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Tell me about the International Dark-Sky Association—how did it start, what's the mission? IDA’s mission is to preserve and protect the nighttime environment and our heritage of dark skies through environmentally responsible outdoor lighting. IDA was founded in 1988 by a professional astronomer working at the Kitt Peak Observatory in Tucson, Arizona and an amateur astronomer who noticed that the increasing sky glow over Tucson was interfering with nighttime observations. Their message is simple, clear, and effective, and their efforts were fundamental in getting light pollution recognized around the world as an unwelcome and detrimental environmental condition. What are some of the effects of light pollution on animals? On humans? Tell me about some of the science that supports this. There are four main types of light pollution: sky glow (that strange orange dome over urban areas), glare (overly bright, unshielded points of light), light trespass (unwanted light intruding onto private property), and clutter (groupings of light sources). Animals and even plants are affected by sky glow and light trespass due to their extreme photosensitivity. Because seasonal temperatures can vary from year to year, many species rely on light cues to tell them when to shed leaves, mate, and reproduce. When outdoor lighting artificially prolongs the day, the instinctive rhythms of many species are affected. Many species behave unnaturally in the presence of artificial light—for example, light at night decreases a firefly’s ability to be seen, thereby hindering its ability to attract a mate. Sea turtles and migratory birds use starlight to orient themselves, so light pollution has devastated their internal navigation systems. Some birds will crash into tall buildings, or fixate on a light source, circling around it until they are exhausted and unable to fly. Glare from unshielded light sources presents the largest problem to humans. Effects of glare from poor outdoor lighting are a primary reason that the American Medical Association unanimously adopted Resolution 516 to support light pollution and glare reduction efforts last June. Depending on the severity, glare can cause discomfort or temporary night blindness. On the roadway, glares can interfere with visibility, presenting a hazard to both drivers and pedestrians. The problem gets worse as people age and gradually lose their ability to adjust to changing light levels. Exposure to excessive light at night has been found to alter the circadian rhythm, interfere with sleep patterns, and suppress the sleep hormone melatonin. The amount of light needed to affect sleep patterns is not known, but sleeping in total darkness is recommended by both the CDC and the NIH as a way to promote a regular circadian rhythm. What is International Dark-Sky Association doing to combat light pollution? How are you measuring the effectiveness of these campaigns? As an environmental educational 501(c)(3) non-profit, IDA has enacted dynamic programs in the areas of technology, conservation, and public awareness. IDA’s Fixture Seal of Approval program directly attacks sky glow by establishing “dark sky-friendly” criteria for outdoor light fixtures. Currently in the spotlight is our International Dark Sky Places (IDSPlaces) program, a conservation curriculum established to protect urban and rural starscapes. The IDS Communities and Dark Sky Developments of Distinction designations recognize outstanding dark sky preservation efforts in municipalities and planned communities. All designated IDSPlaces have met stringent lighting requirements through retrofits and legislation and have undertaken outreach efforts to educate the public about the importance of natural night. Many designees are successfully incorporating astronomy and stargazing into their local attractions, hosting festivals or sky watching events known as “star parties.” In house, IDA collects, creates, and distributes information relating to light pollution, much of which is available for free on the IDA website. We also participate in industry meetings and technology expos, and actively collaborate with non-profit interest groups. Do you see differences regionally? How bad is the East Coast in terms of light pollution? Several New England states have taken great strides to protect their skies. The east coast has more light on the whole simply because it is more densely populated, not because the lighting is necessarily worse. We don’t see a huge difference regionally so much as from city to city. Rural and urban areas across the world have enacted dark sky ordinances or are undertaking retrofits in public lighting (usually as part of an energy saving endeavor) and their lighting is much more thoughtful, more aesthetically pleasing, and more efficient than cities or townships that have not. What can you tell me about any legislation concerning light pollution, particularly on the East Coast? In New York? IDA’s newly opened public policy office in Washington, DC is creating a lot of opportunities for collaboration with other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and some significant inroads with energy agencies and congressional leaders, but any national action is a long way off. Many of these accomplishments have been spurred by Leo Smith, IDA’s Regional Director for New England Sections. Connecticut is the furthest along in terms of addressing light pollution, with three state laws, one state building code requirement, and one requirement from the utility regulators to present a new streetlight rate for streetlights that are programmed to turn off at midnight are on the books. The New Hampshire law, signed in July, also requires utility regulators to adopt a rate for streetlights that are turned off at midnight, as well as requiring shielded streetlights. Maine and Rhode Island both require shielded streetlights. New York isn’t quite there yet, though night lighting has been addressed in several regions, namely the municipalities of Tully, East Hampton, Southampton, Tuxedo Park, Riverhead, and Brookhaven. IDA conducts third-party certification of light fixtures— how successful has this program been, how many certified fixtures are currently on the market and how receptive has the industry been to change? IDA has reached out to the lighting industry since its inception. Good quality light at night is necessary for safety, security, and recreation, but outdoor light is the main cause of light pollution. Some members of the lighting community have been very apt to address this, and have worked to create products that minimize light pollution by directing light to the ground, where it is needed, instead of to the sky, where it becomes a wasteful nuisance. IDA is fortunate to have support from these companies, because they provide the technology to make our mission effective. The Fixture Seal of Approval program was started in 2005 to recognize lighting manufacturers who integrated the concept of full shielding into their fixture design and to encourage market expansion of dark sky-friendly products. Any approved fixture must be fully shielded to emit no light above a 90 degree angle. This program has been wildly successful for both IDA and the lighting manufacturers who join. The IDA seal is gaining worldwide recognition and becoming a selling point for manufacturers and vendors alike, and the market for dark sky-friendly products is expanding as companies strive to design sleek, stylish, and efficient fixtures. Over 100 manufacturers have joined the FSA program to date, featuring approximately 300 fixture models. What can consumers do to combat light pollution? And then, what can architects, builders, planners do to combat light pollution? Shield your light sources, especially floodlights. A “par shield” that clips on to the fixture makes a huge difference in directing light where you want it to go. If you install dark sky-friendly fixtures outside your home or business, you’ve already made a difference. Look for the IDA Fixture Seal of Approval or purchase a fully-shielded or full-cutoff product. Those who want to learn more or work toward creating an ordinance can join a local IDA Section (information at darksky.org) or contact a local astronomy club. Architects and builders interested in sustainability can achieve LEED Credit 8, which specifically addresses outdoor lighting. Again, purchasing and installing fully shielded fixtures in any new development is all it takes. The market now contains so many qualified fixtures that there is virtually no difference in price. Light sent into the sky costs the U.S. approximately $2.2 billion every year. As energy efficiency becomes imperative, city planners must consider improvements in public lighting as a long term way to reduce energy and conserve public funds. Most streets can dramatically lessen their lighting without compromising driver response time or pedestrian safety. In your view, what's the most compelling reason for consumers to swap their traditional outdoor lighting to a Dark Sky fixture, and how are you getting that message out? The dark skies movement will resonate with anyone who recognizes the profound effect light has on a space, indoor or outdoor. Seriously, what other small change can you make that affects wildlife, energy, and the ambiance of your entire neighborhood? In addition to the personal benefits you receive in terms of reduced energy use and a more pleasant personal space, a shift to dark sky-friendly lighting shows an awareness of the environment at large and a respect for the place you live. The dark sky message usually sells itself, once people become aware of it. IDA’s wonderful volunteers do a phenomenal job in spreading enthusiasm for the cause. Their interest in creating a sustainable, beautiful nighttime environment and their dedication to action is what drives the success this campaign. Thanks to the hard work of IDA volunteers worldwide, cities in the Americas, Europe, Asia, and even Australia are seeing the darkness. For more information about the IDA, local policies, and where to find shielded lighting, visit darksky.org

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v.: to dismantle or otherwise redistribute the composite parts of a whole, as with an automobile, motorcycle, or computer system, according to the respective practical or monetary value of each. n./adj.: used to denote or describe an item whose original purpose or function as a whole is no longer viable, but whose constituent parts retain some individual practical or monetary value, as with a "yard out" motorcycle (often hyphenated: "yard-out"), also called a "parts machine". Context: The parting out of automobiles, motorcycles, electronic computer systems, industrial and agricultural machinery, electrical appliances, medical apparatuses, nautical and aeronautical equipment and other mechanical devices and instrumentation is done as an economical and, incidentally, ecological means of recycling (see recycle) and reusing various components that may otherwise be more expensive or difficult to obtain. See also: part out; part it out; dismantle; parts queen, junk wagon. "Patrick had me yard out a Zenith carburetor from a Triumph Tigress as the British were up to no good."

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Such was the condition in Kansas at the opening of the presidential year of 1856, and it became one of the leading issues of the campaign. The whole country was aroused over reports from Kansas, and it was impossible that such a question remain long out of the halls of Congress, notwithstanding the claim of Douglas that his famous bill would remove the slavery question from national politics. In May, 1856, Senator Sumner made a powerful speech on "The Crime against Kansas." The speech was a fearful arraignment of the slave power. But the speaker went out of his way to abuse certain senators whom he did not like, especially Senator Butler of South Carolina, who was then absent from the city, and who had made no special personal attack on Sumner. Charles Sumner, with all his learning, was a narrow-minded man. He was opinionated, egotistical, and incapable of giving credit to another for an honest difference of opinion. But he was sincerely honest and courageous.¹ His espousal of the cause of the slave when that cause was very unpopular rose from the innermost depths of his soul. His furious attack on Butler was occasioned by the indignation expressed by the latter at the audacity of the Topeka convention in applying for statehood. But Sumner suffered severely for his extravagance. Two days after making this speech, as he sat at his desk writing, after the Senate had adjourned, he was assaulted with a cane by Preston Brooks, a member of the House and a relative of Senator Butler. Brooks rained blows on Sumner's head with great ferocity. Sumner sat so near his desk that he had no chance to defend himself; but at length he rose, wrenching the desk from its fastenings. Brooks then grappled with him and continued his blows until Sumner fell bleeding and unconscious to the floor. So great were the injuries of the Massachusetts senator that he did not fully recover for four years; and indeed, never after this assault was he the powerful, robust athlete that he had been before. No incident in many years revealed more vividly the vast gulf between the North and the South than did the different manner of their receiving the news of this assault on Sumner² Throughout the North the deed was denounced as a cowardly outrage, unworthy of any but a bully and a thug. At the South, where Sumner was hated above all men, the verdict was that he received only the punishment he deserved. Brooks was hailed as a champion and a hero, and was presented with many canes. He resigned his seat in the House because of a majority vote--not the necessary two thirds--for his expulsion; but he was immediately reëlected by his district.³ Meantime matters were growing worse on the plains of Kansas. On the day that intervened between the closing of Sumner's speech and the assault by Brooks the town of Lawrence was sacked by a mob. The House of Representatives sent a committee of three to Kansas to investigate matters and report. This committee, composed of William A. Howard of Michigan, John Sherman of Ohio, and Mordecai Oliver of Missouri, after examining several hundred witnesses, reported in July. Howard and Sherman reported favorably to the free-state party, but agreed that the election of Reeder to Congress, as that of Whitfield, was illegal. Oliver made a minority report favoring the southern view. With the attack on Lawrence the Civil War in Kansas may be said to have begun. Soon after this occurred the massacre of Pottawatomie, the leader of which was John Brown. Brown had come from the East to join his sons, who had been among the early settlers of Kansas. He was an ascetic and a fanatic. He had come to Kansas to make it a free state at any hazard. He regarded slavery with a mortal hatred, and while his courage was unlimited and his intentions upright, his soul was too utterly narrow to see a thing in its true light. He believed that the only way to free the slaves was to kill the slaveholders. "Without the shedding of blood, there is no remission of sins," said John Brown. A few free-state men, one of whom was a neighbor of Brown, had been killed by the opposite party, and Brown determined that an equal number of them should suffer death to expiate the crime. He organized a night raid--his sons and a few others--and started on his bloody errand. They called at one farmhouse after another and slew the men in cold blood. He did not inquire if they were guilty of not guilty; enough if they belonged to the opposite party. One man was dragged from the presence of a sick wife. Her pleadings that he be spared were not heeded. He was murdered in cold blood in the road before his house. Before the end of that bloody night raid Brown's party had put six or seven men to death--for no crime except that they belonged to the opposite party and had made threats--an offense of which Brown's party were equally guilty. When the news of this ghastly work was flashed over the country, the people in general refused to believe it; and to the credit of the free-state people in Kansas, they repudiated it as wholly unwarranted. ¹While he was uttering this speech, in which he attacked Senator Douglas also without mercy, the latter said to a friend: "Do you hear that man? He may be a fool, but I tell you that he has pluck." Poore's "Reminiscences," Vol. I, p. 461. ²Rhodes, Vol. II, p. 143 ³Brooks died the following January, and Butler in May of the same year.

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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A modem self-test in which data from the keyboard or an internal test pattern is sent to the modem's transmitter, turned into analog form, looped back to the receiver, and converted back into digital form. A variety of signals and wavelengths that can be transmitted over communications lines such as the sound of a voice over the phone line. The mode used by your modem when answering an incoming call from an originating modem. The transmit/receive frequencies are the reverse of the originating modem, which is in originate mode. A computer program designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks. Examples include word processing and spreadsheet applications. Automatic Repeat reQuest. A function that allows your modem to detect flawed data and request that it be retransmitted. See MNP and V.42. American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A code used to represent letters, numbers, and special characters such as $, !, and /. Data transmission in which the length of time between transmitted characters may vary. Because characters may not be transmitted at set intervals, start/stop bits are used to mark the beginning and end of each character. Sets the modem to pick up the phone line when it detects a certain number of rings. See S-register S0 in the Technical Reference section of this guide. A process where your modem dials a call for you. The dialing process is initiated by sending an ATDT (dial tone) or ATDP (dial pulse) command followed by the telephone number. Auto-dial is used to dial voice numbers. See basic data command Dn in the Technical Reference section of this guide. A term used to measure the speed of an analog transmission from one point to another. Although not technically accurate, baud rate is commonly used to mean bit rate. A 0 or 1, reflecting the use of the binary numbering system. Used because the computer recognizes either of two states, OFF or ON. Shortened form of binary digit is bit. Also referred to as transmission rate. The number of binary digits, or bits, transmitted per second (bps). Communications channels using analog modems are established at set bit rates, commonly 2400, 4800, 9600, 14,400, 28,800, 33,600, and higher. bits per second (bps) The bits (binary digits) per second rate. Thousands of bits per second are expressed as kilobits per second (Kbps). A temporary memory area used as storage during input and output operations. An example is the modem's command buffer. A group of binary digits stored and operated upon as a unit. Most often the term refers to 8-bit units or characters. One kilobyte (KB) is equal to 1,024 bytes or characters; 640 KB is equal to 655,360 bytes or characters. The basic signal altered or modulated by the modem in order to carry information. A representation, coded in binary digits, of a letter, number, or other symbol. characters per second (cps) A data transfer rate generally estimated from the bit rate and the character length. For example, at 2400 bps, 8-bit characters with start/stop bits (for a total of ten bits per character) will be transmitted at a rate of approximately 240 characters per second (cps). Some protocols, such as error-control protocols, employ advanced techniques such as longer transmission frames and data compression to increase cps. class 1 and 2.0 International standards used by fax application programs and faxmodems for sending and receiving faxes. cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) An error-detection technique consisting of a test performed on each block or frame of data by both sending and receiving modems. The sending modem inserts the results of its tests in each data block in the form of a CRC code. The receiving modem compares its results with the received CRC code and responds with either a positive or negative acknowledgment. The transmission or sharing of data between computers via an electronic medium. data compression table A table containing values assigned for each character during a call under MNP5 data compression. Default values in the table are continually altered and built during each call: The longer the table, the more efficient throughput gained. Mode used by a modem when sending and receiving data files. Data Communications (or Circuit-Terminating) Equipment, such as dial-up modems that establish and control the data link via the telephone network. Any setting assumed, at startup or reset, by the computer's software and attached devices. The computer or software will use these settings until changed by the user or other software. A test that checks the modem's RS-232 interface and the cable that connects the terminal or computer and the modem. The modem receives data (in the form of digital signals) from the computer or terminal and immediately returns the data to the screen for verification. Discrete, uniform signals. In this guide, the term refers to the binary digits 0 and 1. Data Terminal (or Terminating) Equipment. A computer that generates or is the final destination of data. Indicates a communications channel capable of carrying signals in both directions. See half-duplex, full-duplex. Electronic Industries Association (EIA) Group which defines electronic standards in the U.S. Various techniques that check the reliability of characters (parity) or blocks of data. V.42 and MNP error-control protocols use error detection (CRC) and retransmission of flawed frames (ARQ). A method for transmitting the image on a page from one point to another. Commonly referred to as fax. The mode used by a modem to send and receive data in facsimile format. See definitions for V.17, V.27 ter, V.29. A mechanism that compensates for differences in the flow of data into and out of a modem or other device. See extended data commands &Hn, &In, &Rn in the Technical Reference section of this guide. A data communications term for a block of data with header and trailer information attached. The added information usually includes a frame number, block size data, error-check codes, and Start/End indicators. Signals can flow in both directions at the same time over one line. In microcomputer communications, this may refer to the suppression of the online local echo. Signals can flow in both directions, but only one way at a time. In microcomputer communications, may refer to activation of the online local echo, which causes the modem to send a copy of the transmitted data to the screen of the sending computer. Hertz, a frequency measurement unit used internationally to indicate cycles per second. An electronic communications network that connects computer networks and organizational computer facilities around the world. Internet Service Provider (ISP) A company that provides dial-up (modem) access to the Internet for a fee. An international organization that defines standards for telegraphic and telephone equipment. For example, the Bell 212A standard for 1200-bps communication in North America is observed internationally as ITU-T V.22. For 2400-bps communication, most U.S. manufacturers observe V.22 bis. Link Access Procedure for Modems. An error-control protocol defined in ITU-T recommendation V.42. Like the MNP protocols, LAPM uses cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) and retransmission of corrupted data (ARQ) to ensure data reliability. A modem feature that enables the modem to display keyboard commands and transmitted data on the screen. See basic data command En in the Technical Reference section of this guide. Microcom Networking Protocol, an error-control protocol developed by Microcom, Inc., and now in the public domain. There are several different MNP protocols, but the most commonly used one ensures error-free transmission through error detection (CRC) and retransmission of flawed frames. A device that transmits/receives computer data through a communications channel such as radio or telephone lines. It also changes signals received from the phone line back to digital signals before passing them to the receiving computer. nonvolatile memory (NVRAM) User-programmable random access memory whose data is retained when power is turned off. On the USRobotics modem, it includes four stored phone numbers and the modem settings. Modem operations that are the equivalent of manually lifting a phone receiver (taking it off-hook) and replacing it (going on-hook). online fall back/fall forward A feature that allows high-speed, error-control modems to monitor line quality and fall back to the next lower speed in a defined range if line quality diminishes. As line conditions improve, the modems switch up to the next higher speed. The mode used by your modem when initiating an outgoing call to a destination modem. The transmit/receive frequencies are the reverse of the called modem, which is in answer mode. A simple error-detection method that checks the validity of a transmitted character. Character checking has been surpassed by more reliable and efficient forms of error checking, including V.42 and MNP 2-4 protocols. Either the same type of parity must be used by two communicating computers, or both may omit parity. A system of rules and procedures governing communications between two or more devices. Protocols vary, but communicating devices must follow the same protocol in order to exchange data. The format of the data, readiness to receive or send, error detection and error correction are some of the operations that may be defined in protocols. Random Access Memory. Memory that is available for use when the modem is turned on, but that clears of all information when the power is turned off. The modem's RAM holds the current operational settings, a flow control buffer, and a command buffer. remote digital loopback A test that checks the phone link and a remote modem's transmitter and receiver. A copy of the data received by the remote system, returned to the sending system, and displayed on the screen. Remote echoing is a function of the remote system. Read Only Memory. Permanent memory, not user-programmable. The consecutive flow of data in a single channel. Compare to parallel transmissions where data flows simultaneously in multiple channels. The signaling bits attached to a character before and after the character is transmitted during asynchronous transmission. A device whose keyboard and display are used for sending and receiving data over a communications link. Differs from a microcomputer or a mainframe in that it has little or no internal processing capabilities. Software mode that allows direct communication with the modem. Also known as command mode. The amount of actual user data transmitted per second without the overhead of protocol information such as start/stop bits or frame headers and trailers. Compare with characters per second. The ITU-T standard specification that covers the initial handshaking process. An ITU-T standard for making facsimile connections at 14,400 bps, 12,000 bps, 9,600 bps, and 7,200 bps. An ITU-T standard for modems operating in asynchronous mode at speeds up to 300 bps, full-duplex, on public switched telephone networks. An ITU-T standard for modem communications at 1,200 bps, compatible with the Bell 212A standard observed in the U.S. and Canada. An ITU-T standard for modem communications at 2,400 bps. The standard includes an automatic link negotiation fallback to 1,200 bps and compatibility with Bell 212A/V.22 modems. An ITU-T standard for facsimile operations that specifies modulation at 4,800 bps, with fallback to 2,400 bps. An ITU-T standard for facsimile operations that specifies modulation at 9,600 bps, with fallback to 7,200 bps. An ITU-T standard for modem communications at 9,600 bps and 4,800 bps. V.32 modems fall back to 4,800 bps when line quality is impaired. An ITU-T standard that extends the V.32 connection range: 4,800, 7,200, 9,600, 12,000, and 14,400 bps. V.32 bis modems fall back to the next lower speed when line quality is impaired, fall back further as necessary, and also fall forward (switch backup) when line conditions improve (see online fall back/fall forward). An ITU-T standard that currently allows data rates as high as 28,800 bps. An enhancement to V.34 that enables data transfer rates as high as 33,600 bps. An ITU-T standard for modem communications that defines a two-stage process of detection and negotiation for LAPM error control. An extension of ITU-T V.42 that defines a specific data compression scheme for use during V.42 connections. An ITU-T standard for modem data compression. It provides for a 6:1 compression ratio. The ITU-T standard for 56 Kbps modem communications. This technology uses the digital telephone network to increase the bit rate of the receive channel by eliminating the analog to digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. V.90 connections require a modem with V.90 or x2 technology calling a digitally connected Internet Service Provider or corporate host site compatible with V.90 or x2 technology. The ITU-T standard for advanced 56 Kbps modem communications. This technology offers three new features to enhance the V.90 standard. The first feature is V.PCM-Upstream, which allows a modem's upstream communication to reach speeds of 48,000 bps. The second feature provides quicker connection times by allowing the modem to remember the line conditions of a V.92 supported service provider. The third feature is the Modem on Hold technology, which allows your Internet connection to be suspended when there is an inbound telephone call, then return to the connection when the call is completed without losing the connection. The V.92 technology can only be utilized if a V.92 modem is dialing into an Internet Service Provider that supports and provides a digital V.92 signal. World Wide Web (WWW) A part of the Internet designed to allow easier navigation of the network through the use of graphical user interfaces and hypertext links between different addresses. USRobotics's trademark for its proprietary technology that uses the digital telephone network to increase the bit rate of the receive channel by eliminating the analog-to-digital conversion commonly found in modem connections. x2 connections require a modem with x2 technology calling a digitally connected Internet Service Provider or corporate host site compatible with x2 technology. Standard ASCII control characters used to tell an intelligent device to stop/resume transmitting data.

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Outcome Thinking with SOCRATES Purpose: To provide an easy-to-remember summary of the key criteria and questions to help you develop a really “Well-Formed Outcome”. Using this model will significantly increase personal achievement over time and can also increase the immediate effectiveness of all your activities, for example, in meetings, negotiations and personal coaching sessions. |S||Specify your goal||What is the specific goal you really want to achieve? Is it stated in positive language? If “Moving Away From” the Present State, what do you want instead of the problem? |O||Own it||Is it within your control to make happen? If not, what can you bring within control? |C||Check your evidence for having achieved it||Step into it – ‘As if’ it is already achieved. Allow it to become fully associated in your mind: What are you seeing? What are you hearing? What are you feeling? What are you thinking? |R||Remember how you’ve achieved this particular goal||Looking back, how have you done this? What skills and resources have you used? |A||Add in your higher level ‘interests’||What does achieving this do for you?| What does it mean to you? What else is important to you about this? |T||Test against the needs of others most closely affected||How does your achievement ‘dovetail’ with the needs of others affected by it?| Is this acceptable to you? What do they need at the same time? |E||Ecology and other effects||Looking at the bigger systems that may be affected:| What is the impact of this achievement? What are the further consequences? What other ripples can you identify? |S||Step out and start||Looking back, what were your first steps? Dissociate – Is the image truly compelling? Test commitment (a score out of 10) 10 = Committed 8-9 Ask what has to be true to make it 10? 7 or less? – Check for any hidden positive by-products of the Present State and incorporate them. Or, change the goal!

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Botanical Name and Pronunciation: Dendranthema x grandiflorum (den-DRAN-the-ma grand-I-FLOR-um) shades of red, pink, orange, bronze, yellow, white Form and Size: Daisy spray mums have a leafy stem with many blooms. The blooms have several petals that uniformly extend out from an eye-like center. Gerbera daisies and chrysanthemum daises are similar. 7 – 14 days, sometimes longer Cut under water and place in fresh water with flower food. The stem must be cut above any woody portions to ensure good water intake. Do not pound stem ends, this will not help to ensure good water intake. History and Usage: A member of the Compositae (aster) family, chrysanthemums, including daisy mums, originated in China. They were first introduced to Japan in 400 A.D. They were then considered the emblem of the imperial family. They were introduced to Europe in the late 18th century. Chrysanthemums have a long vase life, so they go well in any arrangement. Daisy spray mums can be used as a filler flower, or in an arrangement as the main attraction. Points of Interest: Relatives of the chrysanthemum include cosmos, dahlia, calendula and zinnia. In Italy, mums are synonymous with death and funerals.

