolf populations in Idaho, Montana and Wyoming was necessary for the wolf's survival, Yellowstone's wolves remain genetically isolated. Further, hunting and state predator-control laws that took effect upon delisting would likely "eliminate any chance for genetic exchange to occur." The court also ruled that the conservation groups are likely to succeed in their argument that Wyoming law (which allows unregulated wolf killing in nearly 90 percent of the state and fails to commit to maintaining sufficient wolf numbers) is inadequate. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service had long maintained that these aspects of Wyoming law precluded delisting. The court found that "[t]he agency flip-flopped without explanation" when it approved Wyoming's wolf management scheme with "the same deficiencies" in 2007. Since wolves were delisted on March 28, states have assumed management authority for wolves, leading to the killing of at least 106 wolves. All three states had plans to allow hunts this fall. Those hunts would have permitted more than 500 wolves to be killed. Friday's ruling came in response to a lawsuit brought by Earthjustice on behalf of 12 conservation groups. Earthjustice filed suit on behalf of Defenders of Wildlife, Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, Center for Biological Diversity, The Humane Society of the United States, Jackson Hole Conservation Alliance, Friends of the Clearwater, Alliance for the Wild Rockies, Oregon Wild, Cascadia Wildlands Project, Western Watersheds Project, and "The delisting of wolves was inappropriate and illegal in large part because existing state management plans are inadequate to ensure the long term conservation of wolves in the region, allowing far too many wolves to be unnecessarily killed. Responsible, balanced management by the states would benefit wolves, ranchers, hunters and all northern Rockies residents. While the court continues to weigh our challenge to the delisting decision, we will continue to work to improve the current state plans so that they maintain a healthy wolf population," said Suzanne Asha Stone, northern Rockies wolf conservation specialist for Defenders of Wildlife. "Recovery requires allowing wolves in different populations to reach each other in order to mate and raise their pups," said Michael Robinson of the Center for Biological Diversity. "Even before they were unlawfully removed from the endangered species list, the government was gunning down so many wolves that the Yellowstone population was reproductively isolated, a recipe for extinction. This injunction will give the wolves a fighting chance." "This injunction is necessary to prevent the states from implementing management schemes that have the primary purpose of eliminating, rather than conserving, wolves," said Michael Garrity, executive director of the Helena-based Alliance for the Wild Rockies. "The federal court just offered a badly needed lifeline to wolves in the northern Rockies," said Louisa Willcox of the Natural Resources Defense Council. "Wolves have been getting killed at a rate of about one per day since the federal government stripped them of Endangered Species Act protections. The court's ruling means the slaughter must stop." "This is one step in a long process towards improving wolf management. The ruling puts an immediate stop to the wolf-killing that has taken place in the northern Rockies since delisting. The states lack responsible, science-based management plans that ensure the wolf's recovery into the future and the judge's ruling reflects this. We applaud Judge Molloy's decision as we need to craft responsible management plans that will allow wolves to prosper and will benefit ranchers, hunters, the public and our local economies," said Melanie Stein, a Sierra Club representative. "We consider this as one important step toward developing state management plans that will focus on wolf conservation, not wolf control," said Franz Camenzind, Executive Director of the Jackson Hole Conservation Alliance. "It's now time for the three states to work together to frame a single management plan that will treat the wolves in Idaho, Montana and Wyoming as a single population, not as discrete populations. With these guidelines, each state should bring together all the interests and shape individual plans that will ensure long-term sustainability of this important wildlife population." "This is a crucial step toward protecting wolf populations in the Northern Rockies and sends a clear message that the administration cannot circumvent the protections of the ESA through the use of unlawful delisting schemes," said Jonathan R. Lovvorn, vice president of animal protection litigation for The Humane Society of the United States. "This ruling is not just great news for wolves in the Rocky Mountains, it is also great news for the future of wolves in Oregon," said Dan Kruse of the Oregon-based Cascadia Wildlands Project. "Wolves are returning to Oregon now for the first time in sixty years, and the Rocky Mountain wolves are our source population. The plan to kill the Rocky Mountain wolves is the single greatest threat to the recovery of wolves here in the Pacific Northwest." "Wolves are once again protected in the northern Rockies. This is great news for the wolves. All three states had plans to allow hunts this fall. 500 wolves were scheduled to be killed and now those plans are halted," said Earthjustice attorney Doug Honnold. Doug Honnold, Earthjustice, (406) 586-9699 Suzanne Asha Stone, Defenders of Wildlife, (208) 424-0932 Louisa Willcox, Natural Resources Defense Council, (406) 222-9561 Franz Camenzind, Jackson Hole Conservation Alliance, (307) 733-9417 Liz Bergstrom, The Humane Society of the United States, (301) 258-1455

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What a busy two weeks! Happy to be back to the blogging world and so ready for Spring Break. I wanted to share with you all some of the fun things we did last week. I bought DeAnna's St. Patrick's Day unit and my kinders had a blast. Here's a glimpse at a few of our Math Workstations. These printables are made up of freebies found all over the place. :) A leprechaun visited our classroom, played tricks on us, and left foot prints everywhere! He left silly messages and one day asked if we could "catch" his rainbow. So, we tried! This great experiment was from DeAnna's unit. We refracted light using a flashlight and vase of water. We turned off our classroom lights and students looked around the room and tried to find the rainbow. Students learned that to make a rainbow, you need rain and sunlight. So, on the back of our paper, we made a key to illustrate what each object we used represented. Key: the vase and water = rain and the flashlight = the sun. We learned about the colors of the rainbow and made our own Roy G. Biv. We made Leprechaun punch one day and added rainbow sprinkles (skittles)! Students did a little "how to" writing and wrote the steps we took to make the punch. The last step, "eat it up" of course! We did a little leprechaun math and added gold together. My leprechaun has 2 pieces of gold. I gave him 2 more. Now he has 4 pieces of gold. 2+2=4 Here is what the outside of our classroom door looks like! I didn't get a chance to grab a picture after we added our huge pot of gold. But you can imagine it...right next to the door, in between the trees. We learned about the sequence of a story and read There was an Old Lady who Swallowed a Clover. Students re told the story and listed the objects the old lady swallowed in order. You can grab this freebie and a few other goodies to store away for next year below. Hope you had a Happy St. Patrick's Day! Click on the picture to download! Clip art: Scrappin' Doodles Font: smiley monster

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Need help using School Facts Jax? Our quickstart video makes it easy to learn about the rich features the dashboard has to offer. You'll also find answers to our most frequently asked questions. For clear explanations on some of the technical terms and abbreviations, check out the glossary. Glossary of Terms Jump To Letter: - Charter School (from Florida Dept. of Education) Charter schools are public schools that operate under a performance contract, or a "charter" which frees them from many regulations created for traditional public schools while holding them accountable for academic and financial results. Charter schools are created when an individual or group submits an application to the school district; the school district approves the application; the applicants form a governing board that negotiates a contract with the district school board; and the applicants and district school board agree upon a charter or contract. The district school board then becomes the sponsor of the charter school. The negotiated contract outlines expectations of both parties regarding the school's academic and financial Charter schools are open to all students residing within the district; however, charter schools are allowed to target students within specific age groups or grade levels, students considered at-risk of dropping out or failing, or students who meet reasonable academic, artistic or other eligibility standards established by the charter school. For more information, see FL DOE Office of Independent Education & Parental - Differentiated Accountability Differentiated Accountability (DA) refers to the system used in Florida for classifying and evaluating the progress of school improvement based on School Grades performance (see "School Grades" definition for more information). Beginning in 2012, Florida's Differentiated Accountability assignment categories include: Schools that have increased by at least one letter grade over the previous year or have maintained a school grade of "A". Reward schools are eligible for school recognition funds as an incentive for their performance. Schools receiving a school grade of "C" or "D". Focus schools are subject to some increased state oversight and monitoring than Reward or non-DA schools. Schools receiving a school grade of "F". Priority schools are subject to more intensive intervention efforts required by the Florida Department of Education. These schools must conduct a comprehensive needs assessment and submit a plan to demonstrate significant, immediate academic and systematic improvement in areas including: school improvement planning, leadership quality, educator quality, professional development, curriculum alignment and pacing, and monitoring plans and For more information, visit FL DOE Bureau of School Improvement. - End-of-Course Exams End-of-Course exams (EOCs) are standardized tests aligned with Florida's Next Generation Sunshine State Standards, designed to measure content mastery in key courses that are not specifically measured by the FCAT 2.0 or any other test - such as Algebra 1, Biology 1, Geometry, U.S. History and Civics. For more information on EOCs, visit the Florida Department of Education's End-of-Course Assessments page. - Graduation Rate Graduation rates report the percentage of students who graduate from high school within four years of their initial enrollment in ninth grade, not including students who transferred out of the district. Graduation rates for the same cohort of students may appear differently depending on the formula used to calculate The current standard calculation formula for the state of Florida is known as the "Federal" rate. Prior to 2011, graduation rates were primarily calculated and reported using the "NGA" rate. The major differences between these two formulas formula: includes only standard diplomas as graduates, excludes GEDs and all special diplomas from counting towards - NGA formula: includes both standard and special diplomas as graduates, but excludes GEDs from counting towards graduation rates. For more information on how graduation rates are calculated, see reports available at FL DOE Education Information and Accountability - Kindergarten Readiness Student academic and developmental readiness levels when entering kindergarten for the first time can vary widely and significantly impact educational achievement over the first few years of school. A number of factors, including early environment and experiences, quality of pre-K education experience, and individual physical and emotional development can all effect how ready a student is to begin learning immediately when they In Florida, an assessment known as the Florida Kindergarten Readiness Screener (FLKRS) is used to assess information about a student's overall readiness for kindergarten using components from two different types of readiness assessments, the Early Childhood Observation System (ECHOS) and the Florida Assessments for Instruction in Reading (FAIR-K). - ECHOS: The ECHOS assessment is a brief observational screening instrument designed to measure a child's performance across seven developmental areas: Language and Literacy, Mathematics, Social and Personal Skills, Science, Social studies, Physical Development and Fitness, and Creative Arts. - FAIR-K: The FAIR-K test is used to measure reading readiness skills, including a students' understanding of letter names and letter-sounds (phonemic awareness). Results from these two sections are used to calculate a student's Probability of Success in Reading score. Additional sections of the FAIR also administered to all public school kindergarten students include listening comprehension and vocabulary assessments. For more information about kindergarten readiness assessments, DOE Office of Early Learning. - Magnet Programs Magnet programs offer a concentrated curriculum in designated areas of study, such as mathematics, science, technology, business, or performing arts. Magnet programs may be offered schoolwide at dedicated magnet schools, or as special programs for magnet cohorts within traditional schools. Magnet programs or schools are part of Florida's School Choice enrollment options and typically draw students from a wider geographic area than locally zoned For more information, visit FL DOE Magnet Schools Information. - Postsecondary Readiness Postsecondary readiness rates indicate the percentage of a school's most recent graduating class who were qualified to enroll in college-level courses without the need for remediation in either reading or mathematics. Readiness is determined by a student's highest scores on any of a number of recognized college placement tests, including the ACT, SAT, CPT, or P.E.R.T. In order for a student to be considered postsecondary ready, he or she would need to meet the following minimum scores on any of these - ACT (potential score range: 1 - 36): - Reading: 18 - English: 17 - Mathematics: 19 - CPT (potential score range: 1 - 120): - Writing Skills: - Elementary Algebra: - P.E.R.T. (potential score range: 50 - 150): - Reading: 104 - Writing: 99 - Mathematics: 113 - SAT (potential score range: 200 - 800): - Verbal: 440 - Mathematics: 440 For more information about these tests or how postsecondary readiness is calculated, visit FL DOE College and Career Readiness. - School Grades School Grades are the commonly used term to refer to a school's state accountability rating. All eligible public schools in Florida are evaluated each year on student performance in the following - Reading performance (All students) - Reading performance gains (All students) - Reading performance gains (Lowest 25% students) - Math performance (All students) - Math performance gains (All students) - Math performance gains (Lowest 25% students) - Writing performance - Science performance Additional performance measures for high schools - Participation in accelerated coursework - Performance in accelerated coursework - Overall graduation rate - At-risk graduation rate - College readiness (Reading) - College readiness (Math) A school's total performance in all appropriate areas are then combined (using a weighted calculation based on a specific criteria established by the state) to determine the school's overall achievement on an A - F scale. For more information on how school grades are calculated see FLDOE School Grades Guide Sheet Still have quesitons? Please feel free to contact us.

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Science Supplies and Services Model for Mass Spectrometer How many of high school or college students have seen the insides of a working mass spectrometer? How many know how and why it works? What is it used for? Is the print-out the only important feature of the instrument or should our students understand how the information was obtained? A model of a mass spectrometer can be used to encourage this understanding. The S17 Science Model Mass Spectrometer is designed to answer an number of questions, and to teach a number of very interesting concepts. The instruction sheets that accompany this kit outline, in great detail, some of the best ways of using this kit to: The instruction sheets include information and diagrams to help you set up the apparatus. A set of sample questions, comments and answers that have been elicited and used in various classrooms is also included. Students in Kindergarten through College have marveled at the use of this kit in demonstrations. The kit has already been purchased by high schools and universities throughout the world for demonstrating the mass spectrometer to students of all academic backgrounds. You will want one of these in your school. It is available in two different kits, EQ 129 and EQ 131. The instructions sheets are the same in both kits. Your IP Address is: 220.127.116.11

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Wiktionary:About Low German |This is a Wiktionary policy, guideline or common practices page. This is a draft proposal. It is unofficial, and it is unknown whether it is widely accepted by Wiktionary editors.| |Policies: CFI - ELE - BLOCK - REDIR - BOTS - QUOTE - DELETE - NPOV - AXX| Low German/Saxon is a Germanic lect, a dialect continuum spoken in northern Germany, the eastern Netherlands, and numerous places outside central Europe. It has three main forms: - (German) Low German, spoken in northern Germany - Dutch Low Saxon, spoken in the eastern Netherlands - Plautdietsch (also called Mennonite Low German), spoken in Canada, the United States, and elsewhere Low German/Saxon is related to Dutch, to the Frisian languages, to English, and to German. In some cases, Low German expressions are intelligible to English speakers: He was en old Mann is one Low German sentence English-speakers can understand. On Wiktionary, the variants of Low German spoken in Germany are represented by the code nds-de and are covered by the page Wiktionary:About German Low German. The variants spoken in the Netherlands are represented by the code nds-nl and covered by Wiktionary:About Dutch Low Saxon. Plautdietsch is represented by the code pdt and covered by Wiktionary:About Plautdietsch. What to call Low German/Saxon on Wiktionary Low German is the most common name of the dialect continuum, and is the name used on Wiktionary. It is a calque of Plattdüdesch (and its forms) or Nedderdüdesch. Platt means "flat" and is interpreted as "relating to the lowlands". At the time this name spread (in the Renaissance), however, plat had the general meaning of "intelligible". Nedder, on the other hand, actually means "nether" and relates to the lowlands in contrast to the German highlands, the Alps, Harz mountains, etc. Düdesch is related to the English word Dutch and the dutch word Duits, and referred (at the time it spread) to any continental West Germanic language. Low Saxon is another name often used in English. This name derives from that of the Saxon tribe which spoke Old Saxon, the lect from which Low German evolved. This name (as Nedersaksisch) is the most common name of the language in the Netherlands. However, there is a dialect group called "Low Saxon" spoken in Lower Saxony in Germany, which Low German should not be confused with. On Wiktionary, the form(s) of Low German spoken in Germany are called Low German, the form(s) spoken in the Netherlands are called Dutch Low Saxon, and the form spoken by Mennonites and others outside central Europe are called Plautdietsch. Historical stages of the Saxon language Low German developed from the language Old Saxon. The earliest predecessors of the language were the West Germanic dialects spoken by the Saxon tribes. Middle Low German was heavily influenced the languages of the Hanseatic League's trading partners: Old/Middle Danish, Swedish, Norwegian. Key to pronunciation About the nature of long vowels Both Low German and Middle Low German have two kinds of vowel sounds that are traditionally called 'long', for all vowels but the closed ones (i.e. /uː/, /yː/, /iː/). The first are diphthongs that descend from earlier long vowels, and the second are the same as the equivalent short vowel but pronounced long. These latter ones are called "tonlang" (sound-long) in German. The sound-long vowels are often vowels which were short in Old Saxon but stood in an open syllable, and thus were lengthened by regular sound change. Some confusion exists about the terminology of these vowels. Traditional grammars do not refer to the diphthongs as such, but call them simply "long vowels", and the speakers of most Low German dialects often think of them in those terms (much as the sound of the English eye is considered a ‘long i’ in traditional English grammar despite its diphthongal character). When speaking of "diphthongisation", especially regarding the dialects of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, an author might refer to a more open version of the diphthong rather than the existence of a diphthong in contrast to a monophthong. For example, someone pronouncing the "long E" as /eɪ/ might refer to /ɛɪ/ and /aɪ/ as "diphthongs" but consider /eɪ/ a "normal E". The following is not a complete depiction of all sounds in all dialects but is an exemplative overview. |⟨A⟩||/a/ or /ɒ/||/oɒ/||/aː/ or /ɒː/| |⟨E⟩||/ɛ/||/eɪ/ or /ɛɪ/||/ɛː/| |⟨O⟩||/ɔ/||/oʊ/ or /ɔʊ/||/ɔː/| |⟨Ö⟩ (and other spellings)||/œ/||/øʏ/ or /œʏ/||/œː/| Some of the sound-long vowels have had special characters in some areas or in the writing of some authors. The most widespread are "ę" for /ɛː/, "æ" for /ɶː/ (and to a much lesser extent for /œː/) and "œ" for /œː/. "Ä" has been used for both /ɛː/ and /ɶː/. Key to dialectal pronunciation In general, the most closed version (on the left) is spoken in the west (e.g. Lower Saxony), while the most open (on the right) versions are from the east, especially rural (not urban) parts of w:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. E = /ɛɪ/ = /eɪ/~/ɛɪ/~/aɪ/ O = /ɔʊ/ = /oʊ/~/ɔʊ/~/ɒʊ/ Ö = /œʏ/ = /øʏ/~/œʏ/~/ɶʏ/; [eɪ] (w:Königsberg, Low Prussian) Ü etc. (long) = /yː/; [iː] (Low Prussian) Ü etc. (short)= [ʏ]; [ɪ] (Low Prussian) R = /r/ = [r]~[ɾ] (except in syllable coda) A = /ʌ/ = [a]~[æ]~[ʌ]~[ɒ] The Merger of monophthongal A and O Due to the relative similarity of the sounds of lengthened A and lengthened O, both were used somewhat interchangeably in Middle Low German writing. Later, "A" replaced the letter "O" in the quasi-standard that Middle Low German had developed. This was because, at some point in history, most Low German dialects merged the sound-long A with the sound-long O. Later many merged the long A with the sound-long A as well. Which sound was kept and which was lost was random throughout the dialects. In addition, Low German orthography became more varied and also more randomized in later periods, so that words might be written with either A or O in a region (e.g. apen and open), while not necessarily giving away the pronunciation. Comparison of Low German and Dutch Low Saxon orthographies Some important differences between Dutch-influenced orthography of Dutch Low Saxon and the German-influences orthography of Low German pertain to the representation of the following: |IPA /s/||s||s, ss, ß, z| |IPA /ø/, /œ/||eu||ö (rarely æ for /œ/)| |vowel length in closed syllables||doubled vowel||doubled consonant or H| |capitalisation of nouns||No||Yes| - For example, compare Dutch Low Saxon zes (“six”) and kruus (“cross”) with German Low German sess (“six”) and Krüüz (“cross”). - Dutch speakers usually use a double vowel (laand) to show the length of a vowel in a closed syllable, German speakers use an h (wahnen). Both use an e after an i. The difference can be seen in the spellings of the word which means "year", which is pronounced either /jɒːɾ/ or /jɔːɾ/ or with /-ɐ/ instead of /ɾ/: it is written as jaar and joar in Dutch Low Saxon, but as Jahr, Johr or some variant thereof in Germany. - Influenced by standard High German, which capitalizes nouns, many Low German authors also capitalize nouns, and capitalized nouns are the norm (lemma form) for Low German. Many Dutch Low Saxon speakers do not capitalize nouns, and uncapitalized nouns are the norm (lemma form) for Dutch Low Saxon.

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Latin evaginare, to unsheath; ex-,from +vagina, sheath evaginate (third-person singular simple present evaginates, present participle evaginating, simple past and past participle evaginated) - (intransitive) To evert a body organ inside surface to outside. - (transitive) To cause a body organ or part to become inside-out. - second-person plural present active imperative of ēvāgīnō

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Economic opportunities for women still lagging: World Bank and OECD Wednesday, September 24, 2008 In a recent study released by the World Bank and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), economic opportunities for women are still lagging behind opportunities for men in the developing world. Improvements have been made in women health and education, according to the study. The study calls for investments totaling over US$13 billion a year to achieve gender equality and women empowerment. Danny Leipziger, World Bank Vice President for Poverty Reduction and Economic Management, said, "gender equality is key for poverty reduction and growth. Progress on women’s education is essential but not enough if we don’t improve women’s access to good jobs and credit lines, to land ownership and to income-generating activities." The study Equality for Women: Where Do We Stand on Millennium Development Goal 3? looks at the achievements made by the developing world as laid out by the Millennium Development Goals (MD). These goals are eight international development goals that 189 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. They include halving extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics such as AIDS, and developing a global partnership for development. Education has improved in 82 countries out of 122 and are on track to meet their MD goals. However, 19 countries, 13 of which are in Sub- Saharan Africa, are seriously off track to meet their target. The United Nations will hold a conference on Thursday at the annual session of the UN in New York to discuss the Millennium Development Goals. - Press Release: "Mixed Results Towards Gender Equality, Say World Bank and OECD" — World Bank, September 24, 2008 - "$13 bn a year needed to achieve gender equality: World Bank" — , September 24, 2008

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |Centuries:||18th century – 19th century – 20th century| |Decades:||1840s 1850s 1860s – 1870s – 1880s 1890s 1900s| |Years:||1874 1875 1876 – 1877 – 1878 1879 1880| |1877 in topic:| |Archaeology – Architecture – Art – Literature – Music| |Australia – Canada – France – Germany – Mexico – Philippines – South Africa – US – UK| |Rail Transport – Science – Sports| |Lists of leaders| |Colonial Governors – State leaders| |Birth and death categories| |Births – Deaths| |Establishments and disestablishments categories| |Establishments – Disestablishments| |Ab urbe condita||2630| |British Regnal year||40 Vict. 1 – 41 Vict. 1| — to —丁丑年十一月廿七日 |- Vikram Samvat||1933–1934| |- Shaka Samvat||1799–1800| |- Kali Yuga||4978–4979| |- Ǹrí Ìgbò||877–878| |Japanese calendar||Meiji 10 |Juche calendar||N/A (before 1912)| |Julian calendar||Gregorian minus 12 days| |Minguo calendar||35 before ROC |Thai solar calendar||2420| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: 1877| Year 1877 (MDCCCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar. - January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India by the Royal Titles Act 1876, introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . - January 8 – American Indian Wars – Battle of Wolf Mountain: Crazy Horse and his warriors fight their last battle with the United States Cavalry in Montana. - January 20 – The Conference of Constantinople ends with Ottoman Turkey rejecting proposals of internal reform and Balkan provisions. - January 29 – The Satsuma Rebellion, a revolt of disaffected samurai against the new imperial government. The Rebellion lasted until September of that year. - February 12 – Louis Renault, founder of Renault, is born in Paris, France. - March – The Nineteenth Century magazine is founded in London. - March 2 – In the Compromise of 1877, the U.S. presidential election, 1876 is resolved with the selection of Rutherford B. Hayes as the winner, even though Samuel J. Tilden had won the popular vote on November 7, 1876. - March 4 - March 15 – 1877 Australia v. England series: The first Test cricket match is held between England and Australia. - March 24 – For the only time in history, the Boat Race between the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford is declared a "dead heat" (i.e. a draw). - April 12 – The United Kingdom annexes the South African Republic, violating the Sand River Convention of 1852 causing a new Xhosa War. - April 24 – Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878: the Russian Empire declares war on the Ottoman Empire. - May 5 – American Indian Wars: Sitting Bull leads his band of Lakota into Canada to avoid harassment by the United States Army under Colonel Nelson Miles. - May 6 – Realizing that his people are weakened by cold and hunger, Chief Crazy Horse of the Oglala Sioux surrenders to United States troops in Nebraska. - May 8–11 – At Gilmore's Gardens in New York City, the first Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show is held. - May 16 – The May 16, 1877 political crisis occurs in France. - May 21 – (May 9 O.S.) – By a speech in the Parliament of Romania by Mihail Kogălniceanu, the country declares itself independent from the Ottoman Empire (recognized in 1878 after the end of the Romanian independence war). - June 15 – Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy. - June 17 – American Indian Wars – Battle of White Bird Canyon: The Nez Perce defeat the U.S. Cavalry at White Bird Canyon in the Idaho Territory. - June 21 – The Molly Maguires are hanged at Carbon County Prison in Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania. - June 26 – The eruption of Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador causes severe mudflows that wipe out surrounding cities and valleys, killing 1,000. - June 30 – The British Mediterranean fleet is sent to Besika Bay. - July 9 – The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club begins its first lawn tennis tournament at Wimbledon. - July 16 – Great railroad strike of 1877: Riots by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad railroad workers in Baltimore, Maryland lead to a sympathy strike and rioting in Pittsburgh, and a full-scale worker's rebellion in St. Louis, briefly establishing a Communist government before U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in the armed forces. - July 19 – Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878: The first battle in the Siege of Plevna is fought. - July 30 – The second battle in the Siege of Plevna is fought. - August 9 – American Indian Wars – Battle of Big Hole: Near Big Hole River in Montana, a small band of Nez Perce people who refuse government orders to move to a reservation, clash with the United States Army. The United States Army loses 29 soldiers and the indians lose 89 warriors in an Army victory. - August 11 – Asaph Hall discovers Deimos, the outer moon of Mars. - August 18 – Asaph Hall discovers Phobos, the inner moon of Mars. - September 1 – The Battle of Lovcha, third battle in the Siege of Plevna, is fought. Russian forces successfully reduce the Ottoman fortress at Lovcha. - September 5 – American Indian Wars: Oglala Sioux chief Crazy Horse is bayoneted by a United States soldier, after resisting confinement in a guardhouse at Fort Robinson in Nebraska. - September 22 – Treaty 7 is concluded between several mainly Blackfoot First Nations tribes and the Canadian Confederation at the Blackfoot Crossing of the Bow River, settling the Blackfoot on Indian reserves in what will become southern Alberta. - October 22 – The Blantyre mining disaster in Scotland kills 207 miners. - November 14 – Henrik Ibsen's first contemporary realist drama The Pillars of Society is premièred at the Odense Teater. - November 21 – Thomas Edison announces his invention of the phonograph, a machine that can record sound, considered Edison's first great invention. Edison demonstrates the device for the first time on November 29. - November 22 – The first college lacrosse game is played between New York University and Manhattan College. - December 9 – The fourth battle of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878 is fought, concluding the Siege of Plevna. - December 14 – Serbia restates its previous declaration of war against Turkey. Date unknown - A professionally led army of draftees crushes a major rebellion by feudal elements protesting the loss of their privileges in Japan. - Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina is published complete in book form in Moscow. - January 2 – Slava Raskaj, Croatian painter (d. 1906) - February 4 – Eddie Cochems, Father of the Forward Pass in American football (d. 1953) - February 7 – G. H. Hardy, British mathematician (d. 1947) - February 14 – Edmund Landau, German mathematician (d. 1938) - February 17 – André Maginot, French politician (d. 1932) - February 19 – Gabriele Münter, German painter (d. 1962) - February 25 – Erich von Hornbostel, Austrian musicologist (d. 1935) - March 2 – Consuelo Vanderbilt, Duchess of Marlborough (d. 1964) - March 4 - March 16 – Reza Shah Pahlavi, Shah of Iran (d. 1944) - March 18 – Edgar Cayce, American psychic (d. 1945) - March 21 – Maurice Farman, French pilot and aircraft designer (d. 1964) - March 25 – Walter Little, Canadian politician (d. 1961) - March 29 – Alois Kayser, German missionary (d. 1944) - April 30 – Alice B. Toklas, American writer (d. 1967) - May 3 – Karl Abraham, German psychoanalyst (d. 1925) - May 23 – Grace Ingalls, youngest sister of author Laura Ingalls Wilder (d. 1941) - May 24 – Samuel W. Bryant, American admiral (d. 1938) - May 27 – Isadora Duncan, American dancer (d. 1927) - June 4 – Heinrich Otto Wieland, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) - June 7 – Charles Glover Barkla, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1944) - June 11 – Renée Vivien, British poet who wrote in French (d. 1909) - June 12 – Thomas C. Hart, American admiral and politician (d. 1971) - June 14 – Jane Bathori, French opera singer (d. 1970) - July 2 – Hermann Hesse, German-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1962) - July 3 – Shafiqah Shasha (شفيقة شعشع), Lebanese-Australian matriarch (d. 1953) - July 6 – Arnaud Massy, French golfer (d. 1950) - July 13 – Erik Scavenius, Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1962) - July 17 – Ernst von Dohnányi, Hungarian conductor (d. 1960) - July 19 – Arthur Fielder, English cricketer (d. 1949) - August 1 – Charlotte Hughes (née Milburn), the longest-lived person ever documented in the United Kingdom (d. 1993) - August 6 – Wallace H. White, Jr., U.S. Senator from Maine (d. 1952) - August 7 – Ulrich Salchow, Swedish figure skater (d. 1949) - August 15 – Stanley Vestal, American writer, poet, historian (d. 1957) - August 16 – Roque Ruaño, Spanish priest-civil engineer (d. 1935) - August 22 – Ananda Coomaraswamy, philosopher (d. 1947) - August 27 - August 29 – Dudley Pound, British admiral (d. 1943) - September 1 – Francis William Aston, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1945) - September 2 – Frederick Soddy, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1956) - September 6 – Buddy Bolden, American jazz musician (d. 1930) - September 26 – Alfred Cortot, Swiss pianist (d. 1962) - October 4 – Razor Smith, English cricketer (d. 1946) - October 15 – Helen Ware, American stage & film actress (d. 1939) - October 27 – George Thompson, English cricketer (d. 1943) - October 29 – Narcisa de Leon, Filipino film mogul (d. 1966) - November 2 – Claire McDowell, American silent film actress (d. 1966) - November 9 – Allama Iqbal, Indian philosopher, one of the profound founding fathers of the Muslims of India (d. 1938) - November 15 – William Hope Hodgson, English author (d. 1918) - November 17 – Frank Lahm, Brigadier General USAF, airship pilot, early military aviator trained by the Wright Brothers (d. 1963) - November 22 - November 24 - December 3 – Richard Pearse, New Zealand airplane pioneer (d. 1953) - December 24 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter (d. 1979) - January 2 – Alexander Bain, Scottish inventor (b. 1811) - January 4 – Cornelius Vanderbilt, American entrepreneur (b. 1794) - January 20 – Dato Maharajalela Lela, Malay nationalist. - February 20 – Louis M. Goldsborough, United States Navy admiral (b. 1805) - March 1 – Antoni Patek, Polish watchmaker (b. 1811) - March 24 – Walter Bagehot, British businessman, essayist and journalist (b. 1826) - May 26 – Kido Takayoshi, Japanese statesman (b. 1833) - June 3 - June 22 – John R. Goldsborough, United States Navy commodore (b. 1809) - July 16 &ndash Samuel McLean, American congressman (b. 1826 - July 27 – John Frost, British Chartist leader (b. 1784) - August 8 – William Lovett, British Chartist leader (b. 1800) - August 29 – Brigham Young, American Mormon leader (b. 1801) - August 30 – Raphael Semmes, American and Confederate naval officer (b.1809) - September 2 – Constantine Kanaris, Greek politician (b. 1795) - September 3 – Adolphe Thiers, French historian and politician (b. 1797) - September 5 – Crazy Horse, Oglala Sioux chief (b. 1849) - September 17 – William Fox Talbot, English photographer (b. 1800) - September 24 – Saigō Takamori, samurai (b. 1827) - October 3 – James Roosevelt Bayley, first Bishop of Newark, New Jersey, and the eighth Archbishop of Baltimore (b. 1814) - October 16 – Théodore Barrière, French dramatist (b. 1823) - October 29 – Nathan Bedford Forrest, American Confederate Civil War General - November 2 – Friedrich Graf von Wrangel, Prussian field marshal (b. 1784) - December 12 – José de Alencar, Brazilian novelist (b. 1829) - December 31 – Gustave Courbet, French painter (b. 1819) - Everett, Jason M., ed. (2006). "1877". The People's Chronology. Thomson Gale. Archived from the original on 27 May 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-26. - Bruce, Robert V. (1959). 1877: Year of Violence. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. - Hanssen, Jens-Morten (2001-08-10). "Facts about Pillars of Society". Ibsen.net. Retrieved 2013-02-08.

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||This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2008)| A blackboard (UK English) or chalkboard (US English) is a reuseable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are often green because the color is considered easier on the eyes. A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint (usually black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10–20 years in intensive use. Lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement. The lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then move them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously. The chalk marks can be easily wiped off with a damp cloth, a sponge or a special blackboard eraser consisting of a block of wood covered by a felt pad. However, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove. Blackboard manufacturers often advise that a new or newly resurfaced blackboard be completely covered using the side of a stick of chalk and then that chalk brushed off as normal to prepare it for use. Chalk sticks Sticks of processed "chalk" are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. These are not actually made from chalk rock but from calcium sulfate in its dihydrate form, gypsum. Advantages and disadvantages As compared to whiteboards, blackboards have a variety of advantages: - Chalk requires no special care; whiteboard markers must be capped or else they dry out. - Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a comparable amount of writing. - It is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers. - Chalk has a mild smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. - Chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers. On the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used. Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and according to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI), there are links between chalk dust and allergy and asthma problems. The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard, as well as other pointed, especially metal objects against blackboards, produces a sound that is well known for being extremely irritating to most people. Many are averse also to merely the sight or thought of this sort of contact. Etymology and history They use black tablets for the children in the schools, and write upon them along the long side, not the broadside, writing with a white material from the left to the right. The first classroom uses of large blackboards are difficult to date, but they were used for music education and composition in Europe as far back as the sixteenth century. The term "blackboard" is attested in English from the mid-eighteenth century; the Oxford English Dictionary provides a citation from 1739, to write "with Chalk on a black-Board". The term "chalkboard" was used interchangeably with "blackboard" in the United Kingdom in the early nineteenth century, but by the twentieth century had become primarily restricted to North American English. The blackboard was introduced into the US education system from Europe in 1801. This occurred at West Point, where George Baron, an English mathematician, used chalk and blackboard in a lecture on September 21. James Pillans has been credited with the invention of coloured chalk (1814): he had a recipe with ground chalk, dyes and porridge. See also |Look up blackboard or chalkboard in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Blackboards| - Chalkboard gag from The Simpsons - Interactive whiteboard - Sidewalk chalk - Sound of fingernails scraping chalkboard - WebMD. "Reading, Writing, and Wheezing? Not Necessarily". Asthma Health Center. WebMD. Retrieved Sept. 19, 2000. - "Full text of "Alberuni's India. An account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030"". - Owens, Jessie Ann. Composers at Work: The Craft of Musical Composition, 1450-1600. Oxford University Press, 1998. - Entry for blackboard, n, in the Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed., 2011) - Entry for chalkboard, n, in the Oxford English Dictionary (Third ed., 2011) - Stephen E. Ambrose (1 December 1999). Duty, Honor, Country: A History of West Point. JHU Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8018-6293-9. Retrieved 14 February 2013. - Jo Swinnerton (30 September 2005). The History of Britain Companion. Anova Books. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-86105-914-7. Retrieved 14 February 2013.

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Food vs. fuel Food vs. fuel is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for biofuels production in detriment of the food supply on a global scale. The "food vs. fuel" or "food or fuel" debate is international in scope, with valid arguments on all sides of the issue. There is disagreement about how significant the issue is, what is causing it, and what can or should be done about it. Biofuel production has increased in recent years. Some commodities like maize (corn), sugar cane or vegetable oil can be used either as food, feed, or to make biofuels. For example, since 2006, a portion of land that was also formerly used to grow other crops in the United States is now used to grow corn for biofuels, and a larger share of corn is destined to ethanol production, reaching 25% in 2007. A major debate exists on the extent to which biofuels policies contributed to high agricultural prices levels and volatility. A recent study for the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development shows that market-driven expansion of ethanol in the US increased maize prices by 21 percent in 2009, in comparison with what prices would have been had ethanol production been frozen at 2004 levels. Lester R. Brown claimed that, since converting the entire grain harvest of the US would only produce 16% of its auto fuel needs, energy markets are effectively placed in competition with food markets for scarce arable land, resulting in higher food prices. A lot of R&D efforts are currently being put into the production of second generation biofuels from non-food crops, crop residues and waste. Second generation biofuels could hence potentially combine farming for food and fuel and moreover, electricity could be generated simultaneously, which could be beneficial for developing countries and rural areas in developed countries. With global demand for biofuels on the increase due to the oil price increases taking place since 2003 and the desire to reduce oil dependency as well as reduce GHG emissions from transportation, there is also fear of the potential destruction of natural habitats by being converted into farmland. Environmental groups have raised concerns about this trade-off for several years, but now the debate reached a global scale due to the 2007–2008 world food price crisis. On the other hand, several studies do show that biofuel production can be significantly increased without increased acreage. Therefore stating that the crisis in hand relies on the food scarcity. Brazil has been considered to have the world's first sustainable biofuels economy and its government claims Brazil's sugar cane based ethanol industry has not contributed to the 2008 food crisis. A World Bank policy research working paper released in July 2008 concluded that "...large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices", and also stated that "Brazil's sugar-based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher". However, a 2010 study also by the World Bank concluded that their previous study may have overestimated the contribution of biofuel production, as "the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors (the so-called "financialisation of commodities") may have been partly responsible for the 2007/08 spike." A 2008 independent study by OECD also found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller. Food price inflation From 1974 to 2005 real food prices (adjusted for inflation) dropped by 75%. Food commodity prices were relatively stable after reaching lows in 2000 and 2001. Therefore, recent rapid food price increases are considered extraordinary. A World Bank policy research working paper published on July 2008 found that the increase in food commodities prices was led by grains, with sharp price increases in 2005 despite record crops worldwide. From January 2005 until June 2008, maize prices almost tripled, wheat increased 127 percent, and rice rose 170 percent. The increase in grain prices was followed by increases in fats and oil prices in mid-2006. On the other hand, the study found that sugar cane production has increased rapidly, and it was large enough to keep sugar price increases small except for 2005 and early 2006. The paper concluded that biofuels produced from grains have raised food prices in combination with other related factors between 70 to 75 percent, but ethanol produced from sugar cane has not contributed significantly to the recent increase in food commodities prices. An economic assessment report published by the OECD in July 2008 found that "...the impact of current biofuel policies on world crop prices, largely through increased demand for cereals and vegetable oils, is significant but should not be overestimated. Current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years." Corn is used to make ethanol and prices went up by a factor of three in less than 3 years (measured in US dollars). Reports in 2007 linked stories as diverse as food riots in Mexico due to rising prices of corn for tortillas, and reduced profits at Heineken the large international brewer, to the increasing use of corn (maize) grown in the US Midwest for ethanol production. (In the case of beer, the barley area was cut in order to increase corn production. Barley is not currently used to produce ethanol.) Wheat is up by almost a factor of 3 in 3 years, while soybeans are up by a factor of 2 in 2 years (both measured in US dollars). As corn is commonly used as feed for livestock, higher corn prices lead to higher prices in animal source foods. Vegetable oil is used to make biodiesel and has about doubled in price in the last couple years. The price is roughly tracking crude oil prices. The 2007–2008 world food price crisis is blamed partly on the increased demand for biofuels. During the same period rice prices went up by a factor of 3 even though rice is not directly used in biofuels. The USDA expects the 2008/2009 wheat season to be a record crop and 8% higher than the previous year. They also expect rice to have a record crop. Wheat prices have dropped from a high over $12/bushel in May 2008 to under $8/bushel in May. Rice has also dropped from its highs. According to a 2008 report from the World Bank the production of biofuel pushed food prices up. These conclusions were supported by the Union of Concerned Scientists in their September 2008 newsletter in which they remarked that the World Bank analysis "contradicts U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Ed Schaffer's assertion that biofuels account for only a small percentage of rising food prices." According to the October Consumer Price Index released Nov. 19, 2008, food prices continued to rise in October 2008 and were 6.3 percent higher than October 2007.[dubious ] Since July 2008 fuel costs dropped by nearly 60 percent. Proposed causes Ethanol fuel as an oxygenate additive The demand for ethanol fuel produced from field corn was spurred in the U.S. by the discovery that methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) was contaminating groundwater. MTBE use as an oxygenate additive was widespread due to mandates of the Clean Air Act amendments of 1992 to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. As a result, by 2006 MTBE use in gasoline was banned in almost 20 states. There was also concern that widespread and costly litigation might be taken against the U.S. gasoline suppliers, and a 2005 decision refusing legal protection for MTBE, opened a new market for ethanol fuel, the primary substitute for MTBE. At a time when corn prices were around US$ 2 a bushel, corn growers recognized the potential of this new market and delivered accordingly. This demand shift took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising. Other factors That food prices went up at the same time fuel prices went up is not surprising and should not be entirely blamed on biofuels. Energy costs are a significant cost for fertilizer, farming, and food distribution. Also, China and other countries have had significant increases in their imports as their economies have grown. Sugar is one of the main feedstocks for ethanol and prices are down from 2 years ago. Part of the food price increase for international food commodities measured in US dollars is due to the dollar being devalued. Protectionism is also an important contributor to price increases. 36% of world grain goes as fodder to feed animals, rather than people. Over long time periods population growth and climate change could cause food prices to go up. However, these factors have been around for many years and food prices have jumped up in the last 3 years, so their contribution to the current problem is minimal. Government regulations of food and fuel markets France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States governments have supported biofuels with tax breaks, mandated use, and subsidies. These policies have the unintended consequence of diverting resources from food production and leading to surging food prices and the potential destruction of natural habitats. Fuel for agricultural use often does not have fuel taxes (farmers get duty-free petrol or diesel fuel). Biofuels may have subsidies and low/no retail fuel taxes. Biofuels compete with retail gasoline and diesel prices which have substantial taxes included. The net result is that it is possible for a farmer to use more than a gallon of fuel to make a gallon of biofuel and still make a profit. Some argue that this is a bad distortion of the market[who?]. There have been thousands of scholarly papers analyzing how much energy goes into making ethanol from corn and how that compares to the energy in the ethanol. A World Bank policy research working paper concluded that food prices have risen by 35 to 40 percent between 2002–2008, of which 70 to 75 percent is attributable to biofuels. The "month-by-month" five-year analysis disputes that increases in global grain consumption and droughts were responsible for significant price increases, reporting that this had had only a marginal impact. Instead the report argues that the EU and US drive for biofuels has had by far the biggest impact on food supply and prices, as increased production of biofuels in the US and EU were supported by subsidies and tariffs on imports, and considers that without these policies, price increases would have been smaller. This research also concluded that Brazil's sugar cane based ethanol has not raised sugar prices significantly, and recommends removing tariffs on ethanol imports by both the US and EU, to allow more efficient producers such as Brazil and other developing countries, including many African countries, to produce ethanol profitably for export to meet the mandates in the EU and the US. An economic assessment published by the OECD in July 2008 agrees with the World Bank report recommendations regarding the negative effects of subsidies and import tariffs, but found that the estimated impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller. The OECD study found that trade restrictions, mainly through import tariffs, protect the domestic industry from foreign competitors but impose a cost burden on domestic biofuel users and limits alternative suppliers. The report is also critical of limited reduction of GHG emissions achieved from biofuels based on feedstocks used in Europe and North America, finding that the current biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport fuel by no more than 0.8% by 2015, while Brazilian ethanol from sugar cane reduces greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% compared to fossil fuels. The assessment calls for the need for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks in order to improve efficiency and lower costs. Oil price increases Oil price increases since 2003 resulted in increased demand for biofuels. Transforming vegetable oil into biodiesel is not very hard or costly so there is a profitable arbitrage situation if vegetable oil is much cheaper than diesel. Diesel is also made from crude oil, so vegetable oil prices are partially linked to crude oil prices. Farmers can switch to growing vegetable oil crops if those are more profitable than food crops. So all food prices are linked to vegetable oil prices, and in turn to crude oil prices. A World Bank study concluded that oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25-30% of total price rise between January 2002 until June 2008. Demand for oil is outstripping the supply of oil and oil depletion is expected to cause crude oil prices to go up over the next 50 years. Record oil prices are inflating food prices worldwide, including those crops that have no relation to biofuels, such as rice and fish. In Germany and Canada it is now much cheaper to heat a house by burning grain than by using fuel derived from crude oil. With oil at $120/barrel a savings of a factor of 3 on heating costs is possible. When crude oil was at $25/barrel there was no economic incentive to switch to a grain fed heater. US government policy Some argue that the US government policy of encouraging ethanol from corn is the main cause for food price increases. US Federal government ethanol subsidies total $7 billion per year, or $1.90 per gallon. Ethanol provides only 55% as much energy as gasoline per gallon, realizing about a $3.45 per gallon gasoline trade off. Corn is used to feed chickens, cows, and pigs, so higher corn prices lead to higher prices for chicken, beef, pork, milk, cheese, etc. U.S. Senators introduced the BioFuels Security Act in 2006. "It's time for Congress to realize what farmers in America's heartland have known all along - that we have the capacity and ingenuity to decrease our dependence on foreign oil by growing our own fuel," said U.S. Senator for Illinois Barack Obama. Two-thirds of U.S. oil consumption is due to the transportation sector. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 has a significant impact on U.S. Energy Policy. With the high profitability of growing corn, more and more farmers switch to growing corn until the profitability of other crops goes up to match that of corn. So the ethanol/corn subsidies drive up the prices of other farm crops. The US - an important export country for food stocks - will convert 18% of its grain output to ethanol in 2008. Across the US, 25% of the whole corn crop went to ethanol in 2007. The percentage of corn going to biofuel is expected to go up. Since 2004 a US subsidy has been paid to companies that blend biofuel and regular fuel. The European biofuel subsidy is paid at the point of sale. Companies import biofuel to the US, blend 1% or even 0.1% regular fuel, and then ship the blended fuel to Europe, where it can get a second subsidy. These blends are called B99 or B99.9 fuel. The practice is called "splash and dash". The imported fuel may even come from Europe to the US, get 0.1% regular fuel, and then go back to Europe. For B99.9 fuel the US blender gets a subsidy of $0.999 per gallon. The European biodiesel producers have urged the EU to impose punitive duties on these subsidized imports. US lawmakers are also looking at closing this loophole. Proposed action Freeze on first generation biofuel production Environmental campaigner George Monbiot has argued for a 5-year freeze on biofuels while their impact on poor communities and the environment is assessed. It has been suggested that a problem with Monbiot's approach is that economic drivers may be required in order to push through the development of more sustainable second-generation biofuel processes: it is possible that these could be stalled if biofuel production decreases. Some environmentalists[who?] are suspicious that second-generation biofuels may not solve the problem of a potential clash with food as they also use significant agricultural resources such as water.[who?] A recent UN report on biofuel also raises issues regarding food security and biofuel production. Jean Ziegler, then UN Special Rapporteur on food, concluded that while the argument for biofuels in terms of energy efficiency and climate change are legitimate, the effects for the world's hungry of transforming wheat and maize crops into biofuel are "absolutely catastrophic," and terms such use of arable land a "crime against humanity." Ziegler also calls for a 5-year moratorium on biofuel production. Ziegler's proposal for a five-year ban was rejected by the U.N. Secretary Ban Ki-moon, who called for a comprehensive review of the policies on biofuels, and said that "just criticising biofuel may not be a good solution". Food surpluses exist in many developed countries. For example, the UK wheat surplus was around 2 million tonnes in 2005. This surplus alone could produce sufficient bioethanol to replace around 2.5% of the UK's petroleum consumption, without requiring any increase in wheat cultivation or reduction in food supply or exports. However, above a few percent, there would be direct competition between first generation biofuel production and food production. This is one reason why many view second generation biofuels as increasingly important. Non-food crops for biofuel There are different types of biofuels and different feedstocks for them, and it has been proposed that only non-food crops be used for biofuel. This avoids direct competition for commodities like corn and edible vegetable oil. However, as long as farmers are able to derive a greater profit by switching to biofuels, they will. The law of supply and demand predicts that if fewer farmers are producing food the price of food will rise. Second generation biofuels use lignocellulosic raw material such as forest residues (sometimes referred to as brown waste and black liquor from Kraft process or sulfite process pulp mills). Third generation biofuels (biofuel from algae) use non-edible raw materials sources that can be used for biodiesel and bioethanol. Soybean oil, which only represents half of the domestic raw materials available for biodiesel production in the United States, is one of many raw materials that can be used to produce biodiesel. Non-food crops like Camelina, Jatropha, seashore mallow and mustard, used for biodiesel, can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops won't grow, or would produce only slow growth yields. Camelina is virtually 100 percent efficient. It can be harvested and crushed for oil and the remaining parts can be used to produce high quality omega-3 rich animal feed, fiberboard, and glycerin. Camelina does not take away from land currently being utilized for food production. Most camelina acres are grown in areas that were previously not utilized for farming. For example, areas that receive limited rainfall that can not sustain corn or soybeans without the addition of irrigation can grow camelina and add to their profitability. Jatropha cultivation provides benefits for local communities: Cultivation and fruit picking by hand is labour-intensive and needs around one person per hectare. In parts of rural India and Africa this provides much-needed jobs - about 200,000 people worldwide now find employment through jatropha. Moreover, villagers often find that they can grow other crops in the shade of the trees. Their communities will avoid importing expensive diesel and there will be some for export too. NBB’s Feedstock Development program is addressing production of arid variety crops, algae, waste greases, and other feedstocks on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner. Cellulosic ethanol is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Corn stover, switchgrass, miscanthus and woodchip are some of the more popular non-edible cellulosic materials for ethanol production. Commercial investment in such second-generation biofuels began in 2006/2007, and much of this investment went beyond pilot-scale plants. Cellulosic ethanol commercialization is moving forward rapidly. The world’s first commercial wood-to-ethanol plant began operation in Japan in 2007, with a capacity of 1.4 million liters/year. The first wood-to-ethanol plant in the United States is planned for 2008 with an initial output of 75 million liters/year. Biofuel from food byproducts and coproducts Biofuels can also be produced from the waste byproducts of food-based agriculture (such as citrus peels or used vegetable oil) to manufacture an environmentally sustainable fuel supply, and reduce waste disposal cost. A growing percentage of U.S. biodiesel production is made from waste vegetable oil (recycled restaurant oils) and greases. Collocation of a waste generator with a waste-to-ethanol plant can reduce the waste producer's operating cost, while creating a more-profitable ethanol production business. This innovative collocation concept is sometimes called holistic systems engineering. Collocation disposal elimination may be one of the few cost-effective, environmentally sound, biofuel strategies, but its scalability is limited by availability of appropriate waste generation sources. For example, millions of tons of wet Florida-and-California citrus peels cannot supply billions of gallons of biofuels. Due to the higher cost of transporting ethanol, it is a local partial solution, at best. More firms are investigating the potential of fractionating technology to remove corn germ (i.e. the portion of the corn kernel that contains oil) prior to the ethanol process. Furthermore, some ethanol plants[who?] have already announced their intention to employ technology to remove the remaining vegetable oil from dried distillers grains, a coproduct of the ethanol process. Both of these technologies would add to the biodiesel raw material supply. Biofuel subsidies and tariffs Some people have claimed that ending subsidies and tariffs would enable sustainable development of a global biofuels market. Taxing biofuel imports while letting petroleum in duty-free does not fit with the goal of encouraging biofuels. Ending mandates, subsidies, and tariffs would end the distortions that current policy is causing. Some US senators[who?] advocate reducing subsidies for corn based ethanol. The US ethanol tariff and some US ethanol subsidies are currently set to expire over the next couple years. The EU is rethinking their biofuels directive due to environmental and social concerns. On January 18, 2008 the UK House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee raised similar concerns, and called for a moratorium on biofuel targets. Germany ended their subsidy of biodiesel on Jan 1 2008 and started taxing it. Reduce farmland reserves and set asides To avoid overproduction and to prop up farmgate prices for agricultural commodities, some countries[who?] have farm subsidy programs to encourage farmers not to produce and leave productive acres fallow. The 2008 crisis prompted proposals to bring some of the reserve farmland back into use. In Europe about 8% of the farmland is in set aside programs. Farmers have proposed freeing up all of this for farming. Two-thirds of the farmers who were on these programs in the UK are not renewing when their term expires. Sustainable production of biofuels Second generation biofuels are now being produced from the cellulose in dedicated energy crops (such as perennial grasses), forestry materials, the co-products from food production, and domestic vegetable waste. Advances in the conversion processes will almost certainly improve the sustainability of biofuels, through better efficiencies and reduced environmental impact of producing biofuels, from both existing food crops and from cellulosic sources. Lord Ron Oxburgh suggests that responsible production of biofuels has several advantages: Produced responsibly they are a sustainable energy source that need not divert any land from growing food nor damage the environment; they can also help solve the problems of the waste generated by Western society; and they can create jobs for the poor where previously were none. Produced irresponsibly, they at best offer no climate benefit and, at worst, have detrimental social and environmental consequences. In other words, biofuels are pretty much like any other product. Far from creating food shortages, responsible production and distribution of biofuels represents the best opportunity for sustainable economic prospects in Africa, Latin America and impoverished Asia. Biofuels offer the prospect of real market competition and oil price moderation. Crude oil would be trading 15 per cent higher and gasoline would be as much as 25 per cent more expensive, if it were not for biofuels. A healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes. Continuation of the status quo An additional policy option is to continue the current trends of government incentive for these types of crops to further evaluate the effects on food prices over a longer period of time due to the relatively recent onset of the biofuel production industry. Additionally, by virtue of the newness of the industry we can assume that like other startup industries techniques and alternatives will be cultivated quickly if there is sufficient demand for the alternative fuels and biofuels. What could result from the shock to food prices is a very quick move toward some of the non-food biofuels as are listed above amongst the other policy alternatives. Impact on developing countries Demand for fuel in rich countries is now competing against demand for food in poor countries. The increase in world grain consumption in 2006 happened due to the increase in consumption for fuel, not human consumption. The grain required to fill a 25 US gallons (95 L) fuel tank with ethanol will feed one person for a year. Several factors combine to make recent grain and oilseed price increases impact poor countries more: - Poor people buy more grains (e.g. wheat), and are more exposed to grain price changes. - Poor people spend a higher portion of their income on food, so increasing food prices influence them more. - Aid organizations which buy food and send it to poor countries see more need when prices go up but are able to buy less food on the same budget. The impact is not all negative. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) recognizes the potential opportunities that the growing biofuel market offers to small farmers and aquaculturers around the world and has recommended small-scale financing to help farmers in poor countries produce local biofuel. On the other hand, poor countries that do substantial farming have increased profits due to biofuels. If vegetable oil prices double, the profit margin could more than double. In the past rich countries have been dumping subsidized grains at below cost prices into poor countries and hurting the local farming industries. With biofuels using grains the rich countries no longer have grain surpluses to get rid of. Farming in poor countries is seeing healthier profit margins and expanding. Interviews with local peasants in southern Ecuador provide strong anecdotal evidence that the high price of corn is encouraging the burning of tropical forests. The destruction of tropical forests now account for 20% of all greenhouse gas emmisons. National Corn Growers Association US government subsidies for making ethanol from corn have been attacked as the main cause of the food vs fuel problem. To defend themselves, the US corn growers association has published their views on this issue. They consider the "food vs fuel" argument to be a fallacy that is "fraught with misguided logic, hyperbole and scare tactics." Claims made by the NCGA include: - Corn growers have been and will continue to produce enough corn so that supply and demand meet and there is no shortage. Farmers make their planting decisions based on signals from the marketplace. If demand for corn is high and projected revenue-per-acre is strong relative to other crops, farmers will plant more corn. In 2007 US farmers planted 92,900,000 acres (376,000 km2) with corn, 19% more acres than they did in 2006. - The U.S. has doubled corn yields over the last 40 years and expects to double them again in the next 20 years. With twice as much corn from each acre, corn can be put to new uses without taking food from the hungry or causing deforestation. - US consumers buy things like corn flakes where the cost of the corn per box is around 5 cents. Most of the cost is packaging, advertising, shipping, etc. Only about 19% of the US retail food prices can be attributed to the actual cost of food inputs like grains and oilseeds. So if the price of a bushel of corn goes up, there may be no noticeable impact on US retail food prices. The US retail food price index has gone up only a few percent per year and is expected to continue to have very small increases. - Most of the corn produced in the US is field corn, not sweet corn, and not digestible by humans in its raw form. Most corn is used for livestock feed and not human food, even the portion that is exported. - Only the starch portion of corn kernels is converted to ethanol. The rest (protein, fat, vitamins and minerals) is passed through to the feed coproducts or human food ingredients. - One of the most significant and immediate benefits of higher grain prices is a dramatic reduction in federal farm support payments. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, corn farmers received $8.8 billion in government support in 2006. Because of higher corn prices, payments are expected to drop to $2.1 billion in 2007, a 76 percent reduction. - While the EROEI and economics of corn based ethanol are a bit weak, it paves the way for cellulosic ethanol which should have much better EROEI and economics. - While basic nourishment is clearly important, fundamental societal needs of energy, mobility, and energy security are too. If farmers crops can help their country in these areas also, it seems right to do so. Since reaching record high prices in June 2008, corn prices fell 50% by October 2008, declining sharply together with other commodities, including oil. As ethanol production from corn has continue at the same levels, some have argued[who?] that this trend shows the belief that the increased demand for corn to produce ethanol was mistaken. "Analysts, including some in the ethanol sector, say ethanol demand adds about 75 cents to $1.00 per bushel to the price of corn, as a rule of thumb. Other analysts say it adds around 20 percent, or just under 80 cents per bushel at current prices. Those estimates hint that $4 per bushel corn might be priced at only $3 without demand for ethanol fuel.". These industry sources consider that a speculative bubble in the commodity markets holding positions in corn futures was the main driver behind the observed hike in corn prices affecting food supply. Controversy within the international system The United States and Brazil lead the industrial world in global ethanol production, with Brazil as the world's largest exporter and biofuel industry leader. In 2006 the U.S. produced 18.4 billion liters (4.86 billion gallons), closely followed by Brazil with 16.3 billion liters (4.3 billion gallons), producing together 70% of the world's ethanol market and nearly 90% of ethanol used as fuel. These countries are followed by China with 7.5%, and India with 3.7% of the global market share. Since 2007, the concerns, criticisms and controversy surrounding the food vs biofuels issue has reached the international system, mainly heads of states, and inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), such as the United Nations and several of its agencies, particularly the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Food Programme (WFP); the International Monetary Fund; the World Bank; and agencies within the European Union. The 2007 controversy: Ethanol diplomacy in the Americas In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels. The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer will permit various Central American countries, such as Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, several Caribbean countries, and various Andean Countries tariff-free trade with the U.S. thanks to existing concessionary trade agreements. Even though the U.S. imposes a USD 0.54 tariff on every gallon of imported ethanol, the Caribbean nations and countries in the Central American Free Trade Agreement are exempt from such duties if they produce ethanol from crops grown in their own countries. The expectation is that using Brazilian technology for refining sugar cane based ethanol, such countries could become exporters to the United States in the short-term. In August 2007, Brazil's President toured Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology. This alliance between the U.S. and Brazil generated some negative reactions. While Bush was in São Paulo as part of the 2007 Latin American tour, Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez, from Buenos Aires, dismissed the ethanol plan as "a crazy thing" and accused the U.S. of trying "to substitute the production of foodstuffs for animals and human beings with the production of foodstuffs for vehicles, to sustain the American way of life." Chavez' complaints were quicky followed by then Cuban President Fidel Castro, who wrote that "you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn." "Or even worse," he continued, "by offering financing to poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food, no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change."' Daniel Ortega, Nicaragua's President, and one of the preferencial recipients of Brazil technical aid, said that "we reject the gibberish of those who applaud Bush's totally absurd proposal, which attacks the food security rights of Latin Americans and Africans, who are major corn consumers", however, he voiced support for sugar cane based ethanol during Lula's visit to Nicaragua. The 2008 controversy: Global food prices As a result of the international community's concerns regarding the steep increase in food prices, on April 14, 2008, Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, at the Thirtieth Regional Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Brasília, called biofuels a "crime against humanity", a claim he had previously made in October 2007, when he called for a 5-year ban for the conversion of land for the production of biofuels. The previous day, at their Annual International Monetary Fund and World Bank Group meeting at Washington, D.C., the World Bank's President, Robert Zoellick, stated that "While many worry about filling their gas tanks, many others around the world are struggling to fill their stomachs. And it's getting more and more difficult every day." Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva gave a strong rebuttal, calling both claims "fallacies resulting from commercial interests", and putting the blame instead on U.S. and European agricultural subsidies, and a problem restricted to U.S. ethanol produced from maize. He also said that "biofuels aren't the villain that threatens food security." In the middle of this new wave of criticism, Hugo Chavez reaffirmed his opposition and said that he is concerned that "so much U.S.-produced corn could be used to make biofuel, instead of feeding the world's poor", calling the U.S. initiative to boost ethanol production during a world food crisis a "crime." German Chancellor Angela Merkel said the rise in food prices is due to poor agricultural policies and changing eating habits in developing nations, not biofuels as some critics claim. On the other hand, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown called for international action and said Britain had to be "selective" in supporting biofuels, and depending on the U.K.'s assessment of biofuels' impact on world food prices, "we will also push for change in EU biofuels targets". Stavros Dimas, European Commissioner for the Environment said through a spokeswoman that "there is no question for now of suspending the target fixed for biofuels", though he acknowledged that the EU had underestimated problems caused by biofuels. On April 29, 2008, U.S. President George W. Bush declared during a press conference that "85 percent of the world's food prices are caused by weather, increased demand and energy prices", and recognized that "15 percent has been caused by ethanol". He added that "the high price of gasoline is going to spur more investment in ethanol as an alternative to gasoline. And the truth of the matter is it's in our national interests that our farmers grow energy, as opposed to us purchasing energy from parts of the world that are unstable or may not like us." Regarding the effect of agricultural subsidies on rising food prices, Bush said that "Congress is considering a massive, bloated farm bill that would do little to solve the problem. The bill Congress is now considering would fail to eliminate subsidy payments to multi-millionaire farmers", he continued, "this is the right time to reform our nation's farm policies by reducing unnecessary subsidies". Just a week before this new wave of international controversy began, U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon had commented that several U.N. agencies were conducting a comprehensive review of the policy on biofuels, as the world food price crisis might trigger global instability. He said "We need to be concerned about the possibility of taking land or replacing arable land because of these biofuels", then he added "While I am very much conscious and aware of these problems, at the same time you need to constantly look at having creative sources of energy, including biofuels. Therefore, at this time, just criticising biofuel may not be a good solution. I would urge we need to address these issues in a comprehensive manner." Regarding Jean Ziegler's proposal for a five-year ban, the U.N. Secretary rejected that proposal. A report released by Oxfam in June 2008 criticized biofuel policies of high-income countries as neither a solution to the climate crisis nor the oil crisis, while contributing to the food price crisis. The report concluded that from all biofuels available in the market, Brazilian sugarcane ethanol is not very effective, but it is the most favorable biofuel in the world in term of cost and greenhouse gas balance. The report discusses some existing problems and potential risks, and asks the Brazilian government for caution to avoid jeopardizing its environmental and social sustainability. The report also says that: "Rich countries spent up to $15 billion last year supporting biofuels while blocking cheaper Brazilian ethanol, which is far less damaging for global food security." A World Bank research report published on July 2008 found that from June 2002 to June 2008 "biofuels and the related consequences of low grain stocks, large land use shifts, speculative activity and export bans" pushed prices up by 70 percent to 75 percent. The study found that higher oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25-30% of total price rise. The study said that "...large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices" and also stated that "Brazil's sugar-based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher". The Renewable Fuels Association (RFA) published a rebuttal based on the version leaked before its formal release. The RFA critique considers that the analysis is highly subjective and that the author "estimates the impact of global food prices from the weak dollar and the direct and indirect effect of high petroleum prices and attributes everything else to biofuels." An economic assessment by the OECD also published on July 2008 agrees with the World Bank report regarding the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions, but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller. The OECD study is also critical of the limited reduction of GHG emissions achieved from biofuels produced in Europe and North America, concluding that the current biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport fuel by no more than 0.8 percent by 2015, while Brazilian ethanol from sugar cane reduces greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80 percent compared to fossil fuels. The assessment calls on governments for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks in order to improve efficiency and lower costs. The OECD study concluded that "...current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years." Another World Bank research report published on July 2010 found their previous study may have overestimated the contribution of biofuel production, as the paper concluded that "the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors (the so-called "financialization of commodities") may have been partly responsible for the 2007/08 spike." See also - Biofuel advocacy groups - methanol economy - methanol fuel - Commodity price shocks - Corn stoves - Distillers grains - Ethanol economy - Ethanol fuel in Australia - Ethanol fuel in Brazil - Ethanol fuel in Sweden - Ethanol fuel in the Philippines - Ethanol fuel in the United States - Food security - Oil depletion - Vegetable oil economy - World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (monthly report) - 2007–2008 world food price crisis - Congressional Budget Office (April 2009), The Impact of Ethanol Use on Food Prices and Greenhouse-Gas Emissions, Congress of the United States - Bruce A. Babcock (June 2011), The Impact of US Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Price Levels and Volatility, International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development - Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Adrian Goettemoeller (2007), Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence, Prairie Oak Publishing, Maryville, Missouri, ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4 . See Chapter 7. Food, Farming, and Land Use. - Neves, Marcos Fava, Mairun Junqueira Alves Pinto, Marco Antonio Conejero and Vinicius Gustavo Trombin (2011), Food and fuel: The example of Brazil, Wageningen Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-8686-166-8 . - The Worldwatch Institute (2007), Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture, Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, U.K., ISBN 978-1-84407-422-8 . Global view, includes country study cases of Brazil, China, India and Tanzania. - "Biofuels are not to blame for high food prices, study finds". CleanBeta. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2009-01-20.[dead link] - Maggie Ayre (2007-10-03). "Will biofuel leave the poor hungry?". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Mike Wilson (2008-02-08). "The Biofuel Smear Campaign". Farm Futures. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Michael Grundwald (2008-03-27). "The Clean Energy Scam". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - The Impact of US Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Price Levels and Volatility, By Bruce A. Babcock, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University, for ICTSD, Issue Paper No. 35. June 2011. - Kathleen Kingsbury (2007-11-16). "After the Oil Crisis, a Food Crisis?". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Lester R. Brown (2007-06-13). "Biofuels Blunder:Massive Diversion of U.S. Grain to Fuel Cars is Raising World Food Prices, Risking Political Instability". Testimony before U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. Archived from the original on 2009-04-04. Retrieved 2008-12-20. - See for example the Biomass Program under the US Department of Energy: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/ - Oliver R. Inderwildi, David A. King (2009). "Quo Vadis Biofuels". Energy & Environmental Science 2: 343. doi:10.1039/b822951c. - Andrew Bounds (2007-09-10). "OECD Warns Against Biofuels Subsidies". Financial Times. - George Monbiot (2004-11-23). "Feeding Cars, Not People". Monbiot.com. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - European Environmental Bureau (2006-02-08). "Biofuels no panacea" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2008-04-10. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Planet Ark (2005-09-26). "Food Security Worries Could Limit China Biofuels". Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Greenpeace UK (2007-05-09). "Biofuels: green dream or climate change nightmare". Retrieved 2008-04-28. - See for example: the US (DOE and USDA) "Billion Ton Report": http://feedstockreview.ornl.gov/pdf/billion_ton_vision.pdf or an EU (Refuel) report http://www.refuel.eu/fileadmin/refuel/user/docs/REFUEL_D19a_flyer_feedstock_potentials.pdf - "FOOD AND FUEL II - Biofuels will help fight hunger". International Herald Tribune. 2007-08-06. Retrieved 2008-04-15. - Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of our labours - Inslee, Jay; Bracken Hendricks (2007), Apollo's Fire, Island Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 153–155, 160–161, ISBN 978-1-59726-175-3 . See Chapter 6. Homegrown Energy. - Larry Rother (2006-04-10). "With Big Boost From Sugar Cane, Brazil Is Satisfying Its Fuel Needs". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - "Biofuels in Brazil: Lean, green and not mean". The Economist. 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2008-07-30.From The Economist print edition - Julia Duailibi (2008-04-27). "Ele é o falso vilão" (in Portuguese). Veja Magazine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Donald Mitchell (July 2008). "A note on Rising Food Crisis" (PDF). The World Bank. Retrieved 2008-07-29.Policy Research Working Paper No. 4682. Disclaimer: This paper reflects the findings, interpretation, and conclusions of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the views of the World Bank - Veja Magazine (2008-07-28). "Etanol não influenciou nos preços dos alimentos" (in Portuguese). Editora Abril. Retrieved 2008-07-29. - "Biofuels major driver of food price rise-World Bank". Reuters. 2008-07-28. Retrieved 2008-07-29. - John Baffes and Tassos Haniotis (July 2010). "Placing the 2006/08 Commodity Price Boom into Perspective". World Bank. Retrieved 2010-08-09. Policy Research Working Paper 5371 - Directorate for Trade and Agriculture, OECD (2008-07-16). "Economic Assessment of Biofuel Support Policies" (PDF). OECD. Retrieved 2008-08-01. Disclaimer: This work was published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The views expressed and conclusions reached do not necessarily correspond to those of the governments of OECD member countries. - "The Economist – The End Of Cheap Food". 2007-12-06. - Directorate for Trade and Agriculture, OECD (2008-07-16). "Biofuel policies in OECD countries costly and ineffective, says report". OECD. Retrieved 2008-08-01. - Corn (C, CBOT): Monthly Price Chart - The Costs of Rising Tortilla Prices in Mexico — Enrique C. Ochoa, February 3, 2007. - Financial Times, London, February 25, 2007, quoting Jean-François van Boxmeer, chief executive. - For an explanation of this ripple effect that pushes up not only the price of corn, but also that of other farming products, see this excerpt from a speech by Paul Roberts at the Commonwealth Club of California (video). - Wheat (W, CBOT): Monthly Price Chart - Soybeans (S, CBOT): Monthly Price Chart - Why ethanol production will drive world food prices even higher in 2008 | Cleantech.com - Biofuel demand makes fried food expensive in Indonesia - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) - The other oil shock: Vegetable oil prices soar - International Herald Tribune - Light Crude Oil (CL, NYMEX): Monthly Price Chart - Biofuel: the burning question - Understanding the Global Rice Crisis - "U.S. sees record world food crops easing crisis". Reuters. 2008-05-10. - Wheat (W, CBOT): Daily Commodity Futures Price Chart: July, 2008 - "Eliminating MTBE in Gasoline in 2006" (PDF). Environmental Information Administration. 2006-02-22. Retrieved 2008-08-10. - Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Adrian Goettemoeller (2007), Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence, Prairie Oak Publishing, Maryville, Missouri, p. 42, ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4 - ‘Weak correlation' between food and fuel prices Farm and Ranch Guide: Regional News - It's not food, it's not fuel, it's China: Grain trends in China 1995-2008 - World sugar supply to expand - 3/6/2008 6:38:00 AM - Purchasing - Sugar #11 (SB, NYBOT): Monthly Price Chart - PINR - Soaring Commodity Prices Point Toward Dollar Devaluation - Forex Trader Top 3: G7, Worldwide Food Prices, and Consumer Sentiment: Financial News - Yahoo! Finance - "Crop Prospects and Food Situation - Global cereal supply and demand brief". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2008-04-21. - Timmons, Heather (2008-05-14). "Indians Find U.S. at Fault in Food Cost". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-02. - Foreign Affairs - How Biofuels Could Starve the Poor - C. Ford Runge and Benjamin Senauer - Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center - Biofuels are part of the solution - Energie: Heizen mit Weizen - Wirtschaft - stern.de - "Grain gaining steam as home-heating option". CBC News. 2005-10-14. - Grain Burning Stoves by Prairie Fire Grain Energy. Renewable Fuel - Virtually No Waste - Low Emissions - Economic analysis: Ethanol policy is driving up food costs 03/16/08 - Grand Island Independent: News - IBDeditorials.com: Editorials, Political Cartoons, and Polls from Investor's Business Daily - Ethanol Lobby Is Perpetrating A Cruel Hoax - Ethanol really takes the cake - NJVoices: Paul Mulshine - Today in Investor's Business Daily stock analysis and business news - The Ethanol Scam: One of America's Biggest Political Boondoggles : Rolling Stone - Food prices | Cheap no more | Economist.com - Baltimore, Chris. "New U.S. Congress looks to boost alternate fuels," The Boston Globe, January 5, 2007. Retrieved on August 23, 2007 - After the Oil Runs Out, washingtonpost.com - "Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)". Retrieved 2008-01-18. - Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (2008-04-14). "Global warming rage lets global hunger grow". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 2010-05-02. - Green Car Advisor - U.S. Taxpayers Subsidizing Biodiesel Sold in Europe - Splash And Dash | Greenbang - European Biodiesel Board warns on Argentine biodiesel; says fuel is subsidized in Argentina and US, then dumped in Europe : Biofuels Digest - Trade war brewing over US biofuel subsidies « Food Crisis - Splash dash and a lot of biodiesel pain (The Big Biofuels Blog) - TheHill.com - Finance panel set to close ‘splash and dash’ loophole - George Monbiot (2007-03-27). "If we want to save the planet, we need a five-year freeze on biofuels". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-01-15. - Monbiot.com » An Agricultural Crime Against Humanity - Monbiot.com » Feeding Cars, Not People - Julian Borger, (2008-04-05). "UN chief calls for review of biofuels policy". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-05-01. - Defra figures after exports, . - (i.e. if the UK wanted to replace more than around 5% of its fuel with biofuel). - Food versus fuel debate escalates - How Food and Fuel Compete for Land by Lester Brown - The Globalist > > Global Energy - Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of our labours - REN21 (2008). Renewables 2007 Global Status Report (PDF) p. 19. - Biomass Magazine - The Biofuel Dilemma « The Global Warming Hoax - Brownfield Network: Lawmakers square-off over Renewable Fuels Standard - "Bush budget doesn't alter ethanol import tariff". Reuters. 2008-02-04. - EU rethinks biofuels guidelines By Roger Harrabin bbc.co.uk Monday, 14 January 2008 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7186380.stm - Committee calls for Moratorium on Biofuels http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/environmental_audit_committee/eac_210108.cfm - Subsidy loss threatens German bio-fuel industry | EnerPub - Energy Publisher - ABA Band of Bakers March on Washington, D.C. Announce Action Plan for Wheat Crisis - let us farm set aside land Europe farmers say (The Big Biofuels Blog) - FarmPolicy.com » Blog Archives » EU CAP: Set Aside Requirement Draws Focus - Davies, Caroline (2008-05-25). "Eco-farming ditched as food prices soar". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 2010-05-02. - Hydrogen injection could boost biofuel production - Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges p. 2. - Oxburgh, Ron. Fuelling hope for the future, Courier Mail, 15 August 2007. - Starving for Fuel: How Ethanol Production Contributes to Global Hunger by Lester Brown - The Globalist > > Global Briefing - Family food expenditures around the world - Time. 2007-07-19 http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1645016_1408103,00.html |url=missing title (help). Retrieved 2010-05-02. - "NGO has biofuel concerns". BBC News. 2007-11-01. Retrieved 2008-01-20. - Record rise in wheat price prompts UN official to warn that surge in food prices may trigger social unrest in developing countries - The Associated Press: UN Warns About High Fuel, Food Costs[dead link] - Interviews with local peasants in southern Ecuador - Tropical deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions Holly K Gibbs et al. 2007 Environ. Res. Lett. 2 045021 (2pp) doi:10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/045021 - The Farmer - National Corn Growers Association - NCGA - Sam Nelson (2008-10-23). "Ethanol no longer seen as big driver of food price". Reuters UK. Retrieved 2008-11-26. - Sanchez, Marcela (2007-02-23). "Latin America -- the 'Persian Gulf' of Biofuels?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - "Biofuels: The Promise and the Risks, in World Development Report 2008" (PDF). The Worl Bank. 2008. pp. 70–71. Retrieved 2008-05-04. - "Industry Statistics: Annual World Ethanol Production by Country". Renewable Fuels Association. Archived from the original on 2008-04-08. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Edmund L. Andrews and Larry Rother (2007-03-03). "U.S. and Brazil Seek to Promote Ethanol in West". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Diana Renée (2007-08-10). "Diplomacia de biocombustibles" de Lula no genera entusiasmo" (in Spanish). La Nación. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Jim Rutenberg and Larry Rohter (2007-03-10). "Bush and Chávez Spar at Distance Over Latin Visit". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - "Americas: Cuba: Castro Criticizes U.S. Biofuel Policies". The New York Times. 2007-03-30. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Xinhua News (2007-08-09). "Nicaragua president backs sugar-made biofuel as Lula visits". People's Daily Online. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - AFP (2007-08-09). "Lula ofrece cooperación y energía eléctrica" (in Spanish). La Nación. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - "ONU diz que biocombustíveis são crime contra a humanidade" (in Portuguese). Folha de Sao Pãulo Online. 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Emilio San Pedro (2008-04-17). "Brazil president defends biofuels". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Lederer, Edith (2007-10-27). "Production of biofuels 'is a crime'". London: The Independent. Retrieved 2008-04-22. - "UN rapporteur calls for biofuel moratorium". Swissinfo. 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2008-05-01. - Larry Elliott and Heather Stewart (2008-04-11). "Poor go hungry while rich fill their tanks". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-04-30. - Steven Mufson (2008-04-30). "Siphoning Off Corn to Fuel Our Cars". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-04-30. - "FMI e Bird pedem ação urgente contra alta alimentar" (in Portuguese). Folha de Sao Pãulo Online. 2008-04-13. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - Raymond Colitt (2008-04-16). "Brazil Lula defends biofuels from growing criticism". Reuters UK. Retrieved 2008-04-28. - "Chavez calls ethanol production 'crime'". The Washington Post. Associated Press. 2008-04-22. Retrieved 2008-04-28.[dead link] - Gernot Heller (2008-04-17). "Bad policy, not biofuel, drive food prices: Merkel". Reuters. Retrieved 2008-05-01. - "Brown's biofuels caution welcomed". BBC News. 2008-04-22. Retrieved 2008-05-01. - "Europe Defends Biofuels as Debate Rages". Deutsche Welle. 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2008-05-01. - "Press Conference by the President". The White House. 2008-04-29. Retrieved 2008-05-01. - Oxfam (2008-06-25). "Another Inconvenient Truth: Biofuels are not the answer to climate or fuel crisis" (PDF). Oxfam. Retrieved 2008-07-30. Report available in pdf - Oxfam (2008-06-26). "Another Inconvenient Truth: Biofuels are not the answer to climate or fuel crisis". Oxfam web site. Retrieved 2008-07-30. - "ONG diz que etanol brasileiro é melhor opção entre biocombustíveis" (in Portuguese). BBCBrasil. 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2008-07-30. - Aditya Chakrabortty (2008-07-04). "Secret report: biofuel caused food crisis". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-07-29. - John M. Urbanchuk (2008-07-11). "Critique of World Bank Working Paper "A Note of Rising Food Prices"" (PDF). Renewable Fuel Association. Retrieved 2008-07-29.[dead link] - FAO World Food Situation - Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels, United Nations Environment Programme, October 2009 - The World Bank: Food Price Crises - Plenty of Space for Biofuels in Europe - Oxfam International: Another Inconvenient Truth: Biofuels are not the answer to climate or fuel crisis - Global Trade and Environmental Impact Study of the EU Biofuels Mandate by the International Food Policy Institute (IFPRI) March 2010