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|Regel 30:||Regel 30:| |Sediment supply from soft cliffs <br> © A. J. Chadwick |Sediment supply from soft cliffs <br> © A. J. Chadwick The current world’s coastlines were formed as a result of the last ice age, which ended about 10,000 years ago (see the beach management manual <ref name="CIRIA">CIRIA (2010). Beach management manual, Second Edition. Publication no. RP787, London.</ref>). At that time large ice sheets covered more of the world’s land masses than they do at present. As they melted there was a rapid rise of sea level (about 120m between 20,000 and 6000 years ago). Vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre-cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. Much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. These sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by [[Coast erosion|coastal erosion]] of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. Material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth’s climate. The current world’s coastlines were formed as a result of the last ice age, which ended about 10,000 years ago (see the beach management manual <ref name="CIRIA">CIRIA (2010). Beach management manual, Second Edition. Publication no. RP787, London. </ref>). At that time large ice sheets covered more of the world’s land masses than they do at present. As they melted there was a rapid rise of sea level (about 120m between 20,000 and 6000 years ago). Vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre-cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. Much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. These sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by [[Coast erosion|coastal erosion]] of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. Material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth’s climate. Versie van 16 okt 2012 om 09:36 Gravel beaches are widespread around the world, including the USA, Canada, Japan, Argentina, New Zealand and the wave dominated coastlines of Northern Europe . In the UK, about one third of the coastline is protected by such beaches . In coastal defence schemes, considerable use is made of coarse-grained (gravel) sediment to replenish eroding beaches, often in conjunction with structures such as rock or wooden groynes or offshore breakwaters. This is because such beaches are known to be an efficient form of natural coastal defence . Two examples from the UK are those at Sidmouth, Devon and Elmer, West Sussex. |Sidmouth coastal defence scheme||Elmer coastal defence scheme | Picture courtesy of the Arun District Council Research into the particular characteristics of gravel beaches and their engineering analysis is relatively new, with much of the progress being made recently. In the 1990’s small scale experimental measurements and early field studies lead to the subsequent development of parametric models for profile prediction, longshore transport and the stability of barrier beaches. Since 2002, two major large scale experimental studies and some new comprehensive field studies have been undertaken. Since that time, good progress has also been made in process based numerical modelling systems for long and cross shore transport. The emphasis of the article is to present in a clear and concise manner the most relevant concepts, basic understanding and insights into the behaviour of gravel beaches, to provide a summary of the available engineering analysis techniques and modelling approaches and to provide guidance to further reading and a list of the most relevant references to work carried out since 1990. |Sediment supply from soft cliffs | © A. J. Chadwick The current world’s coastlines were formed as a result of the last ice age, which ended about 10,000 years ago (see the beach management manual ). At that time large ice sheets covered more of the world’s land masses than they do at present. As they melted there was a rapid rise of sea level (about 120m between 20,000 and 6000 years ago). Vast quantities of sediment were carried by rivers to the sea during this period, eventually forming the pre-cursor to our present coastlines as the rate of sea level rise rapidly reduced about 6000 years ago. Much of our beaches today are composed of the remnants of these sediments, composed predominantly of sand and gravel. These sources of beach material have subsequently been supplemented by coastal erosion of soft cliffs and the reduced but continuing supply of sediments from rivers. Material has also been derived from offshore banks left behind by relatively rapid rises of sea level after cold episodes in the earth’s climate. Sediment classification and properties |all pictures: © A. J. Chadwick| Traditionally sand and gravel sizes have been classified according to the Wentworth scale. This defines sand as being of diameter between 0.0625mm to 2mm. Material sizes larger than this are classified as gravel, subdivided into granular (2mm to 4 mm), pebble (4mm to 64 mm), cobble (64mm to 256 mm) and boulder (>256 mm). Rounded gravel, typical of a significant number of UK beaches, is referred to as shingle. There are several physical properties of sand and gravel beaches which are important in the study of coastal sediment transport. The first is the sediment density (ρs), typically 2650 kg/m³ for quartz. The rest are required in recognition of the fact that a beach comprises a mixture of the beach material, interspersed with voids which may be filled with air or water. Thus the bulk density (ρb) is defined as the in situ mass of the mixture/volume of the mixture, the porosity (ps) as the volume of air or water/volume of the mixture, typically between 0.25 to 0.4 for a gravel beach, the voids ratio (e) as the volume of air or water/volume of the grains, typically between 0.33 to 0.66 for a gravel beach, and finally the angle of repose (Φ), which is the limiting slope angle at which the grains begin to roll, typically about 35° in air. In water this reduces to about 30°. The material sizes on any particular beach will normally comprise a range of grain sizes, thus it is standard practice to measure the grain size distribution by a sieve analysis from which the percentage by weight of material passing through a range of sieve sizes is plotted against particle size. The median size is denoted by D50, representing the diameter for which 50% of the grains by mass are finer. The spread of sizes is often indicated by the values of D84 and D16 and their ratio is used to measure the degree of sorting. A well sorted sample is one in which there is a small range of sizes (D85/D16<2), whereas a well mixed sample has a large range of sizes (D85/D16>16). Beaches types may be categorised according to the mixture of sands and gravels present, which has a significant influence on the beach slope and the more general morphological response of the beach to wave action. Four categories are defined as pure gravel (G), mixed sand and gravel (MSG), composite sand and gravel (CSG) and pure sand (S). |© A. J. Chadwick|| Picture courtesy of Halcrow Consulting Engineers |© A. J. Chadwick||© A. J. Chadwick| The characteristics of a gravel beach are very different from those of a sand beach. Most notably, gravel can support a steep gradient typically of the order of 1 in 8 with a tendency to form a near vertical berm towards the high water mark and a step at the wave break point. Swell wave conditions promote onshore accretion in the swash zone, with storm conditions promoting rapid offshore erosion. Despite the large grain size, the sediment is highly mobile. Changes in the vertical profile of the order of 0.5m are commonly found over just one tidal cycle for moderate to large waves . |all pictures: © A. J. Chadwick| |all pictures: © A. J. Chadwick| On macro-tidal beaches, the active swash zone continuously re-works the beach face as the tide rises and falls. At low tide, it is common to observe a berm at the high water mark of the beach below which is a beach face of uniform slope, which ends in the step feature at the low water mark. Cusp formation on gravel beaches is another distinctive feature. They can form rapidly when the wave approach is near normal, but are also washed out rapidly when the wave approach changes to an oblique angle. In the literature, two dominant models of cusp formation are recognised, namely edge wave forced and swash circulation/self organisation modes. However, cusp formation on gravel beaches has not been discussed very much in the literature . |© A. J. Chadwick| The steep beach gradient allows waves to progress much closer inshore before breaking, often resulting in a single plunging breaker. Consequently, there is minimal generation of infra-gravity waves. Even during storms, a wide surf zone is rare. An important consequence of this is that the swash zone can be of similar width to the surf zone and hence the sediment transport within the swash zone is of considerably more significance than on sand beaches. A second effect of the steep beach gradient is that refraction processes are also confined to a narrower zone than is experienced on a sand beach, with the result that refraction is often observed to be incomplete and the waves arrive at the beach face with some considerable angle, resulting in significant longshore transport. Gravel beaches are also much more reflective than sand beaches, with reflection coefficients of up to about 0.2. Another distinguishing characteristic is the high permeability of gravel which, compared to a sand beach, increases the potential for infiltration during the swash uprush and exfiltration during the swash downrush. This induces a downward, stabilising force on sediment movement during the uprush and a lift force during backwash. Conversely, there is a thinning of the boundary layer during uprush, leading to increased shear stress on the bed and a thickening during backwash, leading to deceased shear stress on the bed. This latter effect is thought to predominate. On a gravel beach the backwash volume can also be considerably reduced, lowering the backwash velocities (see Elfrink and Baldock (2002) for a detailed review). It is these processes that lead to the formation of the high water mark berm. |Picture courtesy A. Pedrozo-Acuna| Barrier beaches are a common geomorphological feature across the world, many of which are composed of gravel. Their essential features comprise a narrow, elongated ridge of sand or gravel existing slightly above the high tide level. The ridge generally extends parallel to the shore, but is separated from it by a wetland, lagoon or a tidal flat. Barrier beaches act as natural means of coast protection. In addition, wetlands and lagoons formed behind barrier beaches provide shelter for many coastal habitats and are therefore of considerable environmental significance. One explanation of their formation is that they have been formed by landward migration of submerged sand/shingle banks with rising sea levels since the last ice age. Barrier beaches are constantly evolving in response to short and long term processes. Short term changes in barrier beaches are related to local wave and current climate, tidal variations, frequency and magnitude of storm events, barrier geometry and type of beach sediment and permeability. Over longer terms, the primary factors for change and modification of barrier beaches are sea level rise, longshore sediment transport and changes in sediment sources and/or sinks according to Orford et al. (1995) . A barrier beach can respond to these factors by landward or seaward migration, reshaping and re-alignment and crest breakdown or build-up . The episodic processes of over-washing, over-topping and associated breaching are the primary phenomena behind long term evolution. Understanding the processes of sediment transport on gravel beaches is important for beach management which requires some quantification of shoreline evolution. The vast majority of coastal engineering projects still rely on one-line models since, as yet, 3D morphodynamic models are restricted to short- and medium-term predictions and none have been validated against coarse-grained field data. Most one-line models make use of empirical total longshore transport equations. Hence, the formulation of a reliable estimate of longshore sediment transport rate remains of considerable practical importance in coastal engineering applications such as feasibility studies of port extensions, derivation of sediment budgets for coastal areas and the appraisal of long term beach stability. To some extent, the mechanisms associated with the longshore transport of gravel may be differentiated from that of sand. Generally, for a sand seabed the oscillatory force due to the passage of a (breaking) wave will tend to stir the sediment into motion. The bed shear due to the longshore current can then transport the sand. On gravel beaches the sediment normally moves as bedload and is largely confined to the swash zone. As the flow in the uprush is perpendicular to the wave crest and in the backwash is perpendicular to the beach contours, the gravel describes a 'sawtooth', or zig-zag, path along the beach. Quantitative estimation of sediment transport rates is extremely difficult on a gravel beach. Direct measurement of longshore transport has been attempted using a variety of techniques, such as deposition of a tracer material (radioactive, dyed or artificial sediment) or installation of traps (see Van Wellan et al. (2000) for a review). |all pictures: © A. J. Chadwick| Changes in beach volumes may be calculated from data derived from ground or aerial surveys. If surveys are carried out over several years a trend for accretion or depletion may be discernible. This is not necessarily a direct measure of the longshore transport rate along the coast. Rather it is an indication of any imbalances in the supply of sediment from one point to another. However, where marine structures are constructed which cut of the supply from further up the coast, comparisons of beach volumes before and after construction can give some indication of the longshore transport rates. |all pictures: © A. J. Chadwick| The most widely used formula for calculating longshore transport is the CERC equation (US Army Corps of Engineers, 1984). The equation was derived from sand beaches and has been developed over a number of years. The formula is intended to include both bedload and suspended load and is usually given in the form of: is the immersed weight sediment transport rate is the longshore component of wave power where E is wave energy, is group wave speed, θ is wave approach angle, subscript b refers to wave break point and where K is a dimensionless empirically derived coefficient. The volumetric transport rate, , is related to by: where where ρs is sediment density, ρ is sea water density, e is voids ratio. There is no direct inclusion of the influence of grain size in the CERC equation, other than via the coefficient, K. It should be noted that for random waves, the choice of wave height used in the CERC equation (significant wave height, Hs or root mean square wave height, Hrms) must be correlated with the K value. Much confusion can arise, as some authors have used Hs and others Hrms without explicitly stating which one. For Rayleigh distributed waves, the K value using Hrms is twice that using Hs. A suggested value for K using Hrms is 0.77 for sand sized sediments. For gravel beaches, Chadwick’s (1989) data suggested a K value of 7% of that for sand (K=0.053). This was later found to work well at another beach site, Slapton Sands, Devon,UK (see Alegria-Arzaburu & Masselink (2010) ). Chadwick (1991) also developed a numerical model to predict longshore transport on gravel beaches. The hydrodynamic module uses the non-linear shallow water wave equations, which predict the instantaneous water levels and velocities throughout the surf and swash zones. These are combined with a sediment transport module based on Bagnold's stream power concept. Instantaneous transport rates across the surf and swash zones are subsequently summed in space and time to determine the total longshore transport rate. Thus, this model specifically includes a sediment threshold term and transport in the swash zone, both of which are of importance on shingle beaches. The model required calibration of only the friction coefficient, which was determined from field data. Subsequently, an algebraic formula (the Chadwick-Van Wellen formula) was derived from the numerical model results given by: This equation was specifically designed for application to gravel beaches but has only been calibrated to the data from one field site. For further details of this and other longshore transport equations, applicable to gravel beaches, see Van Wellen et al (2000) . Large scale experimental studies |© A. J. Chadwick| More recent work on coarse grained beaches was undertaken by the EU project “Large Scale Modelling of Coarse Grained Beaches” which was undertaken between March-May 2002. The experiment was conducted at full scale, thus avoiding the sediment scaling issues inherent in small scale models. The measurements included not only the wave field and resultant equilibrium profile development, but also detailed measurements of pore water pressures under the swash face. The experimental results of this work may be found in López de San Román-Blanco et al (2006) . This experiment was used to develop the cross shore profile model of Pedrozo et al (2006) , described in more detail in this article. Subsequently another large scale experimental study of gravel barrier beaches was undertaken in BARDEX (Barrier Dynamics Experiment) in the Delta wave flume, the Netherlands, during June and July 2008. One unique aspect of this work was the inclusion of the effects of a back barrier lagoon in conjunction with a varying tidal level. A special edition of Coastal Engineering has been devoted to papers resulting from this work (see Turner and Masselink (2012)) . These include details of the observations, the effect of the lagoon water level on the beach profile, new measurements of and prediction techniques for wave friction factors, new predictive techniques for assessing barrier overwashing and overtopping and an assessment of the XBeach model used to predict beach profile evolution and the morphological effect of washover. Parametric models for equilibrium profiles The prediction of the expected profile for a gravel beach is very different from the concepts used for equilibrium profiles on a sand beach. The problem was first comprehensively addressed by van der Meer (1988) and Powell (1990) , based on extensive scaled laboratory flume tests (small scale with anthracite in Powell’s case and large and small scale with gravel in van der Meer’s case). Powell’s work resulted in the development of a parametric profile model, which described the profile as a set of three curves: from the crest to the still water level, from the still water level to a transition point and from the transition point to the base of the profile. This was found to work well using the data from the GWK experiment ). Parametric models for barrier stability Bradbury (2000) carried out a series of 3-D mobile bed laboratory tests on barrier crest response to hydrodynamic conditions and initial barrier geometry. Based on the model investigations, several categories of barrier response to hydrodynamic conditions were identified and underlying characteristics were qualitatively defined. These included crest raised by overtopping, crest lowered due to undermining of crest but with no overtopping, crest raised by over-washing with roll-back, crest lowered by over-washing with roll-back and finally, no change to the crest elevation with profile contained to seaward of the barrier crest. He developed an expression for an over-washing threshold of barrier crests, based on regression analysis. It is a function of wave steepness (Hs/Lm), barrier free board (Rc) and barrier cross-sectional area Ba (above the still water line), given by: The expression was validated against field data gathered at Hurst Spit, UK and found to be consistent with the field data. In addition, a conceptual model for barrier over-washing was formulated. According to his model, the beach will initially attempt to reach a dynamic equilibrium; if the critical barrier inertia is exceeded then the crest will be lowered by over-washing. Modelling cross shore profile development |Picture courtesy of A. Pedrozo-Acuna| The first of several recent deterministic process based models for predicting the profile response of coarse grained beaches was developed by Lawrence, Chadwick and Fleming (2001) . It was shown that Boussinesq equations coupled with a bed load sediment transport formulation were a useful approach for process-based modelling of gravel beach profile evolution. This model was subsequently extended to model the sediment transport of grain size fractions and thus to predict sediment sorting across the beach face . However, it was found that this numerical model scheme was not stable on steep beaches. Subsequently, using a newer Boussinesq model, Pedrozo et al (2006) demonstrated that the two principle sediment parameters of friction (f) and sediment transport efficiency (C) were controlling the shape of the gravel beach profile. With f and C as constant values, accurate prediction of the profile evolution was not possible. The use of bigger friction factors in the uprush slightly improved the prediction. When larger values of the sediment transport efficiency (C -value) were used in the uprush compared to the backwash, better predictions of the beach profile resulted. The physical processes which dictate the differences between the predicted and measured profiles were hypothesised as being related to infiltration effects on the flow above the beach face and more accelerated flow in the uprush. Further developments coupling the effects of infiltration/exfiltration with sediment movement were still required at that time. The more recent results reported by Jamal et al (2010) and Williams et al (2012) indicate that including this process leads to significant improvements in prediction. Pedrozo et al (2010) have also highlighted the importance of the impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers on gravel beach sediment transport. Suggestions for further research For all budding researchers in coastal research, the further study of gravel and mixed beaches offers much opportunity to enhance our knowledge. Longshore transport prediction is still imprecise and cross shore processes very complex and not completely understood. Current parametric design methods leave much to be desired. Further field and large scale experimental studies remain a primary tool for advancing our understanding of long and cross shore processes. These will need to stand on the heads of the previously mentioned studies. Numerical modelling tools can still benefit greatly from improved process representation, including infiltration/exfiltration, interactions with groundwater flows, impulsive pressure forces, the incorporation of grain size fractions and the prediction of sediment sorting across the beach face. Example barrier beaches Chesil Beach, Dorset UK, is a world famous gravel barrier beach. It is approximately 28 kilometres long and, on average, 160 metres wide. The height of the beach is typically 11 metres above mean sea level. The beach stabilised close to its present position around 5000 years ago. A rent research paper concerning the internal structure of Chesil beach (Bennett et al (2009)) also contains a good summary of the extensive historical literature on this beach. There is an informative web site at www.chesilbeach.org. A comprehensive assessment of the historical development and contemporary processes affecting a significant gravel barrier beach system in the UK (Slapton Sands, South Devon UK) may be found in Chadwick et al (2005) and a short summary of these studies is presented elsewhere in the coastal wiki (Slapton barrier beach case study, UK). The paper includes assessment of the effects of sea level rise on barrier migration and its susceptibility to over-washing and overtopping, inter alia. It was found that the processes at work on the Slapton shoreline included: |© A. J. Chadwick| - Short-term changes in beach profile due to storms, acting over a period of several days. These storms cause cut-back of the seaward edge of the shingle crest, or changes in crest elevation - Overtopping, in which wave action throws water and sediment onto the crest. - Overflowing, or overwashing, where extremely high water levels coincident with wave action cause water to flow over the crest of the ridge. This can cause significant changes to the crest and backslope of the ridge. - Medium-term changes in beach width and profile due to longshore transport, occurring over a period of months or several years. - Long-term landward retreat; the barrier beach responds to sea level rise by “roll-over” and by increasing its crest height. This process involves overwashing, transferring sediment from the shore-face to the back barrier area. This is an episodic rather than a continuous process. - Planform change; as the barrier beach is pinned by hard rock cliffs at either end (Strete and Torcross), landward retreat results in a gradual increase in both curvature and length. In a later comprehensive field study of this site, Alegria-Arzuburu and Masselink (2010) used an ARGUS video system to monitor short and medium term changes. This study confirmed many of the conclusions reached in the Chadwick study and demonstrated the importance of storm sequencing to both long and cross shore processes which affect beach erosion and accretion. An up to date and comprehensive review of gravel beaches and barriers may be found in Anthony (2008) . Gravel beach dynamics are reviewed by Buscombe and Masselink (2006) . Stripling et al (2008) present a good review of barrier beaches and their management. Finally, the management manual (2010) provides information on state-of-art methods, guidance on beach monitoring and maintenance, evaluation of the state and performance of a beach, design, procurement, execution and the after-care of beach improvement schemes. It also includes case studies to illustrate popular management techniques and draws from experience of existing management approaches. - Risk and coastal zone policy: example from the Netherlands - Shore protection, coast protection and sea defence methods - The Integrated approach to Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) - Natural causes of coastal erosion - Human causes of coastal erosion - Coastal defense techniques - Natural barriers - Relative sea level - Shore nourishment - ↑ 1,0 1,1 Buscome D., Masselink G. (2006). Concepts in gravel beach dynamics. Earth science Reviews 79 33-52. - ↑ Fuller, R. M. & Randall, R. E. (1988). The Orford Shingles, Suffolk, UK. Classic conflicts in coastline management. Biological conservation. - ↑ 3,0 3,1 Powell, K. A. (1990). Predicting short term profile response for shingle beaches. HR Wallingford Report SR 219. - ↑ Diserens, A. P. & Coates, T. T. (1993). UK South Coast shingle beach study: storm response of shingle beaches. HR Wallingford Report SR 323. - ↑ 5,0 5,1 CIRIA (2010). Beach management manual, Second Edition. Publication no. RP787, London. Available at: http://www.southerncoastalgroup.org.uk/bmm.htm Beach - ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Van Wellen, E, Chadwick, A J and Mason, T (2000) A review and assessment of longshore sediment transport equations for coarse grained beaches. Coastal Engineering, 40, 3, 243-275. - ↑ 7,0 7,1 Anthony E. J. (2008). Gravel beaches and barriers. Developments in Marine Geology, Vol 4, 289-324. - ↑ Elfrink B, Baldock T. (2002) Hydrodynamics and sediment transport in the swash zone: a review and perspectives. Coastal Engineering, 45, 149–167. - ↑ Orford, J.D., Carter, R.W.G., Jennings, S.C. and Hinton, A.C. (1995). Processes and time scales by which a coastal gravel dominated barrier respond geomorphologically to sea level rise-Story Head Barrier, Nova-Scotia, Earth Surface process and Land Forms, 20(1), pp.21-37. - ↑ Carter, R.W.G., Forbes, D.L., Jennings, S.C., Orford, J.D., Shaw, J. and Taylor, R.B., (2003), Barrier and lagoon coast evolution under differing relative sea level regimes-examples from Ireland and Nova-Scotia, Marine Geology, 88, Issue 3-4, pp.221-242. - ↑ 11,0 11,1 Ruiz de Alegria-Arzaburu, A., Masselink, G. (2010). Storm response and beach rotation on a gravel beach, Slapton Sands, U.K Marine Geology 278, 77–99. - ↑ Chadwick, A J. (1991). An unsteady flow bore model for sediment transport in broken waves Part 1: The development of the numerical model. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. Part 2, 1991, 91, Dec. 719 - 737. - ↑ Chadwick, A J. (1991). An unsteady flow bore model for sediment transport on broken waves Part II: The properties, calibration and testing of the numerical model. Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. Part 2, 1991, 91, Dec., 739-753. - ↑ 14,0 14,1 López de San Román-Blanco, B., Coates, T., Holmes, P., Chadwick, A. J., Bradbury, A., Baldock, T., Pedrozo-Acuña, A., Grüne, J. (2006). Large scale experiments on gravel and mixed beaches: experimental procedure, data documentation and initial results. Coastal Engineering 53 (4), 349-363. - ↑ 15,0 15,1 Pedrozo, A., Simmonds, D.J., Otta, A.K., Chadwick, A.J. (2006). On the cross-shore profile change of gravel beaches. Coastal Engineering, 53 (4), 335-347. - ↑ Ian L. Turner, Gerd Masselink (2012). Coastal gravel barrier hydrology — Observations from a prototype-scale laboratory experiment (BARDEX). Coastal engineering, 63, 13-22 - ↑ Van der Meer J. (1988) Rock slopes and gravel beaches under wave attack. Delft Hydraulics Publications n 396. - ↑ Bradbury, A.P. (2000), Predicting breaching of shingle barrier beaches- recent advances to aid beach management, 35th MAFF (DEFRA) Conf of River and Coastal Engineers. - ↑ Lawrence, J, Chadwick, A J and Fleming, C A. (2001). A phase resolving model of sediment transport on coarse grained beaches. In: Billy L Edge (ed) Coastal Engineering 2000, 624-636. American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, Virginia. - ↑ Lawrence, J, Karunarathna, H, Chadwick, A J and Fleming, C A. (2003). Cross-shore sediment transport on mixed coarse grain sized beaches: modelling and measurements. Proceedings of the International Conference on Coastal Engineering 2002 - ↑ Jamal, M.H., Simmonds, D.J., Magar, V., Pan, S., (2010). Modelling infiltration on gravel beaches with an XBeach variant. Proc.32nd Conf. on Coastal Eng., Shanghai, China, 2010, sediment, p. 41 http://journals.tdl.org/ICCE/issue/view/154/showToc. - ↑ Jon J. Williams, Amaia Ruiz de Alegría-Arzaburu, Robert T. McCall, Ap Van Dongeren (2012). Modelling gravel barrier profile response to combined waves and tides using XBeach: Laboratory and field results. Coastal engineering, 63, 62-80 - ↑ Pedrozo-Acuña, A., Torres-Freyermuth, A., Zou, Q., Hsu, T.-J., Reeve, D.E. (2010). Diagnostic modelling of impulsive pressures induced by plunging breakers. Coastal Engineering 57 (3), 252–266. - ↑ Bennett M. R., Cassidy N. J., Pile J. (2009). Internal structure of a barrier beach as revealed by ground penetrating radar (GRP) Chesil beach, UK. Geomorphology 104, 218-229. - ↑ Chadwick, A. J., Karunarathna, H., Gehrels, R, Massey, A. C.,O’Brien, D. ,Dales, D.(2005). A New Analysis of the Slapton Barrier Beach System. Maritime Engineering 158, 4, 147-161 - ↑ Stripling A., Bradbury, A.P., Brampton, A.H. and Cope S.N. (2008) Understanding Barrier Beaches Joint DEFRA/EA Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management R&D Programme. Technical Report FD1924/TR Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.

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At Walmart, we talk a lot about learning from one another and working in partnership to create global change. A recent report, “Smart Moves,” examines some of the best practices by companies working to cut emissions from transportation. Emissions from freight transportation are no small problem. The report’s author, Jason Mathers of the Environmental Defense Fund, points out that freight emissions are expected “to increase 74 percent from 2005 to 2035” in the U.S. Mathers’ report looks at some of the best strategies and most creative thinking at work today to cut pollution caused by shipping. Justin Gerdes’ Forbes commentary highlights the report and notes that “any CEO concerned about his or her company’s carbon footprint must account for shipping’s growing contribution to climate change…” As Gerdes points out, the report is loaded with statistics about shipping emissions as well as examples of smart moves by companies that reduced emissions and saved money at the same time. Here’s what he highlighted about Walmart: Wal-Mart: Direct shipment Wal-Mart worked with Minute Maid to eliminate one stop in the chain used to deliver Minute Maid’s Simply Orange Juice to Wal-Mart distribution centers. Now, the product moves directly from a production facility in Florida to Wal-Mart distribution centers. Eliminating delivery to Minute Maid’s own distribution centers slashed CO2 emissions by 1,500 metric tons annually and added six days to the shelf life of the orange juice.

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What is Rainwater Harvesting? Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice of catching and holding rain for later use. In a rainwater harvesting system, rain is gathered from a building rooftop or other source and is held in large containers for future use, such as watering gardens or washing cars. This practice reduces the demand on water resources and is excellent during times of drought. Why is it Important? In addition to reducing the demand on our water sources (especially important during drought), rainwater harvesting also helps prevent water pollution. Surprised? Here’s why: the success of the 1972 Clean Water Act has meant that the greatest threat to New York’s waterbodies comes not from industrial sources, but rather through the small actions we all make in our daily lives. For example, in a rain storm, the oil, pesticides, animal waste, and litter from our lawns, sidewalks, driveways, and streets are washed down into our sewers. This is called non-point source (NPS) pollution because the pollutants come from too many sources to be identified. Rainwater harvesting diverts water from becoming polluted stormwater; instead, this captured rainwater may be used to irrigate gardens near where it falls. In New York City, keeping rainwater out of the sewer system is very important. That’s because the city has an old combined sewer system that uses the same pipes to transport both household waste and stormwater to sewage treatment plants. During heavy rains, the system overloads; then untreated sewage and contaminated stormwater overflow into our rivers and estuary, with serious consequences: Who is Harvesting Rainwater in New York City? Back in 2002, a drought emergency pushed many community gardens to the brink of extinction. For the first time in twenty years, community gardeners were denied permission to use fire hydrants, the primary source of water for most community gardens. This crisis led to the formation of the Water Resources Group (WRG), an open collaboration of community gardening and environmental organizations. With help from the WRG, rainwater harvesting systems have now been built as demonstration sites in twenty NYC community gardens. At community gardens that harvest rainwater, rain is diverted from the gutters of adjacent buildings and is stored in tanks in the gardens. A 1-inch rainfall on a 1,000-square-foot roof produces 600 gallons of water. The tanks are mosquito proof, so the standing water does not encourage West Nile virus. Because rainwater is chlorine free, it is better than tap water for plant growth, meaning healthier plants. And it’s free! What are Other Cities Doing? Many cities have adopted creative, low-cost ways to stop wasting rainwater by diverting it from their sewage systems and putting it to use where it falls. Here are some examples: What Can I Do? Spread the word! Educate those around you on the importance of lifestyle decisions. Tell people not to litter, dump oil down storm drains, or overfertilize their lawns. Install a rainwater harvesting system at your home, school, business, or local community center. Contact your local elected officials, and let them know you support rainwater harvesting! Supporting rainwater harvesting Jade Boat Loans

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Students at a local college walked around campus Tuesday without shoes on and it was all for a good cause. Bowling Green Technical College held a "One Day Without Shoes" event. It's meant to raise awareness for the millions of children around the World who don't have proper footwear and are therefore, exposed to disease and injuries. Students and community members walked over a gravel pathway barefoot at the event. "People are not really aware that kids go daily without shoes. Roughly, 30,000 children just in the area are going without shoes," says John Rose, one of the event's coordinators. "I think it's a good awareness and it shows people what kids go through every day," says Haley Womac, a student at BGTC. Those who took part also got the chance to get pedicures. Organizers say the Philippines and Kenya are just two of the countries where many children go without shoes.

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What is Morbid Obesity? Obesity becomes "morbid" when it reaches the point of significantly increasing the risk of one or more obesity-related health conditions or serious diseases (also known as co-morbidities) that result either in significant physical disability or even death. As you read about morbid obesity you may also see the term "clinically severe obesity" used. Both are descriptions of the same condition and can be used interchangeably. Morbid obesity is typically defined as being 100 lbs. or more over ideal body weight or having a Body Mass Index of 40 or higher. According to the National Institutes of Health Consensus Report, morbid obesity is a serious disease and must be treated as such. It is a chronic disease, meaning that its symptoms build slowly over an extended period of time.

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Save money with properly inflated tires (NewsUSA) - Tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) are now a standard safety feature on all new cars in the United States. TPMS automatically monitors tire pressure and alerts the driver when the pressure in one or more tires becomes significantly low -- and potentially dangerous. Still, conducting monthly tire pressure checks is one of the smartest driving moves you can make. Not only are properly inflated tires critical for vehicle safety, they also increase fuel efficiency and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Increase Fuel Efficiency According to the U.S. Department of Energy, 3.56 million gallons of gasoline are wasted every day due to incorrectly inflated tires. The good news is you can improve gas mileage just by keeping tires inflated to the proper pressure. In fact, one study showed that if gas costs $3 per gallon, proper tire pressure can save you up to $432 at the pump each year. Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the typical car in the United States releases more than five tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. By keeping tires properly inflated, you can reduce your vehicle's "carbon footprint" by an average of 327 pounds per year. Because a tire can lose up to half its air pressure without appearing to be under-inflated, you cannot rely on a tire's appearance to determine whether it's properly inflated or not. Tire Pressure Tips To help ensure your tires are properly inflated year-round, here are some tips from Schrader, a manufacturer of TPMS: * Check the pressure in all four tires -- and the spare tire -- monthly with an accurate tire gauge, and always check tire pressure before a long road trip. * The "right" pressure for your vehicle's tires can be found in the vehicle's manual or on the driver door edge, glove box or fuel door. Do not follow the information listed on the tire sidewall. * For the most accurate reading, tires should be checked when they are cool. * Always remember to replace the valve cap. Distributed by Internet Broadcasting. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

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Streptococcus, Group B It is possible that the main title of the report Streptococcus, Group B is not the name you expected. Please check the synonyms listing to find the alternate name(s) and disorder subdivision(s) covered by this report. - Group B Streptococcal Septicemia of the Newborn - Lancefield Group B Streptococcus - Sepsis of the Newborn - Streptococcus Agalactiae - Infant Early-Onset Streptococcus, Group B - Infant Late-Onset Streptococcus, Group B - Adult Onset Streptococcus, Group B Group B streptococcus (group B strep) is a type of bacteria that causes infection among newborns, pregnant women or women after childbirth, females after gynecologic surgery, and older male and female patients with other serious diseases. Group B strep remains the most common cause among newborns (neonates) of infection of the blood (septicemia) and of the brain (meningitis). The responsible bacterium, usually S. agalactiae, may be found most often in the vagina and rectum of females and may be transmitted sexually, as well as to a fetus as the infant passes through the birth canal. Group B strep infection of newborns may be prevented by giving pregnant women who are carriers antibiotics through the vein (intravenously) during labor. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend that any pregnant woman who has had a baby with group B strep disease in the past, who has a bladder (urinary tract) infection caused by group B strep, or who tests positive for group B strep during pregnancy should receive antibiotics during labor. Prevention and prompt treatment are important because group B strep infections may become life-threatening among newborns. GBS disease is said to be early onset if it is obvious within the first week of life. It is said to be late onset if the disease is evident after the first week of life and before the end of the first three months. Those at greatest risk of GBS disease are newborn children of infected mothers, women after childbirth, females after gynecologic surgery and older male and female patients with other serious diseases. Group B Strep Association P.O. Box 16515 Chapel Hill, NC 27516 Center for Disease Control and Prevention 1600 Clifton Road NE Atlanta, GA 30333 NIH/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Office of Communications and Government Relations 6610 Rockledge Drive, MSC 6612 Bethesda, MD 20892-6612 MUMS National Parent-to-Parent Network 150 Custer Court Green Bay, WI 54301-1243 Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center PO Box 8126 Gaithersburg, MD 20898-8126

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Westat has applied our strong statistical, environmental, and data collection skills to design, conduct, and analyze environmental studies for more than 25 years. We have applied national field resources to the collection of environmental samples in homes, schools, and industrial facilities and coordinated analyses at specialized laboratories, following EPA's and our own quality assurance specifications. National Children's Study (NCS) Westat has been awarded the contract to serve as the coordinating center for the National Children's Study (NCS) — the largest study ever undertaken within the United States to assess the effects of the environment on child and adult health. The full nationwide study would follow more than 100,000 children from prior to conception through adulthood, seeking information to prevent and treat such health problems as autism, birth defects, diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. Westat will collect data, compile and analyze statistics, and ensure that the study proceeds according to design. Environmental measures proposed for inclusion in the study include toxicants in air, water, and household dust and body burden data to be collected from urine, saliva, and blood. Toxicants to be studied include pesticides, metals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), phytoestrogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and more. Six Vanguard Centers have been selected to pilot and complete the first phases of the study. The centers, which include a variety of universities, hospitals, health departments, and other organizations, will work within their communities to recruit participants, collect and process data, and pilot new research methods for incorporation into the full study. NCS is led by a consortium of Federal agency partners: the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (including the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences at the National Institutes of Health, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Exposure Assessment and Environmental Epidemiology Our work in the area of exposure assessment and environmental epidemiology has included studies of exposure to pesticides, particulate matter, PCBs, heavy metals, and volatile organic compounds in a variety of populations, including children, the elderly, and the immunocompromised. Westat conducted the National Human Exposure Assessment Regional Survey in Maryland, a multimedia, multicontaminant field study of long-term exposure that included the collection of blood and urine samples for environmental exposure. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey now includes measurements of environmental exposure to dozens of contaminants through sampling of blood, urine, hair, and other body tissues and fluids. Other Westat environmental epidemiology studies include studies of the health effects relating to the following exposures: - Air pollution among the elderly in Maryland and California and school children in California and Texas; - Pesticides among children throughout the United States; - Microbial pathogens among bathers in recreational water; - Mercury in the seafood consumed by subsistence fishermen and women of childbearing age; - Indoor allergens in the homes and daycare centers of children throughout the United States; and - Asbestos in homes, schools, and commercial buildings throughout the United States. Water Quality has been the focus of several projects for the EPA. Westat has performed the following: - Evaluated the best technology available for minimizing the adverse environmental impact of cooling water intake structures; - Analyzed water quality impairment from concentrated animal feeding operations; and - Designed, conducted, and analyzed the results of industry surveys to determine whether current effluent guidelines were appropriate for current manufacturing technologies used in the iron and steel, meat products, and aquaculture industries. Westat's work in the area of lead hazards has included two national surveys of lead-based paint hazards in housing, an assessment of exposure to lead in child-care centers and homes, and the analysis of data on lead levels in soil. Our staff has performed the following: - Produced technical guidance documents on lead contamination of various media (soil, water, and dust); - Developed risk communication materials for the general public; - Designed a series of examinations to certify lead inspections; - Evaluated training programs designed to train janitors and others to work safely around lead paint; and - Designed a protocol for measuring the blood lead levels of children living in remediated housing. Health and Environment Chapter of the EPA's State of the Environment Report Westat assisted EPA in preparing the health and environment chapter of the EPA's State of the Environment Report. Written in a style appropriate for the general public, yet in conformance with the standards of the health and environmental research communities, the report addresses the following: - Health status of the U.S. population; - Human exposure to environmental pollutants; - Diseases related to environmental pollution; and - Data gaps and emerging issues. Hazardous Waste Survey For the EPA's Office of Solid Waste, Westat designed and implemented the Hazardous Waste Survey. This national industry survey provided important information about the characteristics of waste generation, treatment, storage, and disposal facilities and the quantities of hazardous waste produced.

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by Bruce Boyers, Our system of factory agriculture is exacting a great toll on our planet: 40 percent of the land and 70 percent of the fresh water on Earth is devoted to the growing of food, which, in the process, creates some 30 percent of greenhouse gases. Compounding these issues is the fact that commercial produce is often transported thousands or even tens of thousands of miles to its point of sale, consuming tons of fossil fuel. It is evident that our current agricultural model is a failed experiment in search of a more sustainable solution. In an effort to bring needed fresh produce closer to home with far greater sustainability, a movement in urban agriculture is rapidly gaining momentum. New York City, having such a large and diverse population, is a metropolis ripe for green urban agriculture and is now home to an innovative commercial operation called Gotham Greens. Gotham Greens has now gone into full production and is providing much-needed locally and sustainably grown produce for the greater New York City area. "My partners and I had a vision for a local farm operation here in New York City that could provide New Yorkers-which would include restaurants, retailers and consumers-with premium quality, fresh, nutritious culinary herbs and greens, salad greens and lettuces," Puri said. "They would be grown year round so that we could reliably and consistently supply our customers with local produce. Obviously our climate in New York doesn't support year-round agriculture of a lot of these crops, so we thought we would try to do something in a greenhouse. A greenhouse climate allows you to potentially grow year round, at the same time protecting crops against extreme or detrimental weather events." Gotham Greens was founded in 2008 by Puri and Eric Haley; then in 2009 Jennifer Nelkin joined as a partner to head all greenhouse operations. Puri himself had previously developed and managed start-up enterprises in New York City, in Ladakh, India, and in Malawi, Africa, focusing on green building, renewable energy and environmental design. Haley, who is currently employed by a Manhattan-based investment bank and private equity fund, also brought business acumen to the operation. The farm know-how comes from Nelkin, who cultivated her expertise in greenhouse systems and management at the University of Arizona. In addition to greenhouse system design, her skillset includes plant nutrition and crop and pest management. She has managed greenhouses in far more extreme circumstances than New York-namely two different locations in Antarctica, providing fresh vegetables for US research scientists. House of Greens The choice of a rooftop was made quite deliberately. "New York City obviously doesn't have a lot of arable or available land, so it seemed to us that one underutilized resource was rooftops," said Puri. "You're seeing more and more innovative uses of the rooftops now in urban areas nationwide." Getting a rooftop greenhouse up and operational-especially one of this size and scope-was no mean feat. "It was extremely challenging," Puri recalled. "I would say the biggest challenge was just having any real path to follow. There's not a lot of precedent for what we're doing. "The first thing was finding a building owner who wouldn't mind us building a greenhouse on his or her roof. We also had to find a building that met all the construction criteria, both structurally and for the obtaining of utilities. In addition there had to be access, and the evaluation of how we would get stuff up and how we would get stuff down. On top of that we had to make sure the plan would meet all zoning and building codes." The Gotham Greens operation, as one might imagine, represents an enormous saving in resource usage. "We employ a recirculating hydroponic technique that actually goes back and captures all irrigation for reuse," Puri explained. "It's the most water-efficient form of agriculture in the world. We use ten times less water than conventional agriculture. Even though we are not in an area that is susceptible to drought, we still think that it's a great demonstration of a technology that is very water efficient." The hydroponic growing environment is sterile as well, which eliminates the risk of pathogens-particularly important in light of the increase in foodborne illnesses, such as E. coli and salmonella, from fresh vegetables. Puri and his partners have seen to the frugal use of energy too. "We have 55 kilowatts in solar panels that produce electricity to help meet the electrical needs of the facility," said Puri. "Along with that, we've spent a lot of effort here to design our facilities to be as energy efficient as possible. We've installed increased insulation in many areas; the glazing material that we selected helps insulate the greenhouse; and we've deployed heat curtains and heat blankets in the winter to reduce space in the greenhouse that needs to be conditioned." Additionally, a sophisticated computer control system ensures that climate-control equipment operates efficiently to reduce resource consumption. Perhaps the most significant saving in terms of resources is that of fossil fuels, as the distance from farm to consumer is considerably shorter. "Of course, we sharply reduce the transportation of our product and the associated carbon emissions that are caused because of that," Puri added. All nutrition and pest control is done naturally and sustainably, which was also one of the goals for Gotham Greens. "We utilize mineral salts that we dissolve in the water," Puri said. "These contain minerals such as nitrogen, magnesium and potassium, along with micronutrients like selenium. In controlling pests, we mostly rely on beneficial insects; there's a whole program in integrated pest management for which a fair bit of monitoring goes on. If we do find a pest in here, we will introduce its natural predator-for instance, we have ladybugs and lacewings to control aphids." It's in the Taste Like many others concentrating on great flavor, Puri and his team have found that truly caring for the plants will result in the superiority they seek. "The biggest thing in obtaining that flavor is really taking care of our crops-making sure they have ideal growing conditions in climate, humidity, temperature, and so forth. We're also making sure they're getting all the nutrients that they need, along with the right amount of irrigation, the right amount of dissolved oxygen. The foremost belief is that healthy plants are going to make for tastier plants. "And then because we are so close to our customers, we never have to harvest anything before it's completely ready. Many conventionally grown crops have to be refrigerated and transported long distances, so they are picked early and then artificially ripened. We don't have to do anything like that; we can harvest crops when they are at their optimal freshness, size, flavor, profile and color. We can harvest any item in the morning and have it to a supermarket or a restaurant in the afternoon." In addition to supplying locally grown produce, Gotham Greens contributes to the local economy by providing badly needed jobs. All staff are residents from the nearby community. As production expands, they also plan to offer their products to more local areas that have limited access to fresh produce. They're Buying It For more information on Gotham Greens, visit www.gothamgreens.com. |Printable Version||E-mail a Friend|

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(1) The section of a pedestal between base and surbase. (2) The lower portion of the wall of a room, decorated diffrently from the upper section. The dance of death, a favorite late medieval picture subject. It generally shows skeletons forcing the living to dance with them, usually in matching pairs, e.g. a live priest dancing with a skeleton priest. Holbein's woodcut series the Dance of Death is one of the most famous. Refers to a style of painting that developed in Regensburg, Germany, and elsewhere along the Danube river during the Renaissance and Reformation. It is characterized by a renewed interest in medieval piety, an expressive use of nature, the relationship of the human figure and events to nature, and the introduction of landscape as a primary theme in art. The term was coined by Theodor von Frimmel (1853-1928), who believed that painting in the Danube River region around Regensburg, Passau, and Linz possessed common characteristics; the style seems to exist even though leading artists did not form a school in the usual sense of the term, since they did not work in a single workshop or in a particular centre. Major artists whose work represents the style include Lucas Cranach the Elder, Albrecht Altdorfer and Wolf Huber. a minister who was below the rank of priest in the Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox churches. Deacons originally cared for both the sick and the poor in early Christian communities. the representation of Christ enthroned in glory as judge or ruler of the world, flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist acting as intercessors. in medieval art a picture, often an altarpiece, consisting of two folding wings without a fixed central area. In Renaissance art theory, the design of a painting seen in terms of drawing, which was help to be the basis of all art. The term stresses not the literal drawing, but the concept behind an art work. With the Mannerists the term came to mean an ideal image that a work attempts to embody but can in fact never fully realize. As disegno appeals to the intellect, it was considered far more important that coloure (colour), which was seen as appealing to the senses and emotions. A technique of painting in which pigments are diluted with water and bound with a glue. It was usually used for painting wall decorations and frescoes, though a few artists, notably Andrea Mantegna (1430/31-1506), also used it on canvas. in architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming a ceiling or roof. A Roman Catholic order of mendicant friars founded by St. Dominic in 1216 to spread the faith through preaching and teaching. The Dominicans were one of the most influential religious orders in the later Middle Ages, their intellectual authority being established by such figures as Albertus Magnus and St.Thomas Aquinas. The Dominicans played the leading role in the Inquisition. a patron who commissioned a work of art for a church. Donors sometimes had their portraits included in the work they were donating as a sign of piety. A male garment, formerly worn under armour, that from the 15th century referred to a close-fitting jacket. A ceramic product invented in England around 1720, which belongs to the category of fine stoneware. The porous white bodies are made of fired raw materials containing clay and kaolin as well as quartz, feldspar, and talc. A transparent glaze is applied upon the first or second firing. Earthenware, which is suitable for everyday use, is distinguished by its light, creamy surface. The most famous example of this category is made by the English firm of Wedgwood (since 1780). Stand on which a painting is supported while the artist works on it. The oldest representation of an easel is on an Egyptian relief of the Old Kingdom (c. 2600-2150 BC). Renaissance illustrations of the artist at work show all kinds of contrivances, the commonest being the three-legged easel with pegs, such as we still use today. Light folding easels were not made until the 18th and 19th centuries, when painters took to working out of doors. The studio easel, a 19th-century invention, is a heavy piece of furniture, which runs on castors or wheels, and served to impress the c1ients of portrait painters. Oil painters need an easel which will support the canvas almost vertically or tip it slightly forward to prevent reflection from the wet paint, whereas the watercolourist must be able to lay his paper nearly flat so that the wet paint will not run down. The term 'easel-painting' is applied to any picture small enough to have been painted on a standard easel. The words of Pontius Pilate in the Gospel of St. John (19, 5) when he presents Jesus to the crowds. Hence, in art, a depiction of Jesus, bound and flogged, wearing a crown of thorns and a scarlet robe. In portraiture, a pose in which the sitter faces the viewer directly; full face. Coloured glass in powder form and sometimes bound with oil, which is bonded to a metal surface or plaque by firing. A print made from a metal plate that has had a design cut into it with a sharp point. Ink is smeared over the plate and then wiped off, the ink remaining in the etched lines being transferred when the plate is pressed very firmly onto a sheet of paper. A combining of several media grouped together to form a composite art work. Chapels were among the most notable Renaissance ensembles, sometimes combining panel painting, fresco, sculpture, and architecture. In classical architecture, the part of a building between the capitals of the columns and the roof. It consists of the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. Pictures or tables with reliefs and inscriptions erected in honour of the deceased in churches or sepulchral chapels. the science of the end of the world and beginning of a new world, and of the last things,death and resurrection. the sacrament of Holy Communion, celebrated with bread and wine, the most sacred moment of the Christian liturgy. The term is used in an Italian context to designate spiritual currents manifest around 1540 which might be said to have occupied the confessional middle ground between Catholicism and Protestantism; hence it does not relate at all to the term 'Evangelical' as used in German or English contexts. It has been applied particularly to the so-called spirituali of the Viterbo circle, notably Cardinal Pole, Vittoria Colonna, Marcantonio Flaminio, Carnesecchi and Ochino, and also to Giulia Gonzaga, Contarini, Giovanni Morone; Gregorio Cortese and Vermigli. Such persons combined a zeal for personal religious renewal with spiritual anxieties akin to those of Luther, to which they sought an answer in the study of St Paul and St Augustine; convinced of the inefficacy of human works, they stressed the role of faith and the all-efficacy of divine grace in justification. Few of them broke with the Catholic Church. Tin-glazed European earthenware, particularly ware made in France, Germany, Spain, and Scandinavia. It developed in France in the early 16th century, was influenced by the technique and the designs of Italian maiolica, and is named for Faenza, Italy, which was famous for maiolica. It is distinguished from tin-glazed earthenware made in Italy, which is called "maiolica," and that made in the Netherlands and England, which is called "delftware." It has no connection to the ancient objects or material also named faience, which was developed in the Near East ca. 4500 BCE. A title given to those leaders of the early Christian Church whose writings had made an important contribution to the development of doctrine. Saints Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great were often considered the four principal Fathers of the Church. Ancient Roman god of nature, protector of shepherds, farmers, fields and livestock. Equated with the Greek god Pan, he is frequently depicted with a goats legs and horns. Architectural ornaments consisting of fruit, leaves, and flowers suspended in a loop; a swag. In painting, representation of a rural feast or open-air entertainment. Although the term fête galante ("gallant feast") is sometimes used synonymously with fête champêtre, it is also used to refer to a specific kind of fête champêtre: a more graceful, usually aristocratic scene in which groups of idly amorous, relaxed, well-dressed figures are depicted in a pastoral setting. of a column or pillar, carved with closely spaced parallel grooves cut vertically. the Four Horsemen in the Revelation of St John (Rev 6, 2 - 8), which contains the description of the end of the world and the Second Coming of Christ. The Horsemen personify the disasters about to happen to mankind, such as plague, war, famine and death. Their attributes are the bow, sword and set of balances. In some sculptures the first rider is identified as Christ by a halo. The colour of his horse is white, that of the others red, black and dun. A Roman Catholic order of mendicant friars founded by St. Francis of Assisi (given papal approval in 1223). Committed to charitable and missionary work, they stressed the veneration of the Holy Virgin, a fact that was highly significant in the development of images of the Madonna in Italian art. In time the absolute poverty of the early Franciscans gave way to a far more relaxed view of property and wealth, and the Franciscans became some of the most important patrons of art in the early Renaissance. Wall painting technique in which pigments are applied to wet (fresh) plaster (intonaco). The pigments bind with the drying plaster to form a very durable image. Only a small area can be painted in a day, and these areas, drying to a slightly different tint, can in time be seen. Small amounts of retouching and detail work could be carried out on the dry plaster, a technique known as a secco fresco. Save in Venice, where the atmosphere was too damp, fresco painting was the habitual way of decorating wall surfaces in Italy, both in churches and in private and public palaces. During the 16th century a liking for the more brilliant effect of large canvases painted in oils, and to a lesser extent for tapestries, diminished the use of frescoes save for covering upper walls, covings and ceilings. The technique of buon fresco, or true fresco, involved covering the area with a medium-fine plaster, the intonaco, just rough enough to provide a bond (sometimes enhanced by scoring) for the final layer of fine plaster. Either a freehand sketch of the whole composition (sinopia) was drawn on the wall, or a full-scale cartoon was prepared and its outlines transferred to the intonaco by pressing them through with a knife or by pouncing - blowing charcoal dust through prickholes in the paper. Then over the intonaco enough of the final thin layer was applied to contain a day's work. That portion of the design was repeated on it either by the same methods or freehand, and the artist set to work with water-based pigments while the plaster was still damp; this allowed them to sink in before becoming dry and fixed. (Thus 'pulls' or slices of frescoes could be taken by later art thieves without actually destroying the colour or drawing of the work.) It is usually possible to estimate the time taken to produce a fresco by examining the joins between the plastered areas representing a day's work. Final details, or effects impossible to obtain in true fresco pigments, could be added at the end in 'dry' paints, or fresco secco, a technique in which pigment was laid on an unabsorbent plaster; the best known example of an entire composition in fresco secco is Leonardo's Last Supper. The highest order the English monarch can bestow. It was founded by Edward III in 1348. The blue Garter ribbon is worn under the left knee by men and on the upper left arm by women. The motto is Honi soit qui mal y pense (Evil to those who think evil). in classical Rome, a person's invisible tutelary god. In art from the classical period onwards, the low-ranking god was depicted as a winged, usually childish figure. In a broad sense, the term is used to mean a particular branch or category of art; landscape and portraiture, for example, are genres of painting, and the essay and the short story are genres of literature. The depiction of scenes from everyday life. Elements of everyday life had long had a role in religious works; pictures in which such elements were the subject of a painting developed in the 16th century with such artists as Pieter Bruegel. Then Carracci and Caravaggio developed genre painting in Italy, but it was in Holland in the 17th century that it became an independent form with its own major achievements, Vermeer being one of its finest exponents. A term applied to the 14th-century followers of Giotto. The best-known of the 'Giotteschi' are the Florentines Taddeo Gaddi, Maso di Banco, Bernardo Daddi, and to a lesser extent the Master of St Cecilia. Giotto's most loyal follower was Maso, who concentrated on the essential and maintained the master's high seriousness. French term used from the 15th century onwards for a lying or recumbent effigy on a funerary monument. The gisant typically represented a person in death (sometimes decomposition) and the gisant position was contrasted with the orant, which represented the person as if alive in a kneeling or praying position. In Renaissance monuments gisants often formed part of the lower register, where the deceased person was represented as a corpse, while on the upper part he was represented orant as if alive. paint applied so thinly that the base beneath it is visible through the layer. (1) The supernatural radiance surrounding a holy person. (2) To have the distinction of one's deeds recognized in life and to be revered for them posthumously: this was glory. The nature of true gloria was much discussed, whether it must be connected with the public good, whether the actions that led to it must conform with Christian ethics, how it differed from notoriety. The concept did not exclude religious figures (the title of the church of the Frari in Venice was S. Maria Gloriosa), but it was overwhelmingly seen in terms of secular success and subsequent recognition, as determining the lifestyles of the potent and the form of their commemoration in literature, in portraits and on tombs. As such, it has been taken as a denial of medieval religiosity ('sic transit gloria mundi'), and thus a hallmark of Renaissance individual ism; as a formidable influence on cultural patronage; and as spurring on men of action, as well as writers and artists, to surpass their rivals - including their counterparts in antiquity. French tapestry manufactory, named after a family of dyers and clothmakers who set up business on the outskirts of Paris in the 15th century. Their premises became a tapestry factory in the early 17th century, and in 1662 it was taken over by Louis XIV, who appointed Lebrun Director. Initially it made not only tapestries but also every kind of product (except carpets, which were woven at the Savonnerie factory) required for the furnishing of the royal palaces — its official title was Manufacture royale des meubles de la Couronne. The celebrated tapestry designed by Lebrun showing Louis XIV Visiting the Gobelins (Gobelins Museum, Paris, 1663-75) gives a good idea of the range of its activities. In 1694 the factory was closed because of the king's financial difficulties, and although it reopened in 1699, thereafter it made only tapestries. For much of the 18th century it retained its position as the foremost tapestry manufactory in Europe. 0udry and Boucher successively held the post of Director (1733-70). The Gobelins continues in production today and houses a tapestry museum. a noble chivalric order, still in existence today, founded by Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy in 1430 in honor of the Apostle Andrew, for the defence of the Christian faith and the Church. In allusion to the legend of Jason and the Argonauts, the symbol of the order is a golden ram's fleece drawn through a gold ring. In painting and architecture, a formula meant to provide the aesthetically most satisfying proportions for a picture or a feature of a building. The golden section is arrived at by dividing a line unevenly so that the shorter length is to the larger as the larger is to the whole. This ratio is approximately 8:13. The golden section (sometimes known as the golden mean), which was thought to express a perfect harmony of proportions, played an important role in Renaissance theories of art. Italian gonfaloniere ("standard bearer"), a title of high civic magistrates in the medieval Italian city-states. In Florence the gonfaloniers of the companies (gonfalonieri di compagnia) originated during the 1250s as commanders of the people's militia. In the 1280s a new office called the gonfalonier of justice (gonfaloniere di giustizia) was instituted to protect the interests of the people against the dominant magnate class. The holder of this office subsequently became the most prominent member of the Signoria (supreme executive council of Florence) and formal head of the civil administration. In other Italian cities, the role of the gonfaloniers was similar to that in Florence. Gonfaloniers headed the militia from the various city quarters, while the gonfalonier of justice often was the chief of the council of guild representatives. The kings of France traditionally bore the title gonfalonier of St. Denis. The honorary title of gonfalonier of the church (vexillifer ecclesiae) was conferred by the popes, from the 13th until the 17th century, on sovereigns and other distinguished persons. Gothic, which may well have originated with Alberti as a derogatory term and which certainly corresponds to Vasari's 'maniera tedesca' ('German style'), is properly the descriptive term for an artistic style which achieved its first full flowering in the Ile de France and the surrounding areas in the period between c. 1200 and c. 1270, and which then spread throughout northern Europe. It is characterized by the hitherto unprecedented integration of the arts of sculpture, painting, stained glass and architecture which is epitomized in the great cathedrals of Chartres, Amiens, and Reims or in the Sainte Chapelle in Paris. In all the arts the predominantly planar forms of the Romanesque are replaced by an emphasis on line. There is a transcendental quality, whether in the soaring forms of the pointed arches or in the new stress on the humanity of Christ, which similarly distinguishes it from the preceding Romanesque style. In thinking of Nicola (d. c. 1284) or Giovanni Pisano (d. after 1314) there is same danger of forgetting what had happened in French sculpture half a century or more earlier, and likewise it is hard to remember that the spectacular achievements of early Renaissance art are a singularly localized eddy in the continuing stream of late gothic European art. By northern European standards few Italian works of art can be called gothic without qualification, and the story of 13th and 14th century Italian architecture is as much one of resistance to the new style as of its reception, whether directly from France or through German or central European intermediaries. In sculpture and in painting, the Italian reluctance to distort the human figure, conditioned by a never wholly submerged awareness of the omnipresent antique heritage, gives a special quality to the work of even those artists such as Giovanni Pisano or Simone Martini who most closely approached a pure gothic style. Nevertheless, the vitalizing role of Northern gothic art throughout the early Renaissance and the period leading up to it should never be underestimated. The artistic, like the cultural and commercial, interaction was continuous and much of the Italian achievement is incomprehensible if seen in isolation. It is not merely at the level of direct exchanges between one artist and another, or the influence of one building; painting, manuscript or piece of sculpture upon another, that the effects are to be felt. The streaming quality of line which is so characteristic of Brunelleschi's early Renaissance architecture surely reflects a sensitivity to the gothic contribution which is entirely independent of, and lies much deeper than, the superficial particularities of form. The counterflow of influence and inspiration from South to North must likewise not be underrated. In particular, the contribution of Italian painters from Duccio and Simone Martini onwards is central to the evolution of the so-called International Gothic style developing in Burgundy, Bohemia and north Italy in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. Gouache is opaque watercolour, known also as poster paint and designer's colour. It is thinned with water for applying, with sable- and hog-hair brushes, to white or tinted paper and card and, occasionally, to silk. Honey, starch, or acrylic is sometimes added to retard its quick-drying property. Liquid glue is preferred as a thinner by painters wishing to retain the tonality of colours (which otherwise dry slightly lighter in key) and to prevent thick paint from flaking. Gouache paints have the advantages that they dry out almost immediately to a mat finish and, if required, without visible brush marks. These qualities, with the capacities to be washed thinly or applied in thick impasto and a wide colour range that now includes fluorescent and metallic pigments, make the medium particularly suited to preparatory studies for oil and acrylic paintings. It is the medium that produces the suede finish and crisp lines characteristic of many Indian and Islamic miniatures, and it has been used in Western screen and fan decoration and by modern artists such as Rouault, Klee, Dubuffet, and Morris Graves. Term applied to the lofty and rhetorical manner of history painting that in academic theory was considered appropriate to the most serious and elevated subjects. The classic exposition of its doctrines is found in Reynolds's Third and Fourth Discourses (1770 and 1771), where he asserts that 'the gusto grande of the Italians, the beau idéal of the French, and the great style, genius, and taste among the English, are but different appellations of the same thing'. The idea of the Grand Manner took shape in 17th-century Italy, notably in the writings of Bellori. His friend Poussin and the great Bolognese painters of the 17th century were regarded as outstanding exponents of the Grand Manner, but the greatest of all was held to be Raphael. An extensive journey to the Continent, chiefly to France, the Netherlands, and above all Italy, sometimes in the company of a tutor, that became a conventional feature in the education of the English gentleman in the 18th century. Such tours often took a year or more. It had a noticeable effect in bringing a more cosmopolitan spirit to the taste of connoisseurs and laid the basis for many collections among the landed gentry. It also helped the spread of the fashion for Neoclassicism and an enthusiasm for Italian painting. Among the native artists who catered for this demand were Batoni, Canaletto, Pannini, and Piranesi, and British artists (such as Nollekens) were sometimes able to support themselves while in Italy by working for the dealers and restorers who supplied the tourist clientele. There was also a flourishing market in guide books. A cross with four arms of equal length. Term current with several different meanings in the literature of the visual arts. In the context of the fine arts, it most usually refers to those arts that rely essentially on line or tone rather than colour — i.e. drawing and the various forms of engraving. Some writers, however, exclude drawing from this definition, so that the term 'graphic art' is used to cover the various processes by which prints are created. In another sense, the term — sometimes shortened to 'graphics' — is used to cover the entire field of commercial printing, including text as well as illustrations. A painting done entirely in one colour, usually gray. Grisaille paintings were often intended to imitate sculpture. Italian political terms derived from the German Welf, a personal and thence family name of the dukes of Bavaria, and Waiblingen, the name of a castle of the Hohenstaufen dukes of Swabia apparently used as a battle cry. Presumably introduced into Italy 1198-1218, when partisans of the Emperor Otto IV (Welf) contested central Italy with supporters of Philip of Swabia and his' nephew Frederick II, the terms do not appear in the chronicles until the Emperor Frederick's conflict with the Papacy 1235-50, when Guelf meant a supporter of the Pope and Ghibelline a supporter of the Empire. From 1266 to 1268, when Naples was conquered by Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX, the French connection became the touchstone of Guelfism, and the chain of Guelf alliances stretching from Naples, through central Italy, to Provence and Paris, underwritten by the financial interests of the Tuscan bankers, became an abiding feature of European politics. The Italian expeditions of Henry of Luxemburg (1310-13) and Lewis of Bavaria (1327-29) spread the terms to northern Italy, with the Visconti of Milan and the della Scala of Verona emerging as the leading Ghibelline powers. Attempts by Guelf propagandists to claim their party as the upholder of liberty and their opponents as the protagonists of tyranny rarely coincide with the truth: power politics, then as now, generally overrode ideology in inter-state affairs. Factional struggles had existed within the Italian states from time immemorial, the parties taking a multitude of local names. In Florence, however, Guelf and Ghibelline were applied to the local factions which supposedly originated in a feud between the Buondelmonte and Amidei clans, c. 1216. In 1266-67 the Guelf party, which had recruited most of the merchant class, finally prevailed over the predominantly noble Ghibellines; after this, internal factions in Florence went under other names, like the Blacks and the Whites who contested for control of the commune between 1295 and 1302. Meanwhile the Parte Guelfa had become a corporate body whose wealth and moral authority as the guardian of political orthodoxy enabled it to play the part of a powerful pressure group through most of the 14th century. After the War of the Eight Saints, the influence of the Parte declined rapidly. Although its palace was rebuilt c. 1418-58 to the designs of Brunelleschi, it had no part in the conflicts surrounding the rise of the Medici régime. An association of the masters of a particular craft, trade or profession (painters, goldsmiths, surgeons, and so on) set up to protect its members' rights and interests. Such guilds existed in virtually every European city in the 16th century. The guild also monitored standards of work, acted as a court for those who brought their trade into disrepute, and provided assistance to members in need. Guilds were essentially associations of masters in particular crafts, trades, or professions. In Italy they go back a long way; there is documentary evidence of guilds in 6th century Naples. In origin they were clubs which observed religious festivals together and attended the funerals of their members, but in time they acquired other functions. Their economic function was to control standards and to enforce the guild's monopoly of particular activities in a particular territory. Their political function was to participate in the government of the city-state. In some cities, notably Florence in the 14th century, only guildsmen were eligible for civic office, thus excluding both noblemen (unless they swallowed their pride and joined, as some did), and unskilled workers like the woolcombers and dyers. In Florence in 1378 these groups demanded the right to form their own guilds, and there were similar movements of protest in Siena and Bologna. Guilds were also patrons of art, commissioning paintings for guildhalls, contributing to the fabric fund of cathedrals and collaborating on collective projects like the statues for Orsanmichele at Florence. The guilds were not equal. In Florence, the 7 'Greater Guilds', including such prestigious occupations as judges and bankers, outranked the 14 'Lesser Guilds', and in general the guild hierarchy was reflected in the order of precedence in processions. The great age of the guilds was the 13th and 14th centuries. The economic recession after 1348 meant fewer opportunities for journeymen to become masters, and greater hostility between master and man. The shift from trade to land in the 15th and 16th centuries meant a decline in the social standing of the crafts. In some towns, such as Brescia and Vicenza, guild membership actually became a disqualification instead of a qualification for municipal office. The guilds lost their independence and became instruments of state control. In 16th century Venice, for example, they were made responsible for supplying oarsmen for the galleys of the state. Dutch painters who worked in The Hague between 1860 and 1900, producing renderings of local landscapes and the daily activities of local fisherman and farmers in the style of Realism. In this they extended the traditional focus on genre of the 17th-century Dutch masters with the fresh observation of their contemporary French counterparts, the Barbizon school. The group included Jozef Israëls; Hendrik Willem Mesdag; Jan Hendrik Weissenbruch; Jacob Maris, Matthijs Maris, and Willem Maris; Johannes Bosboom; and Anton Mauve. In a drawing, print or painting, a series of close parallel lines that create the effect of shadow, and therefore contour and three-dimensionality In crosshatching the lines overlap. the study of the meaning of emblems and coats of arms, with the rules governing their use. The heretical movements affecting Italy between the mid-12th and the mid-14th century had their main impact in an area covering the north-west of the peninsula and southern France: it is not possible to speak of distinct Italian and meridional French movements. The authentically Christian movements which were expelled from the Catholic Church must in the first instance be distinguished from Catharism, which represented an infiltration by the originally non-Christian dualist system of Manichaeanism; from the start, the Cathars were an anti-church. By contrast, the Waldensian, Spiritual and Joachimite movements appeared initially as vital manifestations of Catholicism; only after their condemnation by the ecclesiastical authorities do they seem to have developed notably eccentric doctrines and to have described themselves as the true Church in opposition to the institutional Church; they had a recognizable kinship with movements that remained within the pale of orthodoxy. These Christian heresies had in common an attachment to the ideal of apostolic poverty, which came to be seen by the ecclesiastical authorities as a challenge to the institutionalized Church. The Waldensians or Valdesi (not to be confused with Valdesiani, the followers of Juan de Valdes, d. 1541) took their origin from the Poor Men of Lyons, founded by Peter Valdes or Waldo in the 1170s. They were distinguished by a strong attachment to the Bible and a desire to imitate Christ's poverty. At first approved by the Papacy as an order of laymen, they were condemned in 1184. Likewise condemned was the rather similar Lombard movement of the Humiliati. One stream of these remained as an approved order within the Catholic Church, while others merged with the Waldensians. The Waldensians came to teach that the sacraments could be administered validly only by the pure, i.e: only by Waldensian superiors or perfecti practising evangelical poverty. Alone among the heretical sects existing in Italy they were organized as a church, and regarded themselves as forming, together with brethren north of the Alps, one great missionary community. They spread all over western and central Europe but in the long term they came to be largely confined to the Rhaetian and Cottian Alps (the Grisons and Savoy). The Italian Waldensians in the 16th century resisted absorption by Reformed Protestantism. The early Franciscans might be regarded as a movement, similar in character to the Poor Men of Lyons, which was won for the cause of Catholic orthodoxy. However, divisions within the order over the issue of poverty led to religious dissidence. The Spirituals held up the ideal of strict poverty as obligatory for Franciscans and, indeed, normative for churchmen; following the Papacy's recognition of the Franciscan order as a property-owning body in 1322-23, their position became one of criticism of the institutional Church as such. Their heresies came to incorporate the millenarian doctrines of the 12th century abbot Joachim of Fiore. He had prophesied a coming age of the Holy Spirit ushered in by Spiritual monks; his heretical followers prophesied a new Spiritual gospel that would supersede the Bible. Joachimite Spiritualists came to see the pope, head of the 'carnal Church', as Antichrist. The main impact of the movement upon the laity was in southern France; in Italy it was an affair of various groups of fraticelli de paupere vita (little friars of the poor life), mainly in the south. A courtesan of ancient Greece. There may have been one or two hetaira called Lais in ancient Corinth. One was the model of the celebrated painter Apelles. prepared throne, Preparation of the Throne, ready throne or Throne of the Second Coming is the Christian version of the symbolic subject of the empty throne found in the art of the ancient world. In the Middle Byzantine period, from about 1000, it came to represent more specifically the throne prepared for the Second Coming of Christ, a meaning it has retained in Eastern Orthodox art to the present. Painting concerned with the representation of scenes from the Bible, history (usually classical history), and classical literature. From the Renaissance to the 19th century it was considered the highest form of painting, its subjects considered morally elevating. a representation of the Virgin and Child in a fenced garden, sometimes accompanied by a group of female saints. The garden is a symbolic allusion to a phrase in the Song of Songs (4:12): 'A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse'. group of American landscape painters, working from 1825 to 1875. The 19th-century romantic movements of England, Germany, and France were introduced to the United States by such writers as Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper. At the same time, American painters were studying in Rome, absorbing much of the romantic aesthetic of the European painters. Adapting the European ideas about nature to a growing pride in the beauty of their homeland, for the first time a number of American artists began to devote themselves to landscape painting instead of portraiture. First of the group of artists properly classified with the Hudson River school was Thomas Doughty; his tranquil works greatly influenced later artists of the school. Thomas Cole, whose dramatic and colourful landscapes are among the most impressive of the school, may be said to have been its leader during the group's most active years. Among the other important painters of the school are Asher B. Durand, J. F. Kensett, S. F. B. Morse, Henry Inman, Jasper Cropsey, Frederick E. Church, and, in his earlier work, George Inness. philosophical movement which started in Italy in the mid-14th century, and which drew on antiquity to make man the focal point. In humanism, the formative spiritual attitude of the Renaissance, the emancipation of man from God took place. It went hand in hand with a search for new insights into the spiritual and scientific workings of this world. The humanists paid particular attention to the rediscovery and nurture of the Greek and Latin languages and literature. To this day the term denotes the supposedly ideal combination of education based on classical erudition and humanity based on observation of reality.