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In accounting, gross profit or sales profit is the difference between revenue and the cost of making a product or providing a service, before deducting overhead, payroll, taxation, and interest payments. Note that this is different from operating profit (earnings before interest and taxes). The various deductions (and their corresponding metrics) leading from Net sales to Net income are as follow: - Net sales = Gross sales - (Customer Discounts, Returns, Allowances) - Gross profit = Net sales - Cost of goods sold - Operating Profit = Gross Profit - Total operating expenses - Net income (or Net profit) = Operating Profit – taxes – interest (Note: cost of goods sold is calculated differently for a merchandising business than for a manufacturer.) See also

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Hydrothermal circulation in its most general sense is the circulation of hot water; 'hydros' in the Greek meaning water and 'thermos' meaning heat. Hydrothermal circulation occurs most often in the vicinity of sources of heat within the Earth's crust. This generally occurs near volcanic activity, but can occur in the deep crust related to the intrusion of granite, or as the result of orogeny or metamorphism. Seafloor hydrothermal circulation The term includes both the circulation of the well known, high temperature vent waters near the ridge crests, and the much lower temperature, diffuse flow of water through sediments and buried basalts further from the ridge crests. The former circulation type is sometimes termed "active", and the latter "passive". In both cases the principle is the same: cold dense seawater sinks into the basalt of the seafloor and is heated at depth whereupon it rises back to the rock-ocean water interface due to its lesser density. The heat source for the active vents is the newly formed basalt, and, for the highest temperature vents, the underlying magma chamber. The heat source for the passive vents is the still-cooling older basalts. Heat flow studies of the seafloor suggest that basalts within the oceanic crust take millions of years to completely cool as they continue to support passive hydrothermal circulation systems. Hydrothermal vents are locations on the seafloor where hydrothermal fluids mix into the overlying ocean. Perhaps the best known vent forms are the naturally-occurring chimneys referred to as black smokers. Hydrothermal circulation is not limited to ocean ridge environments. The source water for hydrothermal explosions, geysers and hot springs is heated groundwater convecting below and lateral to the hot water vent. Hydrothermal circulating convection cells exist any place an anomalous source of heat, such as an intruding magma or volcanic vent, comes into contact with the groundwater system. Deep crust Hydrothermal also refers to the transport and circulation of water within the deep crust, generally from areas of hot rocks to areas of cooler rocks. The causes for this convection can be: - Intrusion of magma into the crust - Radioactive heat generated by cooled masses of granite - Heat from the mantle - Hydraulic head from mountain ranges, for example, the Great Artesian Basin - Dewatering of metamorphic rocks which liberates water - Dewatering of deeply buried sediments Hydrothermal ore deposits During the early 1900s various geologists worked to classify hydrothermal ore deposits which were assumed to have formed from upward flowing aqueous solutions. Waldemar Lindgren developed a classification based on interpreted decreasing temperature and pressure conditions of the depositing fluid. His terms: hypothermal, mesothermal, epithermal and teleothermal were based on decreasing temperature and increasing distance from a deep source. Only the epithermal has been used in recent works. John Guilbert's 1985 redo of Lindgren's system for hydrothermal deposits includes the following: - Ascending hydrothermal fluids, magmatic or meteoric water - Porphyry copper and other deposits, 200 - 800 °C, moderate pressure - Igneous metamorphic, 300 - 800 °C, low - moderate pressure - Cordilleran veins, intermediate to shallow depths - Epithermal, shallow to intermediate, 50 - 300 °C, low pressure - Circulating heated meteoric solutions - Circulating heated seawater - Oceanic ridge deposits, 25 - 300 °C, low pressure See also - W. Lindgren, 1933, Mineral Deposits, McGraw Hill, 4th ed. - Guilbert, John M. and Charles F. Park, Jr., 1986, The Geology of Ore Deposits, Freeman, p. 302 ISBN 0-7167-1456-6

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Naval aviation is the application of military air power by navies, including ships that embark fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters. In contrast, maritime aviation is the operation of aircraft in a maritime role under the command of non-naval forces such as the former RAF Coastal Command or a nation's coast guard. An exception to this is the United States Coast Guard, which is considered part of U.S. naval aviation. Naval aviation is typically projected to a position nearer the target by way of an aircraft carrier. Carrier aircraft must be sturdy enough to withstand demanding carrier operations. They must be able to launch in a short distance and be sturdy and flexible enough to come to a sudden stop on a pitching deck; they typically have robust folding mechanisms that allow higher numbers of them to be stored in below-decks hangars. These aircraft are designed for many purposes including air-to-air combat, surface attack, submarine attack, search and rescue, materiel transport, weather observation, reconnaissance and wide area command and control duties. U.S. naval aviation began with pioneer aviator Glenn Curtiss who contracted with the Navy to demonstrate that airplanes could take off from and land aboard ships at sea. One of his pilots, Eugene Ely, took off from the USS Birmingham anchored off the Virginia coast in November 1910. Two months later Ely landed aboard another cruiser USS Pennsylvania in San Francisco Bay, proving the concept of shipboard operations. However, the platforms erected on those vessels were temporary measures. The U.S. Navy and Glenn Curtis experienced two firsts during January 1911. On January 27, Curtiss flew the first seaplane from the water at San Diego bay and the next day U.S. Navy Lt Theodore G. “Spuds” Ellyson, a student at the nearby Curtiss School, took off in a Curtiss “grass cutter” plane to become the first Naval aviator. Meanwhile, Captain Henry C. Mustin successfully designed the concept of the catapult launch, and in 1915 made the first catapult launching from a ship underway. Through most of World War I, the world's navies relied upon floatplanes and flying boats for heavier-than-air craft. In January 1912, the British battleship HMS Africa took part in aircraft experiments at Sheerness. She was fitted for flying off aircraft with a 100-foot (30 m) downward-sloping runway which was installed on her foredeck, running over her forward 12-inch (305-mm) turret from her forebridge to her bows and equipped with rails to guide the aircraft. The Gnome-engined Short Improved S.27 "S.38", pusher seaplane piloted by Lieutenant Charles Samson become the first British aircraft to take-off from a ship while at anchor in the River Medway, on 10 January 1912. Africa then transferred her flight equipment to her sister ship Hibernia. In May 1912, with Commander Samson, again flying "S.38," first instance of an aircraft to take off from a ship which was underway occurred. Hibernia steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h) at the Royal Fleet Review in Weymouth Bay, England. Hibernia then transferred her aviation equipment to battleship London. Based on these experiments, the Royal Navy concluded that aircraft were useful aboard ship for spotting and other purposes, but that interference with the firing of guns caused by the runway built over the foredeck and the danger and impracticality of recovering seaplanes that alighted in the water in anything but calm weather more than offset the desirability of having airplanes aboard. However, shipboard naval aviation had begun in the Royal Navy, and would become a major part of fleet operations by 1917. Other early operators of seaplanes were France, Germany and Russia. The foundations of Greek naval aviation were set in June 1912, when Lieutenant Dimitrios Kamberos of the Hellenic Aviation Service flew with the "Daedalus", a Farman Aviation Works aircraft that had been converted into a seaplane, at an average speed of 110 km per hour, achieving a new world record. Then, on January 24, 1913 the first wartime naval aviation interservice cooperation mission, took place above the Dardanelles. Greek Army First Lieutenant Michael Moutoussis and Greek Navy Ensign Aristeidis Moraitinis, on board the Maurice Farman hydroplane (floatplane/seaplane), drew a diagram of the positions of the Turkish fleet against which they dropped four bombs. This event was widely commented upon in the press, both Greek and international. WWI and the first carrier strikes The first strike from a carrier against a land target as well as a sea target took place in September 1914 when the Imperial Japanese Navy seaplane carrier Wakamiya conducted the world's first ship-launched air raids from Kiaochow Bay during the Battle of Tsingtao in China. The four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German-held land targets (communication centers and command centers) and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September until November 6, 1914, when the Germans surrendered. On the Western front the first naval air raid occurred on December 25, 1914 when twelve seaplanes from HMS Engadine, Riviera and Empress (cross-channel steamers converted into seaplane carriers ) attacked the Zeppelin base at Cuxhaven. Fog, low cloud and anti-aircraft fire prevented the raid from being a complete success, but the raid demonstrated the feasibility of attack by ship-borne aircraft and showed the strategic importance of this new weapon. Development in the Interwar period Genuine aircraft carriers did not emerge beyond Britain until the early 1920s. In the United States, Billy Mitchell's 1921 demonstration of the battleship-sinking ability of land-based heavy bombers made many United States Navy admirals angry. However, some men, such as Captain (soon Rear Admiral) William A. Moffett, saw the publicity stunt as a means to increase funding and support for the Navy's aircraft carrier projects. Moffett was sure that he had to move decisively in order to avoid having his fleet air arm fall into the hands of a proposed combined Land/Sea Air Force which took care of all the United States's airpower needs. (That very fate had befallen the two air services of the United Kingdom in 1918: the Royal Flying Corps had been combined with the Royal Naval Air Service to become the Royal Air Force, a condition which would remain until 1937.) Moffett supervised the development of naval air tactics throughout the '20s. Many British naval vessels carried float planes, seaplanes or amphibians for reconnaissance and spotting: two to four on battleships or battlecruisers and one on cruisers. The aircraft, a Fairey Seafox or later a Supermarine Walrus, were catapult-launched, and landed on the sea alongside for recovery by crane. Several submarine aircraft carriers were built by Japan. The French Navy built one large (but ineffective) aircraft carrying submarine, the Surcouf. World War II World War II saw the emergence of naval aviation as a significant, often decisive, element in the war at sea. The principal users were Japan, United States (both with Pacific interests to protect) and the United Kingdom. Other colonial powers, e.g. France and the Netherlands, showed a lesser interest. Other powers such as Germany and Italy did not develop independent naval aviation, for geographic or political reasons. Soviet Naval Aviation was mostly organized as land-based coast defense force (apart from some scout floatplanes it consisted almost exclusively of land-based types also used by the Air Force and Air defence units). During the course of the war, seaborne aircraft were used in fleet actions at sea (Battle of Midway, Bismarck), pre-emptive strikes against naval units in port (Battle of Taranto, Attack on Pearl Harbor), support of ground forces (Battle of Okinawa, Allied invasion of Italy) and anti-submarine warfare (the Battle of the Atlantic). Carrier-based aircraft were specialized as dive bombers, torpedo bombers, and fighters. Surface-based aircraft such as the PBY Catalina helped finding submarines and surface fleets. In WWII the aircraft carrier replaced the battleship as the most powerful naval offensive weapons system as battles between fleets were increasingly fought out of gun range by aircraft. The Japanese Yamato, the most powerful battleship ever built, was first turned back by light escort carrier aircraft and later sunk lacking its own air cover. The US launched normally land-based bombers from carriers in a raid against Tokyo. Smaller carriers were built in large numbers to escort slow cargo convoys or supplement fast carriers. Aircraft for observation or light raids were also carried by battleships and cruisers, while blimps were used to search for attack submarines. Experience showed that there was a need for widespread use of aircraft which could not be met quickly enough by building new fleet aircraft carriers. This was particularly true in the north Atlantic, where convoys were highly vulnerable to U-boat attack. The British authorities used unorthodox, temporary, but effective means of giving air protection such as CAM ships and merchant aircraft carriers, merchant ships modified to carry a small number of aircraft. The solution to the problem were large numbers of mass-produced merchant hulls converted into escort aircraft carriers (also known as "jeep carriers"). These basic vessels, unsuited to fleet action by their capacity, speed and vulnerability, nevertheless provided air cover where it was needed. The Royal Navy had observed the impact of naval aviation and, obliged to prioritise their use of resources, abandoned battleships as the mainstay of the fleet. HMS Vanguard was therefore the last British battleship and her sisters were cancelled. The United States had already instigated a large construction programme (which was also cut short) but these large ships were mainly used as anti-aircraft batteries or for shore bombardment. Other actions involving naval aviation included: - Battle of the Atlantic, aircraft carried by low-cost escort carriers were used for antisubmarine patrol, defense, and attack. - At the start of the Pacific War in 1941, Japanese carrier-based aircraft sank many US warships at Pearl Harbor and land-based aircraft sank two large British warships. Engagements between Japanese and American naval fleets were then conducted largely or entirely by aircraft - examples include the battles of Coral Sea, Midway, Bismarck Sea and Philippine Sea. - Battle of Leyte Gulf, with the first appearance of kamikazes, perhaps the largest naval battle in history. Japan's last carriers and pilots are deliberately sacrificed, a battleship is sunk by aircraft. - Operation Ten-Go demonstrated U.S. air supremacy in the Pacific theater by this stage in the war and the vulnerability of surface ships without air cover to aerial attack. Strategic projection Carrier-based naval aviation provides a country's seagoing forces with air cover over areas that may not be reachable by land-based aircraft, giving them a considerable advantage over navies composed primarily of surface combatants. In the case of the United States Navy during and after the Cold War, virtual command of the sea in many of the world's waterways allowed it to deploy aircraft carriers and project air power almost anywhere on the globe. By operating from international waters, U.S. carriers can bypass the need for conventional airbases or overflight rights, both of which can be politically difficult to acquire. During the Cold War, the navies of NATO faced a significant threat from Soviet submarine forces, specifically Soviet Navy SSN and SSGN assets. This resulted in the development and deployment of light aircraft carriers with major anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capabilities by European NATO navies. One of the most effective weapons against submarines is the ASW helicopter, several of which could be based on these light aircraft carriers. These light carriers were typically around 20,000 tons displacement and carried a mix of ASW helicopters and BAe Sea Harrier or Harrier II V/STOL aircraft. - Argentine Naval Aviation - Brazilian Naval Aviation - Fleet Air Arm (RAN) - Fleet Air Arm (Royal Navy) - French Naval Aviation - Indian Naval Air Arm - Marineflieger (German navy) - Mexican Naval Aviation - Pakistan Naval Air Arm - People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force - Peruvian Naval Aviation - Russian Naval Aviation - United States Naval Aviator See also - Military aviation - Aircraft carrier - Escort carrier - Carrier-based aircraft - Flying boat - Aerial warfare - Modern US Navy carrier air operations - Hellenic Air Force History - The first Steps - Hellenic Air Force History - Balcan Wars - Wakamiya is "credited with conducting the first successful carrier air raid in history"Source:GlobalSecurity.org, also "the first air raid in history to result in a success" (here) - "Sabre et pinceau", Christian Polak, p92 - IJN Wakamiya Aircraft Carrier - Boyne (2003), pp.227–8 - Clark G. Reynolds, The fast carriers: the forging of an air navy (1968; 1978; 1992) - William F. Trimble, Hero of the Air: Glenn Curtiss and the Birth of Naval Aviation (2010)

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||This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2009)| Bread crumbs or breadcrumbs (regional variants: breading, crispies) are small particles of dry bread, used for breading or crumbing foods, topping casseroles, stuffing poultry, thickening stews, adding inexpensive bulk to meatloaves and similar foods, and making a crisp and crunchy coating for fried foods, especially breaded cutlets like tonkatsu and schnitzel. The Japanese variety of bread crumbs is called panko. Dry breadcrumbs are made from dry breads which have been baked or toasted to remove most remaining moisture, and may even have a sandy or even powdery texture. Bread crumbs are most easily produced by pulverizing slices of bread in a food processor, using a steel blade to make coarse crumbs, or a grating blade to make fine crumbs. A grater or similar tool will also do. The breads used to make soft or fresh bread crumbs are not quite as dry, so the crumbs are larger and produce a softer coating, crust, or stuffing. The crumb of bread crumb is also a term that refers to the texture of the soft, inner part of a bread loaf, as distinguished from the crust, or "skin". Different from croutons They are not to be confused with croutons, though both are made of dried bread. Croutons are approximately cubic pieces typically 0.5 to 8 cubic centimeters in size while breadcrumbs are irregularly shaped and range in size from roughly 1 to 500 cubic millimeters. Both probably originated as a way to use stale bread and unwanted crust. Panko (パン粉) is a variety of flaky bread crumb used in Japanese cuisine as a crunchy coating for fried foods, such as tonkatsu. Panko is made from bread baked by passing an electric current through the dough, yielding bread without crusts. It has a crisper, more airy texture than most types of breading found in Western cuisine and resists absorbing oil or grease when fried, resulting in a lighter coating. White panko is made from bread which has had the crusts removed while tan “panko” is made from the whole loaf of bread. Outside Japan, its use is becoming more popular in both Asian and non-Asian dishes: It is often used on fish and seafood and is often available in Asian markets, specialty stores, and, increasingly, in many large supermarkets. Panko is produced worldwide, particularly in Asian countries, including Japan, Korea, Thailand, China, and Vietnam.In February 2012, the US fast-food chain Wendy's introduced a cod fillet sandwich that they advertised as having a panko breading. The Japanese first learned to make bread from the Portuguese: The word panko is derived from pão (Portuguese for "bread") and -ko, a Japanese suffix indicating "flour", "crumb", or "powder" (as in komeko, "rice powder", sobako, "buckwheat flour", and komugiko, "wheat flour"). Breading (also known as crumbing) is a dry grain-derived food coating for a piece of food such as meat, vegetable, poultry, fish, shellfish, crustacean, seitan, or textured soy, made from bread crumbs or a breading mixture with seasonings. Breading can also refer to the process of applying a bread-like coating to a food. Breading is well suited for frying as it lends itself to creating a crisp coating around the food. Breading mixtures can be made of breadcrumb, flour, cornmeal, and seasoning that the item to be breaded is dredged in before cooking. If the item to be breaded is too dry for the coating to stick, the item may first be moistened with buttermilk, raw egg, or other liquid. Breading contrasts with batter, which is a grain-based liquid coating for food that produces a smoother and finer texture, but which can be softer overall. - "Panko Bread Crumbs: The Secrets Revealed". YouTube. 2010-04-01. Retrieved 2012-11-17. - Marshall, Jo (2010-10-05). "COOKCABULARY: Panko is a crumby ingredient - Fall River, MA". The Herald News. Retrieved 2012-11-17.

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The Pueblo people are a Native American people in the Southwestern United States. Their traditional economy is based on agriculture and trade. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 16th century, they were living in villages that the Spanish called pueblos, meaning "towns". Of the 21 Pueblos that exist today, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main Pueblos are located primarily in New Mexico and Arizona. While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo People that have been published in the literature, Kirchhoff (1954) published a subdivision of the Pueblo People into two subareas: the group that includes Hopi, Zuñi, Keres, Jemez which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multiple kivas, believe in emergence of people from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, and have four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos (other than Jemez) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence of people from underwater, five directions beginning in the west, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three. Eggan (1950) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuñi and Hopi dry-farmers and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers.They mostly grew maize (corn). Linguistic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan; Zuñi is a language isolate; Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Felipe. The Tanoan is an areal grouping of three branches consisting of 6 languages: Towa (Jemez), Tewa (San Juan, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Nambe, Pojoaque, and Hano); and the 3 Tiwa languages Taos, Picuris, and Southern Tiwa (Sandia, Isleta). The Pueblos are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact: - Mogollon, an area near the Gila Wilderness - Hohokam, archaeological term for a settlement in the Southwest - Ancient Pueblo Peoples (or the Anasazi, a term coined by the Navajos). Despite forced conversions to Catholicism (as evidenced by the establishment of a mission at each surviving pueblo) by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the Rio Grande and Colorado River. These peoples were the first to successfully revolt against the Spanish in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which expelled the Spanish for 12 years. The code for the action was a knotted rope sent by a runner to each pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. It began one day early, August 10, 1680; by August 21, Santa Fe fell to 2,500 warriors. On September 22, 2005, the statue of Po'pay, (Popé) the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. The statue was the second one from the state of New Mexico and the 100th and last to be added to the Statuary Hall collection. It was created by Cliff Fragua, a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo, and it is the only statue in the collection created by a Native American. Josiah Gregg describes the Pueblo people in Commerce of the Prairies: or, The journal of a Santa Fé trader, 1831–1839 as follows: When these regions were first discovered it appears that the inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to be found in the markets. They were until very lately the only people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for morality and honesty, and very little given to quarrelling or dissipation... Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. One such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the Christmas and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the kivas. They may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions. Formerly, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal in a Pueblo home, but because of the large number of visitors, such meals are now by personal invitation only. Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize—white cornmeal. Thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. Once, after the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance. The Puebloans employed prayer sticks, which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; these prayer sticks (or talking sticks) were also used by other nations. By the 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth. Cloth and weaving were known to the Puebloans before the conquest, but it is not known whether they knew of weaving before or after the Aztecs. But since clothing was expensive, they did not always dress completely until after the conquest, and breechcloths were not uncommon. Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They were what was called "dry farmers". Because there was not a lot of water in New Mexico, they farmed using as little water as possible, which restricted what they could grow. Because of this, they mainly would farm many types of corn, beans and squash. They would use pottery to hold their food and water. (See also: Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest) The most highly developed Native communities of the Southwest were large villages or pueblos at the top of the mesas, rocky tablelands typical to the region. The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man, nature, plants and animals. Man depended on the blessings of children, who in turn depended on prayers and the goddess of Himura. Children led the religious ceremonies to create a more pure and holy ritual. List of Pueblos New Mexico - Acoma Pueblo — Keres language speakers. One of the oldest continuously inhabited villages in the US. Access to mesa-top pueblo by guided tour only (available from visitors' center), except on Sept 2nd (feast day). Photography by $10 permit per camera only. Photographing of Acoma people allowed only with individual permission. No photography permitted in Mission San Esteban del Rey or of cemetery. Sketching prohibited. Video recording strictly prohibited. Video devices will be publicly destroyed if used. - Cochiti Pueblo — Keres speakers. - Isleta Pueblo — Tiwa language speakers. Established in the 14th century. Both Isleta and Ysleta were of Shoshonean stock. The isleta was originally Shiewhibak - Jemez Pueblo — Towa language speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at Red Rocks. - Kewa Pueblo( Formerly Santo Domingo Pueblo) — Keres speakers. Known for turquoise work and the Corn Dance. - Laguna Pueblo — Keres speakers. Ancestors 3000 BC, established before the 14th century. Church July 4, 1699. Photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at San Jose Mission Church. - Nambe Pueblo — Tewa language speakers. Established in the 14th century. Was an important trading center for the Northern Pueblos. Nambe is the original Tewa name, and means "People of the Round Earth". Feast Day of St. Francis October 4. - Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo — Tewa speakers. Originally named O'ke Oweenge in Tewa. Headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council. Home of the Popé, one of the leaders of the August 1680 Pueblo Revolt. Known as San Juan Pueblo until November 2005. - Picuris Pueblo, Peñasco, New Mexico — Tiwa speakers. - Pojoaque Pueblo, Santa Fe, New Mexico — Tewa speakers. Re-established in the 1930s. - Sandia Pueblo, Bernalillo, New Mexico — Tiwa speakers. Originally named Nafiat. Established in the 14th century. On the northern outskirts of Albuquerque. - San Felipe Pueblo — Keres speakers. 1706. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. - San Ildefonso Pueblo, between Pojoaque and Los Alamos— Tewa speakers. Originally at Mesa Verde and Bandelier. The valuable black-on-black pottery was made famous here by Maria and Julian Martinez. Photography by $10 permit only. Sketching prohibited at pueblo. Heavily-visited destination. - Santa Ana Pueblo — Keres speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. - Santa Clara Pueblo, Española, New Mexico — Tewa speakers. 1550. Originally inhabited Puyé Cliff Dwellings on Santa Clara Canyon.The valuable black-on-black pottery was developed here - Taos Pueblo — Tiwa speakers. World Heritage Site. National Historic Landmark. - Tesuque Pueblo Santa Fe— Tewa speakers. Originally named Te Tesugeh Oweengeh 1200. National Register of Historic Places. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual Camel Rock are open. - Zia Pueblo — Keres speakers. New Mexico's state flag uses the Zia symbol. - Zuni Pueblo — Zuni language speakers. First visited 1540 by Spanish. Mission 1629 - Hopi Tribe Nevada-Kykotsmovi — Hopi language speakers. Area of present villages settled around 700 AD - Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, El Paso, Texas —originally Tigua (Tiwa) speakers. Also spelled 'Isleta del Sur Pueblo'. This Pueblo was established in 1680 as a result of the Pueblo Revolt. Some 400 members of Isleta, Socorro and neighboring Pueblos were forced or accompanied the Spaniards to El Paso as they fled Northern New Mexico. Three missions (Ysleta, Socorro, and San Elizario) were established on the Camino Real to Santa Fe. The San Elizario mission was administrative (that is, non Puebloan). - Some of the Piru Puebloans settled in Senecu, and then in Socorro, Texas, adjacent to Ysleta, Texas (which is now within El Paso city limits). When the Rio Grande would flood the valley or change course, these missions would lie variously on the north or south sides of the river. Although Socorro and San Elizario are still separate communities, Ysleta has been annexed into El Paso. Feast days - San Felipe Pueblo Feast Day: May 1 - Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo Feast Day: June 24 - Sandia Pueblo Feast Day: June 13. - Ysleta / Isleta del Sur Pueblo Feast Day: June 13. - Cochiti Pueblo Feast Day: July 14 - San Felipe Pueblo Feast Day: July 25 - Santa Ana Pueblo Feast Day: July 26 - Picuris Pueblo Feast Day: August 10 - Jemez Pueblo Feast Day: August 2 - Santo Domingo Pueblo Feast Day: August 4 - Santa Clara Pueblo Feast Day : August 12 - Zia Pueblo Feast Day: August 15 - Acoma Pueblo Feast Day of San Esteban del Rey: September 2 - Laguna Pueblo Feast Day: September 19 - Taos Pueblo Feast Day: September 30 - Nambe Pueblo Feast Day of St. Francis: October 4 - Pojoaque Pueblo Feast Day: December 12, January 6 - Isleta Pueblo Feast Days There is a short history of creating pottery among the various Pueblo communities. Mera, in his discussion of the "Rain Bird" motif, a common and popular design element in pueblo pottery states that, "In tracing the ancestry of the "Rain Bird" design it will be necessary to go back to the very beginnings of decorated pottery in the Southwest to a ceramic type which as reckoned by present day archaeologists came into existence some time during the early centuries of the Christian era." Bird effigy, pottery, Cochiti Pueblo. Field Museum Pottery Bowl, Jemez Pueblo, Field Museum, Chicago Ancestral Hopi bowl, ca. 1300 AD See also - Arizona Tewa - Carol Jean Vigil - Tanoan languages - Navajo people - Pueblo Revolt - Tewa people - Keresan languages - Zuni people - On June 2, 1924 these peoples were granted US citizenship. In 1948, they were granted the right to vote in New Mexico. - Paul Kirchhoff, "Gatherers and Farmers in the Greater Southwest: A Problem in Classification", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 56, No. 4, Southwest Issue (Aug., 1954), pp. 529-550 - Fred Russell Eggan, Social Organization of the Western Pueblos, University of Chicago Press, 1950 - Cordell, Linda S. Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5. - Paul Horgan (1954), Great River vol. 1 p. 286. Library of Congress card number 54-9867 - Gregg, J. 1844. Commerce of the Prairies. New York: Henry G. Langley, Chpt.14, The Pueblos, p.55 - Paul Horgan, Great River p. 158 - Turkeys domesticated not once, but twice - "Elk-Foot of the Taos Tribe by Eanger Irving Couse". Smithsonian American Art Museum and the Renwick Gallery. Retrieved 2012-08-10. - "Isleta Pueblo". Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) VIII - Mera, H.P., Pueblo Designs: 176 Illustrations of the "Rain Bird, Dover Publications, Inc, 1970, first published by the Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1937 p. 1 - Fletcher, Richard A. (1984). Saint James' Catapult: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford University Press. (on-line text, ch. 1) - Florence Hawley Ellis An Outline of Laguna Pueblo History and Social Organization Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Winter, 1959), pp. 325–347 - Indian Pueblo Cultural Center in Albuquerque, NM offers information from the Pueblo people about their history, culture, and visitor etiquette. - Paul Horgan, Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History. Vol. 1, Indians and Spain. Vol. 2, Mexico and the United States. 2 Vols. in 1, 1038 pages - Wesleyan University Press 1991, 4th Reprint, ISBN 0-8195-6251-3 - Pueblo People, Ancient Traditions Modern Lives, Marica Keegan, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1998, profusely illustrated hardback, ISBN 1-57416-000-1 - Elsie Clews Parsons, Pueblo Indian Religion (2 vols., Chicago, 1939). - Ryan D, A. L. Kroeber Elsie Clews Parsons American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 45, No. 2, Centenary of the American Ethnological Society (Apr. - Jun., 1943), pp. 244–255 - Parthiv S, ed. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 9, Southwest. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1976. - Julia M. Keleher and Elsie Ruth Chant (2009). THE PADRE OF ISLETA The Story of Father Anton Docher. Sunstone press Publishing. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pueblo people| |Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Pueblo Indians.| - Kukadze'eta Towncrier, Pueblo of Laguna - Pueblo of Isleta - Pueblo of Laguna - Pueblo of Sandia - Pueblo of Santa Ana - The SMU-in-Taos Research Publications digital collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing the past several decades of research at the SMU-in-Taos (Fort Burgwin) campus near Taos, New Mexico, including Papers on Taos archaeology and Taos archeology