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A Companion to Latin American History January 2008, Wiley-Blackwell This price is valid for United States. Change location to view local pricing and availability. This is a Print-on-Demand title. It will be printed specifically to fill your order. Please allow an additional 5-6 days delivery time. The book is not returnable. The Companion to Latin American History collects the work of leading experts in the field to create a single-source overview of the diverse history and current trends in the study of Latin America. - Presents a state-of-the-art overview of the history of Latin America - Written by the top international experts in the field - 28 chapters come together as a superlative single source of information for scholars and students - Recognizes the breadth and diversity of Latin American history by providing systematic chronological and geographical coverage - Covers both historical trends and new areas of interest

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Henry Evans is a mute quadriplegic, having suffered a stroke when he was just 40 years old. Following extensive therapy, Henry regained the ability to move his head and use a finger, which allows him to operate computers. Last year, Henry caught a TV interview of Georgia Tech Professor Charlie Kemp showing research with the Willow Garage PR2 robot. Willow Garage and Professor Kemp were contacted by Henry shortly afterwards, and we have been collaborating since then. We are currently exploring ways for Henry to use a PR2 robot as his surrogate. Every day, people take for granted the simple act of scratching an itch. In Henry's case, 2-3 times every hour of every day he gets an itch he can't scratch. With the aid of a PR2, Henry was able to scratch an itch for himself for the first time in 10 years. While this is only a first step, it demonstrates how people with severe physical disabilities could use personal robots to gain independence. In another example, Henry recently used the PR2 to shave his cheek. We are actively researching ways for Henry and others to perform tasks like these on a daily basis. Currently, Henry uses a head tracker to operate a variety of experimental user interfaces. These interfaces allow him to directly move the robot's body, including its arms and head. They also let him invoke autonomous actions, such as navigating in a room and reaching out to a location. Robots that complement human abilities are extremely valuable, especially when they help us do things that we can't do by ourselves. Our goal is to get robots in homes to help people like Henry and Jane Evans. This is just the beginning. Leila Takayama Recognized by MIT Technology Review's TR35 Listing of the World's Top Young Innovators for 2012

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A California-based company is attempting to introduce expert crowdsourcing to oncology to try and ensure that each cancer patient gets the most appropriate treatment. Commons brings together leading physicians and scientists in each type of cancer to create an open-source wiki-style database that will catalogue the different genomic subtypes of each disease and show how patients are responding to different treatments. The project is based on the hypothesis that every patient's tumour is, to some extent, unique. Although most cancer drugs are tested individually in large-scale clinical trials, the majority of physicians (70 percent) prescribe cocktails of drugs based on their individual experience and particular genomic subtype of the cancer. By capturing, aggregating and analysing the genomic and results data of these individual drug experiments -- cross referencing them with the large scale clinical trials and studies -- physicians might be able to more efficiently find the most appropriate treatment for their patients. Cancer Commons was set up by Jay "Marty" Tenenbaum -- a Silicon Valley entrepreneur and cancer survivor who founded a range of e-commerce companies including CommerceNet and Veo Systems. He also founded Enterprise Integration Technologies, the first company to conduct a commercial internet transaction, in 1992. More recently he has focused on transforming healthcare, launching CollabRx, which uses computers to personalise cancer treatments and accelerate research (and which powers Cancer Commons). Tenenbaum argues that there are thousands of studies that are published each year, with only a handful of them getting national or international attention. Furthermore, there are hundreds of thousands of individual "trials" being conducted by doctors (some 30,000 oncologists in the US, where the program is limited to for the time being) who are experimenting with different cocktails of drugs on their patients. Without one central place to store and access these studies, scientific and clinical advancement in this field is being artificially held back. A major hurdle for the project is getting researchers to supply their data to the site, rather than hold out for a career-making article in a peer-reviewed journal. Tenenbaum is frustrated by how little data is shared between peers and hopes that Cancer Commons could mark the dawn of a new era of open-source science. Tenenbaum told Wired.co.uk: "There is lots of talking in fragmented silos, but we want to capture all of that in one place and expedite the process through which science turns into The first stage of Cancer Commons is to create a database where each different type of cancer has a "Molecular Disease Model" (MDM) -- an expert-curated reference node that catalogues the known molecular subtypes of a particular cancer, linked to relevant pathways, diagnostic tests, approved and experimental therapies and current clinical trials. Each is akin to a dynamic research paper that reflects the latest scientific, clinical and technological advancements. A rapid submission and dissemination process allows each MDM to be maintained online and continuously updated by cancer specialists and moderated by editors. The project is governed by an editorial board with an impressive set of credentials. The 18 specialists -- chaired by George Lundberg, former editor-in-chief of Journal of the American Medical Association and of WebMD's online properties and e-Medicine -- include a former FDA Commissioner, a former editor of Science and a former president of the American Society of So far, only one model has been created, for melanoma. It incorporates 78,185 abstracts from research papers and information relating to some 1016 clinical trials that are ongoing in the field. Some 11 expert editors have been assigned to that particular MDM, including Dr David Fisher, the head of the dermatology at Harvard Medical School and Dr Keith Flaherty, from the department of medicine at Harvard Medical School. Over the coming year the plan is to create MDMs for other cancers including lung, breast, sarcoma, and lymphoma -- each with their own experts overseeing In order to harness the power of the MDM, CollabRx is developing apps that tap into the data to aid decision-making. For example, the "Targeted Therapy Finder" can be used by doctors to help identify genetic tests that map an individual tumour's unique characteristics, and then select potential treatments based on the findings. By entering information about the particular tumour, they'll be given options of tests that'll help narrow down the particular subtype of cancer being dealt with (as categorised by the MDM), and therefore find out which treatments are the most promising. They can then find information about trials that are looking for patients with that particular subtype. The view is to develop further apps that allow doctors and researchers to submit clinical observations and outcomes and then collaboratively analyse them to fine-tune the MDMs. Tenenbaum would also like to see patients report how they're responding to treatments. He tells Wired.co.uk: "Over time I'd like the results of lab tests to go directly into the database." He doesn't underestimate the enormity of the task, admitting that not all of the details are worked out yet and that the initial MDMs will "almost certainly be incomplete and wrong in places". He adds: "We don't pretend that we are going to cure cancer. But we ought to be able to improve the outcomes for some patients." Tenenbaum wants to make applications that are so compelling to doctors that they'll have to use them to stay relevant in their fields. "I see possibilities to slash time and development of new drugs and improve patient care."

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Robb Godshaw, from Syynlabs, has created a haptic cube that gives you an impression of what the temperature will be like tomorrow. The cube, which Godshaw has named the Cryoscope, consists of an aluminium shell surrounding a Peltier element, heatsink, cooling fan and an LED, all controlled by an Arduino. The cube is heated to a "neutral" state of 30C, and then adjusted by the number of degrees that the next day's forecast differs from room temperature (23C). It takes into account wind chill and humidity to give an idea what the following day will "feel" like, rather than merely reflecting air temperature. So, for example, if the forecast for the next day is for 18C, once those factors are all taken into account, the cube's temperature will decrease five degrees from 30C to 25C, resulting in it being slightly cool to the touch. Godshaw describes it in the video above as a "haptic weathervane", adding: "Users enter their location into a web app. The cube then automatically adjusts to the forecasted temperature. By touching the Cryoscope, the user is able to feel tomorrow's air You can see the Cryoscope in action over on Godshaw's website. Updated 08:29 09/05/2012: Godshaw has redesigned the Cryoscope and is raising money for full production over on Kickstarter.

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Odd Wisconsin Archive Today marks the 25th anniversary of the first AIDS diagnosis, a gruesome fact but one which, like every other, has a historical context. Epidemics have swept through human communities for about 10,000 years, and Wisconsin has had its share. European diseases probably reached Wisconsin before European explorers themselves. In the fifty years following Hernando de Soto's invasion of the lower Mississippi in 1539, disease killed 90 percent of the Indians living in the middle Mississippi Valley. These were Indians with whom Wisconsin peoples had traded for centuries, since at least the time of Aztalan. Many archaeologists have speculated that epidemics of measles or smallpox may have swept through Indian communities in Wisconsin decades before Jean Nicolet stepped ashore in 1634. Once Europeans set up permanent settlements and native peoples gathered around them, disease penetrated Indian communities as effectively as metal pots, firearms, or porcelain beads. “Maladies wrought among them more devastation than even war did,” concluded contemporary French writer Bacqueville de la Potherie of the Wisconsin tribes, “and exhalations from the rotting corpses caused great mortality.” The first clearly documented epidemic in Wisconsin was an act of bioterrorism perpetrated by British traders against Indians who had killed one of their colleagues. Dr. Douglass Houghton, who interviewed the Ojibwe about epidemics in 1832, wrote down their recollection that in 1770, when visiting Mackinac, "a cask of liquor and a flag closely rolled were presented to the Indians as a token of friendship. They were at the same time strictly enjoined neither to break the seal of the cask nor to unroll the flag, until they had reached the heart of their own country. "This they promised to observe; but while returning, and after having travelled many days, the chief of the deputation made a feast for the Indians of the band at Fond du Lac, Lake Superior, upon which occasion he unsealed the cask and unrolled the flag for the gratification of his guests... and of those Indians then at Fond du Lac, about three hundred in number, nearly the whole were swept off by it. Nor did it stop here; for numbers of those at Fond du Lac at the time the disease made its appearance, took refuge among the neighboring bands; and although it did not extend easterly on Lake Superior, it is believed that not a single band of Chippewas north or west from Fond du Lac escaped its ravages... "The Indians at this day are firmly of the opinion that the smallpox was at this time communicated through the articles presented to their brethren by the agent of the Fur Company at Mackinac; and that it was done for the purpose of punishing them more severely for their offences." His full account, including other outbreaks after this first one, is here. Houghton estimated that the disease had appeared among the Ojibwe at least five times in the previous 60 years. Disease is no respecter of race or ethnicity, and the earliest white settlers suffered catastrophically from epidemic outbreaks as well. At Fort Crawford in the summer of 1830, 154 of the 199 soldiers came down with malaria. Cholera broke out among them in August 1833, taking down 23 soldiers and killing six, and other outbreaks swept through the state between 1849 and 1854. In August of 1895, smallpox swept through the southside of Milwaukee, where the traditions of recent Polish immigrants clashed with modern public health practices. The first patients were segregated at an isolation hospital outside the neighborhood, even though the residents preferred caring for their own sick in their own homes, as they had in the old country. When hospital patients began dying, the residents came to see the hospital as a slaughterhouse -- a place they would never send their loved ones. When city health officials or ambulances attempted to remove patients to protect the uninfected, they were met by barricaded doors and armed uprisings. A protest rally drew nearly 10,000 people to the hospital who stoned the police and fired pistols in the air. The 100 police officers plunged into the crowd swinging billy clubs, cracking heads and driving people back to their homes. The Spanish Flu epidemic that followed World War I perhaps affected more Wisconsin residents than any other outbreak. Known variously as the "Spanish Flu" or "La Grippe," influenza killed an estimated 50 million people worldwide. By the end of 1918, more than 675,000 Americans had died from the flu, most between the ages of 19 and 42, and the Wisconsin Board of Health declared that the "Spanish flu" epidemic would "forever be remembered as the most disastrous calamity that has ever been visited upon the people of Wisconsin." The first cases were reported in southern Wisconsin in September 1918, and by December, influenza had sickened almost 103,000 residents and killed more than 8,000. Read more here, in the autumn 2000 issue of our Wisconsin Magazine of History. Read more about Wisconsin diseases and epidemics on our Topics in Wisconsin History page. :: Posted in Curiosities on June 4, 2006

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World Bulletin / News Desk Wheat experts are stepping up monitoring of a crop disease first found in Africa in 1999 to minimise the spread of a deadly fungus that is also a threat in Asia, experts said on Friday. A "Rust-Tracker", using data supplied by farmers and scientists, could now monitor the fungus in 27 developing nations across 42 million hectares (103 million acres) of wheat - an area the size of Iraq or California. "It's the most serious wheat disease," Ronnie Coffman, vice-chair of the Borlaug Global Rust Initiative (BGRI), told Reuters ahead of a meeting of wheat experts in Beijing from Sept. 1-4. "If it gets started...it's like a biological firestorm," he said. Experts will review progress in combating the disease, with fungicides and 20 new resistant varieties developed in recent years. The stem rust disease, forming reddish patches on plants like rust on metal, is known as Ug99 after it was found in Uganda in 1999. It has since spread as far as South Africa and north to Yemen and Iran. The fungus, which can destroy entire wheat fields, is likely eventually to be carried worldwide on the winds. The biggest threat in coming years is a spread across Asia to Pakistan, India and China, the world's top producer, Coffman said. "Effective control often depends on finding out what is happening in distant regions, and the Rust-Tracker can help scientists assess the status of stem rust and other rust diseases," said Dave Hodson, the developer of Rust-Tracker. About 85 percent of wheat now in production worldwide was reckoned to be vulnerable to Ug99 and its variants, the BGRI estimated. Rich nations are far less vulnerable because they can afford to switch to new varieties or deploy fungicides. Among developing nations, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Egypt, India, Kenya, Nepal and Pakistan are on the front line of deploying rust-resistant varieties. Coffman said that relatively minor amounts of wheat output had been lost so far. "The only country under immediate threat of a dramatic loss of production is Ethiopia," he said. In Kenya, for instance, Ug99 had been brought largely under control because of shifts to new varieties. Another threat was from yellow rust, which has struck nations from Morocco to Uzbekistan in recent years. The Ug99 fungus is among threats to food supplies. A U.N. panel of scientists says that heat waves, floods and droughts -- like the one affecting the United States this year -- are likely to become more frequent because of manmade climate change. Scientists were also studying ways to limit a woody plant known as barberry, where the fungus also lives. Efforts to eradicate the plant in the 20th century seem to have reduced rust. And the rust had overcome a genetic resistance to the disease developed for wheat in the early 1970s by Norman Borlaug, the father of the "Green Revolution" that introduced higher-yielding crop varieties, Coffman said. He said that rust had been known at least since Roman times. About 40 percent of the U.S. crop was destroyed in the early 1950s when rust swept up from Mexico.

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Divers have found 30 bottles of champagne thought to pre-date the French Revolution on the Baltic seabed. When they opened one, they found the wine - believed to have been made by Clicquot (now Veuve Clicquot) between 1782 and 1788 - was still in good condition. The bottle - whose shape indicates it was produced in the 18th Century - has now been sent to France for analysis. If confirmed, it would be the oldest drinkable champagne in the world. Diver Christian Ekstrom was exploring a shipwreck on the Baltic seabed when he found the bottles. He took one to the surface, where he opened it and tasted it with his colleagues. "It was fantastic," he told the Reuters news agency. "It had a very sweet taste, you could taste oak and it had a very strong tobacco smell. And there were very small bubbles." According to records, Clicquot champagne was first produced in 1772 but was laid down for 10 years. Production was disrupted after the French Revolution in 1789. The wine found on the seabed was perfectly preserved because of the conditions of dark and cold on the seabed. If the bottles do come from the 1780s, that would make them around 40 years older than the current record-holder, a bottle of Perrier-Jouet from 1825. Wine experts estimate each bottle would fetch around 500,000 Swedish kronor (£45,000; $69,000) at auction. The bottles were found off the coast of Aaland, an autonomous part of Finland. The local authorities will decide what is done with the shipwreck - and the champagne.

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French and American scientists won the Nobel Prize in physics Tuesday for their work with light and matter, which may lead the way to superfast computers and "the most precise clocks ever seen," the prize committee said. Serge Haroche of France and David Wineland of the United States will share the $1.2 million prize, the second of six Nobel Prizes announced this month. The award surprised those who expected the physics Nobel this year to be related to the discovery of the Higgs boson, considered one of the top scientific achievements of the past 50 years. Wineland and Haroche work in the field of quantum optics, approaching the same principles from opposite directions. The American uses light particles to measure the properties of matter, whereas his French colleague focuses on tracking light particles by using atoms. Both Nobel laureates have found ways to isolate the subatomic particles and keep their properties intact at the same time, scientists at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said in Stockholm, Sweden. Usually when these particles interact with the outside world, the properties that scientists would like to directly observe disappear, leaving researchers postulating over what is going on with them. The two have found a way around this, making direct observation possible. "The new methods allow them to examine, control and count the particles," the academy said. Haroche is a professor at the College de France and Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris, and Wineland is group leader and NIST Fellow at the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado Boulder. Their work has some potential side benefits to future technology. "Their ground-breaking methods have enabled this field of research to take the very first steps towards building a new type of super fast computer based on quantum physics," the academy said.

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On behalf of Gov. Mark Schweiker, Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) Secretary David E. Hess announced that this month's episode of the Emmy-award-winning television series GreenWorks for Pennsylvania features stories about people working to protect Pennsylvania's watersheds. "Raising awareness of the role watersheds play in our environment is one of the cornerstones of Pennsylvania's `Growing Greener' program," Hess said. "The current episode of GreenWorks features people of all ages learning about, protecting and restoring Pennsylvania's watersheds. GreenWorks, produced in a video-magazine format, takes viewers across the Commonwealth to spotlight people doing positive things for the environment. GreenWorks is supported by DEP and the Environmental Fund for Pennsylvania (EFP). The current episode runs through October. This month's episode includes these features. * The Radnor Middle School Watershed Program in Delaware County, which takes students out of the classroom and into the field to learn about watersheds first hand. * Members of the Delaware RiverKeepers, who worked on mitigating stream bank erosion by clearing, regrading and covering a stream bank with a biodegradable mesh of coconut fibers allowing native plants to regain a healthy foothold. * The Pottstown Watershed Alliance, which removed an old dam in the Manatawny Creek in Pottstown, Montgomery County, to improve water quality. * Members of the Swatara Creek Watershed Association and DEP staff, which cleaned up 33 acres of abandoned mine drainage in Schuylkill County. * The River Sojourn 2001, where people from all walks of life canoed and kayaked on Pennsylvania rivers to connect with and appreciate the beauty and power of the state's natural water resources. "We all depend on rivers and watersheds for drinking water and more," EFP Executive Director Timothy J. Schlitzer said. "I hope this program will deepen viewers' understanding and respect for what it takes to protect our precious waterways." EFP funds environmental education and improvement projects from contributions made through employee payroll-deduction programs established by businesses and the Commonwealth and other donations. The series reaches more than five million households in Pennsylvania through 83 cable television stations as well as the Public Broadcasting Service. For a listing of stations carrying GreenWorks and information on particular broadcasts, visit the GreenWorks website through the PA PowerPort at www.state.pa.us, directly at www.GreenWorks.tv, or call EFP at 1-800-PAGREEN ext. 1.

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Here's the way the NWS defines it: Forecasts issued by the National Weather Service routinely include a "PoP" (probability of precipitation) statement, which is often expressed as the "chance of rain" or "chance of precipitation".http://www.srh.noaa.gov/ffc/?n=pop ZONE FORECASTS FOR NORTH AND CENTRAL GEORGIA NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE PEACHTREE CITY GA 119 PM EDT THU MAY 8 2008 INCLUDING THE CITIES OF...ATLANTA...CONYERS...DECATUR... 119 PM EDT THU MAY x 2008 .THIS AFTERNOON...MOSTLY CLOUDY WITH A 40 PERCENT CHANCE OF SHOWERS AND THUNDERSTORMS. WINDY. HIGHS IN THE LOWER 80S. NEAR STEADY TEMPERATURE IN THE LOWER 80S. SOUTH WINDS 15 TO 25 MPH. .TONIGHT...MOSTLY CLOUDY WITH A CHANCE OF SHOWERS AND THUNDERSTORMS IN THE EVENING...THEN A SLIGHT CHANCE OF SHOWERS AND THUNDERSTORMS AFTER MIDNIGHT. LOWS IN THE MID 60S. SOUTHWEST WINDS 5 TO 15 MPH. CHANCE OF RAIN 40 PERCENT. What does this "40 percent" mean? ...will it rain 40 percent of of the time? ...will it rain over 40 percent of the area? The "Probability of Precipitation" (PoP) describes the chance of precipitation occurring at any point you select in the area. How do forecasters arrive at this value? Mathematically, PoP is defined as follows: PoP = C x A where "C" = the confidence that precipitation will occur somewhere in the forecast area, and where "A" = the percent of the area that will receive measureable precipitation, if it occurs at all. So... in the case of the forecast above, if the forecaster knows precipitation is sure to occur ( confidence is 100% ), he/she is expressing how much of the area will receive measurable rain. ( PoP = "C" x "A" or "1" times ".4" which equals .4 or 40%.) But, most of the time, the forecaster is expressing a combination of degree of confidence and areal coverage. If the forecaster is only 50% sure that precipitation will occur, and expects that, if it does occur, it will produce measurable rain over about 80 percent of the area, the PoP (chance of rain) is 40%. ( PoP = .5 x .8 which equals .4 or 40%. ) In either event, the correct way to interpret the forecast is: there is a 40 percent chance that rain will occur at any given point in the area.

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"Caring, Effective, Middle/High School Math Tutor" ...Sometimes it is just more practice that is needed, but in any case it is very important that students know math facts, operations, decimals, fractions, ratios, percents, and proportions extremely well. They must also have general "number sense." I bring a lot of experience helping students learn these basics, which are the key building blocks of... 10 subjects, including algebra 1

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Why is my paper pink? The color of today’s paper is probably quite a shock to many of our readers, and that is just the effect we are hoping for. Today marks the beginning of Breast Cancer Awareness Month, and this edition of The Yazoo Herald is dedicated to raising awareness about the importance of early detection and encouraging support for efforts to help find a cure. Most of us know someone who has been affected by breast cancer. Besides some forms of skin cancer, it is the most common cancer in women. It doesn’t discriminate. Breast cancer rates are equally high among women of all races. The Center of Disease Control reports that it is the highest cause of death by cancer among Hispanic women and the second-leading cancer cause of death among white and black women. One in eight women in the United States will suffer from invasive breast cancer at some point in their lives. Fortunately, breast cancer deaths have been decreasing since 1990 as detection and treatment improve, reducing the mortality rate to 3 in 100. If you’re reading this and you haven’t had an examination, it’s time to make an appointment. Last Updated (Friday, 30 September 2011 18:19)

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Origin: LL exarchus, overseer of monasteries < Gr exarchos, leader, chief (in LGr, prefect, bishop): see ex- & -arch Origin: < ex- + Gr archē, beginning See exarch in American Heritage Dictionary 4 Origin: Late Latin exarchus, an overseer Origin: , from Greek exarkhos Origin: , from exarkhein, to lead Origin: : ex-, ex- Origin: + arkhein, to rule. Origin: + Greek arkhē, beginning (from arkhein, to rule, begin). Learn more about exarch

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|Yoon Jae Kim, yj1dreamer AT gmail.com (A project report written under the guidance of Prof. Raj Jain)||Download| Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a design pattern which is composed of loosely coupled, discoverable, reusable, inter-operable platform agnostic services in which each of these services follow a well defined standard. Each of these services can be bound or unbound at any time and as needed. [Jamil08]However, as defined, SOA has a loosely-coupled feature, which makes SOA open to the challenges of security. It means that SOA must meet several requirements. The main requirements are as follows[Candolin07]: service discovery, service authentication, user authentication, access control, confidentiality, integrity, availability, and privacy. To ensure security in a loosely-coupled SOA environment, the open standards communities that created Web services developed a number of security standards for Web services which is one of the most active and widely adopted implementation of SOA. Figure 1 depicts a notional reference model for Web services security standards. This reference model maps the different standards to the different functional layers of a typical Web service implementation. As described above, in the Web Services Security Stack the Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) and the eXtensible Access Control Markup Language (XACML) are the standard for access control which means that when the service is requested by a user the service must enforce the specified security policy related to access control. We focus on access control in the Web Services security and represent what SAML and XACML are, how they work and where they are able to be applied together. SAML, created by the Security Services Technical Committee of the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS), is a an XML-based framework for communicating user authentication, entitlement, and attribute information. As its name suggests, SAML allows business entities to make assertions regarding the identity, attributes, and entitlements of a subject (an entity that is often a human user) to other entities, such as a partner company or another enterprise application. [Madsen05] SAML is a flexible and extensible protocol designed to be used - and customized if necessary - by other standards. Web Single Sign-On In web SSO, a user authenticates to one web site and then, without additional authentication, is able to access some personalized or customized resources at another site. SAML enables web SSO through the communication of an authentication assertion from the first site to the second which, if confident of the origin of the assertion, can choose to log in the user as if they had authenticated directly. A principal authenticates at the identity provider and is subsequently appropriately recognized (and given corresponding access/service) at the service provider.[Google] For example, Google made SAML Single Sign-On (SSO) Service for Google Apps. And Google Apps provides a SAML-based Single Sign-On (SSO) service that offers partner companies with full control over the authorization and authentication of hosted user accounts that can access web-based applications like Gmail or Google Calendar. As the service provider Google offers services as Gmail and Start Pages and partner companies control account information as identity provider. Similar to the Web SSO scenario, the attribute-based authorization model has one web site communicating identity information about a subject to another web site in support of some transaction. However, the identity information may be some characteristic of the subject (such as a person's role in a B2B scenario) rather than, or in addition to, information about when and how the person was authenticated. The attribute-based authorization model is important when the individual's particular identity is either not important, should not be shared for privacy reasons, or is insufficient on its own. Securing Web Services SAML assertions can be used within SOAP messages in order to convey security and identity information between actors in web service interactions. The SAML Token Profile produced by the OASIS Web Services Security (WSS) TC specifies how SAML assertions should be used for this purpose with the WS-Security framework. The Liberty Alliance's Identity Web Service Framework (ID-WSF) builds on these specifications to use SAML assertions for enabling secure and privacy-respecting access to web services. WS-Trust, one component of the private WS-* framework initiative, proposes protocols for the exchange and validation of security tokens used as described within WS-Security. SAML assertions are one such supported security token format. Figure 3 illustrates these actors and information flow. As can be seen in the figure, the PAP writes Polices and PolicySets and makes them available to the PDP. These Policies or PolicySets shows the complete policy for a particular target. The PEP is the component where the request is received when access requester wants to take some action on a resource and make the request. In this part, the attributes in the request may be in the format of the application environment (e.g., SAML, etc.). The PEP sends the request to the Context Handler. Context Handler maps the request and attributes to the XACML Request context and sends the request to the PDP. While evaluating the request, the PDP needs some attributes and sends the attribute queries to the Context Handler. The Context Handler collects these attributes by the help of the PIP from the resources, subjects, and the environment. After evaluation, the PDP sends the XACML Response to the Context Handler and the Context Handler translates the Response context to the native response format of the application environment and sends it to PEP. The PEP fulfills the obligations if they exist and applies the authorization decision that PDP concludes.[Periorellis07] A Request element contains four components as Subject, Resource, Action, and Environment. One request element has only one collection of resource and action attributes, and at most one collection of environment attributes. But there may be multiple collections of subject attributes. Subject attribute contains subject's details such as name, e-mail, role and so on. Resource attribute details the resource for which access is requested and action attribute specifies the requested action to be performed on resource such as read or wire. Also, Environment attribute is optional and contains attributes of environment. A Response element represents the authorization decision information made by PDP. It contains one or more Result attributes. Each result includes a Decision such as Permit, Deny, NotApplicable, or Indeterminate, some Status information which gives the errors occurred and their descriptions while evaluating the request and optionally one or more Obligations which specifies tasks in the PolicySet and Policy elements in the policy description which should be performed before granting or denying access. A Rule element defines the target elements to which the rule is applied and details conditions to apply the rule and has three components such as target, effect, and condition. A target element specifies the resources, subjects, actions and the environment to which the rule is applied. A condition element shows the conditions to apply the rule and a effect is the consequence of the rule as either permit or deny. A policy is the set of rules which are combined with some algorithms. These algorithms are called Rule-combining algorithms. For instance "Permit Override" algorithm allows the policy to evaluate to "Permit" if any rule in the policy evaluates to "Permit". A policy also contains target elements which shows the subjects, resources, actions, environment that policy is applied. A PolicySet consists of Policies and PolicySets combined with policy-combined algorithm. It has also target like a Policy. The XACML context shows how flexible and suitable the XACML is for various application. This feature makes it possible that XACML is applied to access control system with SAML. Section 4 shows the more detailed. SAML is one standard suitable for providing the assertion and protocol mechanisms and specifies schemas for carrying the security and authorization related information and have the bindings to basic transportation mechanisms. Therefore, OASIS publishes a SAML profile for the XACML (OASIS, 2005)[Anderson05] to carry the XACML messages between the XACML actors. This profile defines the usage of SAML 2.0 to protect, store, transport, request and respond with XACML instances and other information. It contains largely four categories. First, this profile specifies how to use SAML Attributes in an XACML system. This category contains three standard SAML elements such as SAML Attribute, SAML AttributeStatement and SAML Assertion, two standard SAML protocol such as SAML AttributeQuery and SAML Response, and one new SAML extension element, XACMLAssertion. In an XACML system, SAML Attribute may be used to store and to transmit attribute values and must be transformed into an XACML Attribute before used in an XACML Request Context. Also SAML AttributeStatement may be used to hold SAML Attribute instances. A SAML Assertion may be used to hold SAML AttributeStatement instances in an XACML system, either in an Attribute Repository or in a SAML Response to a SAML AttributeQuery. To transform a SAML Attribute into an XACML Attribute the SAML Assertion includes information that is required and a SAML Assertion or an XACMLAssertion instance contains a SAML Attribute. An XACMLAssertion is an alternative to the SAML Assertion and allows inclusion of XACML Statement instances and inclusion of other XACMLAssertion instance as advice. An XACML PDP or PEP use SAML AttributeQuery to request SAML Attribute instances from an Attribute Authority for use in an XACML Request Context and in response to it SAML Response shall be used to return SAML Attribute instances. Second, this profile represent the use of SAML for use in requesting, responding with, storing, and transmitting authorization decisions in an XACML system. This category contains XACMLAuthzDecisionStatement, XACMLAssertion, XACMLAuthzDecisionQuery, and XACMLResponse. In this profile, XACMLAuthzDecisionStatement and XACMLAssertion are new SAML extension elements and the others are new SAML extension protocol elements. In an XACML system, XACMLAuthzDecisionSatement may be used to contain XACML authorization decisions for storage or transmission and XACMLAssertion may be used to contain XACMLAuthzDecisionStatement instances for storage or transmission. Also a PEP may use XACMLAuthzDecisionQuery to request an authorization decision from an XACML PDP and an XACML PDP may use XACMLResponse to return authorization decisions in response to an XACMLAuthzDecisionQuery. Then, this profile shows the use of SAML for use in requesting, responding with, storing and transmitting XACML policies. This category includes four new SAML extensions; XACMLPolicyStatement, XACMLAssertion, XACMLPolicyQuery and XACMLResponse. In an XACML system, XACMLPolicyStatement may hold XACML policies for storage or transmission and XACMLAssertion may hold XACMLPolicySatement instances for storage or transmission. And a PDP or other application uses XACMLPolicyQuery to request XACML from a PAP. Also PAP uses XACMLResponse to return policies in response to an XACMLPolicyQuery. Finally, this profile details the use of XACMLAssertion instances as advice in other Assertion. This category consists of XACML Advice, which is a new SAML extension element in this profile that may be used for including XACMLAssertion instances as advice in another XACMLAssertion, and XACMLAssertion which is a new SAML extension element that may be used to hold on XACMLAdvice instance along with SAML Statement or XACML extension Statement instance. Figure 5 describes the XACML use model and the messages that can be used to communicate between the various components. Statements are carried in SAML or XACML Assertions, and Assertions are carried in SAML or XACML Responses. Not all components or messages will be used in every implementation. Next subsection shows the practical example of this model. The steps of communication between Portal and Web services are described in detail as follows: Focusing on access control we represent SAML and XACML which are developed by OASIS. SAML is an XML-based framework for exchanging authentication and authorization data. Because SAML has much strength such as platform neutrality, loose coupling of directories, improved online experience for end user, reduced administrative costs for service providers and risk transference. Also SAML is being applied in Web Single Sign-On, Attribute-Based Authorization, and Securing Web Services. XACML defines XML files which contains access control policy and access control decision request/ response. Policy Decision Point (PDP) looks at the request from Policy Enforcement Point (PEP) and finds some policy applying to the request from Policy Administration Point (PAP) and returns the response about whether access should be granted to PEP. XACML defines the content of Request/Response messages but does not define protocols or transport mechanisms, which SAML provides by defining schemas for use in requesting and responding with various types of security assertions. This SAML/XACML based access control is a very powerful and practical solution for dynamic and large-scale application domain because it is easier to change and maintain policies. So it can extend the authentication and authorization mechanism within a portal to external Web services. |[Candolin07]||Candolin, Catharina, "A Security Framework for Service Oriented Architectures", Military Communications Conference, 2007. MILCOM 2007. IEEE, 29-31 Oct. 2007, pp.1-6 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4455332| |[Singhal07]||Singhal , Anoop, "Web Services Security: Challenges and Techniques" policy, Eighth IEEE International Workshop on Policies for Distributed Systems and Networks (POLICY'07), 2007, pp.282 http://www2.computer.org/portal/web/csdl/doi/10.1109/POLICY.2007.50| |[Madsen05]||Madsen, Paul, et al., "SAML V2.0 Executive Overview", OASIS Committee Draft, 12 April 2005 http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/13525/sstc-saml-exec-overview-2.0-cd-01-2col.pdf| |[Ragouzis08]||Ragouzis, Nick, et al., "Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) V2.0 Technical Overview", Committee Draft 02, 25, March 2008, http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/27819/sstc-saml-tech-overview-2.0-cd-02.pdf| |[Sun]||"Sun's XACML Implementation", July 2004, http://sunxacml.sourceforge.net/guide.html| |[Moses05]||Moses, Tim, et al., "eXtensible Access Control Markup Language(XACML) Version 2.0", OASIS Standard, 1 Feb 2005, http://docs.oasis-open.org/xacml/2.0/access_control-xacml-2.0-core-spec-os.pdf| |[Periorellis07]||Periorellis,Panos , "Securing Web Services: Practical Usage of Standards and Specifications", Idea Group Inc(IGI), 2007. http://books.google.com/books?id=zX2N7fWTJOUC| |[YIN07]||Yin, Hao, et al., "A SAML/XACML Based Access Control between Portal and Web Services", Data, Privacy, and E-Commerce, 2007. ISDPE 2007. The First International Symposium on, Nov. 2007, pp 356-360 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4402710| |[Anderson05]||Anderson, Anne, et al., "SAML 2.0 profile of XACML v2.0", OASIS Standard, 1 Feb 2005 http://docs.oasis-open.org/xacml/2.0/access_control-xacml-2.0-saml-profile-spec-os.pdf| |[Jamil08]||Jamil, Ejaz, et al., "What really is SOA. A comparison with Cloud Computing, Web 2.0, SaaS, WOA, Web Services, PassS and others", SOALIB, 12 Dec 2008. http://soalib.com/docs/whitepaper/SoalibWhitePaper_SOAJargon.pdf| |[Google]||SAML Single Sign-On (SSO) Service for Google Apps, http://code.google.com/apis/apps/sso/saml_reference_implementation.html| |CORBA||Common Object Request Broker Architecture| |DCE||Distributed Computing Environment| |GSA||General Services Administration| |IDP||General Services Administration| |J2SE||Java Platform Standard Edition| |ID-WSF||Identity Web Services Framework| |LDAP||Lightweight Directory Access Protocol| |OASIS||the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards| |PAP||Policy Administration Point| |PDP||Policy Decision Point| |PEP||Policy Enforcement Point| |PIP||Point Information Point| |SAML||Security Assertion Markup Language| |SOA||Service Oriented Architecture| |SOAP||Simple Object Access Protocol| |SSL||Secure Sockets Layer| |TLS||Transport Layer Security| |WSS||Web Security Service| |XACML||eXtensible Access Control Markup Language| |XKMS||XML Key Management Specification| |XML||eXtensible Markup Language| |XSLT||eXtensible Markup Language| Last Modified: April, 19, 2009 This and other papers on latest advances in network security are available on line at http://www1.cse .wustl.edu/~jain/cse571-09/index.html Back to Raj Jain's Home Page

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Being An Ethical Hunter Imagine that you are in the woods during hunting season and you are deer hunting on a piece of property owned by one of your friends. She tells you that there are too many does running around, eating crops and destroying property, and she wants you to help cull the herd. She states that she does not want anyone to shoot the antlered deer just the does. She gives you four special non-antlered damage tags, and you have your own state antlered tags. Does and bucks are legal to harvest. After sitting in the woods for hours, you hear a loud noise. You look over your shoulder and see the biggest antlered deer you have ever seen! He is just over the property line, but appears to be heading towards the fence line. What would you do? It comes down to a matter of ethics - between what a hunter is allowed to do, and what a hunter should do. The way we think about or judge the right thing to do comes from our surroundings and the people we associate with. The influence on every individual to do the right thing comes from, but is not limited to, the following: Our individual ethics shape who we are and what we will do...when no one is watching us. It forms our character and defines us as a group of individuals called safe and ethical hunters. Our individual and cultural ethics involving hunting define us - positively or negatively - to other hunters and to the general public who are non-hunters. Others judge your ethics through your attitude and behavior.