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Rotten and pocket boroughs A rotten, decayed, or pocket borough was a parliamentary borough or constituency in the United Kingdom that had a very small electorate and could be used by a patron to gain undue and unrepresentative influence within the Unreformed House of Commons. A rotten borough was an election borough with a very tiny population, often small enough that voters could be personally bribed. These boroughs had often been assigned representation when they were large cities, but the borough boundaries were never updated as the town's population declined. For example, in the 12th century Old Sarum had been a busy cathedral city but was abandoned when Salisbury was founded nearby; despite this, Old Sarum retained its two members. Many such rotten boroughs were controlled by peers who gave the seats to their sons, other relations or friends; they had additional influence in Parliament because they held seats themselves in the House of Lords. Pocket boroughs were boroughs that could effectively be controlled by a single person who owned most of the land in the borough. As there was no secret ballot at the time, the landowner could evict residents who did not vote for the person he wanted. By the 19th century there were moves toward reform and this political movement was eventually successful, culminating in the Reform Act 1832, which disfranchised the 57 rotten boroughs and redistributed representation in Parliament to new major population centres. The Ballot Act of 1872 enacted a secret ballot, making vote bribery impractical as there is no way of knowing for certain how an individual has voted. Historical background A "borough" was a town that possessed a Royal charter giving it the right to elect two members (known as burgesses) to the House of Commons. It was unusual for such a borough to change its boundaries as the town or city it was based on expanded, so that in time the borough and the town were no longer identical in area. The true rotten borough was a borough with a very small electorate. Typically, rotten boroughs had gained representation in parliament when they were flourishing centres with a substantial population, but had become depopulated or even deserted over the centuries. Some had once been important places or had played a major role in England's history, but had fallen into insignificance. For centuries, constituencies electing members to the House of Commons did not change to reflect population shifts, and in some places the number of electors became so few that they could be bribed. A member of Parliament for one borough might represent only a few people, whereas some large population centres were poorly represented. Manchester, for example, was part of the larger constituency of Lancashire and did not elect members separately until 1832. Examples of rotten boroughs include the following: - Old Sarum in Wiltshire had 3 houses and 7 voters - East Looe in Cornwall had 167 houses and 38 voters - Dunwich in Suffolk had 44 houses and 32 voters (most of this formerly prosperous town having fallen into the sea) - Plympton Erle in Devon had 182 houses and 40 voters - Gatton in Surrey had 23 houses and 7 voters - Newtown on the Isle of Wight had 14 houses and 23 voters - Bramber in West Sussex had 35 houses and 20 voters - Callington in Cornwall had 225 houses and 42 voters Each of these boroughs could elect two members of the Commons. By the time of the 1831 general election, out of 406 elected members, 152 were chosen by fewer than 100 voters, and 88 by fewer than 50 voters each. Many such rotten boroughs were controlled by peers who gave the seats to their sons, other relations, or friends, thus having influence in the House of Commons while also holding seats themselves in the House of Lords. Prior to being awarded a peerage, Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, served in the Irish House of Commons as a Member for the rotten borough of Trim in County Meath. A common expression referring to such a situation was that "Mr. So-and-so had been elected on Lord This-and-that's interest". There were also boroughs who were dependent not on a particular patron but rather on the Treasury or Admiralty and thus returned the candidates nominated by the ministers in charge of those departments. Such boroughs existed for centuries. The term rotten borough only came into usage in the 18th century, the qualification "rotten" suggesting both "corrupt" and "in decline for a very long time". In the 19th century, there were moves toward reform, which broadly meant ending the over-representation of boroughs with few electors. This political movement had a major success in the Reform Act 1832, which disfranchised the 57 rotten boroughs listed below and redistributed representation in Parliament to new major population centres and to places with significant industries. The Ballot Act of 1872 introduced the secret ballot, which greatly hindered patrons from controlling elections by preventing them from knowing how an elector had voted. At the same time, the practice of paying or entertaining voters ("treating") was outlawed, and election expenses fell dramatically. Pocket boroughs A closely related term for an undemocratic constituency is pocket borough – a constituency with a small enough electorate to be under the effective control (or in the pocket) of one major landowner. In some boroughs, while not "rotten", parliamentary representation was in the control of one or more "patrons" who, by owning burgage tenements, had the power to decide elections, as their tenants had to vote publicly and dared not defy their landlords. Such patronage flourished before the mid-19th century, chiefly because there was no secret ballot. Some rich individuals controlled several boroughs–the Duke of Newcastle is said to have had seven boroughs "in his pocket". The representative of a pocket borough was often the same person who owned the land, and for this reason they were also referred to as proprietarial boroughs. Pocket boroughs were seen by their 19th century owners as a valuable method of ensuring the representation of the landed interest in the House of Commons. Pocket boroughs were finally abolished by the Reform Act of 1867. This considerably extended the borough franchise and established the principle that each parliamentary constituency should hold roughly the same number of electors. A Boundary Commission was set up by subsequent Acts of Parliament to maintain this principle as population movements continued. Contemporary defences Rotten boroughs were defended by the successive Tory governments of 1807-1830 – a substantial number of Tory constituencies lay in rotten and pocket boroughs. During this period they came under criticism from prominent figures such as Tom Paine and William Cobbett. It was argued during the time period that rotten boroughs provided stability and were a means for promising young politicians to enter parliament, with William Pitt the Elder being cited as a key example. Members of Parliament (MPs), who were generally in favour of the boroughs, claimed they should be kept as Britain had undergone periods of prosperity under the system. Because British colonists in the West Indies and on the Indian subcontinent were not represented at Westminster officially, these groups often claimed that rotten boroughs provided opportunities for virtual representation in parliament for colonial interest groups. Modern usage The magazine Private Eye has a column entitled 'Rotten Boroughs', which lists stories of municipal wrongdoing; borough is used here in its usual sense of a local district rather than a parliamentary constituency. In his book The Age of Consent, George Monbiot compared small island states with one vote in the U.N. General Assembly to "rotten boroughs". In the satirical novel Melincourt, or Sir Oran Haut-Ton (1817) by Thomas Love Peacock, an orang-utan named Sir Oran Haut-ton is elected to parliament by the "ancient and honourable borough of Onevote". The election of Sir Oran forms part of the hero's plan to persuade civilisation to share his belief that orang-utans are a race of human beings who merely lack the power of speech. "The borough of Onevote stood in the middle of a heath, and consisted of a solitary farm, of which the land was so poor and intractable, that it would not have been worth the while of any human being to cultivate it, had not the Duke of Rottenburgh found it very well worth his while to pay his tenant for living there, to keep the honourable borough in existence." The single voter of the borough is Mr Christopher Corporate, who elects two MPs, each of whom "can only be considered as the representative of half of him". In Chapter 7 of the novel Vanity Fair, author William Makepeace Thackeray introduces the fictitious borough of "Queen's Crawley," so named in honor of a stopover in the small Hampshire town of Crawley by Queen Elizabeth I, who being delighted by the quality of the local beer instantly raised the small town of Crawley into a borough, giving it two members in Parliament. At the time of the story, in the early 19th century, the place had lost population, so that it was "come down to that condition of borough which used to be denominated rotten." In Diana Wynne Jones' 2003 book "The Merlin Conspiracy" Old Sarum features as a character, with one line being "I'm a rotten borough, I am." In the Aubrey–Maturin series of seafaring tales, the pocket borough of Milport (also known as Milford) is initially held by General Aubrey, the father of protagonist Jack Aubrey. In the twelfth novel in the series, The Letter of Marque, Jack's father dies and the seat is offered to Jack himself by his cousin Edward Norton, the "owner" of the borough. The borough has just seventeen electors, all of whom are tenants of Mr Norton. In the first novel of George MacDonald Fraser's Flashman series, the eponymous antihero, Harry Flashman, mentions that his father, Sir Buckley Flashman, had been in Parliament, but "they did for him at Reform," implying that the elder Flashman's seat was in a rotten or pocket borough. In the episode Dish and Dishonesty of the BBC television comedy Blackadder the Third, Edmund Blackadder attempts to bolster the support of the Prince Regent in Parliament by getting the incompetent Baldrick elected to the rotten borough of Dunny-on-the-Wold. This was easily accomplished with a result of 16,472 to nil, even though the constituency had only one voter (Blackadder himself). In the video game, Assassin's Creed III pocket and rotten boroughs are briefly mentioned in a database entry entitled "Pocket Boroughs", and Old Sarum is mentioned as one of the worst examples of a pocket borough. In the game, shortly before the Boston Massacre an NPC can be heard speaking to a group of peolpe on the colonies lack of representation in Parliament and lists several rotten boroughs including Old Sarum. - "[Borough representation is] the rotten part of the constitution." — William Pitt the Elder - "The county of Yorkshire, which contains near a million souls, sends two county members; and so does the county of Rutland which contains not a hundredth part of that number. The town of Old Sarum, which contains not three houses, sends two members; and the town of Manchester, which contains upwards of sixty thousand souls, is not admitted to send any. Is there any principle in these things?" Tom Paine, from Rights of Man, 1791 - From H.M.S. Pinafore by Gilbert and Sullivan: - Sir Joseph Porter: I grew so rich that I was sent - By a pocket borough into Parliament. - I always voted at my party's call, - And I never thought of thinking for myself at all. - Chorus: And he never thought of thinking for himself at all. - Sir Joseph: I thought so little, they rewarded me - By making me the Ruler of the Queen's Navee! - Fairy Queen: Let me see. I've a borough or two at my disposal. Would you like to go into Parliament? - From The Letter of Marque by Patrick O'Brian - 'Could you not spend an afternoon at Milport, to meet the electors? There are not many of them, and those few are all my tenants, so it is no more than a formality; but there is a certain decency to be kept up. The writ will be issued very soon.' - The Borough of Queen's Crawley in Thackeray's Vanity Fair is a rotten borough eliminated by the Reform Act of 1832: - When Colonel Dobbin quitted the service, which he did immediately after his marriage, he rented a pretty country place in Hampshire, not far from Queen's Crawley, where, after the passing of the Reform Bill, Sir Pitt and his family constantly resided now. All idea of a peerage was out of the question, the baronet's two seats in Parliament being lost. He was both out of pocket and out of spirits by that catastrophe, failed in his health, and prophesied the speedy ruin of the Empire. See also - Apportionment (politics) - Reynolds v. Sims, a US Supreme Court case that ended a similar practice in the United States - The people's book; comprising their chartered rights and practical wrongs [by W. Carpenter] at Google Books - See Lewis Namier, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III - Pearce, Robert and Stearn, Roger (2000). Access to History, Government and Reform: Britain 1815-1918 (Second Edition), page 14. Hodder & Stoughton. - Pearce, Robert and Stearn, Roger (2000). Access to History, Government and Reform: Britain 1815-1918 (Second Edition). Hodder & Stoughton. - Pearce, Robert and Stearn, Roger (2000). Access to History, Government and Reform: Britain 1815-1918 (Second Edition), page 22. Hodder & Stoughton. - Taylor, M (2003). "Empire and Parliamentary Reform: The 1832 Reform Act Revisited." In Rethinking the Age of Reform: Britain 1780-1850, edited by A. Burns and J. Innes, 295-312. Cambridge University Press. - Evans, Eric J. (1990). Liberal Democracies, page 104. Joint Matriculation Board. - "Black Adder - Episode Guide: Dish and Dishonesty". BBC. Retrieved 2010-05-02. Further reading - Spielvogel, Western Civilization — Volume II: Since 1500 (2003) p. 493 - Lewis Namier, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III, 1929.

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||This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2009)| A semi-acoustic guitar or hollow-body electric is a type of electric guitar that originates from the 1930s. It has both a sound box and one or more electric pickups. This is not the same as an acoustic-electric guitar, which is an acoustic guitar with the addition of pickups or other means of amplification, either added by the manufacturer or the player. In the 1930s guitar players and manufacturers were attempting to increase the overall volume of the guitar, which had a hard time competing with other instruments, specifically in large orchestras and jazz bands, due to its lack of volume. This created a series of experiments that focused on creating a guitar that could be amplified through electric currents and out through a speaker. In 1936, Gibson attempted to make their first production line of electric guitars. These guitars, known as ES-150’s (Electric Spanish Series) were the first manufactured semi-acoustic guitars. They were based on a standard production archtop and had f holes on the face of the guitar which functioned as a soundbox. This model was used to resemble the traditional jazz box guitars that were popular at the time. The soundbox on the guitar allowed a limited amount of sound waves to emit from the hollow body of the guitar, which was customary of all full acoustic models before this guitar. The purpose of these guitars, however, was to be able to be amplified from electric sound waves. This was made possible by the Charlie Christian pickup, a magnetic single-coil pickup, which allowed the sound of the guitar to be amplified through electric currents. The clear sound produced by the pickups made the ES series immediately popular with jazz musicians. The first semi-acoustic guitars are often thought of as an evolutionary step in the progression from acoustic guitars to full electric models. However, the ES-150 was made several years after the first solid body electric guitar, which was made by Rickenbacker. The ES series was merely an experiment by the Gibson company in order to test out the potential success of electric guitars. This experiment proved to be a successful financial venture and is often referred to as the first successful electric guitar. The ES-150 was followed by the ES-250 a year later, in what became a long line of semi acoustics for the Gibson company. In 1949 Gibson released two new models (The ES-175 and ES-5). These guitars had built-in electric pickups that came standard in their design and can largely be considered as the first fully electric semi-acoustic guitars. Prior models were not built with pickups; rather, they came as attachments. As the production and popularity of solid body electric guitars increased, there was still a market of guitar players who wanted to have the traditional look associated with the semi-acoustic guitars of the 1930s but also wanted the versatility and comfort of new solid body guitars. Several models, including the ES-350T by Gibson, were made in the 1950s to accommodate this growing demand by including a more comfortable version of the archtop model. These variations were followed by an entirely new type of guitar that featured a block of solid wood between the front and back sections of the guitars cutaway. This guitar was still acoustic but had a smaller open section inside of the guitar which makes less sound waves emit from the f hole sound boxes on the guitar. The variant was first manufactured in 1958 by Gibson and is commonly referred to as a semi-hollow body guitar because of the smaller body of the guitar. Rickenbacker also choose to pursue making semi-acoustic guitars in 1958. When the company changed ownership in 1954, they hired German guitar crafter, Roger Rossmiesl. He developed the 330 series for Rickenbacker, which was a wide semi-acoustic that did not use a traditional f hole. Rather its used a sleeker dash hole on one side of the guitar, the other side had a large pickguard. This model boasted a modern design with a unique Fireglo finish. It quickly became one of Rickenbacker's most popular series and became a strong competitor to Gibson's models. In addition to the main model variants of the guitar, Gibson made several small changes to the guitar including a laminated top for the ES-175 model and mounted top pickups for general use on all their models, as opposed to Charlie Christian models from the 1930s. While Gibson provided many of the innovations in semi-acoustic guitars from the 1930s to the 1950s, there were also various makes by other companies including a hollow achtop by Gretsch. the 6120 model by Gretsch became very popular as a rockabilly model despite having almost no technical differences from Gibson models. Rickenbacker was also a prominent maker of the semi-hollow body guitar. Gibson, Gretsch, Rickenbacker, and other companies still make semi-acoustic and semi-hollow body guitars, making slight variations on their yearly designs. The semi-acoustic and semi-hollow body guitars were generally praised for their clean and warm tones. This led to widespread use throughout the jazz communities in the 1930s. As new models came out with sleeker designs, the guitars began to make their way into popular circles. The guitar became used in pop, folk, and blues. The guitars made an extensive amount of feedback when played through an amplifier at a loud level, this made the guitars unpopular for bands playing in large stages who had to play loud enough to fill their venues. As rock became more experimental, towards the late 60s and 70s the guitar became more popular because of its feedback issues which led to "wilder" sounds. Today, semi-acoustic and semi-hollow body guitars are still popular in jazz, indie rock, and various other genres.[examples needed] Famous guitarists who have used semi acoustic guitars include John Lennon of The Beatles and B.B. King. Semi-acoustic guitars have also been valued as good practice guitars because, when played "unplugged," they are quieter than full acoustic guitars, but more audible than solid-body electric guitars because of their open cavity. This makes the guitar particularly useful when volume is an issue. Some semi-acoustic models have a fully hollow body (for instance the Gibson ES-175 and Epiphone Casino), others may have a solid center block running the length and depth of the body, called semi hollow body (for instance the Gibson ES-335). Other guitars are borderline between semi-acoustic and solid body. For example, some Telecaster guitars have chambers built in to an otherwise solid body to enrich the sound. This type of instrument can be referred to as a semi-hollow or a chambered body guitar. Exactly where the line is to be drawn between a constructed sound box and a solid wooden body, whose construction also affects the sound according to many players, is not generally agreed. Any of the following can be called semi-acoustic: - Instruments starting from a solid body "blank" which has been routed out to make a chambered body guitar. - Instruments with semi-hollow bodies constructed from plates of wood around a solid core, having no soundholes, such as the Gibson Lucille or Brian May Red Special. - Instruments with a solid core but hollow bouts and soundholes (usually f-holes), such as the Gibson ES-335. In these, the bridge is fixed to a solid block of wood rather than to a sounding board, and the belly vibration is minimised much as in a solid body instrument. - Thin-bodied archtop guitars, such as the Epiphone Casino. These possess both a sounding board and sound box, but the function of these is purely to modify the sound transmitted to the pickups. Such guitars are still intended purely as electric instruments, and while they do make some sound when the pickups are not used, the tone is weak and not normally considered musically useful. - Full hollowbody semi-acoustic instruments, often called Jazz guitars, such as the Gibson ES-175; these have a full-size sound box, but are still intended to be played through an amplifier. The Rickenbacker 330 JG Some companies that have produced famous semi-acoustic guitars include: Gibson, Gretsch and Rickenbacker. A variety of manufacturers now produce semi-acoustic model guitars: D'Angelico, Epiphone, Ibanez, etc. - Fully hollow body - Thinline hollow body (thin body) - Semi hollow body (with center block) - Other semi hollow (solid-body with cavities) - various types - Archtop guitars. Guitars with a fully hollow or semi-hollow body, with or without pickups. - Electro-acoustic guitars. Fully acoustic guitars with piezo pickups. - Hybrid guitars. Guitars with both magnetic and piezo pickups. Can be solid, semi-hollow or hollow bodied. - Silent guitars. Solid body guitars with a piezo pickups. - Ingram, Adrian, A Concise History of the Electric Guitar, Melbay, 2001. - Hunter, Dave, The Rough Guide to Guitar, Penguin Books, 2011. - Miller, A.J., The Electric Guitar: A History of an American Icon, Baltimore, MD, Smithsonian Institute, 2004. - Martin A. Darryl, Innovation and the Development of the Modern Six-String, The Galpin Society Journal (Vol. 51), 1998. - Rogers, Dave, 1958 Rickenbacker 330, http://www.premierguitar.com/Magazine/Issue/2009/Aug/1958_Rickenbacker_330.aspx, accessed 11 December 2011. - Carter, William, The Gibson Guitar Book: Seventy Years of Classic Guitar, New York, NY, Backbeatbooks, 2007.

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|Quantum field theory| ||It has been suggested that this article be merged with Zero-point energy. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2012.| In quantum field theory, the vacuum state (also called the vacuum) is the quantum state with the lowest possible energy. Generally, it contains no physical particles. Zero-point field is sometimes used[by whom?] as a synonym for the vacuum state of an individual quantized field. According to present-day understanding of what is called the vacuum state or the quantum vacuum, it is "by no means a simple empty space", and again: "it is a mistake to think of any physical vacuum as some absolutely empty void." According to quantum mechanics, the vacuum state is not truly empty but instead contains fleeting electromagnetic waves and particles that pop into and out of existence. The QED vacuum of quantum electrodynamics (or QED) was the first vacuum of quantum field theory to be developed. QED originated in the 1930s, and in the late 1940s and early 1950s it was reformulated by Feynman, Tomonaga and Schwinger, who jointly received the Nobel prize for this work in 1965. Today the electromagnetic interactions and the weak interactions are unified in the theory of the electroweak interaction. The Standard Model is a generalization of the QED work to include all the known elementary particles and their interactions (except gravity). Quantum chromodynamics is the portion of the Standard Model that deals with strong interactions, and QCD vacuum is the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics. It is the object of study in the Large Hadron Collider and the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, and is related to the so-called vacuum structure of strong interactions. Non-zero expectation value If the quantum field theory can be accurately described through perturbation theory, then the properties of the vacuum are analogous to the properties of the ground state of a quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator (or more accurately, the ground state of a QM problem). In this case the vacuum expectation value (VEV) of any field operator vanishes. For quantum field theories in which perturbation theory breaks down at low energies (for example, Quantum chromodynamics or the BCS theory of superconductivity) field operators may have non-vanishing vacuum expectation values called condensates. In the Standard Model, the non-zero vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field, arising from spontaneous symmetry breaking, is the mechanism by which the other fields in the theory acquire mass. In many situations, the vacuum state can be defined to have zero energy, although the actual situation is considerably more subtle. The vacuum state is associated with a zero-point energy, and this zero-point energy has measurable effects. In the laboratory, it may be detected as the Casimir effect. In physical cosmology, the energy of the cosmological vacuum appears as the cosmological constant. In fact, the energy of a cubic centimeter of empty space has been calculated figuratively to be one trillionth of an erg. An outstanding requirement imposed on a potential Theory of Everything is that the energy of the quantum vacuum state must explain the physically observed cosmological constant. For a relativistic field theory, the vacuum is Poincaré invariant, which follows from Wightman axioms. Poincaré invariance implies that only scalar combinations of field operators have non-vanishing VEV's. The VEV may break some of the internal symmetries of the Lagrangian of the field theory. In this case the vacuum has less symmetry than the theory allows, and one says that spontaneous symmetry breaking has occurred. See Higgs mechanism, standard model. Electrical permittivity In principle, quantum corrections to Maxwell's equations can cause the experimental electrical permittivity ε of the vacuum state to deviate from the defined scalar value ε0 of the electric constant. These theoretical developments are described, for example, in Dittrich and Gies. In particular, the theory of quantum electrodynamics predicts that the QED vacuum should exhibit nonlinear effects that will make it behave like a birefringent material with ε slightly greater than ε0 for extremely strong electric fields. Explanations for dichroism from particle physics, outside quantum electrodynamics, also have been proposed. Active attempts to measure such effects have been unsuccessful so far. The vacuum state is written as or . The VEV of a field φ, which should be written as , is usually condensed to . Virtual particles The presence of virtual particles can be rigorously based upon the non-commutation of the quantized electromagnetic fields. Non-commutation means that although the average values of the fields vanish in a quantum vacuum, their variances do not. The term "vacuum fluctuations" refers to the variance of the field strength in the minimal energy state, and is described picturesquely as evidence of "virtual particles". It is sometimes attempted to provide an intuitive picture of virtual particles based upon the Heisenberg energy-time uncertainty principle: (with ΔE and Δt being the energy and time variations respectively; ΔE is the accuracy in the measurement of energy and Δt is the time taken in the measurement, and ħ is the Planck constant divided by 2π) arguing along the lines that the short lifetime of virtual particles allows the "borrowing" of large energies from the vacuum and thus permits particle generation for short times. Although the phenomenon of virtual particles is accepted, this interpretation of the energy-time uncertainty relation is not universal. One issue is the use of an uncertainty relation limiting measurement accuracy as though a time uncertainty Δt determines a "budget" for borrowing energy ΔE. Another issue is the meaning of "time" in this relation, because energy and time (unlike position q and momentum p, for example) do not satisfy a canonical commutation relation (such as [q, p] = i ħ). Various schemes have been advanced to construct an observable that has some kind of time interpretation, and yet does satisfy a canonical commutation relation with energy. The very many approaches to the energy-time uncertainty principle are a long and continuing subject. Physical nature of the quantum vacuum According to Astrid Lambrecht (2002): "When one empties out a space of all matter and lowers the temperature to absolute zero, one produces in a Gedankenexperiment the quantum vacuum state." Photon-photon interaction can occur only through interaction with the vacuum state of some other field, for example through the Dirac electron-positron vacuum field; this is associated with the concept of vacuum polarization. According to Milonni (1994): "... all quantum fields have zero-point energies and vacuum fluctuations." This means that there is a component of the quantum vacuum respectively for each component field (considered in the conceptual absence of the other fields), such as the electromagnetic field, the Dirac electron-positron field, and so on. According to Milonni (1994), some of the effects attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field can have several physical interpretations, some more conventional than others. The Casimir attraction between uncharged conductive plates is often proposed as an example of an effect of the vacuum electromagnetic field. Schwinger, DeRaad, and Milton (1978) are cited by Milonni (1994) as validly, though unconventionally, explaining the Casimir effect with a model in which "the vacuum is regarded as truly a state with all physical properties equal to zero." In this model, the observed phenomena are explained as the effects of the electron motions on the electromagnetic field, called the source field effect. Milonni writes: "The basic idea here will be that the Casimir force may be derived from the source fields alone even in completely conventional QED, ..." Milonni provides detailed argument that the measurable physical effects usually attributed to the vacuum electromagnetic field cannot be explained by that field alone, but require in addition a contribution from the self-energy of the electrons, or their radiation reaction. He writes: "The radiation reaction and the vacuum fields are two aspects of the same thing when it comes to physical interpretations of various QED processes including the Lamb shift, van der Waals forces, and Casimir effects." This point of view is also stated by Jaffe (2005): "The Casimir force can be calculated without reference to vacuum fluctuations, and like all other observable effects in QED, it vanishes as the fine structure constant, α, goes to zero." See also References and notes - Astrid Lambrecht (Hartmut Figger, Dieter Meschede, Claus Zimmermann Eds.) (2002). Observing mechanical dissipation in the quantum vacuum: an experimental challenge; in Laser physics at the limits. Berlin/New York: Springer. p. 197. ISBN 3-540-42418-0. - Christopher Ray (1991). Time, space and philosophy. London/New York: Routledge. Chapter 10, p. 205. ISBN 0-415-03221-0. - AIP Physics News Update,1996 - Physical Review Focus Dec. 1998 - Walter Dittrich & Gies H (2000). Probing the quantum vacuum: perturbative effective action approach. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-67428-4. - For an historical discussion, see for example Ari Ben-Menaḥem, ed. (2009). "Quantum electrodynamics (QED)". Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Volume 1 (5th ed.). Springer. pp. 4892 ff. ISBN 3-540-68831-5. For the Nobel prize details and the Nobel lectures by these authors see "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1965". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2012-02-06. - Jean Letessier, Johann Rafelski (2002). Hadrons and Quark-Gluon Plasma. Cambridge University Press. p. 37 ff. ISBN 0-521-38536-9. - Sean Carroll, Sr Research Associate - Physics, California Institute of Technology, June 22, 2006 C-SPAN broadcast of Cosmology at Yearly Kos Science Panel, Part 1 - David Delphenich (2006). "Nonlinear Electrodynamics and QED". arXiv:hep-th/0610088 [hep-th]. - Klein, James J. and B. P. Nigam, Birefringence of the vacuum, Physical Review vol. 135, p. B1279-B1280 (1964). - Mourou, G. A., T. Tajima, and S. V. Bulanov, Optics in the relativistic regime; § XI Nonlinear QED, Reviews of Modern Physics vol. 78 (no. 2), 309-371 (2006) pdf file. - Holger Gies; Joerg Jaeckel; Andreas Ringwald (2006). "Polarized Light Propagating in a Magnetic Field as a Probe of Millicharged Fermions". Physical Review Letters 97 (14). arXiv:hep-ph/0607118. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..97n0402G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.140402. - Davis; Joseph Harris; Gammon; Smolyaninov; Kyuman Cho (2007). "Experimental Challenges Involved in Searches for Axion-Like Particles and Nonlinear Quantum Electrodynamic Effects by Sensitive Optical Techniques". arXiv:0704.0748 [hep-th]. - Myron Wyn Evans, Stanisław Kielich (1994). Modern nonlinear optics, Volume 85, Part 3. John Wiley & Sons. p. 462. ISBN 0-471-57548-8. "For all field states that have classical analog the field quadrature variances are also greater than or equal to this commutator." - David Nikolaevich Klyshko (1988). Photons and nonlinear optics. Taylor & Francis. p. 126. ISBN 2-88124-669-9. - Milton K. Munitz (1990). Cosmic Understanding: Philosophy and Science of the Universe. Princeton University Press. p. 132. ISBN 0-691-02059-0. "The spontaneous, temporary emergence of particles from vacuum is called a "vacuum fluctuation"." - For an example, see P. C. W. Davies (1982). The accidental universe. Cambridge University Press. p. 106. ISBN 0-521-28692-1. - A vaguer description is provided by Jonathan Allday (2002). Quarks, leptons and the big bang (2nd ed ed.). CRC Press. pp. 224 ff. ISBN 0-7503-0806-0. "The interaction will last for a certain duration Δt. This implies that the amplitude for the total energy involved in the interaction is spread over a range of energies ΔE." - This "borrowing" idea has led to proposals for using the zero-point energy of vacuum as an infinite reservoir and a variety of "camps" about this interpretation. See, for example, Moray B. King (2001). Quest for zero point energy: engineering principles for 'free energy' inventions. Adventures Unlimited Press. pp. 124 ff. ISBN 0-932813-94-1. - Quantities satisfying a canonical commutation rule are said to be noncompatible observables, by which is meant that they can both be measured simultaneously only with limited precision. See Kiyosi Itô (1993). "§ 351 (XX.23) C: Canonical commutation relations". Encyclopedic dictionary of mathematics (2nd ed ed.). MIT Press. p. 1303. ISBN 0-262-59020-4. - Paul Busch, Marian Grabowski, Pekka J. Lahti (1995). "§III.4: Energy and time". Operational quantum physics. Springer. pp. 77 ff. ISBN 3-540-59358-6. - For a review, see Paul Busch (2008). "Chapter 3: The Time–Energy Uncertainty Relation". In J.G. Muga, R. Sala Mayato and Í.L. Egusquiza, editors. Time in Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed ed.). Springer. pp. 73 ff. ISBN 3-540-73472-4. - Fowler, R., Guggenheim, E.A. (1965). Statistical Thermodynamics. A Version of Statistical Mechanics for Students of Physics and Chemistry, reprinted with corrections, Cambridge University Press, London, page 224. - Partington, J.R. (1949). An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry, volume 1, Fundamental Principles. The Properties of Gases, Longmans, Green and Co., London, page 220. - Wilks, J. (1971). The Third Law of Thermodynamics, Chapter 6 in Thermodynamics, volume 1, ed. W. Jost, of H. Eyring, D. Henderson, W. Jost, Physical Chemistry. An Advanced Treatise, Academic Press, New York, page 477. - Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics, New York, ISBN 0–88318–797–3, page 342. - Jauch, J.M., Rohrlich, F. (1955/1980). The Theory of Photons and Electrons. The Relativistic Quantum Field Theory of Charged Particles with Spin One-half, second expanded edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, ISBN 0–387–07295–0, pages 287–288. - Milonni, P.W. (1994). The Quantum Vacuum. An Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics, Academic Press, Inc., Boston, ISBN 0–12–498080–5, page xv. - Milonni, P.W. (1994). The Quantum Vacuum. An Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics, Academic Press, Inc., Boston, ISBN 0–12–498080–5, page 239. - Schwinger, J., DeRaad, L.L., Milton, K.A. (1978). Casimir effect in dielectrics, Annals of Physics, 115: 1–23. - Milonni, P.W. (1994). The Quantum Vacuum. An Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics, Academic Press, Inc., Boston, ISBN 0–12–498080–5, page 418. - Jaffe, R.L. (2005). Casimir effect and the quantum vacuum, Phys. Rev. D 72: 021301(R), http://1–5.cua.mit.edu/8.422_s07/jaffe2005_casimir.pdf Further reading - Free pdf copy of The Structured Vacuum - thinking about nothing by Johann Rafelski and Berndt Muller (1985) ISBN 3-87144-889-3. - M.E. Peskin and D.V. Schroeder, An introduction to Quantum Field Theory. - H. Genz, Nothingness: The Science of Empty Space - Maybe this should discuss Star Trek and/or Star Gate: Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight - E. W. Davis, V. L. Teofilo, B. Haisch, H. E. Puthoff, L. J. Nickisch, A. Rueda and D. C. Cole(2006)"Review of Experimental Concepts for Studying the Quantum Vacuum Field"

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Etymology 1 - To predict the future using crystal balls. - The fortune teller claimed she could scry [into] the future. - (obsolete) To descry; to see. - (Can we find and add a quotation of Spenser to this entry?) Derived terms Etymology 2 Middle English ascrie scry (plural scries) Part or all of this entry has been imported from the 1913 edition of Webster’s Dictionary, which is now free of copyright and hence in the public domain. The imported definitions may be significantly out of date, and any more recent senses may be completely missing.

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Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council Department of Environment and Heritage, 2001 ISBN 0 642 254775 0 3. Desired Native Vegetation Outcomes This section of the National Framework for the Management and Monitoring of Australia's Native Vegetation describes the native vegetation outcomes expected from the implementation of the management and monitoring mechanisms described in Section 4. Such outcomes will serve biodiversity conservation, land protection, greenhouse gas reduction and other objectives specified in the complementary national policy and strategy documents (see Appendix A). The outcomes will be consistent with and enhance the social and economic outcomes being sought within the framework of Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD). Australia's native vegetation cover is diverse, rich in species and complexity, and has a very high degree of endemism. It is a priceless element of our natural heritage. It plays a crucial role in sustaining ecosystem function and processes, and consequently the productive capacity of Australia's relatively old and infertile soils and scarce freshwater resources. Native vegetation buffers the impact of harsh and extremely variable climates, binds and nourishes soils, and filters streams and wetlands. Native birds, invertebrates and other animals depend upon the condition and extent of native vegetation communities. The vision sketched here assumes that native vegetation has, and is seen to have, intrinsic values in addition to ecological values and utilitarian values. It envisages Australian landscapes in which native vegetation is conserved for its ecological values, celebrated for its intrinsic values and enhanced for sustainable production. This vision also recognises the inextricable link between the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable agriculture. Conservation of vegetation is neither an alternative land use nor an opportunity cost - it is an investment in natural capital, which underwrites material wealth. Conservation of biodiversity means much more than just protecting wildlife and its habitat in nature reserves. Conservation of native species and ecosystems, and the processes they support — the flows and quality of rivers, wetlands and groundwater, and soil structure and landscapes — are all crucial to the sustainability of primary industries. This vision does not assume a return to some pre-European Arcadia and/or the replacement of all the native vegetation that has been cleared or modified since European settlement. However, it implies that restoring some hydrological balance, enhancing habitat for wildlife, protecting freshwater resources and rehabilitating degraded lands requires land use systems which are responsive to Australian conditions. The shift towards more sustainable land use systems is likely to include greater use of native Australian species than occurs in conventional agriculture today. Farming systems may in the future have portions of the landscape occupied by native perennials, some forming the basis of grazing systems, and others generating a range of products including carbon sequestration, timber, fuelwood, craftwood and pulp, cut flowers, essential oils, herbs, solvents and pharmaceuticals. Community revegetation and regeneration activities could be underpinned and complemented by a thriving native vegetation industry and associated infrastructure for native vegetation management. The sort of infrastructure required would include: - regional facilities and services to support ecological inventory, mapping and monitoring activities; - local and regional seedbanks and nurseries stocking the full range of locally indigenous flora, by provenance; - equipment such as seed harvesters, e.g. for native grasses, direct seeding machines, mechanical planters, sprayers, pruners and weeders - all adapted to local/regional needs and conditions; and - the knowledge base, training capacities and human capital required to apply and refine best practice techniques at the appropriate scale. The 'wider public benefit' would be understood in reference to robust, regionally specific articulations of the 'duty of care' of land users not to degrade natural resources. 'Duty of care' would be widely accepted and understood as setting out the responsibilities which are inseparable from the privilege of managing land, regardless of its tenure. 'Duty of care' would be defined in regulation where appropriate, but would be more commonly used in industry codes of practice, industry-based environmental management systems, and voluntary incentives programs. Land uses generating insufficient returns to enable land users to fulfil their duty of care would by definition be unsustainable, and hence unsuitable, uses of land. Markets would be informed and constrained by the understanding that the human economy is a subset of society, which in turn is a subset of, and utterly dependent upon, the biophysical environment. Market forces would work to use natural resources more efficiently, discriminating against products, production systems and processes which deplete or degrade natural resources unsustainably. Linkages between well-informed consumers and all stages of production cycles would be fostered and direct feedback encouraged. Environmental externalities (positive and negative) would be internalised in market prices wherever possible. National accounts would account for natural capital stocks, as well as flows, offering a more true reflection of the relative sustainability of apparent economic performance. The role and limitations of market forces in questions of long-term sustainability would be well understood, and the conditions under which intervention in markets is justified would be well accepted. Comprehensive incentive regimes would complement markets in encouraging and delivering more sustainable approaches. Management actions seen to be in the public interest, for example through positive externalities, and which are clearly over and above what would be expected under duty of care, would be supported by a wide range of direct and indirect incentives and disincentives. Such incentives would be derived and delivered at a range of scales. For example, nationally through the taxation system and major targeted grants for national priorities; sub-nationally through revolving funds, industry codes of practice, accreditation systems and regulatory approaches; and regionally through regional grants, stewardship payments, planning, zoning and rating systems. The incentives regime would complement public-sector funding, and would be designed to attract private-sector funding into nature conservation at property and landscape scales through: - tax measures encouraging philanthropy; - rewards at industry level for best practice and corporate citizenship; and - tax and other incentives for the individual or firm to go above and beyond their duty of care in managing for long-term conservation in the public interest. The general principles informing the design and delivery of incentives would include the principle that natural resource management and resource allocation decisions should be made at the lowest practicable level; that systems should connect people as directly as possible with the consequences of their actions; and that local ownership of problems and solutions is most likely to be genuine when revenue raising and resource allocation operates at the same level. The first step towards delivery of Australia's native vegetation objectives is to improve our knowledge base, in both theoretical and practical terms, about how to conserve, manage, enhance or re-establish native vegetation for various combinations of objectives at various scales. Basic toolkits for native vegetation management are needed - whether to assist a community group to plan wildlife habitat, or to assist a landholder to work out a burning regime in a remnant patch of bush. This vision assumes that such toolkits will be developed and readily utilised. Underpinning this Framework is a basic set of principles that should encourage actions to achieve sustainable native vegetation management. These include: - recognition that all vegetation management should be based on the overall goal of Ecologically Sustainable Development which recognises environmental, economic and social values; - recognition of the important role of native vegetation in the functioning of ecosystems in maintaining productivity capacity of agricultural lands; - recognition that the biological diversity of vegetation should be maintained through appropriate land management practices. These include a suite of measures from environmental protection through to sustainable use and production using best practice management techniques; - recognition that vegetation management requires the continuing partnership of government, land managers, industry and the wider community; - recognition that where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation. In the application of the precautionary principle, public and private decisions should be guided by: - careful evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable, serious or irreversible damage to the environment; and - an assessment of the risk-weighted consequences of various options; - recognition that protecting existing remnant vegetation is the most efficient way of conserving biodiversity. Native vegetation is usually managed within the broader natural resource management context that takes account of economic and social objectives additional to environmental objectives. However, sustainable native vegetation management does not only serve environmental objectives. Outcomes from sustainable native vegetation management also contribute substantially to important economic and social objectives. The native vegetation outcomes being sought in this Framework are: - a reversal in the long-term decline in the extent and quality of Australia's native vegetation cover by: - conserving native vegetation, and substantially reducing land clearing; - conserving Australia's biodiversity; and - restoring, by means of substantially increased revegetation, the environmental values and productive capacity of Australia's degraded land and water; - conservation and, where appropriate, restoration of native vegetation to maintain and enhance biodiversity, protect water quality and conserve soil resources, including on private land managed for agriculture, forestry and urban development; - retention and enhancement of biodiversity and native vegetation at both regional and national levels; and - an improvement in the condition of existing native vegetation. Specific vegetation outcomes being sought, within the context of integrated natural resource management, are described below. Biodiversity outcomes sought: - protection of biological diversity and maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems; - maintenance of viable examples of native vegetation communities, species and dependent fauna throughout their natural ranges; - maintenance of the genetic diversity of native vegetation species; - enabling Australia's native vegetation species and communities threatened with extinction to survive and thrive in their natural habitats, and to retain their genetic diversity and potential for evolutionary development, and prevent additional species and communities from becoming threatened; - return of threatened native vegetation species and communities to a secure status in the wild; - reduction in the numbers of listed threatened native vegetation species and downgrading of the conservation threat category of listed threatened species; - limitation of broad-scale clearance of native vegetation to those instances in which the proponent can clearly demonstrate that regional biodiversity objectives are not compromised; - no clearing of endangered or vulnerable vegetation communities, critical habitat for threatened species, or other threatened species or communities listed under State or Commonwealth legislation, or identified through the NRMMC or other government processes; - no activities that adversely affect the conservation status of vegetation communities or the species dependent on them. Soil and water resource outcomes sought: - maintenance and enhancement of the ecological integrity and physical stability of ground and surface water systems, including associated riparian zones and wetlands; - revegetation of the upslope recharge areas in order to reduce the volume of groundwater movement to lowland areas; - revegetation, where appropriate, of the highest priority degraded riparian areas; - protection and rehabilitation of lowland wetlands and saltmarshes; - protection of vegetation in erosion prone areas; - protection of native vegetation on areas of potential acid sulphate soils. Hydrology outcomes sought: - protection of vegetation in areas at risk from dryland salinity; - revegetation of recharge areas to slow or reverse rising groundwater tables and ameliorate dryland salinity; - maintenance of native vegetation in water catchments to protect water quality and water yield. Land productivity outcomes sought: - protection and management of native vegetation in the landscape such that biomass production is sustained, providing the capacity for continued productivity; - reduction and minimisation of the detrimental economic, environmental and social impact of weeds on the sustainability of Australia's productive capacity and natural ecosystems; - prevention of the development of new weed and pest problems. Sustainable land use outcomes sought: - protection, management and establishment of native vegetation to provide for the social and economic value derived from the ecologically sustainable use and harvesting of native vegetation products such as wood, oils, flowers, seed and honey. Natural and cultural heritage outcomes sought: - protection and management of native vegetation to retain the natural and cultural significance of a place or landscape. Indigenous peoples outcomes sought: - maintenance of biological diversity on lands and waters over which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have title or in which they have an interest, to ensure the wellbeing, identity, cultural heritage and economy of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Climate change outcomes sought: - conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs for all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including biomass and forests.

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Restoration Potential: Strong fidelity to nest and roost sites inhibits colonization of formerly occupied habitat (Meyer and Collopy 1996). Limited attempts to reintroduce this species to presently unoccupied former range have failed (Meyer 1990). Given the species' biology (e.g., strongly social, delayed breeding, mobile), reintroduction could be difficult, at best (Meyer 1995). Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Suitable nesting habitat requires appropriate nest and roost sites within a landscape that provides sufficient prey for successful reproduction. Habitat mosaics with various plant communities such as forests, prairies, and wetlands of various sizes, are essential. Minimum area requirements are difficult to define; where breeding habitat quality is good and prey is abundant and concentrated, 30 square kilometers may be sufficient, but where habitat quality is less suitable and prey is more diffuse, 100-300 square kilometers may be necessary (Meyer and Collopy 1995). Management Requirements: Tall trees that emerge from the surrounding canopy are essential for nesting. Such trees should be managed for in landscapes dominated by short-rotation, even-aged pine plantations. Nests built in Australian pine (Casuarina equisetifolia), an exotic species, fail at a significantly higher rate than those in native pine (Pinus spp.) or cypress (Taxodium spp.). Where kites nest in large numbers, it may be prudent to reduce the availability of Australian pine as nest sites (Meyer 1990). Management Programs: Collaborative efforts with Brazilian conservationists are ongoing to protect native habitats at the critical wintering and breeding sites, which are all privately owned agricultural lands (K. Meyer, pers. comm.). Monitoring Programs: This species is monitored on North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) routes (Sauer et al. 1997) and irregularly by state wildlife agencies (Millsap and Runde 1988). In Florida, systematic state-wide roost observations would form a good basis for long-term monitoring (K. Meyer, pers. comm.). Management Research Needs: An accurate means of assessing population changes needs to be developed. Also, nesting and foraging habitat requirements need to be defined, winter habitat requirements need to be determined, prey densities essential for reproductive success need to be examined, and a study of marked individuals is needed to determine age at first breeding, sex ratio, survival, and social behavior (Meyer 1990, Meyer and Collopy 1995). Biological Research Needs: Better information is needed on demography, migration routes winter biology, and habitat needs. The validity of subspecies designation needs to be examined since this may influence listing status (Meyer 1995). No one has provided updates yet.

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Hinsley, S.A., Hill, R.A., Bellamy, P. E., Broughton, R.K., Harrison, N.M., MacKenzie, J.A., Speakman, J.R. and Ferns, P.N., 2009. Do Highly Modified Landscapes Favour Generalists at the Expense of Specialists? The Example of Woodland Birds. Landscape Research, 34 (5), pp. 509-526. This is the latest version of this eprint. Full text not available from this repository. Demands on land use in heavily populated landscapes create mosaic structures where semi-natural habitat patches are generally small and dominated by edges. Small patches are also more exposed and thus more vulnerable to adverse weather and potential effects of climate change. These conditions may be less problematic for generalist species than for specialists. Using insectivorous woodland birds (great tits and blue tits) as an example, we demonstrate that even generalists suffer reduced breeding success (in particular, rearing fewer and poorer-quality young) and increased parental costs (daily energy expenditure) when living in such highly modified secondary habitats (small woods, parks, farmland). Within-habitat heterogeneity (using the example of Monks Wood NNR) is generally associated with greater species diversity, but to benefit from heterogeneity at a landscape scale may require both high mobility and the ability to thrive in small habitat patches. Modern landscapes, dominated by small, modified and scattered habitat patches, may fail to provide specialists, especially sedentary ones, with access to sufficient quantity and quality of resources, while simultaneously increasing the potential for competition from generalists. |Subjects:||Geography and Environmental Studies| Science > Biology and Botany |Group:||School of Applied Sciences > Centre for Conservation, Ecology and Environmental Change| |Deposited By:||Dr Ross Hill| |Deposited On:||01 Nov 2009 12:25| |Last Modified:||07 Mar 2013 15:17| Available Versions of this Item - Do Highly Modified Landscapes Favour Generalists at the Expense of Specialists? The Example of Woodland Birds. (deposited 21 Nov 2008 20:00) - Do Highly Modified Landscapes Favour Generalists at the Expense of Specialists? The Example of Woodland Birds. (deposited 01 Nov 2009 12:25) [Currently Displayed] |Repository Staff Only -| |BU Staff Only -| |Help Guide -||Editing Your Items in BURO|

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The Union War By Gary W. Gallagher Harvard University Press. $27.95 New York Times Book Review, May 1, 2011 Among the enduring mysteries of the American Civil War is why millions of Northerners were willing to fight to preserve the nation's unity. It is not difficult to understand why the Southern states seceded in 1860 and 1861. As the Confederacy's founders explained ad infinitum, they feared that Abraham Lincoln's election as president placed the future of slavery in jeopardy. But why did so few Northerners echo the refrain of Horace Greeley, the editor of The New York Tribune: "Erring sisters, go in peace"? The latest effort to explain this deep commitment to the nation's survival comes from Gary W. Gallagher, the author of several highly regarded works on Civil War military history. In "The Union War," Gallagher offers not so much a history of wartime patriotism as a series of meditations on the meaning of the Union to Northerners, the role of slavery in the conflict and how historians have interpreted (and in his view misinterpreted) these matters. The Civil War, Gallagher announces at the outset, was "a war for Union that also killed slavery." Emancipation was an outcome (an "astounding" outcome, Lincoln remarked in his second Inaugural Address) but, Gallagher insists, it always "took a back seat" to the paramount goal of saving the Union. Most Northerners, he says, remained indifferent to the plight of the slaves. They embraced emancipation only when they concluded it had become necessary to win the war. They fought because they regarded the United States as a unique experiment in democracy that guaranteed political liberty and economic opportunity in a world overrun by tyranny. Saving the Union, in the words of Secretary of State William H. Seward, meant "the saving of popular government for the world." At a time when only half the population bothers to vote and many Americans hold their elected representatives in contempt, Gallagher offers a salutary reminder of the power of democratic ideals not simply to Northerners in the era of the Civil War, but also to people in other nations, who celebrated the Union victory as a harbinger of greater rights for themselves. Imaginatively invoking sources neglected by other scholars — wartime songs, patriotic images on mailing envelopes and in illustrated publications, and regimental histories written during and immediately after the conflict — Gallagher gives a dramatic portrait of the power of wartime nationalism. His emphasis on the preservation of democratic government and the opportunities of free labor as central to the patriotic outlook is hardly new — one need only read Lincoln's wartime speeches to find eloquent expression of these themes. But instead of celebrating the greatness of American democracy, Gallagher claims, too many historians dwell on its limitations, notably the exclusion from participation of nonwhites and women. Moreover, perhaps because of recent abuses of American power in the name of freedom, scholars seem uncomfortable with robust expressions of patriotic sentiment, especially when wedded to military might. According to Gallagher, they denigrate nationalism and suggest that the war had no real justification other than the abolition of slavery. (Gallagher ignores a different interpretation of the Union war effort, emanating from neo-Confederates and the libertarian right, which portrays Lincoln as a tyrant who presided over the destruction of American freedom through creation of the leviathan national state, not to mention the dreaded income tax.) Gallagher devotes many pages — too many in a book of modest length — to critiques of recent Civil War scholars, whom he accuses of exaggerating the importance of slavery in the conflict and the contribution of black soldiers to Union victory. Often, his complaint seems to be that another historian did not write the book he would have written. Thus, Gallagher criticizes Melinda Lawson, the author of "Patriot Fires," one of the most influential recent studies of wartime nationalism, for slighting the experiences of the soldiers. But Lawson was examining nation-building on the Northern home front. Her investigation of subjects as diverse as the marketing of war bonds, the dissemination of pro-Union propaganda and the organization of Sanitary Fairs, where goods were sold to raise money for soldiers' aid, illuminates how the nation state for the first time reached into the homes and daily lives of ordinary Americans. Gallagher also criticizes recent studies of soldiers' letters and diaries, which find that an antislavery purpose emerged early in the war. These works, he argues, remain highly "impressionistic," allowing the historian "to marshal support for virtually any argument." Whereupon Gallagher embarks on his own equally impressionistic survey of these letters, finding that they emphasize devotion to the Union. Ultimately, Gallagher's sharp dichotomy between the goals of Union and emancipation seems excessively schematic. It begs the question of what kind of Union the war was being fought to preserve. The evolution of Lincoln's own outlook illustrates the problem. On the one hand, as Gallagher notes, Lincoln always insisted that he devised his policies regarding slavery in order to win the war and preserve national unity. Yet years before the Civil War, Lincoln had argued that slavery fatally undermined the nation's ability to exemplify the superiority of free institutions. The Union to be saved, he said, must be "worthy of the saving." During the secession crisis, Lincoln could have preserved the Union by yielding to Southern demands. He adamantly refused to compromise on the crucial political issue — whether slavery should be allowed to expand into Western territories. Gallagher maintains that only failure on the battlefield, notably Gen. George B. McClellan's inability to capture Richmond, the Confederate capital, in the spring of 1862, forced the administration to act against slavery. Yet the previous fall, before significant military encounters had taken place, Lincoln had already announced a plan for gradual emancipation. This hardly suggests that military necessity alone placed the slavery question on the national agenda. Early in the conflict, many Northerners, Lincoln included, realized that there was little point in fighting to restore a status quo that had produced war in the first place. Many scholars have argued that the war brought into being a new conception of American nationhood. Gallagher argues, by contrast, that it solidified pre--existing patriotic values. Continuity, not change, marked Northern attitudes. Gallagher acknowledges that as the war progressed, "a struggle for a different kind of Union emerged." Yet his theme of continuity seems inadequate to encompass the vast changes Americans experienced during the Civil War. Surely, he is correct that racism survived the war. Yet he fails to account for the surge of egalitarian sentiment that inspired the rewriting of the laws and Constitution to create, for the first time, a national citizenship enjoying equal rights not limited by race. Before the war, slavery powerfully affected the concept of self-government. Large numbers of Americans identified democratic citizenship as a privilege of whites alone — a position embraced by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision of 1857. Which is why the transformation wrought by the Civil War was so remarkable. As George William Curtis, the editor of Harper's Weekly, observed in 1865, the war transformed a government "for white men" into one "for mankind." That was something worth fighting for.

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Pediatric pheochromocytoma. A 36-year review Department of Anesthesiology Medical Subject Headings Adolescent; *Adrenal Gland Neoplasms; Anesthesia, General; Angiography; Blood Pressure; Catecholamines; Child; Female; Follow-Up Studies; Humans; Male; Neoplasm Recurrence, Local; *Pheochromocytoma; Retrospective Studies; Tomography, X-Ray Computed; Treatment Outcome; Urography Anesthesiology | Neoplasms | Pediatrics Fourteen children (10 boys and 4 girls, aged 8 to 17 years) had 20 pheochromocytomas treated over a 36-year period from 1959 to 1995 inclusive. Nine patients had 11 tumors before 1980; 5 children had 9 tumors up to 1987. There were no new children with pheochromocytomas at our hospital from 1988 to 1995. Hypertension, sweating, headache, and visual blurring were the most common symptoms and signs (average 5 months). The most reliable biochemical investigations were the urinary catecholamines and norepinephrine. Before 1980, intravenous pyelography and angiography were most successful in localizing the tumor, but since then ultrasonography and computerized tomography have been the radiological investigations of choice. Early involvement of the anesthesiologist in the preoperative control of the hypertension is essential; blood pressure (BP) control was achieved with phenoxybenzamine. The main anesthetic drugs used were: sodium thiopental, fentanyl, methoxyflurane, isoflurane, nitrous oxide, and metocurine. Sixteen tumors were adrenal and 4 were extra-adrenal (1 intrathoracic and 1 extradural). All except 2 tumors were completely resected; they ranged in size from 1.3 to 14 cm. Ligation of the tumor's venous drainage was usually associated with a sudden, temporary fall in systemic BP. There were 2 children with malignant tumors. Four patients had five recurrences (second pheochromocytoma) within 6 years, and all were heralded by a return of their original symptoms and signs. One girl was left with no adrenal tissue. The only complication was in a boy with a large, partly-resected malignant right adrenal tumor who had a subphrenic abscess drained and was left with a temporary bile fistula, cirrhosis, and chronic pain. All children were normotensive when discharged from hospital and remain alive and well with a follow-up of 7 to 36 years. There were no deaths. Long-term follow-up is essential. Rights and Permissions Citation: Pediatr Surg Int. 1997;12(8):595-8. DOI: 10.1007/s003830050218

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Monday, April 2, 2012 - 15:31 in Earth & Climate Corals may be better placed to cope with the gradual acidification of the world's oceans than previously thought – giving rise to hopes that coral reefs might escape climatic devastation. - Corals 'could survive a more acidic ocean'Mon, 2 Apr 2012, 10:11:13 EDT - Studies shed light on collapse of coral reefsThu, 28 May 2009, 14:26:24 EDT - Acid oceans demand greater reef careMon, 14 Feb 2011, 10:03:09 EST - Rising Co2 'will hit coral reefs harder'Tue, 28 Oct 2008, 10:44:19 EDT - New ocean acidification study shows added danger to already struggling coral reefsMon, 8 Nov 2010, 15:52:09 EST

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A great Czech composer, Bedrich Smetana had a significant influence on the creation of artistic and musical nationalism in his native country. Smetana was one of the founders of the Czech national opera. In his operas and symphonic poems Smetana used the national legends, history and ideas. Smetana’s style was very original and often very dramatic. Smetana became deaf, but continued to compose until the end of his life. More Smetana sheet music download on EveryNote.com

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Written for Political Science 101 last term at the University of Waterloo. Node your homework they said... Democracy is more than an election every few years, a familiar process removed from the daily grind until it comes time to tick a small box on a larger piece of paper. It is instead more about people than protocol, more magical and less mechanical. We should see it in terms of an ideal to which our institutions and practices strive towards, rather than the view that these infrastructures come about as a result of this intangible juggernaut of democracy. Democracy is not a construct of man, it is instead a set of ideals and values we seek. The typical citizen of a liberal democratic society does not have much to say about democracy except when confronted by “man on the street” interviews or whenever your particular national holiday rolls around. This apathy is not a result of genuine malice, but more a testament to the fact that our particular implementation of the idea of democracy works so well it is almost transparent. No mobs run loose through his streets at night, no men dressed in black come to “talk” to him in the early hours of the morning. His roads, sewer, electricity and television hum day and night without losing a beat. In a more direct sense, his government functions properly and does not become a burden to him. The pleasant life he leads is a direct result of a democratic society functioning properly, and it is his very right as a citizen of this society to ignore it on a daily basis. This individualistic view of democracy cannot hold in all situations. It works for general day to day circumstances, however even the most right-wing of individualist thinkers holds a belief that under certain circumstances, citizens have a duty to perform certain tasks for the state. These duties may be mundane, such as paying taxes or voting, or extreme, such as defending one’s nation. All have a common thread, that which citizens as a member of a state have certain natural duties. Democracy cannot exist without its members participating in it, this is a fundamental requirement. These natural duties may vary from time to time but the constant is that they always exist in some capacity or another. Democracy is based upon many citizens performing small duties, instead of a small group of citizens controlling many responsibilities. The concept of working together is one that democracy builds itself upon. Democracy is the rule of the people, not a person. It fulfills the innate human need to guide one’s destiny, through even such a small part as filling out a ballot. The fact that democracy is based on such emotionally appealing ideas should give you some conception as to the reasons for its success. Hobbes may have argued that we need someone to control us, but in the end, what we all really want is to control ourselves. The fact that democracy is able to take a selfish desire, such as the want to control the state, and turn it into a government which acts for the good of all is further evidence as to the robustness of the democratic ideal. Democracy is an enduring dream, contrary to the doomed wunderkinds of communism and other governments based on theory not practice. While superior in their vision of a utopia on paper, they come against one fundamental flaw, namely people tend to run toward the jerk side of the personality scale. Communism without greed would indeed be utopia but the real world runs up against tangible problems with this. You cannot remove greed from a man by political posturing no more than you can paint stripes on a horse and call it a zebra. It may pass on first inspection, but when it comes down to the most basic of things, you tend to run into a few problems. The reason democracy works in the physical realm is it engages in political judo, in that it takes men’s selfishness and desires, parries them into another direction unpredicted by the man, all with the full momentum of his swing still behind him. It has survived from the ancient Greeks to this present day for this very reason. The initial view of democracy as we know it was conceived by the Greeks, however the practical application of democracy we have today is drastically different from their view. Initially it was the concept that every citizen (citizens being of course aristocratic males) would have a say in the management of the state. Today however we have a different conception of this democratic ideal. Pure practicality dictates that we cannot have the entire community attempt to come to a conclusion on issues addressed by the state. This was practical in the Greek age where a manageable number would discuss the issues of the day, but this is not feasible in this day and age where our world population is measured in billions. The fundamental thing to remember however is that the ideal of democracy survives between this gulf of years and culture. This romanticism of democracy is the root of its power. The society we live in values the ideals held by the democratic system, and as such we accept it as a ruling influence in our lives. An example of this is the Prime Minister being a “public servant”. Only in the strictest most idealistic sense is he a genuine servant of the people; however we call him such without a hint of irony as we value the democratic ideal so highly. All politicians are crooks we tell each other, yet we keep on voting. Why, when we so enthusiastically hate the dictators and Marcos of the world who embezzle funds? The answer lies in that we see democracy as striving toward an ideal. No man is perfect, but they’re working on it. This contradiction between reality and the psyche is at the heart of any power, and in Western countries it is what tells us that democracy is the cure for all that ills a state. Contradiction is fundamental to democracy. Democracy brings us together we are told, it is the great equalizer. All men are born equal, none shall be held in higher esteem than another. One citizen shall have one vote. All say that the members of a democratic state are inherently equal. On the other hand we have Canada, a liberal democratic society, in which multiculturalism is not only encouraged but has an official policy to address it. Differences are encouraged, and any attempt to insinuate that we should all become equal is dismissed as right-wing xenophobia. Where then is the balance? Democracy gives us equality, but it also gives us the right to be different. It is the fine line between the two, a tightrope act of titanic proportions. The balance must not swing too far one way or the other, lest the acrobat be unset and come crashing down. The democratic ideal allows us to weigh multiculturalism and its variants against solidarity and never find a clear winner. It allows us to value them equally, as this is the ultimate measure of equality. Equality can lead to problems however, if democracy becomes the rule of the “most equal”. A tyranny of the majority is completely democratic in the most literal sense of the word in that the majority chooses for it to be so, however it is unpalatable to many in our society. This is due to the fact that we see democracy in more than just the literal sense, we see it as a shining ideal. This ideal would not allow trampling of minority rights, and as discussed before, the ideal of democracy is the fine balance between differences and solidarity. As such we cannot allow this tyranny, permitted as it is in a literal interpretation of a democratic society. The democratic ideal implies compassion and empathy, more than just cold cruel statistics of fifty percent plus one. The democratic ideal hinges on this idea of not allowing technicalities and numbers to become the ruling force instead of a vision of participation by all. Common occurrences such as majority governments being elected by a minority as seen as undemocratic, even though in the strictest sense they follow literal democracy. If your system is built upon the philosophy that a leader is elected indirectly through grouping voters into regions, this is particularly apparent. The recent Florida fiasco in the American elections is a particularly apt example of this. Counting non-participating voters and the popular vote, a leader was elected who received far less support from his citizens than a majority. While seen as undemocratic and a travesty, at the same time it is completely by the book. Unfortunately, there is no book of democracy. We instead view democracy as an ideal not a construct. It is not a point by point leaflet we can airdrop over dictatorships, but instead an attitude that results from culture and history. It is a result of directing people’s desires toward solidarity, and at the same time respecting differences. While at time contradictory and awkward, it endures. It endures due to the fact that democracy is a dream not a document, and dreams are not easily lost.

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Successful Study Skills 4 Students is now offering two free and original eBooks, Successfully Transitioning to Middle School and Successfully Transitioning to High School, available as a download on the S4 website. “It’s impossible to measure the potential impact a positive transition can have on a student’s future academic performance.”, said Michelle Sagalyn, President of S4 Study Skills. “A successful transition can have a ripple effect throughout a student’s entire academic career.” The challenges these transitions bring are not limited just to learning an advanced curriculum, or acclimating to a new environment. At the core is the need for students to assume a greater responsibility and role for their own educational experience. The skills that enabled excellent academic performance in the primary or middle school years are not enough to power students through the transition to the next level. New middle schoolers are confronted with some dramatic changes that can be intimidating without preparation. Instead of relying one teacher, students now need to develop the ability to cultivate and integrate the resources of several teachers. Good reading skills aren’t enough anymore – the focus shifts to applying logic and reason to understand and use the course material. S4’s Successfully Transitioning to Middle School explores four critical skill areas that can help students navigate these important changes successfully: self-advocacy, active learning, organization and planning, and confidence. Discover how by signing up for the e-book here. The realization that academic performance really starts to count in high school comes as a wake-up call to many students entering their first year. There’s more homework, the requirements are stiffer, and the options for extracurricular activities multiply. In a word, it’s not so easy anymore! S4’s Successfully Transitioning to High School reveals the 5 key skills that can help students manage the transition effectively – and help them thrive throughout their high school academic career. These skills include: goal setting, time management, planners, active learning and take responsibility. Register and receive your copy here. Successful Study Skills 4 Students, LLC, a leading area resource for improving performance in secondary education, believes that the deployment of these critical skills, in conjunction with focus and discipline, provides middle and high schoolers with the road-map to better academic results – and creates happier, more confident students! For more information on S4 programs for middle and high school students, contact S4 at 203-30-S-K-I-L-L (203-307-5455), or info@S4StudySkills.com.

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Speaking to the National Academy of Sciences on Education and 21st Century American Agriculture, U.S. Agriculture Secretary Mike Johanns addressed the future of farming in the U.S. One of the agriculture community's greatest challenges, he says, is to inspire young people to pursue agricultural careers. First, Johanns says, we must increase awareness of agricultural opportunities, research, and technological advances. "Fewer and fewer young people have a sense of where food comes from, and most kids have no idea how sophisticated this industry has become and how much lies before us in the future," Johanns says. In the 2002 Census of Agriculture, the average age of U.S. principal farm operators was 55.3. With the average farm operator just below retirement age and the nature of agriculture shifting towards the sciences, Johanns points out the need for a new generation of science-oriented agricultural workers. "Many of the young people who will replace these retirees are already here in our educational system, and many are not studying science and they are certainly not studying the agricultural sciences," Johanns says. We also need to promote agricultural literacy programs in urban areas, Johanns says. "Teachers, parents, and students need to understand that 21st century agriculture is a global enterprise based in science, which needs constant growth in discovery and in application."