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Eighteen years ago, the eminent conservation biologist Gary Meffe warned of what he considered to be the greatest problem in human history – humanity’s inexorable and exponential increase in numbers. Meffe’s paper, entitled ‘Human Population Control: The Missing Agenda’ published in the journal Conservation Biology, outlined the threats posed by an ever-increasing human population to biodiversity in terms of species extinctions, and to the ecosystem services necessary for our survival. These include water and air purification, hydrologic cycling and food production. Not only is humanity’s deluge drowning the creatures we share the Earth with, but it also runs the risk of submerging itself too. But was this ‘missing agenda’ acknowledged? Was a dam constructed to stem our exponential flow? Nearly two decades later and we see the publication of the UN’s State of World Population report 2011. It announced that on October 31st we reached the population milestone of seven billion people inhabiting our world. Instead of warning of future population growth and the associated negative impact, it had a more positive tone that encouraged us to ask “What can I do to make our world better?” rather than “Are we too many?” This is the United Nations after all, and understandably it has to take a progressive and reassuring stance rather than one of doom and gloom. But the angle taken is perhaps revealing of the prevailing attitude of the global collective consciousness – population growth is inevitable and cannot be stopped. Of course there’s no such thing as a global collective consciousness, explaining in part why Meffe’s view has been largely ignored, because humanity lacks a collective impetus and so anything that requires mass cohesion, for instance only having one child or reducing carbon emissions, is doomed to fail. Seven billion people – it’s enough to make you feel insignificant. Except it’s not, it’s just a number. A very big number too large to visualise, grasp or comprehend. Incidentally, if you’re ever having trouble feeling insignificant, then listen to what the ‘Woody Allen’ of science, Lawrence Krauss has to say. In his recent lecture on cosmic connections for The School of Life he stated that “you are much more insignificant than you thought” before going on to compete with Brian Cox for the title of ‘King of making outlandish profound points’, by explaining how we are all quite literally “made of stars”. Every atom in our bodies comes from the remnants of an exploded star. It turns out Moby was right (see video below). This digression aside, the ineffably large human population will continue to increase and even if we wanted to implement population control, doing so would be unethical and practically speaking impossible. Very few people, not even many devout conservationists, would be willing to sacrifice the right to have children. I for one wouldn’t, it is in our evolutionary spirit. Instead of tackling the so called ‘root cause’ of the population problem by implementing unrealistic, unfavourable, and unwanted population control, efforts have been directed at addressing offshoot issues such as those relating to overconsumption and overexploitation of natural resources. If we can adopt new cleaner technologies and practices to ensure our impact on the environment is neutral or at least negligible, it will be a step in the right direction. Just this week the production of a ‘microbial fuel cell’ has been announced which can purportedly produce electricity from human urine! Researchers at the University of the West of England (UWE) have found that by utilising anaerobic bacteria as they metabolise organic waste waters, electrons can be harnessed and useful electricity generated. By ‘useful’ it is meant that enough electricity would be generated to charge a battery say, but presumably not enough to heat a home for instance, yet. For now, no one is suggesting this is the answer to the world’s problems, but switching to technologies that rely less on finite Earth resources and more on recycling waste products will help ameliorate the effects our species has on the planet. Unfortunately though, those who sing the praises of such advances are often branded with the stigma of being too ‘preachy’. Increasing public apathy to important issues such as clean technology, climate change and biodiversity decline should be at least as worrying to everyone as financial crises or global terrorism.

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Idaho State University researchers study newly discovered earthquake fault in Idaho’s Sawtooth Mountains Posted September 28, 2010 While looking at a highly detailed new topographic image of Idaho’s Sawtooth Range, Idaho State University geosciences professor Glenn Thackray had an "eureka moment" when he discovered a previously unknown active earthquake fault about 65 miles, as the crow flies, from Boise. The researchers examined a Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) image. LIDAR is a remote sensing system used to collect topographic data with aircraft-mounted lasers capable of recording elevation measurements at a rate of 25,000 pulses per second and can have a vertical precision of about six inches. The images can be displayed so they don't show an area's vegetation. Four years ago while doing some research on glaciers in the Sawtooth Range, Thackray was examining a high-resolution, "bare-earth" LIDAR image of the mountains: this is when he noticed a line running through the image in the vicinity of Redfish Lake. "The black line stood out and I thought that it had to be an earthquake fault," Thackray said. "It was long suspected that there was an active fault in the Sawtooths, but without the LIDAR technology it would have been exceptionally hard to find." Since that time, ISU researchers have been on the ground documenting the fault that is at least 25 miles long and could be as long as 40 miles. It is located on the eastern edge of the range and comes within about five miles from the town of Stanley. A portion of it runs through the upper end of Redfish Lake. It runs along the range approximately from near Stanley Lake to at least as far south as Petitt Lake. “The reason this discovery is so important is that it is within the heavily visited areas of the Sawtooth National Recreation area, very close to the town of Stanley, and within 65 miles of Idaho’s largest city, Boise, and the most populated area in the state,” Thackray said. “We would like to know how big the earthquakes are along this fault and how active it is.” Thackray emphasized that the fault is cause for concern, but not alarm, for visitors to and residents of the Stanley-Sawtooth area, and to the residents of the Wood River or Boise valleys. The discovery may have implications for land-use and emergency planning, and perhaps building codes. Depending on the magnitude of a potential earthquake, it could do damage to surrounding areas. There are few major, active faults in Idaho. Idaho’s three other major faults run along the base of the Lost River Range (where the famous Borah Peak magnitude 7.3 earthquake, the largest ever recorded in Idaho, occurred in 1983), the Lemhi Range and the Beaverhead Range. Faults are break in the earth’s crust, along which rocks and the earth move. Typically, the earth is moving up on one side of the fault, and moving down on the other. "It's the movement of the rocks that are important. That is what creates an earthquake hazard," Thackray said. After discovering the fault on the LIDAR image and then confirming its existence on the ground, ISU researchers had to determine whether it was an active fault, defined as a fault that has featured an earthquake within the last 10,000 years. Determining whether the fault was active was a challenge for the researchers because most of the fault is located within the Sawtooth Wilderness and Recreation Area. "Normally, to test a fault you could take in a Cat or backhoe and dig up sediment and rock and use carbon dating to date the occurrence of previous activity," Thackray said. "But we couldn’t do that because the fault is in a wilderness area." This is where a little luck and scientific serendipity came into play. Other ISU researchers, biological sciences professor Bruce Finney, postdoctoral researcher Mark Shapley, and ISU geosciences graduate student Eric Johnson, were doing lake sediment core sampling of lakes in the Sawtooths, including Redfish Lake, to study the historical record of sockeye salmon returning to the area. While drilling through the sediment in the upper portion of Redfish Lake the researchers hit levels where there were landslide deposits interrupted the regular accumulation of sediment deposits. "We were able to date the occurrence of the most recent fault activity by using those drilling samples from the large landslides in Redfish Lake," Thackray said. "There is a lot that we still don’t know about this fault, but our studies have revealed the outline of its history," he added.

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When you create an input form in Microsoft Excel, understanding how to make the application work for you can save hours of manual input. If you want to narrow question responses to specific options, you can use a drop-down response menu. These instructions are written for Excel 2010, so the steps may vary slightly if you use a different version. Enter each of the items that you want to appear in the pull-down list on a new worksheet in your Excel workbook. Place one item per cell with each one listed in an adjacent cell. For example, list the items in columns with one option each in cells A1, A2, A3 and so on. You could also list them in a row with one in each cell, such as A1, B1 and C1, until all your data is listed. The drop-down will be ordered based on the entries, so organize the items accordingly. Highlight all of the cells in the list. Right-click your mouse and choose "Define Name" from the menu. Create a name for the list and enter it in the "Name" field. Do not use spaces in the name. Click "OK." This name is only used to select the list for the drop-down; it does not appear for users. Click the cell where you want to create the drop-down menu. Select the "Data Tools" section by clicking "Data." Choose "Data Validation" and click "Settings." Select "List" in the Allow field. Click the "Source Name" input field and type a "=" followed immediately by the name you assigned to the list on the previous worksheet. For example, if your list was named "options," type "=options" in the source name field. Click the check box beside "in-cell dropdown" so that the drop menu appears in the cell. If you want to require that responders choose an option, clear the "Ignore blank" check box. Click "Input Message" to set a message to users when the cell is clicked. This is a good place to explain what selection you want the user to make or other specifics. Leave it blank if you do not want to use this feature. Navigate to the "Error Alert" tab. Click the check box beside the option to show an error notice if invalid data is entered. Use the provided text fields to set the contents of the message. Clear the check box if you do not want the message to appear.

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As Christo Pantev prowled the halls of Toronto's Baycrest Center for Geriatric Care he was struck, over and over, by the vitality of many of the elderly patients who played a musical instrument. "I saw much more activity in these people than in the others," says Pantev, a neuroscientist at the center's Rotman Research Institute. He saw a difference even among those who were slipping over the edge into dementia. Memory begins to fade as the patients slide toward that dark abyss, but the last thing that goes — the last bit of memory — he says, is their ability to remember music. And he thinks he may know why. Musician and Scientist He has developed evidence over the years that the study of music may change the way the human brain is wired. And that has kept him on a course that has guided nearly his entire professional career. He has a few questions he would like to answer, including: Does learning a skill, like playing the violin, physically change the brain and improve cognitive and perceptive skills among children, and maybe even stave off mental illness among the elderly? Maybe, he reasons, the intense concentration and the long hours of practice that make someone a skilled musician have benefits that far outweigh the rewards of playing a musical instrument. Those are tall questions, but Pantev has spent the last few years laying the groundwork for research that is just getting underway at the institute. As a child, Pantev spent years studying the violin, and it became his passion. Even today, he says, "If I work, I have to hear music." In time, the violin gave way to neuroscience, but it was to return later as a key player in his research. While working at the University of Muenster's Institute for Experimental Audiology in Germany, Panlev and a colleague began studying people who had lost a limb to see how their brains adapted to their new environment. It was known that persons who had lost a hand sometimes felt pain, or other sensations, in their fingers, even though the hand was no longer there. The researchers used sensitive equipment that could measure electric activity and magnetic fields in the brain to see which areas were active when the person reported feeling "phantom pain" in the missing limb. The results, published in a 1995 issue of the journal Nature, showed that other parts of the body commandeered the neurons formerly used by the missing limb. If the lip took over those neurons, for example, simply biting the lip caused the person to feel pain in the phantom limb. The research showed that the brain adapted to its new environment by rewiring itself, and that led Pantev to his next question. "Can we modify the functional brain organization by training?" he asks. Playing Violin, Wearing a Helmet To answer that, the researchers needed a model, something they could test to see if training had a measurable impact on the brain. Pantev knew from his own experience that playing the violin required far more dexterity in the left hand than the right. "The right hand is much less involved," he says. Pantev, the violinist, thus supplied Pantev, the neuroscientist, with "the perfect model." Like the research into phantom pain, the difference between the use of the left hand as opposed to the right gave the researchers something to measure in the brain. Over time, they reasoned, practicing the violin several hours a day should cause a neurological shift in the brain.

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Australian Bureau of Statistics 1301.0 - Year Book Australia, 2009–10 Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 04/06/2010 |Page tools: Print Page RSS Search this Product| FEATURE ARTICLE: HOUSEHOLDS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY Householders have increased their use of energy saving measures in their homes. In 2008, 59% of households had energy saving lighting installed (up from 33% in 2005) (graph 2.40); and energy star ratings were the main household consideration when replacing refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers and clothes dryers. Counteracting this, graph 2.39 shows more households now own coolers (66% in 2008 up from 35% in 1999) and dishwashers (45% in 2008 up from 30% in 1999) and other appliances, such as LCD and plasma televisions, the latter using almost three times the amount of energy compared to a standard television (End note 6). Types of energy Electricity is the main energy source used in people's homes. In 2007-08, about half (49%) of the energy used by households was sourced from electricity. Household electricity consumption rose to 210 petajoules (PJ) in 2007-08, up 48% from 1990-91 (ABARE, 2009). In March 2008, electricity was the primary source throughout Australia for household cooking (three-quarters of ovens used electricity and more than half (56%) of cooktops) and for hot water systems (46%). There has been a fall in the use of electricity for hot water systems between 2002 and 2008 from 61% to 46%. Of those homes with heaters, electricity was the main source of energy for space heating (45%), followed by gas (41% for mains gas and LPG/bottled together) and wood (13%). Natural gas is the second most common source of energy used in the home, used by more than six in ten households (61%) in 2008. In total, households used 137 PJ of natural gas in 2007-08, equivalent to almost a third (32%) of total household energy use (ABARE, 2009). For almost one in three Australian households (31%), gas (mains or LPG/bottled) was the main source of energy for space heating and 37% used gas for hot water systems. In the main gas-producing states of Victoria and Western Australia, gas was used as an energy source in nine out of ten households (90% and 87% respectively, compared with six out of ten households nationally). Used primarily as a source of heating, wood use by households has declined 26% in the last 10 years, from 82 PJ in 1997-98 to 60 PJ in 2007-08 (ABARE, 2009). In 2008, 13% of Australian households used wood as a source of energy in the home. More than one-third (35%) of households in Tasmania used wood as an energy source, a decrease from more than half (52%) in 2002 (graph 2.41). Due to air pollution concerns, households have been encouraged to stop using wood for heating or to convert open fires to slow combustion fires, which are more energy efficient and produce less greenhouse emissions than open fires. Firewood collection can have a detrimental effect on Australia's native wildlife, as dead trees and fallen timber provide habitat for a diverse range of fauna including a number of threatened species (End note 7). A range of government grants and rebates have been made available to households in recent years to encourage people to use solar energy in the home. In 2008, 7% of households used solar energy to heat water, up from 4% of households in 2005. More than half of all households in the Northern Territory used solar energy to heat water (54%) - a much larger proportion than in Western Australia (21%) and no other state or territory exceeded 10% (graph 2.42). GreenPower provides an option for people to pay a premium for electricity generated from renewable sources that is fed into the national power grid. GreenPower was first established in New South Wales in 1997 and since then has spread to other states and territories. By March 2009, just over 984,000 households were paying for GreenPower, up from 132,300 customers in March 2005 (End note 8). There has also been an increase in the awareness of GreenPower products in the past decade. In 1999, less than one-fifth (19%) of households were aware of GreenPower. Nearly a decade later, this had risen to more than half (52%) of all households in 2008, including 5% who reported that they were already paying for GreenPower. Households in the Australian Capital Territory had the highest rate of GreenPower awareness (71%, including 5% who were paying for GreenPower) while Western Australian households had the lowest awareness (39%) (graph 2.43). Biomass is plant material, vegetation or agricultural waste used as a fuel or energy source. Biomass can also be processed to produce liquid biofuels (biodiesel) or a gas biofuel (biogas). Hydro-electric power is electricity produced from the energy of falling water using dams, turbines and generators. Solar/solar photovoltaic: Photovoltaics (PV) convert sunlight directly into electricity. Photovoltaic systems differ from solar hot water systems that absorb sunlight directly into the water-carrying tubes contained in the panel. Wind turbines can be used to drive a generator to create electricity. 1. Australian Energy Regulator, State of Electricity Market 2008, viewed 22 January 2009, <http://www.aer.gov.au> 2. Department of Climate Change (DCC), Australia's National Greenhouse Accounts: National Inventory by Economic Sector 2007, last viewed 20 October 2009, <http://www.climatechange.gov.au/inventory> 3. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE), Energy Update 2009, electronic datasets, viewed 22 September 2009, <http://www.abare.gov.au> 4. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE), Energy Update 2009, Table f, viewed 22 September 2009, <http://www.abare.gov.au> 5. Department of Climate Change (DCC), Australia's National Greenhouse Accounts: National Inventory by Economic Sector 2007, DCC, 2009, Canberra. 6. Energy Australia, Typical Household Appliance Wattages, viewed 29 January 2009, <http://www.energy.com.au>. 7. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Land pressures, viewed 28 October 2009, <http://www.environment.gov.au/land> 8. GreenPower, You Can Bank on GreenPower, viewed 26 November 2008, <http://www.greenpower.gov.au>. This page last updated 21 January 2013 Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.

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A study in the Canadian Medical Association Journal of 937,943 children finds that boys born in December were 30 percent more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than classmates born in January of the same calendar year. December-born girls were 70 percent more likely to have an ADHD diagnosis. Similar patterns existed for rates of ADHD prescriptions. The cut-off date of birth for school entry in British Columbia is December 31, so children born in December are almost a year younger than classmates born in January. The researchers were concerned that these younger children were simply acting younger compared with their older classmates and may have been wrongly diagnosed. “These findings raise concerns about the potential harms of overdiagnosis and overprescribing,” they wrote. For more on the diagnosis of ADHD in Psychiatric News, click here. (Image: Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com)

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Australian National Botanic Gardens A weekly news sheet prepared by a Gardens' volunteer. Numbers in square brackets refer to garden bed Sections. Plants in flower are in bold type. 11 February 2005 Rhododendron lochiae - click for larger image This is a short walk abounding with colourful flowers to suit those with little time. On entering the gardens throught the main gates, the expanse of grasses with tall graceful nodding ochre flower heads is mostly of the kangaroo grass, Themeda australis [Section 175]. In the pots at the entrance to the Visitors Centre, plants include Rhododendron lochiae with bright red trumpet flowers on a low spreading shrub and a ground cover Goodenia sp. with bright yellow flowers. These are seen below the large arching fronds of the Birds Nest Fern, Asplenium australasicum. Against the wall a wattle, Acacia mollifolia [Section 221] is a tall, slender shrub reaching towards the path, with fine divided velvety leaves and sprays of golden fluffy flower balls. The background to the statue of Sir Joseph Banks is Banksia serrata [Section 172], tall with dark foliage and large cylindrical green-grey flower spikes seen mostly at the tops of these shrubs. Banks Walk is edged with numerous, still colourful, kangaroo paws. They include Anigozanthos Bush Dawn [Section 210] with bright yellow paw flowers on long bare stems, Anigozanthos Bush Noon [Section 210] with yellow-orange coloured flowers and Anigozanthos Bush Glow [Section 210] with flowers coloured red. Prostrate and brilliant, Scaevola New Blue [Section 210, 174] have vivid blue flowers along the dense trailing stems. Below the notice Add colour to your garden with Australian Plants is another prostrate plant, Pelargonium rodneyanum [Section 174] with attractive magenta coloured flowers over the suckering plant. Anigozanthos 'Bush Glow' - click for larger image At the corner the attractive small shrubs, Crowea Festival [Section 174] are clad with pink star flowers. In the crescent garden, a suckering herb, Brachyscome formosa [Section 174] bears mauve daisies and Goodenia humilis [Section 174] is small and mounded with its yellow flowers to complement. Dampiera sylvestris [Section 174] is close by with its blue flowers on upright stems. Opposite and in the centre of the garden the glorious orange-red flowers crowning the Eucalyptus ficifolia [Section 174] could not be missed. Cross over the car park to the Tasmanian Section where probably many Gippsland Water Dragons, Physignathus lesueurii howittii [Section 149] can be seen basking in the sun. Entering this section, the NSW Christmas Bush, Ceratopetalum gummiferum [Section 142] displays its renowned reddened swollen calyces which followed the tiny white flowers, mostly at the top of the tall shrub. This next section is in front of the Café building in the Ellis Rowan Garden where the Grevillea Deua Flame [Section 131] is a rather dense shrub which dangles its lovely red terminal flower clusters from pendulous branches. Opposite, a grouping of Crowea Coopers Hybrid [Section 240] is floriferous with its shade of pink star flowers. On the opposite side of this garden is a colourful patch containing Goodenia macmillanii [Section 240] with small upright stems of pink flowers, surrounded by Scaevola New Blue [Section 240], with its flowers so blue and behind, Senecio sturtianum [Section 240] with deep purple flowers and grey-green foliage on upright stems. So many flowers to enjoy Barbara Daly.

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This is the time of year Gulf Coast residents begin watching the weather reports to see if there is a storm and if it is heading their way. It would be wise if we watched, as well. And prepared accordingly. Think back to October 1995, when Hurricane Opal hit the Florida Panhandle. It remained a hurricane for the next 12 hours as it roared deep into Alabama. Fifty mph winds were felt as far north as Montgomery. Anniston got more than six inches of rain in a few hours. Power outages erupted throughout the state. The system spun off tornadoes and caused extensive damage all the way to Tennessee. More recently, Hurricane Ivan, which made landfall near Gulf Shores in September 2004, sent the wind gusting at more than 60 mph in central Alabama and caused more power outages, more tornados and more rain. Now Ernesto is taking aim at the Gulf Coast. Although Alabama is not currently in the cone of uncertainty, anyone who follows the weather knows hurricanes can change course. Our ability to predict where and when a storm will strike improves every year, but it is still an imperfect science. However, this much we do know: It is better to be prepared, just in case. When serious weather looms, make sure you have working flashlights and a weather radio with plenty of batteries. Keep your cell phones charged, keep gas in your car, and if you have a freezer, and there is room in it, pack in a couple of bags of ice, the most valuable commodity when the power goes out. Some bottled water and non-perishable food would be wise — and an old fashioned can-opener, the kind that does not need electricity. You can figure out the rest. Little things become big things when you find yourself in the cone of uncertainty.

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Genetic model organisms have revolutionized science, and today, with the rapid advances in technology, there is significant potential to launch many more plant species towards model status. However, these new model organisms have to be carefully selected. Hemerocallis (the daylily) satisfies multiple criteria for selection and deserves serious consideration as a subject of intensive biological investigation. Several attributes of the genus are of great biological interest. These include the strict control of flower opening and, within a short period, the precisely regulated floral death by a programmed cell death system. The self-incompatibility system in Hemerocallis is also noteworthy and deserves more attention. Importantly, the genus is widely cultivated for food, medicinal value and ornamental interest. Hemerocallis has considerable potential as a ‘nutraceutical’ food plant and the source of new compounds with biomedical activity. The genus has also been embraced by ornamental plant breeders and the extraordinary morphological diversity of hybrid cultivars, produced within a relatively short time by amateur enthusiasts, is an exceptional resource for botanical and genetic studies. This paper in AoB PLANTS explores these points in detail, explaining the reasons why this genus has considerable value – both academic and socio-economic – and deserves new resources devoted to its exploration as a model. Its impact as a future model will be enhanced by its amenability to cultivation in laboratory and field conditions. In addition, established methods for various tissue and cell culture systems as well as transformation will permit maximum exploitation of this genus by science. Rodriguez-Enriquez, M.J., and Grant-Downton, R.T. (2012) A new day dawning: Hemerocallis (daylily) as a future model organism. AoB Plants 5: pls055 doi: 10.1093/aobpla/pls055

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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2001 July 22 Explanation: The Orion Nebula is visible to the unaided eye as a fuzzy patch near the famous belt of three stars in the Orion. The above picture captures a part of the Orion Nebula that primarily reflects light from bright Orion stars. This reflection nebula appears blue because the blue light from the neighboring stars scatters more efficiently from nebula gas than does red light. The dark lanes are composed of mostly interstellar dust - fine needle-shaped carbon grains. Authors & editors: Jerry Bonnell (USRA) NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply. A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.

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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2001 December 20 Explanation: Viewed from Earth, the solar system's planets do a cosmic dance that is hard to appreciate on any single night. But consider this well planned animated sequence combining 23 pictures taken at approximately 2 week intervals from June 2000 through May 2001. It reveals the graceful looping or retrograde motion of bright wanderers Jupiter (leftmost) and Saturn. Loitering among the background stars are the familiar Pleiades (above right) and V-shaped Hyades (below left) star clusters. The planets didn't actually loop by reversing the direction of their orbits, though. Their apparent retrograde motion is a reflection of the motion of the Earth itself. Retrograde motion can be seen each time Earth overtakes and laps planets orbiting farther from the Sun, Earth moving more rapidly through its own relatively close-in orbit. Astronomer Tunc Tezel captured Jupiter and Saturn's "paired" retrograde loop in this remarkable series made after the close alignment of these gas giants in May 2000. The next opportunity to see these two planets dance such a pas de deux will be in the year 2020. Authors & editors: Jerry Bonnell (USRA) NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply. A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.

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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. 2007 August 9 Explanation: Gathered at the center of this sharp skyview are the stars of Messier 67, one of the oldest known open star clusters. In fact, though open star clusters are usually much younger, the stars of M67 are likely around 4 billion years old, about the same age and with about the same elemental abundances as the Sun. Open clusters are almost always younger because they are dispersed over time as they encounter other stars, interstellar clouds, and experience gravitational tides while orbiting the center of our galaxy. Still, M67 contains over 500 stars or so and lies some 2,800 light-years away in the constellation Cancer. At that estimated distance, M67 would be about 12 light-years across. Authors & editors: Jerry Bonnell (UMCP) NASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply. A service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.

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July 31, 1998 Explanation: Do you recognize the constellation Orion? This striking but unfamiliar looking picture of the familiar Orion region of the sky was produced using survey data from the InfraRed Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). It combines information recorded at three different invisible infrared wavelengths in a red, green, and blue color scheme and covers about 30x24 degrees on the sky. Most of Orion's visually impressive stars don't stand out, but bright Betelgeuse does appear as a small purplish dot just above center. Immediately to the right of Betelgeuse and prominent in the IRAS skyview, expanding debris from a stellar explosion, a supernova remnant, is seen as a large bright ring-shaped feature. The famous gas clouds in Orion's sword glow brightly as the yellow regions at the lower right. No longer operational, IRAS used a telescope cooled by liquid helium to detect celestial infrared radiation. Authors & editors: NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply. A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC &: Michigan Tech. U.

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|The German inflation of 1923 — one dollar worth trillions of marks. [This article is excerpted from the book The Age of Inflation, by Hans Sennholz.] The German inflation of 1914–1923 had an inconspicuous beginning, a creeping rate of one to two percent. On the first day of the war, the German Reichsbank, like the other central banks of the belligerent powers, suspended redeemability of its notes in order to prevent a run on its gold reserves. Like all the other banks, it offered assistance to the central government in financing the war effort. Since taxes are always unpopular, the German government preferred to borrow the needed amounts of money rather than raise its taxes substantially. To this end it was readily assisted by the Reichsbank, which discounted most treasury obligations. A growing percentage of government debt thus found its way into the vaults of the central bank and an equivalent amount of printing press money into people’s cash holdings. In short, the central bank was monetizing the growing government debt. By the end of the war the amount of money in circulation had risen fourfold and prices some 140 percent. Yet the German mark had suffered no more than the British pound, was somewhat weaker than the American dollar but stronger than the French franc. Five years later, in December 1923, the Reichsbank had issued 496.5 quintillion marks, each of which had fallen to one-trillionth of its 1914 gold value. How stupendous! Practically every economic good and service was costing trillions of marks. The American dollar was quoted at 4.2 trillion marks, the American penny at 42 billion marks. How could a European nation that prided itself on its high levels of education and scholarly knowledge suffer such a thorough destruction of its money? Who would inflict on a great nation such evil which had ominous economic, social, and political ramifications not only for Germany but for the whole world? Was it the victors of World War I who, in diabolical revenge, devastated the vanquished country through ruinous financial manipulation and plunder? Every mark was printed by Germans and issued by a central bank that was governed by Germans under a government that was purely German. It was German political parties, such as the Socialists, the Catholic Centre Party, and the Democrats, forming various coalition governments, that were solely responsible for the policies they conducted. Of course, admission of responsibility for any calamity cannot be expected from any political party. |How could a European nation that prided itself on its high levels of education and scholarly knowledge suffer such a thorough destruction of its money?| The reasoning that led these parties to inflate the national currency at such astronomical rates is not only interesting for economic historians, but also very revealing of the rationale for monetary destruction. The doctrines and theories that led to the German monetary destruction have since then caused destruction in many other countries. In fact, they may be at work right now all over the western world. In our judgment, four erroneous doctrines or theories guided the German monetary authorities in those baleful years. The most amazing economic sophism that was advanced by eminent financiers, politicians, and economists endeavored to show that there was neither monetary nor credit inflation in Germany. These experts readily admitted that the nominal amount of paper money issued was indeed enormous. But the real value of all currency in circulation, that is, the gold value in terms of gold or goods prices, they argued, was much lower than before the war or than that of other industrial countries.

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Contents - Previous - Next This is the old United Nations University website. Visit the new site at http://unu.edu Because the imminent demise or depletion of commercially usable natural forests can be so readily foreseen in many Pacific Island countries (Watt 1980, 297), governments and development agencies have in several places promoted either some form of restocking or enrichment of commercially logged areas or the establishment of forest plantations on degraded grassland sites. Not all these efforts can be classified as agroforestry, strictly speaking; but in the Pacific context, as in most of the tropical world, the traditional, if transient, shift of land use back and forth between forest and agriculture on any particular site makes it relevant to consider what at first glance appear to be purely forestry projects. Many of the timber species institutionally promoted have been exotics such as Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea), West Indian mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), cordia (Cordia alliodora), and Eucalytus spp., although some indigenous Pacific species such as Albizia falcataria, Agathis spp., Araucaria spp., and Endospermum spp. have been successfully established, often as exotics in areas beyond their natural range. Many other species - including West Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata), the silky oak (Grevillea robusta), teak (Tectona grandis), mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni), toon tree ( Toona australis), cadamba (Anthocephalus chinensis), and Albizia lebbeck along with several indigenous trees - have also been the subject of trials, and planted to various degrees throughout the islands. Firewood and multi-purpose species that have been successfully introduced include Leucaena leucocephala, Erythrina spp., Casuarina spp., and Gliricidia septum, and, to a lesser extent, Securinega samoana and Adenanthera pavonina. Other species, all of which have been planted experimentally and which seem to grow successfully, but which have not yet become so well established, include Cassia, Acacia, and Calliandra spp. Apart from timber and fuel wood, the major multi-purpose objectives of such plantings are site reclamation and amelioration, erosion control, wind protection, shade, multipurpose construction and handicrafts, nurse cropping, fodder, green manure, and food. The indigenous casuarinas, particularly Casuarina equisetifolia, have also shown considerable promise for reforestation programmes, and have been planted in Tonga in land reclamation projects, in the Cook Islands for the rehabilitation of degraded lands, and on atolls as sources of fuel wood and to protect coconut plantations from saltwater damage. C. oligodon and C. papuana are traditionally used for reforestation and to enrich fallow land in Papua New Guinea, and are now promoted in some areas for land rehabilitation and as shade plants for coffee. Pine planting in relation to agroforestry Of the total area of timber plantations in the Pacific, well over 50 per cent is accounted for by Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea). The largest area of pine planting is in Fiji, where that country's Pine Commission together with the Forestry Department has established over 50,000 ha of plantation since 1960, mostly on degraded anthropogenic grasslands (Drysdale 1988a, 110; Watt 1980, 301). Some pine timber is used locally, but the wood was intended mainly for export, and a wood-chipping mill is now in operation. In the mid1960s, under a programme now discontinued, woodlots of Pinus caribaea on smallholder sugar-cane farms were promoted by the colonial government. Sized from 0.4 to 2 ha, these woodlots were planted on steeper non-cane areas of farms to control erosion, provide on-farm supplies of timber and fuel wood, and for undergrazing by farm animals (Eaton 1988b, personal communication). Apart from this woodlot grazing and grazing of cattle in association with larger pine plantations (described below), there has been no institutional support for any form of intercropping or other agroforestry activities in pine plantations (Drysdale 1988b). Similarly, in the limited areas of pine planting in New Caledonia, Western Samoa, Tonga, and the Cook Islands, there has been little or no link to agroforestry in such programmes, with the main focus being on creating a timber resource, land improvement, erosion control, and employment creation in rural areas. In highland Papua New Guinea large areas of degraded grassland have been planted with pines (Pinus spp.) and Araucaria spp. Intercropping activities are few and consist of the intercropping of coffee and cardamon on a trial and demonstration basis (Howcroft 1983). In Vanuatu, P. caribaea var. hondurensis is the main species planted in forest plantations in seasonally dry and highly degraded sites on the southern islands of Aneityum and Erromango, where some 550 ha had been established up to April 1985. The commercial viability of such plantings is still uncertain, however, due to poor access to markets and high transport costs. On Erromango, high costs of clearing land of the indigenous pioneering species Acacia spirobis has stopped the development of pine plantations. Benefits in the form of erosion control and aiding the local economy through wages were the main motives behind these programmes (Neil 1986a). Non-pine forestry in relation to agroforestry To judge from programmes in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tonga, and Western Samoa, there seems to be greater promise and greater institutionalized promotion of intercropping with other, primarily broadleaved evergreen, species than has been the case with pines. In Papua New Guinea, where extensive areas of Eucalyptus deglupta have been planted, cocoa and coffee have been successfully grown at 4 m x 4 m and 3 m x 3 m spacing, respectively, in conjunction with E. deglupta planted at 10 m x 10 m (Jacovelli and Neil 1984, 10). Also in Papua New Guinea, severe environmental degradation resulting from rapid urban expansion and associated subsistence gardening and "fuel-wood mining" prompted the cities of Lae and Port Moresby to institute fuel-wood-planting programmes. In Lae, in 1978, it was decided to plant 200 ha of sloping land (20°-30°) in Leucaena leucocephala for firewood and to intercrop fuel-wood species with annual food crops in zones designated for subsistence food gardening. The project, which was allocated K250,000 (US$275,000) over six years, had a management component coupled with a public education programme and a team of local government rangers to control gardening and to police the area (King 1987). Follow-on projects were planned but not carried out because of lack of funding. By 1988 the project had ceased to operate, and the original plantings of some 100 ha of L. Ieucocephala, Acacia auriculformis, and Eucalyptus spp. and 5 ha of "agroforestry plantings" of fuel-wood species with food crops had been cut down or removed completely (King 1987). In Vanuatu, Cordia alliodora, a hardwood native to Central America, has been the main commercial silvicultural species since the mid-1970s, with over 1,000 ha planted on 12 islands as of 1984 (Neil 1984). Cordia was first planted on various islands in 5-10-ha blocks called Local Supply Plantations (LSP). As the potential contribution of forestry to rural and national development became evident, larger, export-oriented Industrial Forest Plantations (IFP) were established on the islands of Pentecost, Erromango, and Aneityum (Jacovelli and Neil 1984). The rapid expansion of IFPs, sometimes with plantings of up to 200 ha per year on single sites, led to unprecedented demands for land and aroused fears among landowners, especially on Pentecost, that these silvicultural activities would make land unavailable for planting subsistence and commercial crops. This prompted the Vanuatu Forest Service to establish, on Pentecost in 1984, demonstration plots growing a wider range of subsistence and cash crops within forestry plantations of Cordia alliodora (Jacovelli and Neil 1984). Crops established between line plantings of Cordia alliodora included 8 sweet potato cultivars, 6 cassava cultivars, 13 aroid cultivars from Colocasia esculenta, Xanthosoma sagittifolium, and Alocasia macrorrhiza, 12 yam cultivars, kava (Piper methysticum), and trials with coffee (Arabica and Robusta), cocoa, and cardamon. In addition to these trials, subsistence gardens have also been established under Cordia alliodora by both local landowners and forest workers alike (Jacovelli and Neil 1984, 8). Because C. alliodora may be severely attacked by root rot (Phelli nus noxius) in some conditions, and does not perform well on some sites, other species currently being tried in Vanuatu include Terminalia brassii, T. calamansanai, Eucalyptus deglupta, Swietenia macrophylla, Toona australis, and Cedrela odorata. However, the barks of both T. brassii and E. deglupta are palatable to cattle (Jacovelli and Neil 1984, 10; MacFarlane 1980). The species showing greatest potential as an alternative species to C. alliodora may be S. macrophylla, and if grown with nurse species to reduce pest problems, intercropping should be possible during the early years of rotation (Neil 1986b). Several other systematic experiments on tree species, both exotic and indigenous, have been carried out in Vanuatu in a search for species especially suitable for fuel wood, timber, or pulpwood, but none of this research was connected with agroforestry. Research on agroforestry has focused almost exclusively on "cash crops which appear to have great potential, particularly coffee and cocoa, and possibly kava and cocoa" (Jacovelli and Neil 1984, 11). In Fiji, some 22,953 ha of tropical hardwood forests have been planted as of mid-1986. Of these, 14,987 ha are West Indian mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), 3,058 ha are Cordia alliodora, 2,963 ha are cadamba (Anthocephalus chinensis), 928 ha are Maesopsis eminii, 438 ha are Eucalyptus deglupta, and 202 ha are the indigenous species Endospermum macrophyllum (ADAB 1986). Despite such considerable silvicultural activity, in terms of both hardwood and pines, it is essentially monocultural, and, as the General Manager of the Fiji Pine Commission has stated: "Institutionalized agrosilviculture is non-existent in Fiji at present" (Drysdale 1988b, personal communication). Tonga's silvicultural activities are more diverse, some being significantly agrosilvicultural. More purely silvicultural activities include a major reforestation programme begun on the island of Eua in the mid-1960s. Over 40 ha of mixed exotic species including Toona australis, Cedrela odorata, Cordia alliodora, Grevillea robusta, Agathis robusta, Pinus caribaea, and Eucalyptus spp., as well as suitable indigenous species, such as Casuarina equisetifolia, Terminalia catappa, and Dysoxylum tongense, were planted on the Eua Forest Farm. Tests of seed stock from throughout the world were also carried out on the farm. Larger areas were subsequently planted, with 104 ha alone being planted in 1979 (Thaman 1984e, 3). The species most commonly planted in 1984 were Eucalyptus saligna, E. tereticornis, Toona australis, and Pinus caribaea. Seedling pro auction for these species and other timber species, such as Cupressus lusitanica, amounted to 77,491 seedlings (42,427 of which were planted) in 1979 (MAFF 1985, 100-102). Reforestation continues, as the small areas of remaining indigenous forest on Eua are exploited, with the local mill "approaching the end of its productive life as the local hardwood timber supply is cut out and cannot be replaced from the Forest Farm for at least another 10 years" (MAFF 1985, 99). The only truly agroforestry aspect of the Eua silvicultural activities, a taungya system of combined tree-planting and temporary gardens, was phased out because "it has greatly increased pressures for settlement of unsuitable land, and is thus clearly not in the national interest" (MAFF 1985, 100). A second and continuing agroforestry activity has been the Forestry Extension Programme, which began in the 1960s to produce seedlings for distribution to smallholder farmers for planting in small woodlots or as windbreaks around their agricultural allotments (see chapter 5 on Tongan agroforestry). The major species distributed included Casuarina equisetifolia, Grevillea robusta, Cedrela odorata, Eucalyptus spp., Agathis spp., and Gmelina arborea (Thaman 1984e, 3). With the establishment of the Extension Nursery at Mataliku on the main island of Tongatapu in 1978, the programme was expanded to include the propagation and distribution of a wide range of timber trees, "cultural" species, and species providing food, medicine, and ornamentation. The considerable interest shown by the people for planting on both rural and town allotments led to a "blossoming of forest extension work" to the point that, in 1978, the nursery could not cope with the demand, which exceeded 8,000 trees per month (MAFF 1979, 99). According to programme records, as of 1984, at least 155 species had been tested and/or propagated for distribution on Eua and Tongatapu. Of these, 66 were timber species, 45 ornamentals, 32 "cultural" plants of particular importance to the Tongan society, 11 food plants, 6 plants used for coastal protection or land reclamation, 4 for living fences or hedgerows, 3 medicinal plants, and 2 each for windbreaks and firewood. Among the most popular nontimber species were Casuarina equisetifolia (planted as an ornamental, living fence, or wind-break); culturally important sacred or fragrant plants, known locally as akau kakala, such as heilala (Garcinia sessilis), langakali (Aglaia saltatorum), sandalwood, or ahi (Santalum yasi), pua (Fagraea berteriana), pipi (Parinari glaberrima), huni (Phalaria disperma), perfume tree, or mohokoi (Cananga odorata), allspice (Pimenta doica), and Pandanus cultivars; fruit-trees, such as mango, Malay apple (Syzygium malaccense), and macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia); and ornamental or shade plants, such as flamboyant, or poinciana (Delonix regia), hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), Cordyline fruticosa, copperleaf, or beefsteak, plant (Acalypha amentacea), bougainvillea (Bougainvillea spp.), poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), gardenia (Gardenia spp.), and the hedge panaxes (Polyscias spp.) (Thaman 1984e). The final major area of activity has been the testing and establishment of trees for land reclamation, such as the project to rehabilitate low-lying areas at Sopu to the west of the capital of Nuku'alofa on Tongatapu. Reclamation work at Sopu began in the 1960s, with the planting of Casuarina equisetifolia to stabilize the area, and has continued to the present with extensive plantings of Lumnitzera littorea, Rhizophora mangle, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Xylocarpus granatum, and other selected species. As recently as 1980, 6 acres of Lumnitzera littorea, 4 acres of Terminalia catappa, and 3 acres of Queensland kauri (Agathis robusta) were planted. The vegetation has reportedly been well-established, with the operation becoming more maintenance than reclamation. Grazing, usually of cattle, with commercial tree cropping and silviculture consists mainly of the widespread practice of grazing cattle under coconuts or commercial timber species, and the limited grazing of cattle under Leucaena leucocephala or other fuel-wood or multipurpose species. Livestock under coconuts The grazing of cattle (primarily beef, but also dairy cattle) under coconuts (in some cases with pasture improvement) is by far the most widespread practice. It has been encouraged throughout the Islands since colonial times, particularly on large coconut estates. In addition to providing meat and dairy products, cattle are seen as effective weed control and fertilization agents, thus facilitating plantation management and the collection of fallen nuts. Although primarily promoted on large, often foreign or state controlled estates or plantations, some governments, such as those in the Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Niue, have encouraged smallholder grazing of cattle under coconuts and other trees. In the case of Tonga, smallholder agriculturalists have been encouraged to fence limited portions of their 3.3 ha bush allotments to graze cattle, and sometimes horses, under coconuts and other tree crops and protected trees, or, alternatively, to tether animals to trees and graze on a rotational basis. The practice has been particularly important in Vanuatu (both before and after independence in 1980) and New Caledonia, where beef cattle production is a major activity. Beef cattle production became so important in Vanuatu, prior to independence, that some plantations were turned into cattle properties. The importance of cattle grew in the 1950s, when steeply rising labour costs made planters increasingly dependent on cattle to keep their plantations clean. At one period in the 1950s, herds became larger than the plantations could support, especially during dry spells, and by the end of the decade, town butcheries had opened in both Port Vila and Luganville, the two main towns. By the end of the 1960s, copra production had become no more than a sideline on a number of plantations (Brookfield with Hart 1971, 164165). In Fiji, in 1973, 10.5 per cent of the local beef requirements were supplied by the 9.9 per cent of the cattle population grazed under coconuts (MAF 1973; Manner 1983). This is particularly significant given the large proportion of range-fed cattle raised on extensive large-scale developments in the dry zones of Fiji. Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia in Melanesia, and Western Samoa and French Polynesia have also actively encouraged cattle under coconuts with trials having been conducted on optimum stocking rates and pasture improvement. Much of the Western Samoa Trust Estates (WSTEC) Mulifanua Copra Plantation, reportedly one of the largest copra plantations in the world (Carter 1984), is undergrazed by cattle. The potential for the formal promotion of large-scale grazing of cattle under coconuts is greatest on the larger islands of Melanesia and Polynesia. On smaller islands, such as those in Tonga and the Cook Islands, where high population densities and land scarcity make more extensive agrosilvipastoral developments less relevant, small-scale rotational undergrazing of tethered animals is more appropriate. In Nine, where population density is low because of emigration to New Zealand, there have been problems of overgrazing and lack of fodder during times of drought- for example, during the severe drought of 1977-1978, when hay had to be imported from New Zealand. Richardson (1983, 59) cautions that grazing under coconuts can create problems of soil compaction and, especially in the case of free grazing, preclude intercropping, which should take precedence in areas with limited land resources. As shown by studies in Papua New Guinea and elsewhere, smallholder beef cattle production can have harmful impacts on subsistence cropping (Grossman 1981). Where cash cropping or subsistence production is feasible, Richardson (1983, 59) argues that intercropping should take precedence over grazing under coconuts. Cattle under timber species The grazing of cattle under commercial timber species has been actively promoted in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji. In Papua New Guinea, reforestation projects in both the highlands and lowlands offer opportunities for beef production, and cattle have been actively promoted to control weeds and reduce fire danger by consuming the fuel. Pinus caribaea planting has also been encouraged in order to provide shade for cattle in open grasslands (Watt 1980, 308). The introduction of pasture legumes into timber plantations and surrounding areas has also been actively encouraged, and the development of pastures, followed by grazing, has been more or less standard practice in a number of forest plantations in Papua New Guinea, where klinki and hoop pine (Araucaria spp.), Pinus caribaea, and Eucalyptus spp. are grown. Government forest plantations are made available to local Braziers who establish adequate fencing and pastures and follow acceptable range management and stocking practices (Howcroft 1974; 1983). In the Solomon Islands, where there is a "Cattle Under Trees" (CUT) project, cattle have been grazed under Eucalyptus deglupta in forest plantations established by the government in logged forest (Macfarlane and Whiteman 1983; Schirmer 1983, 101; Watt 1980, 308) and in Vanuatu under both "Local Supply Plantations" and "Industrial Supply Plantations" of Cordia alliodora, as well as under Pinus caribaea on Aneityum, Erromango, Pentecost, and Santo (Jacovelli and Neil 1984, 8). Grazing under pines in Vanuatu is seen as a means of reducing the significant fire threat in plantations (Neil 1986a). It is in Fiji that the practice has probably been tried most exten sively, owing to research undertaken by the Fiji Pine Commission (FPC), a statutory body with the objective of facilitating and developing "an industry based on the growing, harvesting, preserving and marketing of pine and other species of trees grown in Fiji" (CPO 1980, 141). The FPC is responsible for managing over 45,000 ha of Pinus caribaea out of an envisioned gross estate of 80,000 ha on the highly degraded talasiga (sunburnt) soils of the drier leeward grasslands of the two largest islands of Fiji. The relatively infertile and eroded areas are vegetated with a grassland sub-climax of presumed anthropogenic origin, including species such as Pennisetum polystachyon, Pteridium esculentum, Gleichenia liners, Psidium guajava, Dodonaea viscose, and Casuarina equisetifolia. On moister slopes, Miscanthus floridulus forms almost impenetrable thickets. These grasslands are subject to frequent and unauthorized burning. The FPC undertook research into cattle grazing for two reasons: to examine the effects of cattle grazing on reducing fuel in high fire-risk zones; and to test the use of cattle as a site-preparation tool for clearing the land of Miscanthus floridulus, which proved difficult to eradicate by more conventional means such as slashing and burning (Drysdale 1982). Research has yielded variable results. Vincent (1971) concluded that grazing of cattle under 5- and 6-year-old pine plantations in poor soils had a detrimental effect on the incremental growth of pines, whereas grazing trials in the Nausori Highlands to determine the effect on fire hazard reduction resulted in a reduction in fuel from 2,500 kg per hectare to 800 kg per hectare, an average cattle weight gain of 0.24 kg per day, and no pasture deterioration despite heavy stocking rates (Gregor 1972). At Nawaicoba, Partridge (1977) reported weight gains twice this, when trees were planted at 2 m x 3 m spacing, with two rows in every five missing. In variable spacing trials, Bell (1981) found slight bark damage to trees less than one year old because of trampling, when the trees were spaced 3 m apart within rows and 2.5, 3, 3.5, and 4 m apart between rows, the cattle being introduced into the plantation when the pines were 54 cm high. In 1982, the FPC reviewed various research projects on cattle under pines and concluded that given "the high overhead and general costs of FPC operations, commercial cattle grazing of unimproved pasture under pines, is an unlikely prospect" (Drysdale 1982, 4). Although fuel loadings were considerably reduced, the cost of using cattle for fuel reduction was "considered unacceptably high compared with alternatives such as burning" (Drysdale 1982, 3). In contrast, the use of cattle as a site-preparation tool where Miscanthus predominates was termed an "outstanding success" (Drysdale 1982, 8) because other methods of clearing the giant grass gave incomplete results, were impractical, or cost too much. Because of the high cost of fencing, the long-term and extensive grazing of cattle under pines has been found to be an uneconomic proposition for the Fiji Pine Commission, although some 480 cattle are allowed to graze under pines free of charge at Drasa and Tavaka-bo, and some cattle owners unofficially graze their cattle in Fiji Pine Commission forests. Native landowners are also allowed to graze cattle under their own pine plantings, subject to certain restrictions. But cattle owners also are unlikely to find fencing a profitable venture. Open-range grazing with night-time penning may be a possibility. In addition, the economics of cattle grazing on improved pastures under trees in Fiji still needs to be ascertained. Other silvipastoral activities Trees such as Leucaena leucocephala are used as fodder in Tonga and Papua New Guinea, where they are browsed by cattle as a dietary supplement (Watt 1980, 308). There is perhaps some scope for the grazing of other animals such as pigs, goats, and chickens on improved legume pastures or fallows under coconuts, commercial timber species, or other trees (Quartermain 1980; Richardson 1983). In the Pacific, as elsewhere, interest in agroforestry has recently grown rapidly among scientists, land-use experts, conservationists, and the development professionals of national governments and international agencies. As already noted, systems of commercial production that would now be classified as agroforestry were initiated early in the Pacific's colonial past, particularly in the form of multistorey arrangements of coconut palms with other crops or with cattle. With regard to agroforestry systems in the subsistence sphere, this book has sought to demonstrate their prevalence and antiquity in the Pacific Islands. As Yen (1980b, 91) comprehensively expressed it in his discussion of "Pacific Production Systems," there is nothing new about multi-storey cropping even though it has often been suggested to smallholders as an innovative technique they might adopt. In fact native systems have always involved such techniques in village gardens with descending storeys of palms, trees, productive vines, shrubs, herbaceous root crops, and vegetable plants and ornamentals. Similarly, in swiddens, mixed species and variety plantings are themselves multi-storey. In this case such plantings also take on a successional aspect, for following the root crops, some cultigens such as banana and longer-term plants such as breadfruit and other fruit and nut trees, industrial shrubs, and vines, prolong the production of these gardens. Geographers and anthropologists who have studied these sorts of indigenous systems find ironic some of the attempts made to introduce institutional agroforestry into the Pacific context. On the other hand, in a time of deforestation and agrodeforestation, it is apt to encourage both of the approaches to agroforestry described in chapter 1- the institutional approach, which generally seeks to introduce commodity-focused systems devised on the basis of modern forms of analysis, and the cultural-ecological approach, which is concerned more with long-standing indigenous systems, empirically devised and deeply embedded in the cultural landscape. Whether or not the two approaches can be usefully meshed remains open to question, although some forms of "progressing with the past" do seem possible (Clarke 1978). When attention is turned to the future of institutional agroforestry in the Pacific, it can be clearly forecast that if individual smallholders are to benefit over the long term from the introduction of an unfamiliar institutionalized agroforestry system, they will need to receive an ongoing package of inputs and information, which suggests the need for some sort of extension service. Unfortunately, it is acknowledged that extension work in many Pacific countries is generally poor, and extension services often have only secondary ranking within ministries or departments (Hau'ofa et al. 1980, 188-189). How to remedy this deficiency raises several complex but pervasive issues, which have been dealt with at length in a large literature and which can only be superficially treated here. With regard to the initial introduction of a new agroforestry system, it is easy - given the current popularity of agroforestry in the development world to find funding for workshops and projects, but these by their nature lack continuity, and they are often administered by staff unfamiliar with local agroforestry traditions. The Pacific is littered with projects advanced in support of all sorts of good causes their collapsed remnants remain, like the military paraphernalia rust ing on beaches after World War II. One way to incorporate continuity into projects and to move beyond reliance on inadequate extension services is to form a centralized management system for smallholders (sometimes referred to as a plantation mode of management). Such a system has been successful in several instances, notably the efficient smallholder production of sugar so important in Fiji's economy and also in tobacco production in that same country (Eaton 1988a). Some other attempts have been less successful. The pros and cons of the approach have been cogently summed up by Hardaker et al. (1984a; 1984b) and Ward (1984). Aside from problems common to any project-based introduction, a specific constraint to the full realization of the potential of agroforestry by institutional means relates to the disciplinary compart-mentalization that characterizes institutions concerned with land use, whereby - as the Director of ICRAF commented - "agriculture and forestry normally fall under different ministries or, if they are under the same ministry, under separate departments,' (Lundgren 1987, 44). Writing specifically of the forestry sector in the South Pacific, Watt (1980, 302-303) noted that "the separation of agricultural and forestry extension services encourages the impression that agriculture and forestry are mutually exclusive alternatives rather than complementary land uses." Following on from and related to this sectoral compartmentalization is each institution's imperative to maximize the individual component that is the focus of that institution. In contrast, as has often been observed: The subsistence land user's strategy and aims are to use his labour and land resources to optimize, with minimum risk, the production of various products and services required to satisfy all his basic needs. The fundamental inadequacy of conventional-discipline-oriented institutions lies in the failure to acknowledge and understand these basic facts, strategies and aims, and in the inability to adapt to them. The aims, infrastructure, rationale and philosophy of these institutions, as well as the training of their experts, are geared to the maximization of individual components, be they food crops, cash crops, animals or trees. There is little understanding that the land user needs to share out his resources for the production of other commodities or services (Lundgren 1987, 46). When maximization is aimed at commercial products, as it most frequently is in the Pacific, a set of sometimes contradictory processes comes into play. For example, attempts to produce cash crops while continuing to meet subsistence needs may bring agricultural involution if land is limited, or it may result in an extension of cropping onto marginal sloping lands as cash crops or cattle take over better lands. A specialization in commercial products may not be accompanied by any concomitant increase in labour availability or extension advice (often restricted to larger producers) on how to increase subsistence production (Ward 1986; Yen 1980b). Even the Fiji-German Forestry Project, which commenced in the mid1980s, appears mainly focused toward facilitating export cash cropping, although its terms of reference suggest a broader approach that includes "providing ecologically sound advisory assistance in the fields of forestry and agroforestry in line with the social, cultural and economic requirements of target groups" (Tuyll 1988, 3). Consultants to the Fiji-German Forestry Project have also made holistic and wide-ranging recommendations, but the Project's current activities, as described earlier in this chapter, are concentrated on improving the production of ginger as a cash crop by introducing exotic trees to prevent erosion and replace artificial fertilizer. This accomplishment is not to be decried, but the approach, distinguished by its introduction of and experimentation with exotic trees alley-cropped with a cash crop, does little to preserve existing agroforestry systems or to maintain a balance between commercial agroforestry activities and activities that could protect the existing subsistence base. One consultant recommended to the Project that "agroforestry and forestry extension should not attempt to remain with or return to pure forms of subsistence economy but focus on including profitable cash crops at low risks" (von Maydell 1987, 35). This recommendation does indicate an appreciation of the need to minimize risk, but both it and all the other consultants' recommendations to the Project fail to support strongly the maintenance of a viable subsistence base. Another consultant, who had been selected to identify suitable sites for demonstration plots for the Project, was asked to comment on the idea of putting greater emphasis on the subsistence aspects of agroforestry and of analysing existing local agroforestry systems as demonstration plots into which selected improvements could be introduced. He responded that it was quite unrealistic to expect either the Fiji Government or the German funding agency to support such an emphasis in place of an emphasis on using agroforestry as a way to improve monocultural cash cropping. In summary, export crops, timber trees, and grazing under coconuts have been the continuing focus of almost all official agroforestry activities for the past century. Regardless of whether it has been the colonial or post-colonial agricultural and forestry departments or, re cently, international aid agencies, the focus has been almost exclusively on monocultural, often large-scale production for export or, in the case of timber and fuel-wood production, for import substitution. Even the intercrops are usually cash crops for export or local sale. Consequently, most indigenous wild species and the wide range of traditional cultivars have received little official promotion and have been the focus of only limited research. Few technical experts or development entrepreneurs know enough about traditional mixed agricultural systems and their component plants to be willing or able to promote their expansion or maintenance. It is not only projects intended to develop commercial agriculture and forestry that may displace or degrade traditional agroforestry systems; modern institutional agroforestry projects may themselves play the same role. Agencies and educational institutions promoting agroforestry However, there are also movements in support of traditional systems. The growing popularization and recognition worldwide of the value of the "wisdom of the elders" (Knudtson and Suzuki 1992) may motivate increased institutional attention to indigenous polycultural systems of agroforestry in the Pacific. This section provides information on several examples of such attention and on the institutions involved; mention has been made earlier of some of these, but they will be referred to here briefly again to provide a coherent single account. All the major universities within the Pacific region (University of Guam, both of Papua New Guinea's universities, the University of the South Pacific in Fiji and its School of Agriculture in Western Samoa, University of Hawaii, and the developing francophone institutions in New Caledonia and Tahiti) support staff with interests in traditional matters, including agriculture, agroforestry, and the management of soil and vegetation. Rather than attempt a full listing of course offerings relevant to agroforestry to at least some degree, we note here only that, on the basis of current information at hand, the courses most directly focused on agroforestry are found within the Geography Department at the University of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji, and the Department of Agronomy and Soil Science at the University of Hawaii in Honolulu. To the best of our knowledge, the University of Hawaii is distinguished by being the only university in the region to have a named Professor of Agroforestry, who is located in the Department of Agronomy and Soil Science. The Col lege of Micronesia in Pohnpei also has staff with active and direct interests in indigenous agroforestry. Agroforestry promotion by the Fiji-German Forestry Project, a bilateral agency, has been described in the previous section. A different approach is followed by the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, which is a multilateral 5-year project funded by UNDP, executed by FAO, and now based in Suva, Fiji. The Programme is concerned with forests and trees in 15 countries, so far particularly with forests in the larger countries, but atoll countries are making enquiries about coconuts and other multi-purpose trees. The role of the Programme is to stimulate activities and provide technical advice, not to operate activities itself. For instance, it facilitated the import of seeds of superior rattan from Malaysia for planting in Pacific forests in order to increase their non-timber production capability. Aside from technical advice, the Programme acts as a focal point for information about forests and trees and publishes the quarterly South Pacific Forestry Newsletter. It is also trying to organize the documentation of local knowledge on indigenous agroforestry, with studies planned or under way in Pohnpei, Fiji, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Tonga, and other island countries. The Programme has worked cooperatively with the international NGO The Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific (FSP) on a project intended to develop sustainable forestry in local areas while slowing down or stopping rapid conversion of forests by large-scale industrial logging. This objective is based in part on selling small mobile sawmills to rural entrepreneurs and community groups so that they may develop small-scale but profitable and locally utilitarian logging, carried out in ways that avoid major environmental damage and that maintain the essential structure of the forest for traditional uses and ecological services. A US Government project based in Hawaii is carrying out work related to several aspects of agroforestry in Hawaii, American Micronesia, and American Samoa. Called Agricultural Development in the American Pacific (ADAP), the project has provided agroforestry educational materials to all the public (land grant) colleges and universities in the American-affiliated Pacific. In association with the US Department of Agriculture and the US Forest Service, ADAP is also developing training programmes in agroforestry. The Environment and Policy Institute of the East-West Center in Hawaii maintained a strong programme of research, seminars, and publication on agroforestry for several years during the 1980s (e.g., Djogo 1992; Nair 1984). Although agroforestry is no longer a principal focus of its work, the Institute remains a repository of a large volume of published and unpublished material on the topic. Mentioned at the beginning of this chapter was the report (Clements 1988) of a technical meeting on agroforestry in tropical islands held at the Institute for Research, Extension and Training in Agriculture (IRETA), which is part of the University of the South Pacific's School of Agriculture in Western Samoa. IRETA is also involved in research projects to improve or strengthen atoll agroforestry in Kiribati. In the Melanesian countries, with their comparatively larger natural forests, forest-resource inventories are under way or planned, generally as a cooperative, aid-funded project between the local Forestry Department and overseas technical personnel. The inventories are intended to provide the information base necessary for effective land-use planning and management, but now, unlike some past forest assessments, the inventory process includes collection of data on watershed vulnerability and on the indigenous ethnobotanical value of forest plants, as in the forest-resource inventory now being completed by the Vanuatu Forestry Department with technical assistance from the Queensland (Australia) Forest Service and the Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures of the (Australian) Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO). Finally, mention should be made of the work of ORSTOM, the French organization that promotes French scientific research in the third world, mainly in the tropics. With centres in the Pacific in Nouméa and Tahiti, ORSTOM has sponsored work not only related to many aspects of modern development but also to traditional cultural-ecological matters, for example, with specific relevance to agroforestry, the work on the cultivars of kava (Piper methysticum) in Vanuatu (Lebot and Cabalion 1986). Contents - Previous - Next