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The Open Tree of Life: toward a global synthesis of phylogenetic knowledge 2013 REU Project: In the field of systematic biology, scientists study species of all kinds to determine how one is related to another by evolutionary descent. In other words, they are trying to reconstruct the great Tree of Life -- the branching genealogy of all species, traced all the way back to a single common ancestor. (The scientific term for 'Tree of Life' is 'phylogeny'.) Individual scientists typically have expertise in only one or a few branches on the tree -- for instance, one might study dung beetles, while another studies venus flytraps. Every year, experts like these publish thousands of scientific papers describing new phylogenetic trees for different group of organisms: clams, birds, mushrooms, and so on. However, these newly discovered trees are generally recorded simply as figures embedded in the pages of scientific journals. The Open Tree of Life project seeks to extract all these trees from the literature and graft them together by entering them into a common database. This will enable computational analyses that will produce, for the first time, an estimate of the Tree of Life that includes all species ever studied. Research methods and techniques: interns on this project will learn how to download data sets of DNA sequences, perform phylogenetic analyses, and interpret the results. They will also have the opportunity to learn basic computer programming and Linux shell computing, or advance their current knowledge of these topics. Their contributions will be recorded in a public database for posterity. It is perfect fit for anyone interested in both biology and computers. Curator/Advisor: Dr. Richard Ree (Curator, Botany)

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Synopsis of Philippine Mammals To explore the Synopsis of Philippine Mammals, click here. To explore the Supplement to the Synopsis of Philippine Mammals, click here. The mammalian fauna of the Philippine Islands is remarkably diverse and species-rich, comprising what may be the greatest concentration of endemic mammals of any country on earth. Since 1988, the Field Museum of Natural History has been the primary base of operations for the Philippine Mammal Project, a multi-institutional, international collaborative effort to document the number of species that are present, the distributions of those species, their relationships within the tree of life, their ecology, and their conservation status. This website, the Synopsis of Philippine Mammals, is a summary of the information that is currently available. The website was first implemented in 2002, using information from the 1998 publication by Heaney et al., entitled “A Synopsis of the Mammalian Fauna of the Philippine Islands”. The Synopsis website was extensively revised and expanded in 2010, in order to incorporate extensive new data, include more photographs, and provide detailed maps of the known distribution of each species. To keep the website up to date, as additional species are discovered and formally described, or species of marine mammals are documented in Philippine waters for the first time, we add them to the Supplement, and will eventually merge these into the main site once site maintenance has been completed. As documented on this website, the terrestrial fauna is now known to include at least 214 native species (plus seven introduced species), in an area of only a bit over 300,000 square kilometers, one of the highest densities of native mammals in the world. Moreover, most of the species are found nowhere else: of the 214 native terrestrial species, 125 (58%) are endemic, and among the 111 non-flying native mammals, 101 (91%) are unique to the Philippines. They constitute an astounding example of adaptive radiation by mammals in an oceanic archipelago, and may justifiably serve as a source of great pride to the Philippine nation. This website has been developed as a collaborative project with the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau of the Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Primary funding for its development has come from the Negaunee Foundation. Explore our Philippine mammal project further: Videos from the Abbott Hall of Conservation-Restoring Earth: Mammal Discoveries in the Philippines Why Mossy Forests in the Philippines are important Island Evolution: Why islands have so many endemic species Science at FMNH: Mammal Conservation in Island Ecosystems The Field Revealed: Cloud Rat (Above photo by LR Heaney. Musseromys gulantang from Quezon Province, Luzon Island, Philippines.)

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Battles - The Siege of Kut-al-Amara, 1916 Following the signal (and, to the British at least, unexpected) failure of the Anglo-Indian attack upon Ctesiphon in November 1915 Sir Charles Townshend led his infantry force, the 6th (Poona) Division, on a wearisome retreat back to Kut-al-Amara, arriving in early December. Aware too that his force was exhausted and unable to retreat further Townshend resolved to stay and hold Kut, a town of key importance to the British presence in the region. In this he was supported by regional Commander-in-Chief Sir John Nixon. The War Office in London however favoured a retreat still further south; however by the time this news reached Townshend he was already under siege. Consequently the defence of Kut - sited in a loop of the River Tigris - was set in train ahead of the arrival of the besieging Turk force of 10,500 men on 7 December. However Kut's very geographical formation in effect meant that Townshend and his men were effectively bottled up. Nevertheless the division's cavalry were despatched back to Basra the day before the arrival of the Turkish force (6 December 1915), since they were likely to prove of little use and yet a drain upon scarce resources during siege operations. Leading the Turks were Nur-Ud-Din and the German commander Baron von der Goltz. Their instructions were straightforward if steep: to force the British entirely from Mesopotamia. Consequently Nur-Ud-Din and von der Goltz attempted to pierce Kut's defences on three separate occasions in December; all however failed. Thus the Turks set about blockading the town while despatching forces to prevent British relief operations from succeeding in reaching Kut. In Britain, as in India, the news of Townshend's setback had stunned the government which resolved to immediately send additional forces to the region, diverted from the Western Front. Consideration was given to regard both Palestine and Mesopotamia as a single front. Townshend was led to expect rapid relief. He himself calculated that there were enough supplies to maintain the garrison for a month (subsequently revised to two months and then to almost five), although this assumed full daily rations. Informed that a relief operation might take two months to assemble Townshend proposed instead breaking out and retiring further south: Nixon however insisted that he remain at Kut and therefore tie up as many Turkish forces as possible. In due course the first British expedition to raise the blockade was set underway from Basra in January 1916, led by Sir Fenton Aylmer. Their efforts were repeatedly repulsed however with heavy loss, at Sheikh Sa'ad, the Wadi and Hanna in January 1916 and again two months later in March at Dujaila. April brought a further relief operation, this time led by the sceptical Sir George Gorringe. Despite meeting von der Goltz and his Turkish Sixth Army, piercing their line some 30km south of Kut, the expedition ran out of steam and was abandoned on 22 April. With no further hope of relief - a final attempt by the paddle steamer Julnar to reach the town with supplies having failed - Townshend requested and received an armistice pending surrender talks on 26 April. The Turks agreed to send 10 days of food into the garrison while the six-day armistice was in effect. While the talks were in progress the British took the opportunity of destroying anything of value in the town, aware of its imminent surrender. An additional 23,000 British casualties have been suffered during the relief efforts; the Turks lost approximately 10,000 men. Although Khalil Pasha, Baghdad's military governor, proved sympathetic to Townshend's offer of £1 million plus a guarantee that none of his men would be used again in fighting against the Ottoman Empire - effectively buying parole, he was instructed by Minister of War Enver Pasha to require Townshend's unconditional surrender. This was duly delivered on 29 April 1916, the British having run out of food supplies and wracked with disease of epidemic proportions (and with entirely inadequate medical provisioning to meet it). It was the greatest humiliation to have befallen the British army in its history. For the Turks - and for Germany - it proved a significant morale booster, and undoubtedly weakened British influence in the Middle East. Approximately 8,000 Anglo-Indian troops were taken prisoner (many weak through sickness), as was Townshend himself. However whereas he was treated as something of an honoured guest (and ultimately was released to assist with the Ottoman armistice negotiations in October 1918), his men were treated with cruelty and routine brutality, with a significant percentage dying while in captivity. Baron von der Goltz meanwhile did not live to witness the conclusion of siege operations; he died ten days earlier of Typhus, although rumours persisted (unproven) that he was actually poisoned by a group of Young Turk officers. Click here to view a map charting operations in Mesopotamia through to 1917. Battles and Engagements of the Relief Operation |Battle of Sheikh||Opened 6 January 1916| |Battle of the Wadi||Opened 13 January 1916| |Battle of Hanna||Opened 21 January 1916| |Battle of Dujaila||Opened 8 March 1916| |First Battle of Kut||Opened 5 April 1916| Photographs courtesy of Photos of the Great War website Observation balloons were referred to as 'sausages'. - Did you know?

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Original image credit: United States Coast Guard What: Blacktip, bonnethead, and bull sharks Where: Four miles south of the Texas coast How: Last month, a US Coast Guard ship from South Padre Island came across an illegal, five-mile long gillnet full of dead sharks 17 miles north of the US-Mexico border. Among the casualties were 225 blacktip, 109 bonnethead, and 11 bull sharks. No arrests were made since the boat that set the net was not found. The Story: “Gill nets indiscriminately kill any fish or marine mammal it snares across miles of ocean, often leaving much of the catch spoiled by the time it is hauled in,” said Coast Guard Commander Daniel Deptula. Because of their destructive impact on fish, turtles and marine mammals, gillnets have been banned in Texas state waters since 1981; however, the Coast Guard recovered 49 miles of them in 2012 and the numbers are on the rise. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department reports that incidents of pirate fishing with gillnets off the coast have doubled since 2011. “The seizures are far past any other year in my 16-year career,” said Sgt. James Dunks said. The Coast Guard reports that the illegal nets come from Mexican fisherman crossing into the US’s Exclusive Economic Zone to fish because the Mexican fish stocks are so depleted. “Well you get too many people fishing for the same thing, they’re not catching as much, so they’re going to search new territory to try to find more fish,” Dunks said. The growing fear is that pirate fishing by gillnets will cause our Gulf of Mexico fish stocks to resemble those of our neighbor to the south. The Coast Guard believes that the sharks were destined to be finned, a practice where only the fins are cut off the fish to be sold while the rest of the carcass is tossed back into the sea. What We Can Do: A reliable system of seafood traceability would help consumers to avoid pirate fish and put pressure on fishermen and fishing companies worldwide to supply legal, sustainable seafood for US tables. Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated fishing (IUU) doesn’t just happen in remote corners of the Pacific; it happens here at home and affects YOUR fish. For now, support local fishermen that are involved in positive fishing practices by doing your homework and asking questions about your favorite seafood. UPDATE: In a separate incident, a Mexican fishing boat captain has just plead guilty to charges of failing to “heave to” after ramming a US Coast Guard ship that caught the boat fishing illegally in Texas waters; the captain performed the maneuvers in an effort to flee and escape prosecution.

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I. Freedom through Faith and Knowledge The Black church and other faith assemblies have been at the core of the freedom movement since the mid 1800′s. Church provided opportunities to gather, and congregations throughout Orange County, black and white, have inspired and perpetuated the freedom movement. Schools for African-American children, often connected with churches, also were part of the freedom movement, beginning in the late 1800′s, in the midst of a segregated society. In 1968, Orange County schools became fully integrated.

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Getting the jazz. The “Degenerate Music” exhibition of the “Reich Music Festival”, Düsseldorf, 1938 © Ullstein Bild “Strictly prohibited is the use of instruments alien to the German spirit – so-called cowbells, flexatone, brushes, etc – as well as all mutes which turn the noble sound of wind and brass instruments into a Jewish-Freemasonic yowl – so-called wa-wa, hat, etc.” (Step 5 in Nazifing Jazz, as recalled in Josef Skvorecky’s ‘Bass Saxophone’) The day the Nazis rolled tanks into Paris – the land of “Americano, nigger, kike, jungle music” (Goebbels, 1939) – the cave-clubs of Saint Germain dimmed. Montparnasse went quietly. Pigalle’s cosmopolitan nightclubs folded and the Champs-Elysees muted the footlights. In fact, two million Parisians had already left town. Many jazz-junkies, gypsies, peddlars of swing, negres – all now in danger of being freighted to their death – considered catching the A-Train elsewhere. Paris was preparing to go underground. But the Gestapo went straight to work. Loudspeakers declared a curfew of 8pm. Arrests began. “It is better to be frightened in your country than another one” said Django Reinhardt – the most famous jazzman ever to live in the alphabet city. He had good reason to be nervous. A member of the Manouche ‘gypsy’ family – part of the French speaking Romany tribe – over one million of his kin would be gone by 1944. Reinhardt would try to escape Paris twice, but be turned back. Instead of escape, his gypsy legend grew and in the heart of Nazi Occupied Paris the enduring spirit of jazz took another turn. Django Reinhardt spent his time during the Nazi Occupation oscillating between a suite on the Champs Elysee and gypsy encampments. In hotel room circa 1945 with gypsy singer Sonia Dimitrivich. Getty Images. “You who have been to Paris, just imagine this picture” wrote LIFE Magazine in 1940. “At the Palace de la Concorde no such merry-go-round of honking autos, screaming news vendors, gesticulating cops, gaily chatting pedestrians. Instead depressing silence, broken only now and then by the purr of some German officers motor as it made its way to the Hotel Crillon, headquarters of the hastily set up German commandery. On the flagstaff the swastika fluttered in the breeze, where once the Stars and Stripes had been in the days of 1919 when Wilson received the cheers of French crowds from the balcony” Hitler’s Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had his own plans for the weekend. He’d drafted a scheme; a schedule to reopen Paris as a jaunty, gay, bustling showroom for New Europe. During the war it would be a recreational city, if only to draw a breath. Within weeks of bagging the Hotel Crillon, theatres and nightclubs would begin to reopen. The city’s cinemas and opera houses, draped in swastikas, would refill and brothels reopen. Soldiers, Officers, SS, wary Parisians; all mingled at tables. The caviar tones of Johnny Hess continued. Edith Piaf performed, Coco Chanel entertained Nazis. It was a strange reconcile. Paris was a hot bed of bona-fide jazz-loving, leaf-smoking, jew-friending ‘degenerates’. And while Hitler’s army were arresting musicians, shutting down swing-joints, storming cabarets that housed the “rhythms of belly-dancing negroes”, Django and the Hot Club of Paris were reinventing it as a gypsy-slang. During the 30s the success of The Hot Club Quintet transformed jazz from a WW1 Americano import into the lingua franca of popular jazz. Their groundswell of popularity would lead to a residency in the celebrated clubs of Montparnasse, with a fanbase that included jazz greats Louis Armstrong and Coleman Hawkins. The clip below shows the original line up bunkered in a bar setting, a vitalised core in situ, 1939. They would all follow very different paths during the war. Django himself might have been top of the Nazi hit-list. He had risen from the obscurity of a ‘gypsy’ camp. He liked billiards, he liked to gamble. He liked making friends, he liked music, his lifestyle was seen as vagabond. Hot Club collaborator and violinist Stephane Grappelli told The Guardian that when they got offered their first recording in 1934 by Charles Delauney (France’s supreme jazz expert), Django didn’t even appear – Grappelli found him in a billiard hall. Hot Club clarinetist Hubert Rostaing said the best way to hear Django Reinhardt was to wait after the concert, and on the other side of the street. It was a minor miracle the Hot Club existed. But by the time war broke in 1939 Django’s new, taut ‘small string’ sound swept the city with colossal results. A powerfully quick improvisor, Django pioneered and defined new territory as a modern guitar soloist. Michael Dregni best sketches the itinerant genuis: “His story was told like a fairy tale on the café terraces and in the fashionable salons. It was repeated in reverent tones among jazz acolytes. He was spoken of in awe as a child prodigy who never grew up, an idiot savant of jazz, a noble savage let loose in cultured Paris. His was the kind of modern fairy tale that Paris loved – even demanded – of its celebrities. “ But Paris was now dangerous turf. An isolated city. André Zucca took these colour photos for Nazi magazine ‘Signal’, using rare Agfacolor film supplied by the Wehrmacht. Controversy over the depictions of ‘Parisian life as usual’ continues to this day. Cinema Parisiana, colour photos of Paris under the Occupation by André Zucca. Hats and coats, Paris occupied. June, 1940. Image by Roger Schall. “Paris is dark at night now. Probably not until the war’s end will the great red lights of Moulin Rouge turn again. The small nightclubs that used to fill Montmatre and Montparnasse are also dead or dormant. Parisians have no theatre yet, no cinema, and one of the most frequent questions asked us is: when are we going to get American films? (LIFE Magazine correspondent Charles Wertenbaker, on the Nazi’s ultimate legacy in Paris, 1944) German soldiers outside a Paris cafe on the Champs Elysees, Bastille Day 1940. Entartete Musik – meaning ‘not of our kind or race’ – or more figuratively ‘abnormal, depraved’. The poster advertising the Degenerate exhibition of 1938. The popular ‘Degenerate Music Exhibition’ of 1938 left little to the Nazi imagination. The Nazis had seized a huge assemblage of artworks; anything that might have been Jewish, Bolshevik or abstract – compiling them as an example of ‘degenerate art’. Graffiti trained above the exhibits, scrawling its way past the ‘negroid’, the Jew-infused classical or ‘popular’ music. Jazz was depraved jungle-junk. The New English Weekly more eloquently explained; the Nazi ‘felt the Hebrew uses jazz and like methods to iron out racial differences and produce a general neurasthenia in which Hebrew influence may ascend among peoples.’ Paris remained under blackout orders for a while after the Nazi arrival; streetlights painted blue. Many of the African American musicians who played the jazz clubs had sailed from Le Havre, expecting the worst. Not surprisingly, the original Hot Club Quintet were amongst those to disband. Django’s other half, Stephan Grappelli, sailed for England, guitarist Marcel Bianci was soon interred by the Germans, bassist Louis Vola bound a boat for Argentina. Other illuminaries also joined the exodus. Guitar Oscar Aleman headed for Spain, hoping to catch a ship home to Buenos Aires. He was halted at the Spanish border, his tricone guitars confiscated, melted down for the war effort. German-born singer Eva Busch was arrested by the Gestapo the third day of her show at the Paris ABC Music Hall, and made a prisoner of Ravensbrück for three years. “The hatred kept me alive” she said. Django would try to leave twice during the Occupation, only to be turned back. In the early days he and other Romanies simply left the town, avoided the road, stayed in hiding. They retreated to the depths of la zone, bordered by forests and mountains. Palaise de Reinhardt, with the family. Django and son Babik. Django teaches his son Babik some guitar. Jewish refugees from Germany holed up in the cellar of an abandoned factory, chez violin and guitar. “After the German patrol passed by and we believed the coast was clear the tables were pushed back and the dancing began. As soon as the alarm was given the tables were set back in place and everything became orderly again” (Pierre Fouad on the Nouveau Hot Club’s early gigs under the Occupation) As time went on there was little choice but to work. In need of a living, Django made his way back to Paris. On October 4th 1940 he was offered work playing guitar at the Cinema Normandie on the Champs Elysee, between Nazi approved films. He had to submit his song programs to the propagandastaffel before the guitar was propped. Despite the challenges, it was here Django unveiled the Nouveau Hot Club Quintet de Paris. It comprised a sound that Michael Dregni describes as ‘light and airy and held to earth by Egyptian drummer Pierre Fouad’. Reinhardt had replaced Grapelli with Hubert Rostaing, who himself had been tuning his craft in the cabarets of Morroca and Tunisia. They soon picked up a new following. To avoid Nazi suppression the French had dropped the term ‘swing’. Jazz standards were re-titled in French. ‘St Louis Blues’ became ‘Tristesses De St Louis’. ‘I Got Rhythm’ became ‘Agate Rhythm’. Tunes were often given titles that would not betray their origins, such as ‘Blues in C Sharp’. They began playing, with composers’ names changed to French ones. In his book ‘Bass Saxophone‘ Josef Skvorecky also recalls the rules that were set out to purify the music if it had to be performed. Parisian Jazz – “La Revue Negre au Music-hall des Champs-elysees” with Josephine Baker. Nazi nightlife in Paris. Image from Patrick Buisson’s book ’1940-1945, Années érotiques’. Nightlife in Paris during the Occupation. Image from Patrick Buisson’s book ’1940-1945, Années érotiques’. - Paris under the Occupation. Image by Roger Schall. The Nazi version of Eddie Cantor's 'Makin' Whoopee'. This rare Nazi jazz recording was made exclusively for shortwave broadcasting to Great Britain, USA and other enemy countries. Ludwig “Lutz” Templin, bandleader of the jazz ensemble who also recorded as “Charlie and His Orchestra”, rearranging American jazz hits with revised Nazi-approved lyrics. Despite musical cleansing, Goebbels couldn’t compete with demand. German soldiers overtook the clubs, where the lights were warm. For their own pleasure German Officers cordoned off the Russian Casonova and Sheherazade cabarets, where the Ferret brothers played (another band of accomplished gypsy jazzmen – and Django’s biggest rivals). Amid war and food shortages Pigalle and Montmartre came to life once again. In early 1943 the famous Abbaye club also reopened as Le Chapiteau. The previous owner’s burlesque styled parodies of Hitler meant he was now enjoying an extended holiday in Monaco to avoid the Club’s new Nazi patrons. Le Chapiteau had become a favourite hole-in-the-wall for many Gestapo and pro-Nazi French. Goebbels, meanwhile, pegged jazz as an opiate. He put commissioned Charlie and His Orchestra (or “Bruno and His Swinging Tigers“) to swiftly begin recording and performing Nazi versions of popular jazz hits, a sanctioned Reichsministerium. Charlie were broadcast in medium-wave and short-wave bands across the Channel and Atlantic – the sonic equivalent of letter drops in jazz. Despite the lyrics written by the Propagandaministerium, the group was Germany’s leading swing outfit and a competent group. They made over ninety recordings between 1941 and 1943. Their band leader was permitted by Nazi command to travel to neutral and occupied countries in order to collect jazz and dance music. He also knocked around in the rarefied dens of Paris, mixing with the bands of the day. Meanwhile, the Hot Club had also been busy. Its three-story headquarters had become a meeting place for the French resistance. La Place Blanche café (in 1940) opposite the Moulin Rouge cabaret. Reserved for the exclusive use of German soldiers during the occupation of Paris. “Anything that starts with Ellington ends with an assassination attempt on the Fuhrer!” (Gestapo SS-Sturmbahnfuhrer Hans ‘The Fox’ Reinhardt, interrogating teenage swing fans 1944) Luftwaffe Officer Dietrich Schulz-Köhn (aka “Doktor Jazz”) had been a long-time follower of the Hot Club’s music. It was known that other Germans would spend hours in his room listening to this variety of “Americano nigger kike jungle music”. During the German occupation he provided a temporary shelter of sorts – simply by frequenting the Hot Club as a patron. For the years of occupation many people had relied upon the power of protection. But things were becoming increasingly uncertain. A person could easily be shot at whim. They could easily be included in a deportation order. Those offering protection could easily lose their power or be deported. Survival couldn’t be guaranteed, and the gap was closing. Luftwaffe Officer Dietrich Schulz-Köhn (aka “Doktor Jazz”), Django Reinhardt, four Africans and a Jewish musician – outside La Cigale, a jazz club in Paris. “The Officers of the Club liked me coming there” said Schulz-Köhn in later years. “Especially in uniform as they were sometimes raided by the Gestapo. (The Gestapo) would find the place full of letters, magazines, records with labels – all in English and this was no laughing matter at the time. So they could use me as a signboard to prove their innocence and reliability”. But in in October 1943 the Gestapo made a definitive raid on the Hot Club headquarters. They took into custody Charles Delaunay, his secretary and the Hot Club President of Marseilles. “They wanted to know where to find our resistance leader” said Delaunay. “I was fortunate enough to know enough of the German that was spoken preparatory to each question. Never have I talked so much or so well.” Delaunay was eventually released a month later – with a shadow of Gestapo not far behind. His secretary and the Hot Club President were not as lucky. They were sent to the camps. Both perished in the gas chambers. Nouveau Hot Club Quintette de Paris. Date unknown. In the isolated city, jazz broke further from its American roots. While continuing to tread carefully for their own survival, players such as Reinhardt had charged the music with new potency and, despite the best efforts of Goebbels the his Charlie cohorts, jazz remained an undefined danger zone. The Zazou fad was the first youth ‘movement’ to openly claim a patch and square itself against the hooks of German occupation. Its battle issue was non-conformity. In 1942 the Nazi-run mag L’Illustration attacked the Zazou style; men wore a ‘lumber jacket, which they show an unwillingness to take off, even when it’s soaking wet. The women wear cheap furs, turtle-necked sweaters and very short pleated skirts. They are armed with vast umbrellas that remain obstinately folded whatever the weather’. By 1944 seventy-eight anti-Zazou articles were published in the pro-Nazi Vichy Govt press. Zazous were lazy, vain, ‘Judeo-Gaullist shirkers’. Their beating came highly recommended. Round-ups began in bars. Zazous were roughed up on the streets. The Fascist youth organisation Jeunesse Populaire Française adopted the slogan “Scalp the Zazous!” – perhaps this sounded better in French. Zouzous were set upon with hair-clippers by squads of young fascists. They were beaten, arrested, sent to the country to work the land. Before long many Zazous went underground, ducking for cover in basement clubs and jazz halls. By 1944 seventy-eight anti-Zazou articles had been published in the pro-Nazi Vichy Govt press targeting the louche phenomenon of work-shy Zouzous. ‘Work for Germany? I’d rather die!’ ‘Bravo! Young man, don’t you like Germany?’ And as the Allies began bombing closer to the city, the Nazi round-ups increased. In 1943 the German Kommandantur of Paris requested that Reinhardt and the Nouveau Quintet of Paris be summoned to Berlin to play for the Nazi High Command. Django made excuses. The Kommandantur insisted. Django decided to hit the road. Filling his Buick from a wad of gas coupons, Django skipped town with his wife. They headed to the German-Franco border, with the plan to escape to Switzerland. When the car ran out of gas, they sold it and brought themselves tickets for a clandestine truck to take them across. That night, passing through the border, the truck was subjected to a search. They were found and turned back with a warning. While he planned his next step, he moved his family to Thonon, where they lived near the Savoy Bar. This place was the genuine melting pot – full of jazz-loving Nazis, gypsies and Zazous who had left Paris. Django began playing here, as well as various parties around the area. He became a regular at functions thrown in Chateau La Folie owned by the Schwartz family and set on a leafy acreage. But the Occupation continued to tighten its grip. The Schwartz family were denounced by the gardener’s son as Jews – they were deported and perished in the camps. The Gestapo took over the estate. Django decided to try and get to Geneva via the West. Again, the venture failed. He was also told not to try and escape France from the North because of German U-Boats. Instead, he and his pregnant wife decided to hike the Alps to freedom. They met their guide at a cafe. They were overheard by a German officer. They were all arrested. Under interrogation, his British Performing Rights Society card was confiscated and he was declared a spy. Finally the officers brought in the local kommandant to continue the questioning. The kommandant was a jazz fan; Django and his wife were released. They returned again to Paris. Paris, 1944. Sniper fire shortly after the liberation. LIFE/Time Images. On June 6th 1944 The Allies invaded France at Normandy. The German occupation of Paris ended on August 25th, 1944, when General Jacques Phillippe Leclerc’s Second Free French Armoured Division, supported by the US Fourth Infantry Division, entered the city. Only days before the liberation the Nazis murdered several thousand Roma and Sinti ‘gypsies’ at the Zigeunerlager in the Auschwtiz-Birkenau concentration camp. As the Council of Europe described it: “Germans who took part in the slaughter later described it as the most difficult moment in the war for them, as Romani women struggled to hang on to their children. The crematorium burned all night”. Around 600,000 to 1.5 million Roma were exterminated during the Holocaust. One of Django’s cousins had faked his identity as Django in an attempt to save his own life – without success. Paris itself only barely escaped destruction. Hitler had ordered German commander, General Dietrich von Cholitz, to leave the city in ruins. Cholitz turned fate and disobeyed – he left it intact. As the world struggled to recover Django reunited with Grappelli. Together they toured the US with Duke Ellington. In 1949 he eventually sold his Paris apartment, bought a Lincoln, attached a trailer and hit the rural back-roads of France. He later hooked up a larger caravan for his mother, who had been living in an old converted Citroën. Reinhardt would occasionally visited Paris for a show – getting by on the wad of banknotes he kept under the pillow. The basement of the Caveau de la Huchette, one of the first clubs to open after the war. It filled instantly with soldiers – mostly Afro-American. Despite Goebbels best efforts the music could never be contained, quarantined or owned. The music leaves a legacy – as well as a brilliant but haunting accompaniment to the uncertainty, terror and mass obliteration that tore through those years. Check out the fascinating but graphic clip of Europe on its knees by 1944, to the gilded music of Lili Marleen - a wartime favourite on both sides of the front. Django’s melancholy war-inspired Nuages, below (here recorded on electric) was another track that walked the lines, elevating him beyond the divisions – and onto stardom – during his years in Occupied Paris. “He did more for the guitar than any other man in jazz” Stephane Grappelli told Melody Maker following Reinhardt’s death in 1953. “His way of playing was unlike anyone else’s, and jazz is different because of him. There can be many other fine guitarists, but never can there be another Reinhardt. I am sure of that.” I highly recommend LeoTaurus1975 on youtube for a comprehensive look at the music of the times, along with some great clips of the time. Michael Dregni’s book on Django is also worth a delve, as well as a great gypsy-jazz homage site at http://www.paulvernonchester.com.

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This beautiful young lady is Juana Inés de Asbaje y Ramírez de Santillana (1651-1695), or as she would later become known, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. And she was a badass. The woman at whom you are daring to look was a kickass feminist (and possibly lesbian) writer, poet, and nun. That’s right, nun - drop your stereotypes, because she doesn’t fit in any of your shoeboxes.A self-taught scholar, she had to overcome all odds to become the boss whom she inarguably is known as today. The illegitimate child of a Spanish captain and a Criollo woman, she grew up the daughter of a single mother in a society that frowned upon women doing much other than existing quietly. Juana was a devout child who would steal away to read her grandfather’s books, although girls were forbidden from doing so, and learned to read and write in various languages at very young ages. She attempted to disguise herself as a male student to enter university in Mexico City at age 16, but was found out and made to continue her studies privately under the Vicereine Leonor Carreto. Leonor’s husband, the Viceroy Antonio Sebastián de Toledo, doubted the teenage Juana’s supposed intelligence, so he invited theologians, lawyers, philosophers, and poets to test her education. She stunned them all with her bright, articulate presence, and her reputation became known quickly throughout New Spain (as Mexico was then called). Her literary and poetic accomplishments, in addition to her beauty, made her a famous member of the viceregal court, where she declined several proposals of marriage. She shocked the court when she entered the Convent of the Discalced Carmelites of St. Joseph as a postulant in 1667. In 1669, she entered the Convent of the Order of St. Jérôme. Far from becoming the silent, obedient stereotype of the Catholic woman religious, her writings became even more strident and firm. In response to her critics, Juana penned the Respuesta a Sor Filotea (Reply to Sister Philothea) in which she defended a woman’s right to education. The Catholic hierarchy and other prominent male officials condemned and censored her work in view of its “waywardness,” forcing her to do public penance. Juana’s pen fell curiously silent, as the Church published penitential documents to which her name had been affixed. Since she had been silenced by the outside world, Juana instead turned to other forms of service, including her ministry to her fellow nuns who were stricken by the plague. The doctor became a patient as Juana herself fell victim to this plague in 1695. So let’s recap: Juana taught herself literacy and languages when women’s education was practically nonexistent, wrote homoerotic love poetry when homosexuality probably could have gotten her killed, and published anti-hierarchical feminist works from a colonial era convent. If you aren’t thoroughly impressed into having a history crush on her, at least admit she’s freaking gorgeous, too.