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PLAGUE ON OUR SHORES City at War THE GREAT CHINATOWN FIREOn New Year's Eve one hundred years ago, the first of a number of controlled fires were set in Chinatown as a way of defending Honolulu from bubonic plague, known in history as Black Death. Next to the Pearl Harbor attack, the outbreak of plague was the greatest public-safety disaster in Hawaiian history. The government was determined to do anything to save the city -- even burn it to the ground. Last week we began a four-part series by describing the discovery of plague in Honolulu and the quarantine system set up to contain it. Today's installment chronicles the attitudes that inspired the controlled burning that preceded the Great Chinatown Fire. The series concludes tomorrow. PART I | II | III | IV | EpilogueBy Burl Burlingame IT may have been simple bad luck, or it may have have been a white-dominated business conspiracy, or more likely it fell between the two extremes, but the Chinese residents of teeming Chinatown felt unfairly targeted by health authorities when Black Death erupted in Honolulu at the cusp of the century. Although thousands of Hawaiian and Japanese were uprooted as the Board of Health methodically began to burn out plague infestations in the quarantine zone, it was Chinese-owned businesses that absorbed the brunt of property damage. Chinese immigration to the island kingdom climbed steadily until the political coup in 1893 that unseated Liliuokalani. By the mid 1890s, one in five residents of Hawaii was of Chinese descent, and they put down firm roots, establishing schools, newspapers, cemeteries, temples and clan societies. Unlike some other groups of immigrants, however, the Chinese did not assimilate into Hawaiian culture, preferring instead to form a separate society. This sense of separation was expressed in the Honolulu district known as "Chinatown" where small businesses operated by Chinese ex-plantation workers began to flourish in the 1860s. It is roughly the area bordered by Nuuanu, Beretania and King streets. The area was chockablock with Chinese restaurants, Chinese groceries, Chinese dry-goods shops and other small Chinese industries. In 1886, sparks from a restaurant ignited an enormous fire that leveled most of the district. Excited by the urban clean slate, the Hawaiian government declared new structures had to follow sanitary constraints, were to be made of stone or brick, and considered widening and consolidating the streets. The Advertiser declared they had turned "a national disaster into an ultimate blessing." It didn't happen. In the 14 years following the fire, Chinatown landowners allowed ramshackle, quickly constructed boomtown wooden buildings to blossom in the area, looming over the narrow dirt streets and overwhelmingly primitive sanitation facilities. The lessons of the 1886 fire were largely ignored. In 1898, concerned about the swelling tide of Chinese immigration, the Republic of Hawaii evoked the restrictions of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 even though Hawaii was not yet a territory of the United States. More than 7,000 lived in Chinatown's 50 acres at the turn of the century, in an era when no building rose above two stories. Many were Japanese immigrants, jammed in structures controlled by Chinese landlords, who in turn paid Hawaiian and haole landowners. And Chinatown had become the center of another kind of Asian-controlled business as well. The census taken in December 1899 revealed the area was brimming with organized prostitution, a niche business that provided economic entre for new immigrants. In 1900, 84 percent of known prostitutes in Honolulu were Japanese, and nearly 100 percent of the pimps were Japanese. Despite the filthy squalor of living conditions, and the disdain with which Chinatown was viewed by the rest of Honolulu, it was an economic engine, pumping money into the pockets of landowners like Bishop Estate. At a time when a plantation worker made about $18 a month, Japanese prostitutes were making hundreds of dollars . Although maintaining the status quo was lucrative, the overcrowded living conditions in Chinatown, coupled with a complete lack of urban planning for the area, created a neighborhood that ran with rats and insects, that had sewage and garbage lying unattended in the streets. Other residents of Honolulu turned up their noses at Chinatown, both literally and figuratively, while the residents of Chinatown had little choice but to stay where they were. The Advertiser called the district a "pestilential slum." When the city finally started to build a sewer line through Chinatown in 1899, workers discovered they were digging through compacted layers of fermenting garbage. The intense odor caused diggers to slow to a near-halt. With the onset of Black Death, a hastily organized troupe of health inspectors went on field trips into Chinatown as if it were a foreign country, and returned horrified. The district, full to bursting with shanty buildings, boarding houses, livestock corrals and chicken coops, reeking outdoor toilets and backyard cesspools, was swarming with rats, maggots, flies, lice and cockroaches. The only solution, it was argued, was a repeat of the cleansing fire of 1886, but this time applied in scientific manner, coupled with military discipline. The military model was much admired at the time, following the triumph of American forces over the Spanish, and the new conflict involving Great Britain and the Boers was closely followed in Honolulu newspapers. Virtually all contemporary coverage of Honolulu's plague outbreak refers to the "campaign" against the bacillus as "war." And indeed it was -- a fight to the death. It was in this atmosphere of indignant public opinion that the notion of burning Chinatown for the public good began to take root. What was missing was a legal excuse. An argument on Smith street provided it. A National Guard soldier stabbed a Japanese civilian in the thigh with his bayonet, and fallout from the incident forced the police and the military to determine their jurisdictions. As Pvt. Hunt explained it, the Japanese attempted to run the blockade; others claimed Hunt had been prodding the man along. The slight wound triggered a reorganization of civil authority, with far-ranging consequences. At the bottom line was the question of whether Hunt was legally responsible for his actions, whether civil or martial law reigned. After questioning witnesses, police officials decided martial law had not been declared, and the military was called out to assist the police in carrying out civil statutes. In this scenario, both soldiers and police had authority to use force to enforce the quarantine, but that did not give soldiers permission to commit assaults within the quarantine zone. When this opinion was presented to the National Guard's Maj. Ziegler, however, the commander decided the military, once called to active duty, cannot be interfered with by civil authorities. The military's authority over the quarantine, and over the Honolulu police, was absolute. Within hours, all Honolulu police were withdrawn from the quarantine zone, and all questions of authority routed to the National Guard. Although martial law had not been officially declared, soldiers were allowed to proceed as if it had. This made it easier to ignore the rules of civil law during the medical emergency that gripped Honolulu. The Board of Health, civilians appointed by President Sanford Dole, lame-duck head of a temporary republic, had absolute power over questions of life and death. Chinese residents trapped by the city quarantine feared they were being singled out both in life and after death. Chinese immigrants believed if they died overseas, their bones must be returned to China. The Board of Health's solution to plague deaths -- quick cremation -- left no remains for shipping. Horrified Chinese began to hide their ill friends and relatives from authorities. This practice not only exacerbated contagion, but likely obscured the true numbers of plague victims. A large delegation of Chinese merchants and Chinese consul Yang Wei Pin and Vice Consul Goo Kim met with Henry Cooper, president of the Board of Health, who insisted any decisions regarding cremation would be made by the board. The Chinese claimed the board was discriminating in favor of Japanese, and Cooper responded no Japanese have been diagnosed with plague, and the body of a white teenager had also been hurridly cremated. Cooper suggested they collect the ashes in urns for shipment back to China. As Honolulu became a city at war, the battle lines of bureaucracy were being drawn. As the Evening Bulletin editorialized, lacking a clear chain of command while details of the new government were being hammered out, President Dole had the authority to appropriate funds to battle the plague. "Let there be no delay," the paper insisted. "This is a time for action, prompt energetic action. The people are prepared to support the vigorous measures which money will forward and which must be set on foot if the battle against black plague is to be short, sharp and decisive." Burning was the apparent immediate answer. A committee of businessmen was formed to find warehouse space for goods removed from Chinatown stores that were being burned down, and during the first three weeks of January, 1900, buildings were torched nearly every day. A photographer hired by the government recorded pictures of each building, and then it was set alight. Honolulu firemen bookended the flames with streams of water; soldiers and police kept crowds in line and watched for looters. The newspapers kept track with maps and marveled at the "military" precision of the assault on Black Death. Lists of the dead were daily updated like box scores; by late January, dozens had passed away. The new crematorium on Quarantine Island blazed day and night. Then five plague deaths within a couple of days occurred near the corner of Nuuanu and Beretania. Clearly, this was a hot spot for pestilence and the government decided to burn it out on the morning of Jan. 20. Four fire engines and every fireman in Honolulu were on the scene, but about an hour into the controlled burning, the wind scattered embers across neighboring rooftops. The wooden roof of Kaumakapili Church with its twin spires, the tallest building in the area, erupted into flame beyond the hoses of firemen. Helpless, they watched flaming embers, carried on a sudden wind, fly unchecked onto the wooden buildings of Chinatown. Click for online calendars and events.

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- published: 12 Feb 2012 - views: 396745 - author: musicisprettyneat pretty great blocked in germany. irony Artist/Band: Kraftwerk Album: The Man-Machine Year: 1978 Genre: "Synthpop"/Electronic Wikipedia article: http://en.wik... Man-Machine may refer to: |This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. A machine is a tool consisting of one or more parts that is constructed to achieve a particular goal. Machines are powered devices, usually mechanically, chemically, thermally or electrically powered, and are frequently motorized. Historically, a device required moving parts to classify as a machine; however, the advent of electronics technology has led to the development of devices without moving parts that are considered machines. The word "machine" is derived from the Latin word machina, which in turn derives from the Doric Greek μαχανά (machana), Ionic Greek μηχανή (mechane) "contrivance, machine, engine" and that from μῆχος (mechos), "means, expedient, remedy". The meaning of machine is traced by the Oxford English Dictionary to an independently functioning structure and by Merriam-Webster Dictionary to something that has been constructed. This includes human design into the meaning of machine. A simple machine is a device that simply transforms the direction or magnitude of a force, but a large number of more complex machines exist. Examples include vehicles, electronic systems, molecular machines, computers, television and radio. |This section requires expansion.| Perhaps the first example of a human made device designed to manage power is the hand axe, made by chipping flint to form a wedge. A wedge is a simple machine that transforms lateral force and movement of the tool into a transverse splitting force and movement of the workpiece. The idea of a "simple machine" originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the "Archimedean" simple machines: lever, pulley, and screw. He discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Later Greek philosophers defined the classic five simple machines (excluding the inclined plane) and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. Heron of Alexandria (ca. 10–75 AD) in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can "set a load in motion"; lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw, and describes their fabrication and uses. However the Greeks' understanding was limited to the statics of simple machines; the balance of forces, and did not include dynamics; the tradeoff between force and distance, or the concept of work. During the Renaissance the dynamics of the Mechanical Powers, as the simple machines were called, began to be studied from the standpoint of how much useful work they could perform, leading eventually to the new concept of mechanical work. In 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, and it was included with the other simple machines. The complete dynamic theory of simple machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche ("On Mechanics"). He was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy, only transform it. The classic rules of sliding friction in machines were discovered by Leonardo Da Vinci (1452–1519), but remained unpublished in his notebooks. They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699) and were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785). |Simple machines||Inclined plane, Wheel and axle, Lever, Pulley, Wedge, Screw| |Mechanical components||Axle, Bearings, Belts, Bucket, Fastener, Gear, Key, Link chains, Rack and pinion, Roller chains, Rope, Seals, Spring, Wheel| |Clock||Atomic clock, Chronometer, Pendulum clock, Quartz clock| |Compressors and Pumps||Archimedes' screw, Eductor-jet pump, Hydraulic ram, Pump, Trompe, Vacuum pump| |Heat engines||External combustion engines||Steam engine, Stirling engine| |Internal combustion engines||Reciprocating engine, Gas turbine| |Heat pumps||Absorption refrigerator, Thermoelectric refrigerator, Regenerative cooling| |Linkages||Pantograph, Cam, Peaucellier-Lipkin| |Turbine||Gas turbine, Jet engine, Steam turbine, Water turbine, Wind generator, Windmill| |Aerofoil||Sail, Wing, Rudder, Flap, Propeller| |Electronic devices||Vacuum tube, Transistor, Diode, Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, Memristor, Semiconductor, Computer| |Robots||Actuator, Servo, Servomechanism, Stepper motor, Computer| |Miscellaneous||Vending machine, Wind tunnel, Check weighing machines, Riveting machines| The idea that a machine can be broken down into simple movable elements led Archimedes to define the lever, pulley and screw as simple machines. By the time of the Renaissance this list increased to include the wheel and axle, wedge and inclined plane. An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion engines (such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat which is then used to create motion. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others, such as wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors like myosins in muscles use chemical energy to create motion. An electrical machine is the generic name for a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, or changes alternating current from one voltage level to a different voltage level. Electronics is the branch of physics, engineering and technology dealing with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and is usually applied to information and signal processing. Similarly, the ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a working system. Charles Babbage designed various machines to tabulate logarithms and other functions in 1837. His Difference engine is the first mechanical calculator. This machine is considered to be the forerunner of the modern computer though none of them were built in his lifetime. Study of the molecules and proteins that are the basis of biological functions has led to the concept of a molecular machine. For example, current models of the operation of the kinesin molecule that transports vesicles inside the cell as well as the myocin molecule that operates against actin to cause muscle contraction; these molecules control movement in response to chemical stimuli. Researchers in nano-technology are working to construct molecules that perform movement in response to a specific stimulus. In contrast to molecules such as kinesin and myosin, these nano-machines or molecular machines are constructions like traditional machines that are designed to perform in a task. Machines are assembled from standardized types of components. These elements consist of mechanisms that control movement in various ways such as gear trains, transistor switches, belt or chain drives, linkages, cam and follower systems, brakes and clutches, and structural components such as frame members and fasteners. Modern machines include sensors, actuators and computer controllers. The shape, texture and color of covers provide a styling and operational interface between the mechanical components of a machine and its users. Assemblies within a machine that control movement are often called "mechanisms." Mechanisms are generally classified as gears and gear trains, cam and follower mechanisms, and linkages, though there are other special mechanisms such as clamping linkages, indexing mechanisms and friction devices such as brakes and clutches. Controllers combine sensors, logic, and actuators to maintain the performance of components of a machine. Perhaps the best known is the flyball governor for a steam engine. Examples of these devices range from a thermostat that as temperature rises opens a valve to cooling water to speed controllers such the cruise control system in an automobile. The programmable logic controller replaced relays and specialized control mechanisms with a programmable computer. Servomotors that accurately position a shaft in response to an electrical command are the actuators that make robotic systems possible. Design plays an important role in all three of the major phases of a product lifecycle: The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world. Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Mechanization or mechanisation (BE) is providing human operators with machinery that assists them with the muscular requirements of work or displaces muscular work. In some fields, mechanization includes the use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies machinery more complex than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as an un-geared horse or donkey mill. Devices that cause speed changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary motion, using means such as gears, pulleys or sheaves and belts, shafts, cams and cranks, usually are considered machines. After electrification, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines. Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the need for human work in the production of goods and services. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provides human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience. An automaton (plural: automata or automatons) is a self-operating machine. The word is sometimes used to describe a robot, more specifically an autonomous robot. An alternative spelling, now obsolete, is automation. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Machines| The World News (WN) Network, has created this privacy statement in order to demonstrate our firm commitment to user privacy. The following discloses our information gathering and dissemination practices for wn.com, as well as e-mail newsletters. We do not collect personally identifiable information about you, except when you provide it to us. For example, if you submit an inquiry to us or sign up for our newsletter, you may be asked to provide certain information such as your contact details (name, e-mail address, mailing address, etc.). We may retain other companies and individuals to perform functions on our behalf. Such third parties may be provided with access to personally identifiable information needed to perform their functions, but may not use such information for any other purpose. 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By Dr. Mercola Junk food is contributing to skyrocketing rates of diabetes, high blood pressure, and even strokes -- and not just among adults. Food and beverage companies spend $2 billion a year promoting unhealthy foods to kids, and while ultimately it's the parents' responsibility to feed their children healthy foods, junk food ads make this much more difficult than it should be. A new campaign, We're Not Buying It, is now underway to help expose deceptive marketing to children, debunk industry claims, and highlight the latest research, in the hopes of ending this assault on today's youth, and I'll explain how you can get involved, too, below. Does Your Child Recognize the "Golden Arches"? Most toddlers recognize the sign of McDonald's "golden arches" long before they are speaking in full sentences. Because they are often raised on French fries, fast-food hamburgers and orange soda, or if "raised" is a bit of a stretch, are taught that French fries, chicken fingers and soda is an acceptable meal. Have you noticed that even in "regular" restaurants the kids' menu options are almost always entirely junk food like pizza, macaroni and cheese or fried chicken strips? Of course kids will probably prefer these foods if that's what they're offered; these foods are manufactured to taste good, and most kids aren't going to opt for a spear of broccoli over a French fry -- until they're old enough to understand the implications of the choice, and assuming you have taught them about the importance of eating healthy foods along the way. In many ways society is set up against you on this one. As The Interagency Working Group on Foods Marketed to Children (IWG) reports: - The fast-food industry spends more than $5 million every day marketing unhealthy foods to children. - Kids watch an average of over 10 food-related ads every day (nearly 4,000/year). - Nearly all (98 percent) of food advertisements viewed by children are for products that are high in fat, sugar or sodium. Most (79 percent) are low in fiber. So even under the best circumstances, your kids will probably be exposed to the latest "cool" kid foods, and this is what marketers are banking on. Then, when you go to the grocery store, your child will have a meltdown if you don't give in and buy the cereal with their favorite cartoon character on the box, or the cookies with brightly colored chips. If you're a parent, it's certainly easier to just give in, but it's imperative to be strong as shaping your child's eating habits starts very early on … Your Child's Taste Preferences are Created by Age 3 Research shows when parents fed their preschool-aged children junk foods high in sugar, salt and unhealthy fats, it had a lasting impact on their taste preferences. All of the children tested showed preferences for junk foods, and all (even those who were just 3 years old!) were also able to recognize some soda, fast food and junk food brands. The researchers concluded what you probably already suspect: kids who were exposed to junk food, soda and fast food, via advertising and also because their parents fed them these foods, learned to recognize and prefer these foods over healthier choices. This does have an impact on their health, as nutrients from quality foods are critical in helping your child reach his or her fullest potential! One study from British researchers revealed that kids who ate a predominantly processed food diet at age 3 had lower IQ scores at age 8.5. For each measured increase in processed foods, participants had a 1.67-point decrease in IQ. As you might suspect, the opposite also held true, with those eating healthier diets experiencing higher IQ levels. For each measured increase in dietary score, which meant the child was eating more fruits and vegetables for instance, there was a 1.2-point increase in IQ. The reality is, the best time to shape your kids' eating habits is while they're still young. This means starting from birth with breast milk and then transitioning to solid foods that have valuable nutrients, like egg yolk, avocado and sweet potatoes. (You can easily cross any form of grain-based infant cereal off of this list.) From there, ideally you will feed your child healthy foods that your family is also eating -- grass-fed meats, organic veggies, vegetable juice, raw dairy and nuts, and so on. These are the foods your child will thrive on, and it's important they learn what real, healthy food is right from the get-go. This way, when they become tweens and teenagers, they may eat junk food here and there at a friend's house, but they will return to real food as the foundation of their diet -- and that habit will continue on with them for a lifetime. This is What Happens When You Let Marketers Dictate Your Kid's Diet … The state of most kids' diets in the United States is not easy to swallow. As IWG reported: - Nearly 40% of children's diets come from added sugars and unhealthy fats. - Only 21% of youth age 6-19 eat the recommended five or more servings of fruits and vegetables each day This is a veritable recipe for disease, and is a primary reason why today's kids are arguably less healthy than many prior generations. Obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure -- these are diseases that once appeared only in middle-age and beyond, but are now impacting children. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that by 2050, one in three U.S. adults will have diabetes -- one of them could be your child if you do not take steps to cancel out the messages junk-food marketers are sending and instead teach them healthy eating habits. Make no mistake, the advertisers are doing all they can to lure your child in. In fact, last year the food and beverage industry spent more than $40 billion, yes billion, lobbying congress against regulations that would decrease the marketing of unhealthy foods to kids. You can do a lot of persuading with $40 billion, which may explain why food manufacturers are allowed to get away with so much -- like putting pictures of fruit all over product packaging when the product actually contains no fruit. A 2011 study by the Prevention Institute even found that 84 percent of food packages that contain symbols specifically intended to help people choose healthier foods did not meet even basic nutritional standards! In fact, 57 percent of these "Better-for-You" children's foods were high in sugar, 95 percent contained added sugar, and 21 percent contained artificial colors. So you need to be very wary when buying any processed foods for your kids, even the "healthy" ones, as they will most certainly contain large amounts of fructose with very little to offer in the way of healthy nutrition. Help Fight Back Against Junk-Food Marketers and Stand Up for Kids' Health The Prevention Institute's "We're Not Buying It" campaign is petitioning President Obama to put voluntary, science-based nutrition guidelines into place for companies that market foods to kids. You can sign this petition now, but I urge you to go a step further and stop supporting the companies that are marketing junk foods to your children today. Ideally, you and your family will want to vote with your pocketbook and avoid as much processed food as possible and use unprocessed raw, organic and/or locally grown foods as much as possible. Your children should be eating the same wholesome foods you are -- they don't need bright-blue juice or deep-fried "nuggets" any more than you do. If you and your kids are absolutely hooked on fast food and other processed foods, you're going to need some help and most likely some support from friends and family if you want to kick the junk-food lifestyle. Besides surrounding yourself with supportive, like-minded people, you can also review my article "How to Wean Yourself Off Processed Foods in 7 Steps" or read the book I wrote on the subject, called Generation XL: Raising Healthy, Intelligent Kids in a High-Tech, Junk-Food World. Finally, my nutrition plan offers a step-by-step guide to feed your family right, and I encourage you to read through it now. You need to first educate yourself about proper nutrition and the dangers of junk food and processed foods in order to change the food culture of your entire family. To give your child the best start at life, and help instill healthy habits that will last a lifetime, you must lead by example. Children will simply not know which foods are healthy unless you, as a parent, teach it to them first.

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Atlas Faust, MD Dark Matter and Dark Energy These are two words you often hear thrown around and more often that not I come across people who don’t know precisely what they are or even that they are two quite different things. So here we go. When you take a look at a galaxy you see a certain characteristic known as gravitational lensing where light is warped in a certain way by mass. From this you can deduce an estimate of the mass of the galaxy. However when we compare this to the mass we estimated based on the concentration, size and distribution of visible mass within the galaxy we find the two numbers to be at odds and not only this but the greatest curving of space time is found in the spaces between objects where nothing can be seen. The difference in masses is believed to be caused by the elusive dark matter, so called because it warps spacetime like regular matter but is completely invisible (hence the dark). All in all dark matter constitutes 23% of the mass-energy density of the universe and a worrying 83% of the total amount of matter. The universe is made chiefly of stuff you cannot see. Dark energy is also the answer to a problem, behaving somewhat like the x value in an algebraic equation we’re forced to solve. The problem lays in the fact that the universe is continuing to expand at an ever increasing rate and we have no idea why. When you think about it it really doesn’t make any sense, you would expect the universe’s expansion to slow down or at least stay constant but unfortunately this isn’t the case. Thus we call this mysterious energy that is causing the increasing the rate at which the universe expands “dark energy”. We really know so very little.

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Australian Museum Marine Invertebrate Collections The Marine Invertebrate collection contains specimens from all invertebrate groups except molluscs, insects and spiders. Crustaceans are animals that have: - a segmented body with a hardened shell - seven or more pairs of appendages for feeding, moving and reproduction - limbs which generally have two branches - two pairs of antennae - gills for breathing Polychaetes are animals that typically have: - a long, basically cylindrical body - a body segmented both internally and externally - a pair of leg-like appendages (not jointed) attached to every body segment About the collection The current focus of the collection is on polychaetes (segmented worms) and crustaceans (lobsters, crayfish, prawns, crabs, seed shrimps, barnacles, slaters and pill bugs) which reflects the research interests of the marine invertebrate staff. The Marine Invertebrate collections contain registered specimens, microscope slides, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) preparations and photographic images. They include various marine invertebrates, and all other invertebrates except molluscs, insects and spiders, including freshwater and terrestrial representatives. The specimens contained in the collections are predominantly from New South Wales, Australia and the Indo-Pacific The type collection comprises more than 9000 type lots, including more than 2000 primary types (types are the original specimens on which the first description of a species is based). In addition to the registered collections there are also additional unsorted and unidentified collections, categorised by various taxonomic levels. Combined with the Australian Museum Research Library the section also houses one of the largest collections of books and journal reprints in Australia providing taxonomic information on many invertebrate groups. This resource is available for use by scientists, students and the public by appointment. The reprint collection is currently being entered onto a computerised bibliographic database. Marine Invertebrate Collections - Overview of taxonomic groups held Dr Stephen Keable , Collection Manager, Marine Invertebrates

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It's hard to understand from our knowledge of Greek, Egyptian, and other early civilizations with written records how such a magnificent site could not have been discovered by the Spanish. Yet until its discovery in the 1911, Machu Picchu, "the lost city of the Incas," remained forgotten for 400 years. Actually, Machu Picchu was not a city at all. It was probably built by Pachacuti Inca as a royal estate and religious retreat in 1460-70. Its location—on a remote secondary road in nearly impassable terrain high above the Urubamba River canyon cloud forest—almost ensured that it would have no administrative, commercial or military use. Any movement in that direction to or from Cusco and the Sacred valley upriver would have been by other Inca roads, either the high road near Salcantay or by the Lucumayo valley road. Travel was restricted on these roads except by Inca decree. After Pachacuti Inca's death, Machu Picchu remained the property of his allus, or kinship group, who were responsible for maintenance, administration and continued building. As an extraordinary sacred site (location as well as buildings), it surely was visited by Topa Inca and the last great ruler, Huayna Capac, although each in turn built their own estates and palaces. But few outside the Inca's retainers would have known of its existence. The Inca: "Information's Gotta Be Restricted" Of course the compound would have required a steady supply of outside goods. Machu Picchu, like most Inca sites was undergoing constant construction and must of had a resident crew of builders as well as attendants, planters, and others. So in order to really understand how Machu Picchu remained a secret, it's necessary to understand how Inca culture constricted travel and information. The Inca were a completely ordered an regimented society. Although great numbers of people were moved around for corporate state projects and resettlement, once at a location, they didn't move. The royal roads were reserved for official travel. The Incas were able to control their remarkable state system through a pyramidal hierarchy with information and direction flowing down through 10 overseers to 100, to 1000 and so on. We know from historical writing and the archaeological record that the Incas did not possess a written language, although, they must have used some symbols and perhaps diagrams. We also know that the Quipu (collection of colored strings and knots) was extensively used for accounting and record keeping. But Quipus need highly trained interpreters to read them, and the Spanish were unable to locate or interrogate even one of these specialists. The Inca also maintained a class or guild of verbal historians. But with the catastrophic collapse of Inca state structure following the arrival of the Spanish, these historians were scattered and forgotten. But Machu Picchu was mostly forgotten even before the Spanish came. Small pox was the conquistadores' advance guard. Huayna Capac and an estimated 50 percent of the population died of small pox sometime around 1527. Inca government suffered, and after a period of turmoil, the empire fell into civil war over Inca secession. Machu Picchu was probably abandoned at this time—both because it was expensive to maintain and with most of the population dead from war or epidemic, it was hard to find the labor to keep it up. Conquistadores: If It Ain't Gold, We Don't Care The Pizarros arrived in Cusco in 1532. The first wave of Spanish were mostly illiterate, uneducated adventurers who had little interest in anything besides wealth and power. By the time scholars and administrators arrived, knowledge of Machu Picchu had been lost. Manco Inca staged a country wide rebellion in 1536. After a failed siege of Cusco, Manco, along with remnants of the court, army and followers, abandoned his headquarters at Ollantaytambo. Fleeing back into the remote Vilcabamba beyond Machu Picchu, He burned and destroyed Inca settlements and sites accessible to the Spanish including Llatapata at the start of the trail to Machu Picchu from the Urubamba River. But by that point it hardly mattered. The Machu Picchu trail and the site itself would have been long overgrown and the approach blocked by seasonal landslides that so hinder backcountry travel in Peru. Beyond personal observations and many trips to Machu Picchu, I have borrowed heavily from the excellent work of John Hemming, John Rowe and Johan Reinhart. Their writings are a must for anyone attempting an understanding of the Inca and the centuries of cultural development that preceded them. Lost City of the Incas: The Story of Machu Picchu and its Builders, Hiram Bingham, Atheneum, 1972. The Incas and Their Ancestors, Michael Moseley, Thames and Hudson, 1992 The Conquest of Peru, William H. Prescott, New American Library, 1961. A CLASSIC. The Conquest of the Incas, John Hemming, Hartcourt Brace 1970. Machu Picchu, The Sacred Center, Johan Reinhard, Nuevas Imagenes, Lima. 1991. Details mentioned in this article were accurate at the time of publication

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An Inside Glimpse of Thomas Point Lighthouse Historytesttest Great August 4 article on the Bay’s beacons and guardians for safety. The city of Annapolis holds title to the Thomas Point Light. When I was mayor, I was fortunate to sign the special papers for transfer from the federal government to the city with the Secretary of the Interior in a ceremony at City Dock. Saving the lighthouse by the city was controversial with the Council, several opining it would cost us money. I visited Rose Island Light in Newport, Rhode Island, owned by that city. In 30 years, they had not spent any money. Management was under a non-profit that raised funds for its upkeep. We used the same model. The city holds title to protect the lighthouse. A consortium of Bay lighthouse volunteers, including the Annapolis Maritime Museum, are the keepers of the light. I feel privileged to have been a part of this transaction and to have my name on the deed. Thought you would be interested in the rest of the story on Thomas Point Light, a real Bay icon.