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The characteristic features of the climate of Malaysia are uniform temperature, high humidity and copious rainfall and they arise from the maritime exposure of the country. Winds are generally light. Situated at the equatorial doldrum area, it is extremely rare to have a full day with completely clear sky even in periods of severe drought. On the other hand, it is also rare to have a stretch of a few days with completely no sunshine except during the northeast monsoon seasons. Wind flow in Malaysia Though the wind over the country is generally light and variable, there are, however, some uniform periodic changes in the wind flow patterns. Based on these changes, four seasons can be distinguished, namely, the southwest monsoon, northeast monsoon and two shorter inter monsoon seasons. The southwest monsoon is usually established in the later half of May or early June and ends in September. The prevailing wind flow is generally south westerly and light, below 15 knots. The northeast monsoon usually commences in early November and ends in March. During this season, steady easterly or north-easterly winds of 10 to 20 knots prevail. The more severely affected areas are the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia where the wind may reach 30 knots or more during periods of intense surges of cold air from the north (cold surges). The winds during the two inter monsoon seasons are generally light and variable. During these seasons, the equatorial trough lies over It is worth mentioning that during the months of April to November, when typhoons frequently develop over the west Pacific and move westwards across the Philippines, south-westerly winds over the northwest coast of Sabah and Sarawak region may strengthen reaching 20 knots or more. As Malaysia is mainly a maritime country, the effect of land and sea breezes on the general wind flow pattern is very marked especially over days with clear skies. On bright sunny afternoons, sea breezes of 10 to 15 knots very often develop and reach up to several tens of kilometre inland. On clear nights, the reverse process takes place and land breezes of weaker strength can also develop over the The seasonal wind flow patterns coupled with the local topographic features determine the rainfall distribution patterns over the country. During the northeast monsoon season, the exposed areas like the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, Western Sarawak and the northeast coast of Sabah experiences heavy rain spells. On the other hand, inland areas or areas which are sheltered by mountain ranges are relatively free from its influence. It is best to describe the rainfall distribution of the country according to seasons. Seasonal Rainfall Variation in Peninsular Malaysia The seasonal variation of rainfall in Peninsular Malaysia is of three main types: (a) Over the east coast districts, November, December and January are the months with maximum rainfall, while June and July are the driest months in most districts. (b) Over the rest of the Peninsula with the exception of the southwest coastal area, the monthly rainfall pattern shows two periods of maximum rainfall separated by two periods of minimum rainfall. The primary maximum generally occurs in October - November while the secondary maximum generally occurs in April - May. Over the north-western region, the primary minimum occurs in January - February with the secondary minimum in June - July while elsewhere the primary minimum occurs in June - July with the secondary minimum (c) The rainfall pattern over the southwest coastal area is much affected by early morning "Sumatras" from May to August with the result that the double maxima and minima pattern is no longer discernible. October and November are the months with maximum rainfall and February the month with minimum rainfall. The March - April - May maximum and the June -July minimum are absent or Seasonal Rainfall Variation in Sabah and Sarawak The seasonal variation of rainfall in Sabah and Sarawak can be five main types: (a) The coastal areas of Sarawak and northeast Sabah experience a rainfall regime of one maximum and one minimum. While the maximum occurs during January in both areas, the occurrence of the minimum differs. In the coastal areas of Sarawak, the minimum occurs in June or July while in the northeast coastal areas of Sabah, it occurs in April. Under this regime, much of the rainfall is received during the northeast monsoon months of December to March. In fact, it accounts for more than half of the annual rainfall received on the western part of Sarawak. (b) Inland areas of Sarawak generally experience quite evenly distributed annual rainfall. Nevertheless, slightly less rainfall is received during the period June to August which corresponds to the occurrence of prevailing south-westerly winds. It must be pointed out that the highest annual rainfall area in Malaysia may well be found in the hill slopes of inland Sarawak areas. Long Akah, by virtue of its location, receives a mean annual rainfall of more than 5000 mm. (c) The northwest coast of Sabah experiences a rainfall regime of which two maxima and two minima can be distinctly identified. The primary maximum occurs in October and the secondary one in June. The primary minimum occurs in February and the secondary one in August. While the difference in the rainfall amounts received during the two months corresponding to the two maxima is small, the amount received during the month of the primary minimum is substantially less than that received during the month of the secondary minimum. In some areas, the difference is as much as four times. (d) In the central parts of Sabah where the land is hilly and sheltered by mountain ranges, the rainfall received is relatively lower than other regions and is evenly distributed. However, two maxima and two minima can be noticed, though somewhat less distinct. In general, the two minima occur in February and August while the two maxima occur in May and October. (e) Southern Sabah has evenly distributed rainfall. The annual rainfall total received is comparable to the central part of Sabah. The period February to April is, however slightly drier than the rest of the year. Being an equatorial country, Malaysia has uniform temperature throughout the year. The annual variation is less than 2°C except for the east coast areas of Peninsular Malaysia which are often affected by cold surges originating from Siberia during the northeast monsoon. Even there, the annual variation is below 3°C. The daily range of temperature is large, being from 5°C to 10°C at the coastal stations and from 8°C to 12°C at the inland stations but the excessive day temperatures which are found in continental tropical areas are never experienced. It may be noted that air temperature of 38°C has very rarely been recorded in Malaysia. Although the days are frequently hot, the nights are reasonably cool Although the seasonal and spatial temperature variations are relatively small, they are nevertheless fairly definite in some respects and are worthy of mention. Over the whole Peninsula, there is a definite variation of temperature with the monsoons and this is accentuated in the east coast districts. April and May are the months with the highest average monthly temperature in most places and December and January are the months with the lowest average monthly temperature. The average daily temperature in most districts to the east of the Main Range is lower than that of the corresponding districts west of the Main Range. The differences in the average values in the east and the west are due almost entirely to the low day temperatures experienced in the eastern districts during the northeast monsoon as a result of rain and greater cloud cover. At Kuala Terengganu, for example, the day temperature rarely reaches 32°C during the northeast monsoon and often fails to reach 27°C. A number of occasions have been recorded on which the temperature did not rise above 24°C which is quite frequently the lowest temperature reached during the night in most districts. Night temperatures do not vary to the same extent, the average usually being between21°C to 24°C. Individual values can fall much below this at nearly all stations, the coolest nights commonly follow some of the hottest days. As mentioned earlier, Malaysia has high humidity. The mean monthly relative humidity falls within 70to 90%, varying from place to place and from month to month. For any specific area, the range of the mean monthly relative humidity varies from a minimum of 3% to a maximum of about 15%. In Peninsular Malaysia, the minimum range of mean relative humidity varies from a low 84% in February to a high of only 88% in November. The maximum range is found in the northwest area of the Peninsula (Alor Setar) where the mean relative humidity varies from a low of 72% in February to a high of 87%. It is observed that in Peninsular Malaysia, the minimum relative humidity is normally found in the months of January and February except for the east coast states of Kelantan and Terengganu which have the minimum in March. The maximum is however generally found in the month of November. As in the case of temperature, the diurnal variation of relative humidity is much greater as compared to the annual variation. The mean daily minimum can be as low as 42% during the dry months and reaches as high as 70% during the wet months. The mean daily maximum, however, does not vary much from place to place and is at no place falls below 94%. It may reach as high as nearly 100%. Again, the northwest states of Kedah and Perlis have the largest diurnal variation of relative humidity. Sunshine and Solar Radiation Being a maritime country close to the equator, Malaysia naturally has abundant sunshine and thus solar radiation. However, it is extremely rare to have a full day with completely clear sky even in periods of severe drought. The cloud cover cuts off a substantial amount of sunshine and thus solar radiation. On the average, Malaysia receives about 6 hours of sunshine per day. There are, however, seasonal and spatial variations in the amount of sunshine received. Alor Setar and Kota Bharu receive about 7 hours per day of sunshine while Kuching receives only 5 hours on the average. On the extreme, Kuching receives only an average of 3.7 hours per day in the month of January. On the other end of the scale, Alor Setar receives a maximum of 8.7 hours per day on the average in the same Solar radiation is closely related to the sunshine duration. Its seasonal and spatial variations are thus very much the same as in the case of sunshine. Source - Malaysia Meteorological Service information - details -

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Happy Easter, Happy Passover, and Happy Cherry Blossom Time! I hope you are having a joyous spring! Native to Japan, the Yoshino cherry (Prunus x yedoensis) is cultivated extensively and is also found growing wild on plains and mountains countrywide. For more than ten centuries, and continuing with no less enthusiasm today, cherry blossom time has been cause for joyful celebration that is deeply integrated in the Japanese culture. Cherry blossoms, cherry blossoms As far as you can see. Across yayoi skies Is it mist? Is it clouds? Ah, the fragrance! Let us go, Let us go and see! To see a cherry blossom snowstorm: In the Japanese language the cherry is called “sakura,” which is generally believed to be a corruption of the word “sukuya” (blooming). Poets and artists strive to express the loveliness of its flowers in words and artistry. Called the flower of flowers, when the Japanese use the word “hane” (flower) it has come to mean sakura, and no other flower. Since the Heian period “hanami” has referred to cherry blossom viewing; the term was used to describe cherry blossom parties in the Tale of Gengi. Aristocrats wrote poetry and sang songs under the flowering trees for celebratory flower viewing parties. The custom soon spread to the samurai society and by the Edo period, hanami was celebrated by all people. From ancient times, during early spring planting rituals, falling blossoms symbolized a bounteous crop of rice. Beginning with the Heian period (794–1185), when the imperial courtiers of Kyoto held power, the preference for graceful beauty and the appreciation of cherry blossoms for beauty’s sake began to evolve. The way in which cherry petals fall at the height of their beauty, before they have withered and become unsightly, and the transience of their brief period of blooming, assumed symbolism in Buddhism and the samurai warrior code. The delicacy and transience of the cherry blossom have poignant and poetic appeal, providing themes for songs and poems since the earliest times. The motif of the five petal cherry blossoms is used extensively for decorative arts designs, including kimonos, works in enamel, pottery, and lacquer ware. Cherry tree wood is valued for its tight grain and is a lustrous reddish brown when polished. The wood is used to make furniture, trays, seals, checkerboards, and woodblocks for producing color wood block prints. In modern times the advent of the cherry blossom season not only heralds the coming of spring, but is also the beginning of the new school year and the new fiscal year for businesses. Today families and friends gather under the blooms and celebrate with picnicking, drinking, and singing. The fleeting beauty of the blossoms, scattering just a few days after flowering, is a reminder to take time to appreciate life. In the evening when the sun goes down, viewing the pale-colored cherry blossoms silhouetted against the night sky is considered an added pleasure of the season. The tradition of celebrating cherry blossom season began in the United States when, on Valentine’s Day in 1912, Tokyo mayor Yukio Okaki gave the city of Washington, D.C., 3,000 of twelve different varieties of cherry trees as an act of friendship. First Lady Helen Taft and the wife of the Japanese ambassador, Viscountess Chinda, planted the initial two of these first cherry trees in Potomac Park. Today cherry blossom festivals are celebrated annually not only in Wash- ington, D.C., but in Brooklyn, San Francisco, Seattle, and Macon, Georgia. It is said that the true lover of cherry blossoms considers the season is at its height when the buds are little more than half open—for when the blossoms are fully opened there is already the intimation of their decline.

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A few months ago we wrote about Kristianstad, Sweden, an area that now uses biomass to generate all of its heat and some of its electricity. That city pioneered use of this renewable technology, and gradually biomass evolved from a niche component of its fuel mix to the backbone of its fuel supply. A number of rural areas in Germany and the Netherlands have undertaken similar projects. As the article noted, while biomass could be deployed in similar agricultural regions in the United States, adoption has been slow in this country. That looks as if it might be changing. This week the federal Department of Agriculture announced a host of renewable energy and energy efficiency projects in rural America, and Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack is touring the Midwest, seeding biomass projects as he goes. On Friday, the departments of Agriculture and Energy announced that up to $30 million would go toward supporting research and development in advanced biofuels, bioenergy and “high-value biobased products” over the next three to four years. The money is to be dispensed through the Biomass Research and Development Initiative, which started accepting proposals last year. If properly produced, biomass heat and power produce fewer emissions than fossil fuels like coal or oil because much of the material used as fuel would otherwise sit in landfill releasing methane, a potent greenhouse gas, as it rots. The use of biomass could also reduce the need to import oil. President Obama has called for a one-third reduction in the nation’s oil imports by 2025. Biomass can include old tree cuttings, rice husks, corn stalks, manure -– almost any kind of biological farm waste. In the past these leftovers were typically left to rot. So a growing number of agricultural regions are burning them or degrading them through chemical digestion to produce biogas. But new forms of biomass, like the algae biomass produced at the plant that Secretary Vilsack is visiting Friday afternoon, do not use agricultural leftovers; they rely on farmers or factories that grow plants specifically for use as fuel. That involves a different kind of trade-off, since those fields and farms could instead be growing food.

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If soil moisture is sufficient for germination and emergence, August alfalfa seedings offer several advantages over spring seedings, say Rory Lewandowski and Mark Sulc, Ohio State University Extension educator and forage specialist, respectively. In late summer, alfalfa seedlings have less weed competition, and soil-borne disease organisms that thrive in cool, wet soils aren’t an issue. Also, time spent on field preparation and planting doesn’t compete with corn and soybean field work. However, late-summer seedings come with risks that must be managed, the two specialists warn. Ideally, seedings should be completed by mid-August in northern Ohio and by Aug. 31 in the southern part of the state. Those timelines are based on average frost dates and the time needed for alfalfa plants to develop root systems capable of overwintering. Later planting dates will work if the fall is warmer than normal, but the risk of failure is higher. No-tilling alfalfa into a small-grain stubble often works well, Lewandowski and Sulc point out. However, Sclerotinia crown and stem rot is a concern with no-till seedings, especially where clover has been present in the past. The disease, which causes white mold on alfalfa seedlings, infects them during cool, rainy spells in late October and November. Early August plantings dramatically improve the crop's ability to resist the infection. Late-August seedings are very susceptible, with mid-August seedings being intermediate. In no-till situations, the two experts recommend a preplant glyphosate application to minimize competition from existing weeds. After the alfalfa is up and growing, late-emerging winter-annual broadleaf weeds must be controlled, and butyrac, Pursuit and Raptor are the primary herbicide options. Fall applications are much more effective than spring applications for controlling those weeds, especially if wild radish or wild turnip is in the weed mix. If tillage is used to prepare the soil for planting, a firm seedbed is needed to ensure good seed-to-soil contact. A preplant herbicide isn’t required, but the risk of establishing a tilled seedbed for a late-summer planting, especially this year, is moisture loss. Don’t plant seeds into a dry seedbed, Lewandowski and Sulc emphasize. Finally, they say to keep the following factors in mind anytime alfalfa is planted: ● Soil fertility and pH – The recommended soil pH for alfalfa is 6.8. The minimum or critical soil phosphorus level is 25 ppm and the critical soil potassium level is between 100 and 125 ppm for many Ohio soils. ● Seed selection – Be sure to use high-quality seed of adapted, tested varieties and use fresh inoculum of the proper Rhizobium bacteria. ● Planter calibration – If coated alfalfa seed is used, be aware that coatings can account for up to one-third of the weight of the seed. That can affect the number of seeds planted if the planter is set to plant seed on a weight basis. Seed coatings can also dramatically alter how the seed flows through the drill, so be sure to calibrate the drill or planter with the seed being planted. ● Seed placement – The recommended seeding depth for alfalfa is ¼-½”. It’s better to err on the side of planting shallow rather than too deep. For more late-season alfalfa seeding recommendations, read Seed Alfalfa In Early Fall, California Research Indicates.

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FRIDAY, Dec. 7 (HealthDay News) -- Increased use of electronic medical records and other digital technologies in health care might lead to a significant rise in the number of repetitive strain injuries suffered by doctors, nurses and other medical workers, researchers suggest. These muscle and joint injuries are caused by improper use of computer devices and poor office layouts, according to Alan Hedge, a professor of human factors and ergonomics at Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y. "Many hospitals are investing heavily in new technology with almost no consideration for principles of ergonomics design for computer workplaces," he said in a university news release. "We saw a similar pattern starting in the 1980s when commercial workplaces computerized, and there was an explosion of musculoskeletal injuries for more than a decade afterward." Ergonomics is an applied science pertaining to safe and efficient equipment design. In one study of 179 doctors, Hedge found that most female doctors and more than 40 percent of male doctors reported that they experienced repetitive strain-related neck, shoulder and upper and lower back pain at least once a week. About 40 percent of female doctors and 30 percent of male doctors reported right wrist pain at least once a week. The findings were recently presented at the annual meeting of the Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society in Boston. "These rates are alarming. When more than 40 percent of employees are complaining about regular problems, that's a sign something needs to be done to address it," Hedge said in the news release. "In a lot of hospitals and medical offices, workplace safety focuses on preventing slips, trips and falls and on patient handling, but the effects of computer use on the human body are neglected." In another study involving 180 doctors and 63 nurse practitioners and physician assistants, Hedge found that more than 90 percent of them used a desktop computer and, on average, spent more than five hours a day using computers. Fifty-six percent of doctors and 71 percent of nurse practitioners and physician assistants said their amount of computer use at work had increased in the past year. Only about 5 percent of them said they had an "expert knowledge" of ergonomics, and more than two-thirds said they had no input in the planning or design of their computer or clinical workstation. The study was published in the book "Advances in Human Aspects of Healthcare." "We can't assume that just because people are doctors or work in health care that they know about ergonomics," Hedge said. "With so many potential negative effects for doctors and patients, it is critical that the implementation of new technology is considered from a design and ergonomics perspective." Research presented at meetings is typically considered preliminary until published in a peer-reviewed medical journal. While the study found an association between increased used of technology in medical offices and complaints of pain by workers, it did not prove a cause-and-effect relationship. The U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke has more about repetitive motion injuries. Copyright © 2012 HealthDay. All rights reserved.

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By Alan Mozes THURSDAY, Jan. 3 (HealthDay News) -- It's possible that a serious mosquito-borne virus -- with no known vaccine or treatment -- could migrate from Central Africa and Southeast Asia to the United States within a year, new research suggests. The chances of a U.S. outbreak of the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) varies by season and geography, with those regions typified by longer stretches of warm weather facing longer periods of high risk, according to the researchers' new computer model. "The only way for this disease to be transmitted is if a mosquito bites an infected human and a few days after that it bites a healthy individual, transmitting the virus," said study lead author Diego Ruiz-Moreno, a postdoctoral associate in the department of ecology and evolutionary biology at Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y. "The repetition of this sequence of events can lead to a disease outbreak." And that, Ruiz-Moreno said, is where weather comes into the picture, with computer simulations revealing that the risk of an outbreak rises when temperatures, and therefore mosquito populations, rise. The study analyzed possible outbreak scenarios in three U.S. locales. In 2013, the New York region is set to face its highest risk for a CHIKV outbreak during the warm months of August and September, the analysis suggests. By contrast, Atlanta's highest-risk period was identified as longer, beginning in June and running through September. Miami's consistent warm weather means the region faces a higher risk all year. "Warmer weather increases the length of the period of high risk," Ruiz-Moreno said. "This is particularly worrisome if we think of the effects of climate change over [average] temperatures in the near future." Ruiz-Moreno discussed his team's research -- funded in part by the U.S. National Institute for Food and Agriculture -- in a recent issue of the journal PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. CHIKV was first identified in Tanzania in 1953, the authors noted, and the severe joint and muscle pain, fever, fatigue, headaches, rashes and nausea that can result are sometimes confused with symptoms of dengue fever. Few patients die of the illness, and about one-quarter show no symptoms whatsoever. Many patients, however, experience prolonged joint pain, and there is no effective treatment for the disease, leaving physicians to focus on symptom relief. Disease spread is of paramount concern in the week following infection, during which the patient serves as a viral host for biting mosquitoes. Infected mosquitoes can then transmit the virus and cause a full-blown outbreak. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention became aware of the growing threat of a global outbreak in 2005 and 2006, following the onset of epidemics in India, Southeast Asia, Reunion Island and other islands in the Indian Ocean. In 2007, public health concerns mounted following an outbreak in Italy. To assess the risk of a U.S. epidemic, the authors collected data concerning regional mosquito population patterns, daily regional weather and human population statistics. They ran the information through a computer simulation designed to conservatively crunch the numbers based on the likelihood that an outbreak would occur in the coming year after just one CHIKV-infected individual entered any of the three test regions. The results suggested that because environmental factors affect mosquito growth cycles, the regional risk for a CHIKV outbreak is, to a large degree, a function of weather. The authors said that public health organizations need to be "vigilant," while advocating for region-specific planning to address varying levels of risk across the country. However, Dr. Erin Staples, a CDC medical epidemiologist based in Fort Collins, Colo., said that although the study was "carefully and nicely done" the investigation's focus on the role of temperature in CHIKV outbreak risk should not negate the importance of other key factors such as human behavior. "We're aware of the potential introduction and spread of this virus, as well as several other mosquito-borne diseases," she said. "We've been working to create and prepare a response to the risk that this virus could expand into the U.S."

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Mental Health Practitioners: Who’s Who? by Amy Scholten, MPH If you or a loved one needs mental health services, it can be a challenge to choose which practitioner would be the best choice. While your doctor can provide a referral, it helps to know the difference between the types of professionals who specialize in mental health: Psychiatrist (MD or DO) Psychiatrists are medical doctors who have specialized training to diagnosis and treat mental health conditions. Treatment from a psychiatrist typically involves being prescribed medicine, such as a mood stabilizer to treat bipolar disorder, and undergoing psychotherapy. Some psychiatrists, though, only manage the medicine-side of treatment and refer you to another practitioner for therapy. A psychiatrist’s training includes a bachelors degree, medical school, and four years of residency training in the field of psychiatry. Many psychiatrists get additional training so that they can specialize in areas, such as working with children, teens, the elderly, and people with addiction problems. Psychologist (PhD or PsyD) Psychologists are mental health professionals who work in a variety of settings including clinics, hospitals, private practice, schools, and universities. psychologists have a doctorate degree in psychology, which they obtain after getting a bachelors degree. Depending on their training and specialization, psychologists may: Mental Health Counselor (MA, MS, CCMHC) and Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) TOP Mental health counselors and licensed professional counselors are therapists who are trained to diagnose and provide individual and group counseling. They often provide general psychotherapy. They work in community mental health centers, in group or private practices, or other settings. Mental health counselors and licensed professional counselors have a masters degree (usually in clinical or counseling psychology) and several years of supervised clinical work experience. Clinical Social Worker (CSW, MSW, LSW, LCSW) TOP Licensed social workers are mental health providers that deal with a range of issues, such as life events, family conflicts, domestic abuse, and substance abuse. They not only do assessments and offer therapy, but also help patients find community care. Social workers have an advanced degree in social work that they obtain after they get a bachelors degree. They may practice in community mental health centers, family services agencies, private practice, and many other locations. Alcohol and Drug Abuse Counselor or Addiction Counselor (CSAC, CAC) TOP Certified alcohol and drug abuse counselors and addiction counselors are trained to diagnose and provide individual and group counseling for individuals with addiction problems. They may work in drug abuse and addiction centers, hospitals, clinics, and community mental health centers. Training may include a bachelors degree, specific training in alcohol and drug abuse (eg, a certificate program in alcohol and drug abuse counseling), and supervised experience. Pastoral Counselors (MA, MS, Mdiv, DMin) TOP Pastoral counselors are certified mental health professionals who have had extensive religious/theological training and clinical training in the behavioral sciences. They may specialize in marriage and family therapy, addiction, grief, and other mental health issues. They may also provide educational programs on preparing for marriage, adjusting to divorce, and coping with loss and grief. They may work in health clinics, state hospitals, private and group practices, congregation-based centers, or in pastoral counseling centers. Pastoral counselors typically have a bachelor degree, a three-year professional degree, and a specialized master or doctoral degree in a mental health field. Marriage and Family Therapist (MFT) TOP Marriage and family therapists diagnose and treat mental and emotional disorders, and other health and behavioral problems within the context of marriage, couples, and family systems. They often work in group or private practices. Marriage and family therapists have a masters or doctoral degree in marriage and family therapy, as well as clinical experience. They are trained in psychotherapy and family systems. American Psychological Association Mental Health America Canadian Mental Health Association Canadian Psychiatric Association Alcohol and drug abuse counseling certificate. UC San Diego Extension website. Available at: http://extension.u.... Accessed July 9, 2012. Frequently asked questions about pastoral counselors. The Pastoral Counseling Center website. Available at: http://www.pccmidvalley.org/pastoral-counseling-faq.html. Accessed July 9, 2012. Mental health professionals: who they are and how to find one. National Alliance on Mental Health website. Available at: http://www.nami.or.... Accessed July 9, 2012. Types of mental health professionals. Mental Health America website. Available at: http://www.mentalh.... Accessed July 9, 2012. What is a marriage counselor? California Association of Marriage and Family Therapists website. Available at: http://www.camft.org/scriptcontent/whatismft/whatismft.html. Accessed July 9, 2012. What is a psychiatrist? American Psychiatric Association website. Available at: http://www.mentalh.... Accessed July 9, 2012. Last reviewed July 2012 by Brian P. Randall, MD Last Updated: 7/9/2012

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Anorexia is an eating disorder where people starve themselves. Anorexia usually begins in young people around the onset of puberty. Individuals suffering from anorexia have extreme weight loss. Weight loss is usually 15% below the person's normal body weight. People suffering from anorexia are very skinny but are convinced that they are overweight. Weight loss is obtained by many ways. Some of the common techniques used are excessive exercise, intake of laxatives and not eating. Anorexics have an intense fear of becoming fat. Their dieting habits develop from this fear. Anorexia mainly affects adolescent girls. People with anorexia continue to think they are overweight even after they become extremely thin, are very ill or near death. Often they will develop strange eating habits such as refusing to eat in front of other people. Sometimes the individuals will prepare big meals for others while refusing to eat any of it. But anorexia can be cured! I will recommend an anorexia book that will help you cure anorexia at home. The anorexia book has amazing reviews. Read it here See long-lasting li-ion batteries

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Here are some possible methods of arriving at a body count: - Everyone mentioned except Enoch and Elijah, as per Bob Jones's note - Only those mentioned of meeting an untimely end - Those mentioned as meeting an untimely end, plus reasonable assumptions about casualties on all sides in battles, famines or other events mentioned Since the OT is not history in the modern sense, the count would only be a rough estimate and the margin of error would be inestimable. From a scholarly viewpoint, the number would not be useful, as there is no other number with which to compare it. It's not like asking "how many people were killed in WWII", an historical event for which we have some reliable records. We would then have to ask what the purpose of arriving at this number is. Here are some possibilities: - Proof that the OT outlook on life is essentially violent and retributive - Proof that despite the violent surroundings, the OT produced prophecy of high moral vision - Proof that the OT is inferior (or superior) to some other body of scripture or literature - Elucidate the similarities or differences with other collections of literature, such as Greek or Hindu epic literature, and arrive at some conclusion - Support speculation regarding the spiritual or moral meaning of the number or the fate of the people involved Only the fourth purpose could be called hermeneutic. In any event, the wars and plagues mentioned on the OT were in no way unusual for the ancient world. There is a good summary of ancient warfare on Wikipedia. It looks like the major players in our area of interest were the Egyptians, Assyrians and later the Persian and Greeks. The People of the Book were minor actors on this stage, along with the Edomites, Amelikites and Philistines. It was indeed a nasty period of human history, but was to get much worse with technological improvements and population growth after the end of the OT. The Roman conquests, Islamic conquests, crusades, and well, you know the Vikings weren't known for their merciful acts. Yet out of this global mayhem there arose a culture of prophecy that held that men should hammer swords into plows, spears into pruning hooks, stop conspiring to war, look out for widows, orphans and the displaced, forgive bad debts, and see themselves as stewards of the land rather than its owners. The record of that culture is found on the OT.

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19th Century Subdivision Map of Planned Bartow Village Located at http://www.historicpelham.com/. Please Click Here for Index to All Blog Postings. During the mid to late 19th century, there was an area in the Town of Pelham known as Bartow. The hamlet of Bartow was a quaint and small collection of residences located on the mainland near City Island. The entire area -- as well as City Island -- was annexed by New York City, effective in 1896. Before then, however, the little area known variously as Bartow, Bartow-on-the-Sound, Bartow Station and Bartow Village became an important part of Pelham and its history. Detail of 1895 Map by Julius Bien & Co. Showing Bartow, Northwest of City Island. All that remains today of the little hamlet of Bartow are the remnants of a once beautiful stone train station designed by famed architect Cass Gilbert and built in 1908 to replace the little wooden station built on the branch line in the 1870s. The station was known as Bartow station. Today the stone station is a collapsed and decrepit shell covered with vandals' graffiti. in Pelham Bay Park I have published to the Historic Pelham Blog a number of postings about the hamlet of Bartow and the remnants of its train station. See: Thu. March 24, 2005: The Bartow Area of Pelham in the 19th Century: Where Was It? Thu. July 21, 2005: Today's Remnants of the Bartow Station on the Branch Line Near City Island? This "Map of Bartow Village" shows a planned subdivision thwarted by New York City's acquisition and annexation of the lands as part of its development of Pelham Bay Park during the late 19th century. The map offers an interesting insight into the area. The railroad tracks cross the map from left to right in its very center. The small black rectangle at the center of the map represents the Bartow Station. A photograph of the remnants of that station appears above. Today's pathway leading to the remnants of the station appears to lie approximately where "Third Street" was planned in the little Village. On the Long Island Sound side of the railroad tracks, there were a number of streets planned to lead from today's Shore Road toward the railroad tracks: First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Streets. Third Street was the only such street planned to cross the railroad tracks. Bishop Avenue was planned for construction parallel to the railroad tracks on the Sound side immediately in front of the Railroad Depot. On the side of the railroad tracks away from the Long Island Sound (opposite the Railroad Depot) two streets were planned for construction parallel to the railroad tracks: Oak Avenue and Chestnut Avenue. Interestingly, the map seems to reflect that a number of the properties near the Railroad Depot were reserved by the Bartow Estate involved in the development of the subdivision -- presumably because the properties likely were among the most commercially valuable. A few others appear to have been reserved for -- or owned by -- others including J.H. Byron. Today the area sits near the Pelham Bit Stables in Pelham Bay Park. Rarely do those who pass even realize that a residential village once was planned where today there is little more than trees, brambles and a lovely bridle trail.

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The State of Vermont does not have a uniform occupancy standard. An occupancy standard is a law, ordinance or guideline that outlines how much space is required per person in a living unit. Some rules express the requirements in terms of square footage per person for specific activities such as sleeping, eating and living space. Several communities (including Burlington and Rutland) in Vermont have enacted ordinances that place restrictions on how many people can live in a dwelling. Other guidelines, such as HUD’s guideline (21 KB), recommends two persons per bedroom. There are exceptions to this standard; for instance, if a dwelling has two bedrooms and one bedroom is very large, it might be reasonable to allow three people to use the large bedroom. Occasionally there are sewage and water limitations that are placed on specific properties. These types of limitations are usually found at mobile home/trailer parks. These restrictions must be enforced consistently and must be restrictions that are part of the property’s conditions for receiving the required permits. Occupancy restrictions must be documented and cannot be arbitrarily used by the property owner to exclude or limit the number of children in a park or complex. FAQ – I am a single mother with a young child. I went to rent a one-bedroom apartment and the owner said that I could not rent it because it is not right for a child and parent to share a bedroom. Is that okay? No. You are the person who decides whether or not your child can sleep in the same room as you. Two persons per room is the standard. In addition, sometimes property owners don’t want to rent two-bedroom apartments to families with two children of the opposite sex. The property owner cannot lawfully use that as a reason to turn a family down. FAQ - I rent properties to students. I have known students to cram six people into what I consider a four person unit. Do I have to allow this? Check your local ordinances to see if there are any occupancy restrictions. If there are no such ordinances, then reasonableness is the standard. If it is a unit that only has two bedrooms and none of the bedrooms are abnormally large then it would probably be reasonable to restrict occupancy to four people. If, on the other hand, the bedrooms are extremely large and could easily accommodate three persons, then your restriction may not be reasonable. Conversely, if a dwelling has two bedrooms and one of the bedrooms is very small, it might be reasonable to limit occupancy of the dwelling to three persons.

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Appeal to the Australian Government to Ratify the United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (The Migrant Workers Convention) International Migrants Day – 18 December 2011 The Migrant Workers Convention is one of the nine core United Nations human rights treaties. It has been ratified by 45 countries. On this 21st anniversary of the signing of this Convention and eight years after it entered into force, we join in the civil society appeal to Australia to ratify the Convention and to be become a leader advocating for the protection of human rights of those who work outside their country of origin. The Convention upholds what is already obvious: that the rights of migrants and their families are human rights. Australia and Ratification of the Convention The Australian government has stated that its laws are already consistent with the standards of the Convention. Australia’s voice and leadership on this issue will make a difference for migrants everywhere and will reinforce the efforts of those in Australia working to ensure these commonly accepted employment standards are upheld. Australia has been one of the greatest migrant receiving countries in history, and the modern Australian community has come into being through generations of migration. In 2010 Australia was home to 6 million migrants born in over 200 countries of the world. The country has strived for a high standard in the inclusion accorded to new arrivals, and to ensure that they become part of its community. The Convention will help Australia to advance this high standard into the future as the world responds to the globalisation of labour. Ratification will complement existing government efforts to address the exploitation of migrant workers that occurs via clandestine labour movements and labour trafficking. Conditions Faced by Migrant Workers Around the World It is intolerable that an individual working far from home should be kept in virtual slavery. It is unacceptable that a worker should be denied the rightful wages they have earned, simply because they are working outside their country of birth. Women or men carrying out the work of caring for the homes of their employer, should not be denied their human dignity and such work should not be denied the respect it deserves. Farm workers who tend to the crops and collect the produce that feeds the world, are entitled to expect that society will uphold their human rights. All workers are entitled to a safe place of work. All migrant workers and their families are entitled to the equal protection of the law which is their fundamental human right. These are some of the conditions that the Convention addresses. Appeal to Australia Australia has been a strong and clear voice in international forums for international human rights standards. Its voice has been raised for the rights of women, for children, against torture, against racism, for civil and political rights, and for economic, social and cultural rights. By ratifying the Convention, Australia can play a leading role in our region and support neighbouring nations to end the exploitation of migrants. We appeal to Australia to ratify and to stand as a strong advocate for these human rights in international forums in which it participates. This statement has been issued by the Human Rights Council of Australia, in support of the Campaign for Australian ratification of the Migrant Workers Convention. For more information visit: http://hrca.org.au/activities/migrant-workers-convention/

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Supporting Your Student While Letting Go The college years can be exciting and stressful for both you and your child. Exciting, because your child will be learning to live independently, and this allows both of you to explore other parts of your lives. Stressful, because this means that your relationship will change. Some find this process enjoyable; others do not. In order for this transition to be as productive as possible, you will need to be patient, understanding, supportive, and clear and reasonable about your expectations. Listed below are some tips you might find helpful during this process. - Rule #1: Don’t ask if he is homesick. While it is true that many students miss being at home, most are so busy in the first weeks of school that they do just fine, as long as nothing reminds them about being away from home. Even if he never brings it up, you can rest assured that he does miss you. If your student is really homesick, encourage him to stick it out for one semester. - Rule #2: Write, even if she doesn't write back. Your student will be exploring and enjoying her independence and this is necessary for her development. Even so, she will want to keep her family ties, as well as the security those ties bring. It’s nice for her to receive things in the mail (and depressing when the box is empty). Still, she may not respond for some time. Don’t interpret silence as rejection. - Rule #3: Ask questions (but not too many). First-year students tend to resent interference with their newfound lifestyles, but most still want to know that someone is still interested in them. Parental curiosity can be experienced as supportive or alienating, depending on the attitudes of the people involved. Honest inquiries that further the parent bond are welcomed. Pulling rank, “I have a right to know” questions, and hidden agendas should be avoided. - Rule #4: Expect change (but not too much). It is natural and inevitable that your student will change over the course of his time here. For some, this change is gradual. For others, it is quick and dramatic. This can be quite stressful for all involved. It helps to remember that young adults should be forming their own identities, and that it is counterproductive to try and stop them from doing so. While you may never understand the changes in your child's social, vocational, and personal choices that may occur in college, it is within your power to accept them. Maturation can be a slow and painful learning process. Please be patient. - Rule #5: Don’t worry excessively about moody behavior. You might find parenting during the college years to be pretty thankless. Your student may sometimes feel overwhelmed with all that is happening, and she might turn to you in distress. Conversely, you may rarely hear from her when things are going well. You are serving as a “touchstone” for your student, someone she can turn to when she feels the need. Regardless of what she might say, this is valuable to her. If your student’s “bad mood” seems persistent and you have concerns about it, call the Office of Student Health Services to discuss it further. - Rule #6: Visit (but not too often). Whether they admit it or not, students usually appreciate visits from their parents. This gives them a chance to connect to both of their “worlds” at once. “Surprise” visits are usually not appreciated because they can feel disrespectful. It is better to wait for planned visits, such as the Family Weekend opportunity. After that, arrange times that are convenient for you and your student. When you do visit, treat your child to a meal away from the dining hall or offer to do the laundry. Your visits will be eagerly anticipated! - Rule #7: Avoid the “These are the best years of your life” speech. The college years are full of discovery, inspiration, good times and friends. But they are also marked by indecision, insecurity, disappointment, and mistakes. In all probability your student will learn that college is much more challenging, in every way, than he imagined. Parents who think that college students “have it made,” and that they should always perform well and be worry-free are wrong. Those who accept the highs and lows are providing the kind of support students need most. - Rule #8: Trust your student. Finding oneself is a difficult enough process without feeling like the people whose opinions you respect most are second-guessing your own second-guessing. One mother wrote her son during his senior year: “I love you and want for you all the things that make you happiest: and I guess you, not I, are the one who knows best what those things are.” If you’re smart, you’ll believe it, mean it, and say it now! Adapted from the National Orientation Directors Association

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Scene Recognition System The passion of developers who transcend the barriers of the workplace and debate from every possible angle in pursuit of an even better technology The Scene Recognition System is a completely new technology. We have heard that the development process was fraught with various difficulties. “To achieve an ‘even better technology’ was a challenge the Scene Recognition System absolutely had to overcome. There were plenty of difficulties just to do that. First of all, since the development process required us to undertake simulations showing how certain types of image data we photographed could produce certain types of output, we had to start by taking huge volumes of sample photos to be used in the simulations. To do that, we made a special camera that could use a 1,005-pixel RGB sensor to read the photo data. We connected the camera to a computer and took photos of lots of scenes we supposed would also be taken outdoors, although it looked a little strange to passers-by.” This technology could have never come about if you weren't persistent, right? How did the data processing, one of the primary focuses of development, work out? “A huge number of calculations is necessary to perform Scene Recognition, and the data processing inside the camera was extremely busy. The same information from the 1,005-pixel RGB sensor required different calculation processes depending on whether it was being analyzed for AE or AF. It took considerable effort to put together the required algorithms or to give the microprocessor enough memory to operate efficiently.” Do the various calculations have to take place instantly? “Yes. Even a single action requires extremely complex, high-speed calculations. Continuous shots in particular represent the hallmark of a successful camera. The camera has to work at maximum capacity when this is being done in AF. When the mirror is down, light is read by the sensor, and the instant the mirror goes up, calculation results are fed back, and when the shutter is pressed, the camera has to finish all the work. To repeat these operations instantaneously, calculations for various types of information to be passed on need to occur in an instant.” I see. So, calculations are necessary for every movement of the camera? “Exactly. It's extremely difficult to get the hardware and the data obtained in simulations to work together. We don't have much difficulty making simulations on the computer, but we had a very hard time getting the actual mechanism to work based on the simulation data. In 3D-Tracking, for instance, subject tracking information and AF need to link up and work together, but it didn't work at all at the beginning. We thought we had debugged the program and got the calculations perfect, too, but there were so many unknowns in this pioneering technology, it took a long while for us to make it work. We tested various possibilities in this process of trial and error, and once we finally got it to work in the camera, everyone involved in development and engineering felt a sense of achievement.” You have been involved mainly in the development of metering technologies since you joined Nikon, so in the development of the Scene Recognition System, you had to expand into other fields such as AF, didn't you. I'm very interested in how you approached those challenges. “Everyone in the development team came from completely different jobs, but our departments were nearby and we were in an environment where we could talk to each other quite easily. When talk of this development project came up, we had lots of discussions between departments. Especially when the idea was first proposed, it came under criticism from people wondering whether there was any sense in even attempting such a high hurdle. Once we put our heads together and talked openly about how we felt, I think we created an ideal environment for making something better.” You knew it would be difficult, but you didn't say it was impossible. It is an admirable testimony to the interest and passion all the developers had for this new technology. “I think it really was thanks to the efforts of so many people that we were able to do this. In the process of turning this new technology into a viable product, there really was a tremendous amount of ambiguity from the original idea to the final specifications we decided on. There were so many things we couldn't know just through experiments on the desk. In this area we had some members in the company who were in charge of making test photos and giving us constant advice. They were just like test drivers for new cars. We received lots of ideas from the hands-on experience of these people. Real ideas from the field are indeed very different from theoretical ideas, and they were indispensable to our development efforts.” The harder the road we travel, the greater is our joy at the end. Just to hear someone say they were able to take a photo they could never take before. How long did it take your team to develop the Scene Recognition System? - Speaking of his future endeavors, Mr. Takeuch enthusiastically says: I want to explore applications to various camera models by considering their specifications and target users. “About three years including time for the original idea.” The D3 and D300 equipped with the Scene Recognition System have been released. Looking back on the development process, where did you get the energy to overcome all those difficulties? “It was really our strong desire to succeed in creating this system. The difficulty in developing the system was the scale of the expectations people had for this technology. This provided the support we need to overcome obstacles in the development process. Of course, we have considerable satisfaction in having developed the technology, but more than that we look forward to the reaction of users. Though we developed these cameras with high-end, professional users in mind, professionals have the ability to make do with cameras with few functions. So if professionals use these cameras and say they are really useful, that would be a mark of success for us. The aim of the Scene Recognition System really has been to enable people to take photos they could never take before.” We also look forward to future applications of the Scene Recognition System, which has a lot of potential. “As a core technology, we would like to adapt it to future camera models, considering their specifications and target users. We want to start looking into various applications that will meet those needs.”

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|Click to see the full size image| About the Image Since 2003 I've been gathering texts from the web written in indigenous and minority languages. The image above is a "family tree" of the 1000 languages I've found to date, where proximity in the tree is measured by a straightforward statistical comparison of writing systems (details below). - When you load the full image it will be too big to fit in a browser window and you may not see anything at first – you'll need to use the horizontal and vertical scrollbars to explore different parts of the tree (most browsers will let you zoom in and out also). And because it's an SVG image, you can use your browser's search functionality (probably Ctrl+F or ⌘-F) to find different language codes, although the search behavior can be a bit weird/unpredictable. - Each language is colored according to its linguistic family (details here). For example, all Indo-European languages are greenish colors, with different subfamilies (Celtic, Germanic, etc.) being slightly different shades of green. I also tried to use similar colors for languages from the same geographical region even when there is no known genetic relationship among them, and so Arawakan, Quechuan, Tucanoan languages (all from South America) are shades of purple, while Central and North American languages are shades of blue. - Clicking on a language opens a new tab or window with the documentation page for the ISO 639-3 language identifier where you'll find a name for the language in English and a link to its Ethnologue page for additional information. - What I'm calling "languages" are really "writing systems"; you'll see, for example, separate nodes for bo (Tibetan) and bo-Latn (Tibetan written in Latin script). In a small number of cases I track macrolanguages, regional variants (e.g. en, en-IE, en-ZA), and some dialects. In total, there are 919 distinct ISO 639-3 codes among the 1000 writing systems represented. The Gory Details Everything is based on an analysis of three character sequences ("3-grams") in the different languages. It turns out that computing the statistics of 3-grams in a given language provides a "fingerprint" that can be used for language identification and a number of other applications. Specifically, imagine the huge-dimensional vector space V whose axes are labelled with all possible 3-grams of Unicode characters (dim V > 1015). Given a collection of texts in a language, you can compute the frequencies of all 3-grams that appear in the collection, defining a (sparse) vector in V "representing" the language. We then define the distance between two languages to be the angle between their representative vectors in V. This can be computed by scaling the vectors to unit length and computing their dot product (which is the cosine of the angle we want). Once we know the distance between each pair of languages, we can reconstruct a phylogenetic tree using any of a number of well-known algorithms. The image above was created using the so-called "neighbor-joining" algorithm (which basically builds the tree in a greedy, bottom-up way). A side-effect of the algorithm is that each edge in the tree is assigned a length, but note that the edge lengths in the rendered image have nothing to do with the computed edge lengths (indeed, it's unlikely that the tree can be rendered in a distance-preserving way in two dimensions). Another side-effect of the algorithm is that the tree is connected – by definition, all languages are within a bounded distance of each other – and so near the root of the tree you'll see various languages which use completely different scripts joined in a more-or-less random fashion (Khmer, Georgian, Tamil, Cherokee, etc.). It would be easy enough to tweak the distance function or the algorithm to render languages with different scripts as separate connected components. How many languages are out there? Ethnologue lists 6909 living languages in the world, but how many have some presence on the web? The answer depends greatly on what kinds of documents you include. If one takes linguistic studies into account, the number might be as high as 4000 – the Open Language Archives Community (OLAC) brings together data from linguistic archives all over the world into a single, searchable interface. The OLAC coverage page shows, at present, the existence of online resources for 3930 of the 6909 Ethnologue languages, with more material coming online every day. The amazing ODIN project harvests examples of interlinear glossed text from linguistic papers, and has over 1250 languages in its database. The 1000 languages found by my web crawler are, for the most part, what you might call "primary texts": newspapers, blog posts, Wikipedia articles, Bible translations, etc. My best guess at present is that around 1500 languages have primary texts of this kind on the web. If you know of online resources written in a language that's not listed on our status page, please let me know in the comments. Here are a couple of closely-related (but ill-defined) questions: first, "How many of the 6909 languages have a writing system?" and second, since a great number of the texts we've found are Bible translations or other evangelical works, one might ask "How many languages have a writing system that's used regularly by members of the speaker community?" I've looked around a bit for answers to these questions but I haven't found any careful studies in the literature. Mash it up! First, I'd like to thank the hundreds of people who have contributed to the project over the years by providing training texts in many of the languages, correcting errors in the language identification, editing word lists, and helping separate different dialects/orthographies. You'll find many of their names on the project status page. Thanks also to Michael Cysouw who first suggested generating an image of this kind (you can find his image, created in 2005, on the main project page). Finally, thanks to my colleagues at Twitter for several helpful conversations and for their interest in the Indigenous Tweets project.

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MURRAY, UT (2/7/2011) – One of the most prolific inventors at Intermountain Medical Center has come up with a new invention: a device that could potentially revolutionize diabetes care. The new device is called a Smart Tray and was invented by Joel Ehrenkranz, MD, director of diabetes and endocrinology at Intermountain Medical Center, flagship hospital for the Intermountain Healthcare system. The tray includes seven separate sections, each with its own sensitive scale, and is programmed with a database of 7,000 food items Users can place different foods on the tray, tell the tray what it's holding, and begin eating. The tray will instantly calculate the calories, carbohydrates, protein, and fat being consumed. That information can be relayed wirelessly to a computer, mobile device, or insulin pump and automatically determine the patient's next dose of insulin. "Right now diabetics don't have access to accurate, personalized nutritional information. It's very time- and labor-intensive to calculate, so it's hard for hospitals and individuals to do. That makes it harder to control the disease," said Dr. Ehrenkranz. "The Smart Tray gives caregivers and patients precise information, and that will empower them to better manage diabetes,” he says. The Smart Tray can also track things like potassium, cholesterol, and sodium, which will benefit individuals with heart failure,renal failure, high cholesterol, and even individuals who just want to loseweight. The tray is also customizable, so that users can input their familyrecipes. One major benefit is that the tray works with Intermountain Healthcare's internationally recognized electronic health record system, sothat nutritional information can be streamed into a patient's chart and become part of an extremely complex set of data used to improve care. The Smart Tray project began at Intermountain Medical Center, with collaboration from Richard Brown, dean of the University of Utah College of Engineering. A patent is pending and The Smart Tray is moving toward production. The goal is to use it in Intermountain hospitals and eventuallymake it available to individuals for use at home. “This project is the type of research and innovation that is occurring at Intermountain Medical Center on a daily basis,” says David Grauer, CEO/administrator of the hospital. “We’re very proud to be able to support this kind of work that will lead to significant advancements in the way care is delivered to patients.” Currently, there are more than 500 clinical trials underway at Intermountain Medical Center. The Smart Tray is the latest in a long list of inventions by Dr. Ehrenkranz, who has developed several drugs and medical devices. One recent example is a simple, inexpensive test for iodine deficiency. The test, featured in the February edition of the journal Thyroid, works like a home pregnancy test, eliminating the need for labs and technicians. It's being used in developing nations to diagnose newborns with iodine deficiency and begin treatment, preventing major public health problems such as goiter. Dr. Ehrenkranz is a graduate of Stanford School of Medicine and has served on the medical staffs of hospitals on the East Coast, Colorado, and Arizona. He is the holder of seven patents and is widely published in the field of endocrinology. He has served in roles with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the National Institutes of Health, as well as several professional organizations. Dr. Ehrenkranz, MD, and a handful of other scientists, were recently honored by the University of Utah for their inventions and contributions to advancing science in the state of Utah.

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Development of the Eye (2nd of 3) Beginning of 4th week (4 mm, lens placode appears) Early in the 4th week optic vesicles extend from the 3rd ventricle and wall of the forebrain (diencephalon). As the vesicle reaches the surface ectoderm it flattens (a) and progressively invaginates (b) to form the optic cup, which remains attached to the forebrain by the optic stalk (precursor of the optic nerve). The asymmetric invagination leaves a groove, the choroid fissure, in the stalk. The adjacent ectoderm thickens to form the lens placode (a & b) which invaginates and (eventually) separates (c) from the ectoderm to form the lens vesicle. The primary optic vesicle (a) becomes a double-walled optic cup (c). With continued invagination the original lumen of the optic vesicle is reduced to a slit between the 1) inner neural layer and 2) outer pigment layer of the optic cup (c). Mesenchyme around the optic vesicle will contribute to the fibrous coats of the eye (sclera/cornea) externally and the choroid layer adjacent to the pigment layer. It also forms the hyaloid vessels (c) which pass in the choroid fissure, across the vitreous chamber, to supply the lens.

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Jalam b. Shayban Exact dates are not known for him Texts for Jalam b. Shayban About the end of the 3rd/9th century, even before the Fatimid Caliphate was established on the North African soil, the Fatimid mission was at work in many countries including India. On this point we have the evidence of the learned Qadi an-Nu'man (d. 363/ .974)., Chief Qadi of the Fatimid Caliph ai-Mu'izz (d. 365/976), who states that in 270/883 the Yamani Da'i Abu I-Qasim b. Hawshab Mansur al-Yaman sent his nephew al-Haytham as da'i (missionary) to Sind and the Da'wa (mission) spread to Hind'.

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BOSTON, MA (Ivanhoe Newswire) -- New research aims to give doctors a unique view inside the human body using a remote-controlled capsule which could find a problem and treat it. A miniaturized doctor and his team swim through a human body to save a life in the sci-fi classic Fantastic Voyage. Decades later, a new swimming pill could give doctors a new way to save lives. Noby Hata, co-inventor of the swimming endoscopic capsule, told Ivanhoe, "This capsule can stop or move or aim at the disease lesions so you can actually try to cure the lesion." The capsule is designed to be swallowed like a pill. Doctors will be able to control the camera magnetically from outside using an MRI machine’s magnetic signals. There is a coil to induce the current remotely. Hata says the MRI works much like a GPS. "You will see the cross section of the body and also the little capsule in the middle and you can navigate this capsule using this map as guidance." So far, he’s successfully tested a prototype of the capsule in a fish tank inside an MRI machine. The goal is to one day be able to deliver drugs or laser treatments directly to tumors or injuries in the digestive track. Dr. Kunal Jajoo, associate physician in the Department of Medicine at Brigham and Women’s Hospital believes this could change the way colonoscopies are performed. "It’s an amazing advance to be able to steer something that small within the body and really direct it to areas that might need therapy or biopsy or the like."

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This monograph, based on an enormous experience with 16,845 consecutive cases of syphilis in the Chinese, white and Negro races, deals with the fundamental problem of immunity in syphilis. The senior author has had a unique opportunity to observe the varying course of syphilis among these three different races in two first class syphilologic centers, that of the Johns Hopkins Hospital and the School of Hygiene and Public Health, and the Peiping Union Medical College. The junior author was formerly Director of Venereal Disease Control, National Health Administration of China. The study was carried out over a period of more than twenty-five years. While the book is written in a rather philosophic tone, the statistical summations of the experience are impressive, and should satisfy the requirements of readers who wish to examine the data in detail. Scattered studies of race and sex differences in the frequency with which late serious

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The epidemiology of hepatitis A infection in Palestine: a universal vaccination programme is not yet needed In Palestine, there has been an increase in the reported incidence of acute hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection since 1995. Since overt clinical disease occurs only among adults, questions were raised whether or not a shift in the epidemiology of HAV has occurred. This is generally characterized by a decrease in the overall incidence rate and a shifting in the mean age of infection towards adolescence and early adulthood. The need for a vaccination programme is being discussed. To resolve this issue, we examined the prevalence of anti-HAV in a representative sample of 396 school children in the Gaza Strip. The prevalence of anti-HAV was 93·7% (95% CI: 91·3, 96·1%). Stratifying the prevalence by age showed that 87·8% (95% CI: 78·6, 97%) were HAV antibody positive by the age of 6. By the age of 14, almost 98% (95% CI: 92·7, 100%) were HAV antibody positive. This means that the majority of HAV infection is still taking place in early childhood, when it is usually asymptomatic and of little clinical significance. The results refuted the shifting epidemiology theory and we recommend that a vaccination programme against HAV infection is not yet needed. Alternative explanations for the increase in reported cases are discussed.(Accepted April 17 2001) c1 Author for correspondence.

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Click link below picture Vast numbers of cells that can attack cancer and HIV have been grown in the lab, and could potentially be used to fight disease. The cells naturally occur in small numbers, but it is hoped injecting huge quantities back into a patient could turbo-charge the immune system. The Japanese research is published in the journal Cell Stem Cell. Experts said the results had exciting potential, but any therapy would need to be shown to be safe. The researchers concentrated on a type of white blood cell known as a cytotoxic T-cell, which can recognise telltale markings of infection or cancer on the surfaces of cells. If a marking is recognised, it launches an attack. .Click link below for article:

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Even if you're a fan of TV hospital dramas, these shows might also make you nervous about what happens in an operating room. Millions of teens are wheeled into operating rooms (ORs) each year, so it can help to find out what to expect before you get to the hospital. Depending on the type of surgery you need, you may have inpatient surgery or outpatient surgery (also called ambulatory surgery). Inpatient surgery usually requires that you stay in the hospital for a day or more so the doctors and nurses can monitor your recovery carefully. If you have outpatient surgery, you will go home the same day. This type of surgery may be performed in a hospital or an outpatient surgery clinic and you can go home when the doctor decides you're ready. What to Expect If your surgery is not an emergency, it will be planned in advance. You will make a visit to the hospital or outpatient surgery location beforehand. Examples of emergency surgery include a broken elbow and appendicitis. When urgent surgery is required, you will go to the operating room after being diagnosed with a surgical problem. When you know about your surgery ahead of time, you will arrive at the hospital and a nurse or other hospital employee will begin the pre-surgical process. He or she will begin by asking questions about your medical history, including any allergies you might have and any symptoms or pain you may be having. Girls may be asked if there is any chance of being pregnant. Nurses will also take your vital signs like your heart rate, temperature, and blood pressure. Soon after you arrive, you'll be given an identification bracelet — a plastic tape with your name and birthdate on it — to wear around your wrist. You'll also be asked about the time you last ate or drank anything. This might seem strange, but it's actually very important to your safety. Having food or liquids in your stomach can lead to vomiting during or after the surgery and cause harmful complications. You might need to have other tests, like X-rays and blood tests, before your surgery begins. Before your operation takes place, you and your family will have a chance to meet with the anesthesiologist — the doctor or certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA) who specializes in giving anesthetics, the medications that will help you fall asleep or numb an area of your body so you don't feel the surgery. The anesthesiology staff will have your medical information so you can be given the amount of anesthetic you need for your age, height, and weight. There are several types of anesthesia. General anesthesia causes you to become completely unconscious during the operation. If you're having general anesthesia, the anesthesiologist or CRNA will be present during the entire operation to monitor your condition and ensure you constantly receive the right doses of medications. If surgery is done under local anesthesia, you'll be given an anesthetic that numbs only the area of your body to be operated on. You also might be given a medication that makes you drowsy during the procedure. Before your operation, the nurse or doctor will clean (and shave, if necessary) the area of your body that will be operated on. You'll be asked to take off any jewelry, including barrettes and hair ties, and you'll need to take out contact lenses if you wear them. You'll be given a hospital gown to wear in the operating room. A nurse will put an IV (intravenous) line in your arm and attach it to thin plastic tubing that is connected to a soft bag of fluid. This line will probably be used to give you anesthetic (if you're having general anesthesia) or provide you with fluids or medicine that may be needed during the operation. As you're wheeled into a hospital operating room, you may notice that the nurses and doctors are wearing face masks and plastic eyeglasses, as well as paper caps, gowns, and booties over their shoes. Patients are vulnerable to infection during an operation, so this protective gear lowers the chance of infection while you're in the operating room. The nurse or technician will then place monitoring equipment (sticker-like patches) on your skin to measure your heart rate and blood pressure at regular intervals Sometimes medical and nursing students observe surgeries, so don't be surprised if doctors and nurses aren't the only people in the room. After your surgery is over, you'll be taken to the recovery room, where nurses will monitor your condition very closely for a few hours. Sometimes this room is also called the post-op (postoperative) room or PACU (post-anesthesia care unit). Your parent may be able to visit you here. Every person has a different surgical experience, but if you've had general anesthesia, it's common to feel groggy, confused, chilly, nauseated, or even sad when you wake up. When the surgery has been completed, the surgeon will let you and your parents know how the procedure went and answer any questions you have. Once your anesthesia has worn off and you're fully awake, you'll be taken to a regular hospital room if you're staying overnight. If you're having an outpatient procedure, you'll be monitored by nurses in another room until you're able to go home. If you feel pain after the surgery, the doctors and nurses will make sure you have pain relievers to keep you more comfortable. You may also need to take other medications, such as antibiotics to prevent infection. Taking the Worry Out of Your Surgery The thought of having surgery can be scary. If you're worried, try these tips to help feel more at ease: Ask questions ahead of time. Your surgeon, anesthesiologist, and nurses will be able to answer your questions about the surgery, how you'll feel afterward, how long it will take to return to your normal activities, what type of scarring you might have, etc. Don't feel embarrassed about asking lots of questions — the more informed you are, the more comfortable you'll feel about having surgery. Be sure you're clear on instructions — and ask if you're not. Your doctor or a nurse will give you instructions on what to do before the surgery (called preoperative instructions) and what you can and can't do afterward (postoperative instructions). For example, your doctor may tell you to stop taking certain medications for a set period of time before surgery. (If you know about your surgery ahead of time, you should let your doctor know well in advance if you are taking any herbal or other non-prescription medications such as ibuprofen as your medical team might instruct you to stop taking them.) And follow your doctor's orders regarding eating before surgery. After surgery, your exercise and activities might be restricted for a while. Practice healthy habits.Smoking is never a good idea, but it's especially bad news after surgery when your body is trying to recover. Ditch the cigarettes, get plenty of rest, and eat nutritious foods. Try relaxation techniques. If you're nervous or anxious, taking a few slow, deep breaths or focusing on an object in the room can help you to tune out stressful thoughts and cope with your anxiety. Think of your favorite place and what you like to do there. Plan ahead. If you have to miss school because of surgery, talk to your teachers ahead of time and arrange to make up any tests or assignments. Get a friend you trust to take notes for you and drop off homework assignments. By planning ahead, you won't have to spend your recovery time stressing about your grades. Tell a few people. If you don't feel like sharing the details of your operation, you don't have to — but telling some friends that you'll be out of school for a few days might ensure you'll have some visitors! Your friends might even have some surgery stories of their own to share. Pack a few favorites. After you're out of the recovery room, you might want the comfort that some favorite CDs, iTunes, books, magazines, or a journal can bring, so make sure that when you're packing your hospital bag, you throw in a few goodies.

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Toxic shock syndrome can happen to anyone — men, women, and children. Although it can be serious, it's a very rare illness. If you're concerned about toxic shock syndrome, the smartest thing you can do is to read and learn about it, then take some precautions. What Is Toxic Shock Syndrome? If you're a girl who's had her period, you may have heard frightening stories about toxic shock syndrome (TSS), a serious illness originally linked to the use of tampons. But TSS isn't strictly related to tampons. The contraceptive sponge and the diaphragm, two types of birth control methods, have been linked to TSS. And, sometimes, the infection has occurred as a result of wounds or surgery, where the skin has been broken, allowing bacteria to enter. TSS is a systemic illness, which means that it affects the whole body. It can be caused by one of two different types of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes — although toxic shock that is caused by the Streptococcus bacteria is rarer. These bacteria can produce . In some people whose bodies can't fight these toxins, the immune system reacts. This reaction causes the symptoms associated with TSS. When people think of TSS, they often think of tampon use. That's because the earliest cases of the illness, back in the late 1970s, were related to superabsorbent tampons. Research led to better tampons and better habits for using them — such as changing tampons more often. The number of TSS cases dropped dramatically. Today about half of all TSS cases are linked to menstruation. Aside from tampon use, TSS has been linked to skin infections that are typically minor and can be associated with the chickenpox rash. TSS has also been reported following surgical procedures, giving birth, and prolonged use of nasal packing for nosebleeds — although all of these are rare. What Are the Signs and Symptoms? Symptoms of TSS occur suddenly. Because it's an illness that is caused by a toxin, many of the body's organ systems are affected. The signs and symptoms of TSS include: high fever (greater than 102° F [38.8° C]) rapid drop in blood pressure (with lightheadedness or fainting) sunburn-like rash that can be anywhere on the body, including the palms of the hands and soles of the feet vomiting or diarrhea severe muscle aches or weakness bright red coloring of the eyes, mouth, throat, and vagina headache, confusion, disorientation, or seizures kidney and other organ failure The average time before symptoms appear for TSS is 2 to 3 days after an infection with Staphylococcus or Streptococcus, although this can vary depending on the infection. Your risk of getting TSS is already low. But you can reduce it still further by simply following some common-sense precautions: Clean and bandage any skin wounds. Change bandages regularly, rather than keeping them on for several days. Check wounds for signs of infection. If a wound gets red, swollen, painful, or tender, or if you develop a fever, call your doctor right away. If you're a girl whose period has started, the best way to avoid TSS is to use pads instead of tampons. For girls who prefer to use tampons, select the ones with the lowest absorbency that can handle your menstrual flow and change them frequently. You can also alternate the use of tampons with sanitary napkins. If your flow is light, use a pad instead of a tampon. If you've already had an episode of TSS or have been infected with S. aureus, don't use tampons or contraceptive devices that have been associated with TSS (such as diaphragms and contraceptive sponges). What Do Doctors Do? TSS is a medical emergency. If you think you or someone you know may have TSS, call a doctor right away. Depending on the symptoms, a doctor may see you in the office or refer you to a hospital emergency department for immediate evaluation and testing. If doctors suspect TSS, they will probably start intravenous (IV) fluids and antibiotics as soon as possible. They may take a sample from the suspected site of the infection, such as the skin, nose, or vagina, to check it for TSS. They may also take a blood sample. Other blood tests can help monitor how various organs like the kidneys are working and check for other diseases that may be causing the symptoms. Medical staff will remove tampons, contraceptive devices, or wound packing; clean any wounds; and, if there is a pocket of infection (called an abscess), a doctor may need to drain pus from the infected area. People with TSS typically need to stay in the hospital, often in the intensive care unit (ICU), for several days to closely monitor blood pressure, respiratory status, and to look for signs of other problems, such as organ damage. TSS is a very rare illness. Although it can be fatal, if recognized and treated promptly it is usually curable.

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Operating on a baby before birth may seem like science fiction, but prenatal surgery is becoming more and more common in special pediatric programs throughout the United States. Since prenatal surgery was first pioneered in the 1980s, it's become an important way to correct certain birth defects that could be severe (and in some cases fatal) if babies were born with them unrepaired. Prenatal surgery (also called fetal surgery or fetal intervention) most often is done to correct serious problems that can't wait to be fixed, like certain heart defects, urinary blockages, bowel obstructions, and airway malformations. Some of the greatest successes have come from correcting spina bifida (an often disabling spinal abnormality in which the two sides of the spine fail to join together, leaving an open area). A recent landmark study reports that kids with spina bifida who received fetal surgery typically are more likely to walk, less likely to have serious neurological problems, and less likely to need a shunt to drain brain fluid. So how does prenatal surgery work? The most common types are: Open fetal surgery: In this type of procedure, the mother is given anesthesia, then the surgeon makes an incision in the lower abdomen to access the uterus (as would be done during a Cesarean section). The uterus is opened with a special stapling device that prevents bleeding, the fetus is either partially or completely taken out of the womb, surgery is done, then the baby is returned to the uterus, and the incision is closed. Open fetal surgery is performed for problems like spina bifida and certain other serious conditions. The mother will be in the hospital for 3-7 days and will need a C-section to give birth to the baby (and any future children). Fetoscopic surgery: This minimally invasive type of procedure, often called Fetendo fetal surgery, is more common than open fetal surgery. Small incisions are made and the fetus is not removed from the uterus. The surgeon uses a very small telescope (called an endoscope) designed just for this kind of surgery and other special instruments to enter the uterus and correct the problem. Fetendo is most useful for problems with the placenta, such as twin-twin transfusion syndrome in which one identical twin grows at the expense of the other because of abnormal blood vessel connections in the placenta they share. Fetal image-guided surgery: Some fetal surgery is done without an incision to the uterus or use of an endoscope. Doctors use ultrasound to guide them as they perform "fetal manipulations," such as placing a catheter in the bladder, abdomen, or chest. The least-invasive form of fetal surgery, it's not used for serious conditions that require open surgery. The benefits of prenatal surgery don't come without risks, though. Chief among them are premature births and problems with the incision site. Moms who have fetal intervention are closely monitored for preterm labor and receive medications to control it. Still, for many parents and their babies, fetal surgery is a true medical miracle.

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How does a doctor test to see if you have STDs? - Perry* There are different tests for different STDs. The kind of test someone gets depends on the type of STD, symptoms (like sores, discharge, or pain), and the person's medical and sexual history. STD testing starts with a physical exam. A doctor or will ask questions about health, including sex, then examine the person's genitals. For girls, this may include a pelvic exam. Based on what's learned from the interview and exam, the doctor or NP may take one or more of these samples: a blood sample (from either a blood draw or a finger prick) a urine sample a swab of the inside of the mouth a swab from the genitals, such as the urethra in guys or the cervix in girls a swab of any discharge or sores Sometimes, the sample can be tested right there in the health provider's office. Other times, the sample is sent to a lab and the results come later. It depends on the office and the type of infection doctors are testing for. STDs can be sneaky. Often there are no signs that a person has one. That's not necessarily a good thing. These "hidden" STDs can still put people at risk for health problems. Anyone who is having sex (or has had sex in the past) needs to get tested.

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Pub. date: 2007 | Online Pub. Date: September 25, 2007 | DOI: 10.4135/9781412952637 | Print ISBN: 9780761923879 | Online ISBN: 9781412952637| Publisher:Sage Publications, Inc.About this encyclopedia Saint-Simon, Henri (1760–1825) Francis M. Williams Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, was a French social theorist who is considered the founding father of social science and socialism. His writings contained original ideas on the application of scientific methods to the study of humans and society, championed a new “scientific-industrial” age, and influenced social theory and modern thought. His call for a “science of society,” situating it on a par with the natural sciences, influenced his disciple, Auguste Comte (1798–1857), as well as later sociologists. In his major work, Nouveau Christianisme (1825), Saint-Simon advocated a New Christianity—a secular humanist religion to replace the defunct traditional religions—that would have Saint-Simonism ...

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Heart –"veg. " way I am referring to study in ) The Journal of Clinical Pathology (USA–July 2001) wherein it has been published that veggies have helthy hearts.Many health – experts (including Dr. Michael Brown and Dr. Josef Goldstein, heart specialists of U.S.A. & winners of Noble Prize of many million dollars for Medicine) now recommend a diet, free of eggs and meat, for better health and disease-free life. The basis of their finding is: a) All flesharian foods i.e. eggs, fowl, fish, meat etc. contain no dietary fiber at all and so they cause a numberless bowel diseases such as chronic constipation, piles, gall-bladder-stones, colon cancer, indigestion, ulcer, colitis, kidney -failure, diverticulosis etc. All these illnesses can be prevented easily by taking only vegetarian foods which are full of dietary fibers. (b) The yolk of the egg contains 250 to 300 mgs cholesterol, a waxy fat, which deposits itself in the liver and hardens the arteries. The coronary arteries supplying blood to the heart are thus affected, causing fatal heart-attacks,strokes,gallstones,claudication,etc. c) The egg-white contains "Avidin" poison causing leprosy, eczema, paralysis, skin inflammation, skin-cancer, allergy etc. Prof. Egnerberg of Germany has found that eggs produce 51.83% of phlegm (cough) and disturb the balance of nutritive elements within the body. He further discovered that besides Salmonella, the incidence of Listeria is also on the increase which causes flue resulting in Meningitis etc. It can lead to the possibility of abortion in expectant mothers and diseases to the foetus. A brain disease called Creutzfeldt Jacob’s disease is similar to a disease in sheep called "scrapie". It has been known to pass into human beings from animals through the eating of eggs. d) All types of meats / eggs contain saturated fatty acids which are dangerous to health, particularly for blood vessels. Eggs also lack in vitamin B complex, vitamin C, calcium and carbohydrate and produce hyperacidity. Initially, eggs were considered to be easily digestible on animal -experiments but these days recent experiments on human beings have proved that they are not easily digestible. On the one hand, eggs are hard to digest, while on the other hand, infants and young children have very tender digestive system. So eggs must not be given to toddlers & youngsters even by mistake! Dr. E.B. Emary of America and Dr. Inha of England have clearly admitted that eggs are poison for human beings. The underdeveloped / developing countries ‘s scene is even worse. Experiments indicate that if eggs are left at more than 80c for more than 12 hours, the process of decay starts within their shells. Under the circumstances, where the temperature is always high, and it takes about 24 hours for the eggs to reach from poultry -farms to the sales counters, the process of contamination does already start as it is not possible to keep the eggs from their procurement to selling in refrigerators. During the process of decay, the watery component of the egg first begins to evaporate through the shell, then it is invaded by disease germs which penetrate the outer membranes of the egg and make it completely putrid. These minutely contaminated eggs are consumed due to their non-recognition resulting in stomach disorders, food-poisoning etc. To guard against epidemics and poultry– parasites, developing / un-developed poultry farmers make extensive use of D.D.T. and other such chemicals which in small measures enter the body of the birds and eggs. Generally an egg contains 15000 tiny breathing pores in its shell. The egg absorbs D.D.T. through its breathing pores. The people who eat such kind of eggs and chicken may also take D.D.T. inside them. Relation between D.D.T. poison and cancer is well established now-a-days. In this way, eggs may cause cancer — a most fatal disease. Secondly, to get more and more eggs from hens, poultry owners inject them with special kind of hormones (estrogen, progesterone etc). These hormones enter the eggs through their tiny breathing pores. The people, who eat such kind of eggs and chicken may also take these artificial hormones in them. According to the latest clinical research-studies, there is growing evidence that these hormones cause cancer to human beings. For the sake of good health, therefore, people should never eat eggs, chicken etc.

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Helping you get the most out of our U.S. Census Collection has been a top priority. To date, we’ve painstakingly gone through hundreds of millions of records spanning hundreds of years to make these 14 censuses easier to search and sharper to see. And 1930 is in the works. Take a look — you might just discover someone who was here the whole time. Deciphering a name on some U.S. Census records can be difficult. So we’ve enhanced the 1850, 1860, 1870, 1900, 1910 and 1920 censuses by adding an alternate where the information was unclear — over 20% new names in total. This improved indexing lets you find a record by searching either name. Only heads of households were mentioned by name in early censuses. And many of them shared that name (John Smith, for example) with others in their community. We’ve expanded the indexes for the 1790-1840 censuses with at least four new fields — like the total number of people in the household — so you can use your family knowledge to narrow down your search results. Now's the perfect time to dig in or renew the search for the missing pieces in your family story. Click the plus signs below to see the difference. 1910 U.S. Census

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