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Not Just for Kids The Hunt for Falling Leaves... Nature's Color on the Ground by Mary Catherine Ball Being a reporter, I am always looking for an adventure. Last week, I found one. I left work to go on a simple journey, but it turned out to be much more. First, I crossed a mud-ridden stream. Then, I came face to face with flying creatures, fighting to get near me. I even endured webmakers spinning my hair into a shiny maze. Where did I go? Into the woods, of course. Why? I wanted to gather some fallen leaves. My luck was good that day. I was able to spy lots of different kinds of leaves lying on the ground. Some were leaves I had never seen. Some were still green, while others were changing to their autumn colors. Have you ever hunted for leaves? I wonder if you know the names of five of the trees that live in your neighborhood? I bet the answer is no. Well, me neither. So I had five of the leaves analyzed. I had found the leaves from an oak, a beech, a sweet gum tree and more. Now, I invite you to make this journey. Narrow body with pointy edges Narrow body with pointy edges May grow berries Good for sap & color 3 distinct leafs May grow nuts This is your task... Travel to the deep, dark woods (in the daylight) to find these 5 leaves. Cut out the page and take it with you. Make sure you can match your discovery with mine. Happy leaf-hunting! Stone Soup October 9 (11:30am)-Enjoy lunch and a show. After you eat peanut butter & jelly, watch Stone Soup, performed by the Lost Caravan. Lunch is at noon; show starts at 12:30. Chesapeake Music Hall, Off Rt. 50 approaching the Bay Bridge: 410/406-0306. All Aboard October 9 & 10 (2pm)-Chug a chug to Zany Brainy for train fun. Listen to stories and sing railroad songs. Build your own trains. Ages 3+. Zany Brainy, Annap. Harb. Ctr.: 410/266-1447. Tiny Tots Fall for Nature Tues. Oct 12 (10:30am-noon) Three- to five-year-olds (and their adult) hike into the woods to hear autumn stories, gather leaves and make a craft. Bring a bag lunch to enjoy w/apple cider @ King's Landing Park, Huntingtown. $3 rsvp: 800/735-2258. Spooky Stories in the Woods Tues. Oct. 12 (10:30-noon)-Hike with a ranger to a clearing in the woods. Listen to autumn stories and drink warm apple cider. Gather leaves to make a craft. Bring a bag lunch. Kings Landing Park, Huntingtown: 410/535-5327. Musical Minds Wed. Oct. 13 (4-4:45pm)-Music makes the world go round. So sing, listen to stories and play musical instruments. Ages 2-4. Chesapeake Children's Museum, Festival at Riva. $8.50; rsvp: 410/266-0677. Nature Designs Deadline Oct. 15-Create your favorite nature scene out of clay or on paper to win prizes. Age categories are 3-5, 6-8 and 9-12 years. Place winners win nature books or statues. All art forms accepted. Take your masterpiece to Wild Bird Center, Annapolis Harbour Center: 410/573-0345. Tiny Tots get in Touch with Mother Nature Sat. Oct 16 (10-10:30am) Tiny tots (2-3 w/adult) learn nature by touch, feeling the many different textures rough and soft in the world around us. @ Battle Creek Cypress Swamp, Prince Frederick: 800/735-2258. | Issue 40 | Volume VII Number 40 October 7-13, 1999 New Bay Times | Homepage | | Back to Archives |

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Here's a fine think-piece by Susan Cain that praises some introversion as indispensable for creativity. To some great extent, Socrates and Jesus were solitary men. And the wisdom they shared with us couldn't have been captured in group reports or multi-authored articles. Not only that, we live in a society that discourages, in so many ways, thinking for ourselves. We defer so readily to public opinion, fashion, and what the experts say and the studies show. Most studies that show stuff have a lot more than one author. Most books that change our lives have only one, and we don't live in a time when many are being written. Just about every good play or novel or painting, of course, has its source in the vision of a single artist. We also see, of course, that in the disciplines that require deep thought and personal interpretation (such as philosophy—especially political philosophy—and history), articles almost only have one author. Technical and scientific reports usually have more authors than they do pages. If we want learning to be personal, personal thought has to be encouraged and rewarded. And persons, of course, have to be held personally responsible for both what they've learned and the ways in which they have expressed their thoughts. In a class dealing with "real books" (such as ones written by Plato or Kant or Jane Austen or Pascal or Simone Weil), I find that the best students get less than ten percent of what's really going on, and "what's gotten" differs dramatically from student to student. If they had to produce a multi-authored paper, the result would be flattened out to what they can explain to each other. It goes without saying the good students would be particularly shy about expressing their most unconventional thoughts to each other, especially ones that have to do with God, love, death, and such to the other group members. They would also be shy about being too enthusiastic or "erotic" about what they've read to others who just didn't work as hard or care as much as they did. (All this is why I can't stand "peer review" as even a stage in evaluating student papers.) It also goes without saying that the natural result is for good students to have quite different views on the truth and significance of what they've read—in part, due to what else they've read and their personal experiences. How could they possibly write a conclusion based on some consensus that's more than a bunch of feel-good banalities? Good students do, of course, learn from each other through conversation. Part of a great class is something like a Socratic dialogue—keeping in mind that the participant closest to Socrates (me) dominates the discussion in various ways. The community of learners doesn't mean that all the learners are equal in the ways relevant to actual learning. In the end: The student paper should be a rather solitary, introverted effort, although not one so introverted that the author is not excited about the possibility that the truth can be shared in common. "Shared in common" in the Socratic sense is a long distance from groupthink or what's usually meant by collaborative learning. Another problem with "group projects" as a learning tool is that our society already rewards being witty and fashionable and pleasing to others far too much. It also already rewards too much shirkers whose main talent is taking credit for the real work of others. Let sucking up be saved for the actual world of business. It's not a skill that should be rewarded by college credit. Here's another problem: Collaborative learning is also often an excuse for professorial laziness. Why read twenty papers when you can read five (written by groups of four)? The group dynamic also means that the papers will only be so good or so bad, and that means that the professor won't be taxed by a product that is too "outside the box" of what's expected. If you ever sign up for a class that's a mixture of PowerPoint presentations based on some textbook followed up by group projects and presentations, immediately drop it and ask for your money back. The philosopher Rousseau was against taking the idea of dispersing wisdom to everyone characteristic of the Enlightenment too seriously because the real goal of that approach is the production of a vain and pseudo-sophisticated herd of seemingly meritocratic techno-elitists. The philosopher—or the genuinely Enlightened person—is always a law unto himself. He's almost always not characterized by the ambiguous virtue of working well with others.

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Report Highlights Declining Health of Caribbean Corals 7 September 2012: A new International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) report highlights that average live coral cover on Caribbean reefs has declined to just 8% of the reef today, compared with more than 50% in the 1970s. The report stems from a workshop held by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in the Republic of Panama, from 29 April-5 May 2012. According to the report, rates of decline on most reefs show no signs of slowing. However, many reefs in the Netherlands Antilles and Cayman Islands have 30% or more live coral cover. The causes of these regional differences in reef conditions are not well understood, beyond the role of human exploitation and disturbance. Carl Gustaf Lundin, Director, IUCN Global Marine and Polar Programme, notes that the major causes of coral decline include overfishing, pollution, disease, and bleaching caused by rising temperatures resulting from the burning of fossil fuels. IUCN has recommended local action to improve the health of corals, including limits on fishing through catch quotas, an extension of marine protected areas (MPAs), a halt to nutrient runoff from land, and a reduction on the global reliance on fossil fuels. [IUCN Press Release] [Publication: Tropical Americas Coral Reef Resilience Workshop: Executive Summary]

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Wednesday, January 30, 2013 SUMMARY: This book discusses: *Where to look for birds close to home--often-overlooked spots in cities and suburban neighborhoods that can be bird magnets *How to get deeper by studying the birds around your home and participating in citizen science and conservation projects *Green birding listing challenges and groups the green birder can get involved in *Includes advice on how to adapt your equipment to a new style of birding and how to attract more birds to your home garden. RECOMMENDATION: A brief but detailed overview on the subject. 2) Pagel, Mark. Wired For Culture: Origins of the Human Social Mind. 2013. W.W. Norton. Paperback: 416 pages. Price: $18.95 U.S. SUMMARY: A unique trait of the human species is that our personalities, lifestyles, and worldviews are shaped by an accident of birth—namely, the culture into which we are born. It is our cultures and not our genes that determine which foods we eat, which languages we speak, which people we love and marry, and which people we kill in war. But how did our species develop a mind that is hardwired for culture—and why? Evolutionary biologist Mark Pagel tracks this intriguing question through the last 80,000 years of human evolution, revealing how an innate propensity to contribute and conform to the culture of our birth not only enabled human survival and progress in the past but also continues to influence our behavior today. Shedding light on our species’ defining attributes—from art, morality, and altruism to self-interest, deception, and prejudice—Wired for Culture offers surprising new insights into what it means to be human. RECOMMENDATION: For those with an interest in human social evolution.

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Something astonishing is happening in China. An unfolding story that one Chinese friend told me, “could be a turning point in conservation and wild bird protection in China.” On Sunday 11 November local people discovered many sick and dying ORIENTAL STORKS (Ciconia boyciana) at Beidagang Reservoir, Tianjin (just 30 mins from Beijing by train). These globally endangered birds - with a restricted range in East Asia – had been poisoned illegally by poachers using a chemical called carbofuran that, although banned in the EU, Canada and many other countries, is commonly available and used, legitimately, as a pesticide all over China. The storks were possibly unintended victims of well-organised and, sadly, all-too common poaching activity intended to catch swans, ducks and geese for the restaurant trade. Carbofuran is mixed with cereal, or given to fish in small man-made pools. Birds lose consciousness after eating the bait, are caught by hand and injected with an antidote. The victims are then shipped – usually alive – to restaurants, primarily in southern China. The demand for wild birds is high and they are sold as a delicacy, with many consumers, particularly in southern cities like Guangzhou and Shenzhen, believing that wild birds taste better than farmed produce, and they are prepared to pay a premium. A wild goose or swan can fetch several hundred Yuan (100 Yuan = 10 GBP). The business is highly profitable. The scale of this activity in China, and the range of methods used by poachers to catch wild birds, are covered in an excellent, but sobering, article in the most recent issue of Goose Bulletin. The authors estimate that between 80,000 and 120,000 ducks, swans and geese are caught illegally in China for the restaurant trade every year. So what makes the recent case involving Oriental Storks at Beidagang such a big deal? The answer is the incredible public reaction, led by local people and driven by social media. The events unfolding at Beidagang, although desperately sad, could have been much worse were it not for some dedicated and brave individuals. Local birders, together with volunteers, officials from the Forestry Administration, police and even firemen have been working together to help catch, treat and care for these birds. They have set up 24/7 patrols to deter the poachers. All of this has been transmitted on social media and the coverage has gone viral. The Chinese micro-blogging service, Weibo, has over 500 million users (on a par with the global membership on Twitter) and activists have been providing regular updates that have been ‘re-tweeted’ by a growing band of followers. As I write this post, the latest update has been ‘re-tweeted’ over 900 times to more than a million users in less than one hour. This is leading the traditional print and visual media. Already, we are seeing articles relating to this poisoning incident in Chinese and English language media, both local and national. All of this follows a recent outcry against the illegal trapping and hunting of wild birds in China, also led by social media. Three weeks ago a brave undercover journalist released a shocking video about hunters using spotlights to confuse migrants in Hunan Province before gunning them out of the sky. The Chinese public was outraged and Weibo was alive with condemnation of the hunters and also criticism of the authorities for being slow to act. Shortly after this major outcry, local birders discovered over 2km of illegal mist nets at Beidagang, the site of the current Oriental Stork tragedy. Local activists, many of whom are now on site trying to save the storks, led a ‘day of action’ involving over 60 volunteers, and even the Chinese army, to take down illegal mist nets in the reedbed. This was covered by local and national TV as well as print media. Due to these two events, the number of articles relating to illegal bird trapping and hunting nationwide has exploded. The campaign to eradicate the illegal hunting of birds is gaining momentum. And the scale of the reaction by ordinary Chinese people all over the country has been overwhelming, demonstrating clearly that the vast majority of Chinese people care deeply about their wild birds. It will be very hard for the authorities to ignore. None of this would be happening without the incredible dedication, passion and energy of a small number of volunteers at Beidagang. There are many people involved but a special mention must go to Xunqiang Mo (aka “Nemo”), a local student, and Jingsheng Ma, who have personally led the effort to cut down the illegal nets and are now leading the ongoing operation to save the Oriental Storks. They are heroes in every respect. Here is a personal account from yesterday evening, provided by Zhu Lei, a Beijing-based birder monitoring the situation: “There is heart-breaking news. 8 more dead storks been found today, which raise the total number up to 21 ! The ground team located 3 evidently man-made small water pools (around diameter of 1m, depth of 0.3m), one of them contained a big empty packing bag (900 g × 20 packets – although the scene is absolutely terrible, it does not necessarily mean the whole bag of poison has been used there) of pesticide. We suspect that the poachers have put the toxic chemical directly into the water in these pools or used the same methods as those 2 Jilin guys (filled the fish with toxic, then put into the pools) to poison the birds. According to signs on the bag, the pesticide used in this massacre is nothing but Carbofuran. The bags were already taken by the police as potential evidence. Some tissue also been taken from the dead birds for further forensic tests. The cause of death will only be revealed as the test report is released (although everything points to it being poisoning with carbofuran). The volunteer team (mostly from the local community and nearby Tianjin city) should be applauded for their hard work. Among them, a bicycle enthusiasts team is worthy of mention for they’ve taken the duty to patrol the dam which surrounds the wetland in daytime, and at least 3 of them have tried hard to wade into the muddy wetland searching for sick birds. Several local rich bird photographers (I think the guys who can afford the big Canon or Nikon big lenses and expensive cameras could be called ‘rich’) have provided financial support to cover spending such as other volunteers’ accommodation and food, etc. People from government agencies also contributed to the action. Today, even a team of firemen was called to the spot, due to lack of proper equipment (e.g. waders, boats) to deal with the situation faced in the wetland. They just try to do what they can over there. 24h ground patrolling has been launched last night, and the patrol has been equipped with night-vision goggles donated by a businessman from Tianjin. Tomorrow, the team will focus on locating more poisoned lure pools and will destroy them. A plan to provide safe food (mainly small fish) to the storks still at the wetland will be carried out tomorrow. Special thanks to Nemo for his great devotion and efforts in saving those birds on-site, and kindly receiving my interview tonight. He is a real hero and deserves our highest respect.” You can follow the latest developments with the Oriental Storks at Beidagang and the broader campaign to eradicate illegal mist-netting at this website. Already, many people have expressed their support for these brave and committed individuals and their comments are making a real difference to the volunteers. Knowing that there are people all over the world supporting their efforts is a real boon for them. If you haven’t already, please take a moment to comment to show your support. This could just be the decisive battle in the war against illegal trapping and hunting of wild birds in China.

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Lady Liquor: The Racial Implications of the "Disease" Model of Alcoholism Earlier in this series I wrote about the notion that the desire for intoxication may be universal, and how that connects with the “disease model” of addiction. The disease model, as far as I can tell, first gained traction as an idea in the 1930s with the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous. Groups similar to AA, such as the Washingtonian Movement and the Oxford fellowship (which AA cofounder Bill Wilson attended before forming his own voluntary fellowship) had existed prior to AA's formation, but AA took off in a way they never did, for a variety of reasons. Alcoholism wasn't recognized as a disease by medical and psychiatric associations until the 1950s – but the disease model is now pretty firmly entrenched in our understanding of chemical dependency. Personally, I don't think it's an accident that AA was formed just a few years after Prohibition ended. Its formation represented a fundamental cultural shift – one that recognized prohibiting the sale of alcohol had not solved any of the problems that concerned Temperance leaders, including the way problem drinking affected families. It still prescribed total abstinence from alcohol, just not for the entire population. And while Temperance leaders placed more of the blame for problem drinking on alcohol itself – and the people who sold it – than on the drinkers, heavy drinking was still viewed as a moral failure rather than a medical problem. In the decades after the advent of AA, many cities' laws against public drunkenness were thrown out or softened, and instead of being thrown into drunk tanks, people found stumbling around or sleeping it off in public spaces were taken to detox and rehab facilities – a problematic policy shift in itself since people who aren't ready for rehab won't benefit from it but still, arguably, a change for the better. All of that resulted from a movement that has attempted to make addiction a morally neutral, medical issue and has argued for treating people with addiction issues with compassion rather than dismissive contempt. But our understanding of addiction, through the disease model lens, has evolved in odd ways. (It occurs to me, for instance, that if 12-step recovery programs don't necessarily view addiction as a moral problem, they promote a faith-based – and therefore “moral,” in some sense – solution.) In the 1980s, researchers began investigating a potential link between addiction and genetics – and almost immediately started talking about whether genetics would explain why some races or nationalities had higher incidences of problem drinking than others. Again, it was offered as a morally neutral alternative to existing stereotypes about weak-willed, shiftless or mean drunks, particularly those in certain minority groups (Native Americans, and to a much, much, lesser extent, Irish-Americans). Brown University epidemiologist Stephen Buka, in a paper discussing health disparities as they relate to substance abuse, notes that there is greater genetic variability within major racial groups than between them and that racial disparities in health status. Research on ethnicity and race as they relate to heavy drinking is intrinsically problematic, if not impossible to conduct, because these are plastic concepts that change with society; discussions about the ethnic connection to drinking invariably group all native Americans (on both continents) into one single ethnic category; in the same discussions, the Irish are presented as genetically distinct from all other European ethnicities. The same way that evolutionary psychology (or at least, bad reporting on evolutionary research) often conveniently reinforces sexist stereotypes about the role of men and women in the 21st society, genetic explanations for alcoholism tend to reinforce preexisting stereotypes about certain ethnic groups and races – in the case of both Native Americans and (now fully assimilated, but still cheekily stereotyped) Irish-Americans, these are stereotypes that date back centuries before the discovery of DNA; stories about the purported “out-of-control” drinking habits of Native Americans date back to the first interactions between white explorers and natives, with the former presenting their own drinking norms as refined and in control. Socioogist and social worker Richard Thatcher, author of the 2004 book Fighting Firewater Fictions: Moving Beyond the Disease Model of Alcoholism, argues that both the disease model and the “firewater myth” not only cast Native American people in the most essentialist terms, but considers problem drinking from the social, cultural and economic realities with which many indigenous people cope – perpetuating a racist status quo and leading many young people to believe they will eventually, inevitably become alcoholics themselves. That becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy, particularly in cultures (Thatcher's work focuses on indigenous people in Canada) where no effort is made to address the other societal factors that lead to problem drinking. People drink for a lot of reasons: to celebrate, to grieve, to relax and, I would argue, we sometimes drink, too much, too heavily, to bear the unbearable, including systematic racism (not just on the part of indigenous peoples, but other racial minorities as well). While removing moral judgment from that coping mechanism is a step in the right direction, treating alcoholism as a disease separate from the social and historic factors that brought it about in the first place gives societies license to continue not addressing those factors. It gives dominant groups a pass to perpetuate the racist status quo, rather than helping to improve the living conditions and economic prospects of Native people. Where alcohol dependence and ongoing marginalizing intersect is where the discourse—and the treatment—should be centered. Previously: Race, marketing, and uneasy relationships Comments11 comments have been made. Post a comment. Have an idea for the blog? 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Debt Ceiling to allow U.S. Debt to hit historic level in early 2013 While there have been and continue to be a significant number of hands wringing over the fiscal cliff , which takes effect on December 31, perhaps the REAL issue is coming very early in 2013: the U.S. Debt Ceiling. The fiscal cliff is being discussed on every business report on television, radio, Internet blogs and print media. As you most likely know, fiscal cliff is the name given to the event associated with the simultaneous expiration of the Bush-era tax cuts, the increase in the payroll tax and the immediate reduction of federal government spending. For reference, here are links to APMEX’s special reports n the fiscal cliff. Fiscal Cliff is but the Beginning While the sudden and significant impact of multiple changes in the economy is surely creating anxiety and uncertainty in both the personal lives and business of Americans, this is likely only the beginning of issues as the United States begins to respond to the “new normal” following the Great Recession. However, the next increase in the federal debt ceiling – the maximum amount the U.S. may borrow as set by Congress – will establish the maximum U.S. Federal Debt at about $18 trillion. While this is, of course, a huge level of debt and the largest debt of any country, the U.S. also has the world’s largest economy. The question that each country must address is “How much debt can this country afford?” The answer depends on a number of factors and is often measured in the ratio of debt to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the borrowing country. Historically, for the U.S., this ratio has generally been between 30 percent and 65 percent, from 1950 until the beginning of the Great Recession in 2008. U.S. Debt is at Historically High and Dangerous Levels When the next debt ceiling is set by Congress, most likely in early 2013, presuming borrowing to the ceiling and low GDP growth, the U.S. Debt to U.S. GDP ratio will most likely be about 120 percent, a level more than double the historical levels since 1950. How does this compare to other countries? Below is a table of several key countries around the world. Also, here is a complete list of countries with Debt to GDP levels provided by the International Monetary Fund. The History and the Current Status of the U.S. Debt Ceiling During World War I in 1917, the U.S. Congress passed a law requiring Congressional approval on the aggregate debt outstanding of the United States. Prior to this, Congress was required to approve each and every debt offering. Since 1950, there have been 95 changes to the debt ceiling; since 2000 there have been 13 changes, or about one per year. You can read about the History of the U.S. Debt Ceiling or see a listing of all changes to the U.S. Debt Ceiling, use Table 7.3. Since 2000, the increases in the U.S. Debt Ceiling have been larger than in previous years as the United States borrowed more to finance the 2000 dot-com bust, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the Federal support of the Great Recession of 2007–2008. The current status of the U.S. Public Debt and the Debt Limit is shown in the charts below. The U.S. Debt has increased by more than 15 percent since January 2011. The current U.S. Debt is very close to the U.S. Debt Ceiling of about $16.5 trillion and, accordingly, Congress will be required to take action very soon. The U.S. Debt has increased $2.1 trillion, or about 15percent, in just two years since January 2011. Despite the large increase, the Federal Government has almost borrowed to the limit. The U.S. Debt Ceiling must be raised in the very near future, most likely in a few months. As the chart below shows, at the end of October 2012, only about $172 billion remained available under the U.S. Debt Ceiling. In November 2011, federal borrowing increased by $119 billion, and if that were the borrowing rate for November 2012, almost all of the available U.S. Debt availability would be consumed. Note: In an article in The Wall Street Journalon December 12, 2003, it was reported that the U.S. Treasury currently has only about $67 billion remaining in borrowing capacity. The red line represents the total borrowing capacity of the United States that is above the current aggregate outstanding U.S. Debt. Since January 2012, U.S. borrowing has increased such that the remaining availability has declined each month , leaving the availability in November 2012 at just $172 billion. Here is the U.S. Treasury Monthly Statement of the Public Debt of the United States. Gold and the U.S. Debt in 2012 and Beyond With much debate on the fiscal cliff and future debate on the debt ceiling, the end result will be that the U.S. will most likely continue to be in a period of very high federal debt relative to the GDP. This relationship cannot be changed in a year and perhaps not even in five years. The Europeans are ahead of the United States in addressing their debt to GDP issues with Greece, Portugal, Ireland and Italy. Spain will most likely become a problem as well. The solution in Europe has been the same as the solution in the U.S.: the Central Banks create more currency to keep the economy from falling even further. A recent article in Barron’s, titled “Is Bad News Still Good News for Gold?” Randall Forsyth, the author, in the last paragraph says As long as authorities try to do whatever it takes to hold the system of fiat currencies and indebted governments from flying apart, paper money will continue to lose value relative to the traditional store of value, gold.

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I like projects. I really liked this project. The pipe insulation roller coaster project is one of the most enjoyable projects I've ever used in class. It was my second year teaching physics. During the unit on energy, the book we were using frequently used roller coasters in their problems. We even had a little "roller coaster" to use with photo gates. I thought we could do better. My original idea was to get some flexible Hot Wheels tracks and make some loop-de-loops and hills. Turns out a class set of Hot Wheels track is pretty expensive. On an unrelated yet serendipitous visit to my local big box hardware store, I ran across the perfect (and cheap!) substitute: Pipe Insulation!. For $1.30 or so you can get six feet of pipe insulation- which doubles nicely as a marble track1 when you split the pipe insulation into two equal halves. It's really easy to cut pipe insulation with a sharp pair of scissors. Just be sure you don't buy the "self-sealing" pipe insulation, which has glue pre-applied- it's more expensive and it'd turn into a sticky mess. At first I planning to simply design a one-period long investigation using the pipe insulation (my original ideas morphed into the pre-activity for this project). As I started to think through the project more and more, I realized we could go way bigger. And thus, the pipe insulation roller coaster project was born. Building the Coasters In groups of three, students were given 24 feet of pipe insulation (4 pieces), a roll of duct tape2, and access to a large pile of cardboard boxes3. All groups had to adhere to a few standard requirements: - Construction requirements - The entire roller coaster must fit within a 1.0m x 2.0m rectangle4. - There must be at least two inversions (loops, corkscrews, etc.). - All 24 feet of pipe insulation must be used. - The track must end 50 cm above the ground. In addition to meeting the above requirements, students were required to utilize their understanding of the work-energy theorem, circular motion, and friction to do the following: - Determine the average rolling friction, kinetic energy, and potential energy at 8 locations on their roller coaster. - Determine the minimum velocities required for the marble to stay on the track at the top of all the inversions - Determine the g-forces the marble experiences through the inversions and at least five additional corners, hills, or valleys. - The g-forces must be kept at "safe" levels5. - Rolling friction, kinetic energy, and potential energy - The potential energy () is easy enough to find after measuring the height of the track and finding the mass of the marble. The kinetic energy is trickier and can be done by filming the marble and doing some analysis with Tracker, but since the speed of the marble is likely to be a little too fast for most cameras to pick up clearly, it's probably easier (and much faster) to simply measure the time it takes the marble travel a certain length of track. I describe how this can be done in a previous post, so check that out for more info. That post also includes how to calculated the coefficient of friction by finding how much work was done on the marble due to friction- so I'll keep things shorter here by not re-explaining that process. - Pro-tip: Have students mark every 10 cm or so on their track before they start putting together their coasters (note the tape marks in this pic). Since d in in this case is the length of track the marble has rolled so far, it makes finding the value for d much easier than trying to measure a twisting, looping roller coaster track. - This is also called the critical velocity. That's fitting. If you're riding a roller coaster it's pretty critical that you make it around each loop. Also, you might be in critical condition if you don't. While falling to our death would be exciting, it also limits the ability to ride roller coasters in the future (and I like roller coasters). Since we're primarily concerned with what is happening to the marble at the top of the loop, here's a diagram of the vertical forces on the marble at the very top of the loop: So just normal force (the track pushing on the marble) and gravitational force (the earth pulling on the marble). Since these forces are both acting towards the center of the loop together they're equal to the radial force: When the marble is just barely making it around the loop (at the critical velocity), the normal force goes to zero. That is, the track stops pushing on the marble for just an instant at the top of the loop. If the normal force stays zero for any longer than that it means the marble is in free fall, and that's just not safe. So: Then when you substitute in masses and accelerations for the forces and do some rearranging: There you go. All you need to know is the radius of the loop, and that's easy enough to measure. Of course, you'd want a little cushion above the critical velocity, especially because we're ignoring the friction that is constantly slowing down the marble as it makes its way down the track. - An exciting roller coaster will make you weightless and in the next instant squish you into your seat. A really bad roller coaster squishes you until you pass out. This is awesomely known as G-LOC (G-force Induced Loss of Consciousness). With the proper training and gear, fighter pilots can make it to about 9g's before G-LOC. Mere mortals like myself usually experience G-LOC between 4 and 6g's. As I mentioned, I set the limit for pipe insulation roller coasters at 30g's simply because it allowed more creative and exciting coaster designs. While this would kill most humans, it turns out marbles have a very high tolerance before reaching G-LOC. Raise the stakes Students become fiercely proud of their roller coasters. They'll name them. Brag about them. Drag their friends in during lunch to show them off. Seeing this, I had students show off their creations to any teachers, parents, or administrators that I was able to cajole into stopping by for the official testing of the coasters. I even made up a fun little rubric (.doc file) for any observers to fill out for each coaster. This introduces some level of competition into the project, which gives me pause- though from day one students generally start some friendly smack talk about how their coaster is akin to the Millenium Force while all other coasters are more like the Woodstock Express. The students love to show off their coasters, and it seems the people being shown enjoy the experience as well. Assessment is massively important. However, this post is already long. The exciting conclusion of this post will feature the assessment piece in: Part 2: Pipe Insulation Roller Coaster Assessment. The Pipe Insulation Roller Coaster Series - Pipe Insulation Roller Coasters and Rolling Friction - Pipe Insulation Roller Coasters - Pipe Insulation Roller Coaster Assessment - The first day we played with pipe insulation in class I had students use some marble-sized steel balls. Unfortunately because the steel balls are so much heavier and the pipe insulation is spongy and flexible, there was just too much friction. When we switched to marbles the next day everything worked like a charm. (back) - Most groups typically use more than one roll of duct tape. My first couple years I bought the colored duct tape and gave each group a different color. That was a nice touch, but also a bit more expensive than using the standard silver. Whatever you decide, I highly recommend avoiding the cut-rate duct tape. The cheap stuff just didn't stick as well which caused students to waste a lot of time fixing places where the duct tape fell and in the end used a lot more duct tape. (back) - I had an arrangement with our school's kitchen manager to set broken down boxes aside for me for a few weeks before we started the project. If that's not an option, I've also found if you talk to a manager of a local grocery store they're usually more than willing to donate boxes. (back) - I made it a requirement for groups to start by building a cardboard rectangle with the maximum dimensions. This served two functions: (1) It made it easy for the groups to see what space they had to work with, and (2) it allows the roller coasters to be moved around a little by sliding them across the floor. (back) - Originally I wanted students to keep g-forces below 10. Very quickly it became apparent that under 10g's was overly restrictive and I upped it to 30g's. That's not really safe for living creatures, but it would certainly make it more "exciting." (back)

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Guest post by Henry B. Perry Henry Perry, M.D., Ph.D., MPH, is a senior associate in the Department of International Health at Johns Hopkins University’s Bloomberg School of Public Health in Baltimore, Md. During the past half-century, there has been a growing recognition that community-based workers can make an important contribution to the health of communities, especially in resource-constrained settings. These workers are known by many names, but most commonly Community Health Workers (CHWs). With initial training of usually 6 weeks or less, they can effectively provide different types of services from community mobilization to health education to preventive screening to family planning education to identifying persons with symptoms of leprosy or tuberculosis to diagnosis and treatment of life-threatening childhood illness, and many more. These persons may work as volunteers or for modest incentives or salaries. Based on early projects that utilized CHWs effectively in a number of developing countries, the seminal International Conference on Primary Health Care — sponsored by the World Health Organization and UNICEF in 1978 and attended by high-level representatives of almost every country in the world — recognized that in many settings where facilities and highly trained health workers are scarce, CHWs can become an important part of a primary health care system. The Declaration of Alma Ata, adopted at the conference, called for basic health services — promotive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative — to be provided by “health workers, including physicians, nurses, midwives, auxiliaries and community workers [italics added] as applicable, as well as traditional practitioners as needed, suitably trained socially and technically to work as a health team and to respond to the expressed health needs of the community.” The Declaration also recognized the importance of providing health services “as close as possible to where people live and work.” A rapidly growing number of studies demonstrate that CHWs make it possible to expand access and improve coverage of essential services, particularly in remote and poorly served populations, thereby improving equity. CHWs have been shown to play critical roles in interventions to - reduce child mortality, including distribution of vitamin A capsules and other critical micronutrients - promote water and sanitation education (hand washing, point-of-use water treatment and safe water storage, latrine construction and promotion of latrine use) - distribute mosquito nets and assist communities in draining stagnant water to eliminate breeding grounds for mosquitoes - diagnose and treat childhood pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, newborn sepsis and severe malnutrition - promote healthy behaviors such as appropriate breastfeeding (exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life and continued breastfeeding until at least one year of age) - provide hygiene and cleanliness education - ensure appropriate care of newborns - promote and facilitate immunizations for mothers and children. Many countries can benefit by scaling up integrated community case management of pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria and newborn sepsis and promotion of healthy behaviors that can save the lives of millions of children who are dying from preventable causes. CHWs are one of the essential ingredients for making this possible — along with political commitment, professional leadership, long-term sustainable training, support and supervision from the health system and reliable logistical support of basic medicines and supplies. A strong commitment by the world community to these activities, which are some of the most cost-effective approaches to promoting global equity in health, is a moral imperative for today and tomorrow. James Grant, the renowned executive director of UNICEF from 1980 to 1995 and champion of what is often referred to as the First Child Survival Revolution, repeatedly reminded us that “morality must march with capacity.” We now know that CHWs can have the capacity to make a difference between life and death for millions of children. The moral imperative for the world community is to ensure that health systems and underserved communities support CHWs in attaining this capacity. Berman, P. A., D. R. Gwatkin, et al. (1987). “Community-based health workers: head start or false start towards health for all?” Soc Sci Med 25(5): 443-459. Haines, A., D. Sanders, et al. (2007). “Achieving child survival goals: potential contribution of community health workers.” Lancet 369(9579): 2121-2131. Lassi, Z. S., B. A. Haider, et al. (2010). “Community-based intervention packages for reducing maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality and improving neonatal outcomes.” Cochrane Database Syst Rev 11: CD007754. Newell, K. W., Ed. (1975). Health by the People. Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organization. Perry, H., P. Freeman, et al. (2009). How Effective Is Community-based Primary Health Care in Improving the Health of Children? Summary Findings and Report to the Expert Review Panel, American Public Health Association. Sazawal, S. and R. E. Black (2003). “Effect of pneumonia case management on mortality in neonates, infants, and preschool children: a meta-analysis of community-based trials.” Lancet Infect Dis 3(9): 547-556. World Health Organization and UNICEF (1978). Declaration of Alma-Ata: International Conference on Primary Health Care. International Conference on Primary Health Care. Alma-Ata, USSR.

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The Garo community is one of the major tribes in Bangladesh. According to the history books, the Garo tribe entered Bangladesh in the first century. They were refugees from Mongolia and came to this region through Tibet. The Garo have stayed in Bangladesh for thousands of years. Initially, they followed a religion called Sonatoni; during the British rule in this subcontinent they came to Christ. Today, nearly 100 percent of the Garo tribe practices Christianity, though a few still believe in Sonatoni. Garos have their own language, Achick, which is completely different from the local language, Bengali. Achik has several accents/branches such as Habeng, Attong, etc. The Garo tribe also has its own culture. Their dress, food habits and celebration styles can be easily distinguished from the Bengalis and other tribes. The people from the Garo tribe have different features than the original inhabitants of Bangladesh (Bengali people). They are a little shorter and have fair skin. Their eyes and nose are similar to their ancestors from Mongolia. Compared to the other tribal groups, the Garo tribe is little advanced in education and social activities. The first Garo church (Garo Baptist Convention) was established in 1910. Many missionaries and evangelists from Europe and North America worked among the Garo people over the decades. Being a part of a developing country, the Garo community also suffers from poverty. Many Garo families are deprived of education. Garos in the villages and in remote places suffer from lack of clean water and sanitation. There are many villages like Gobindopur and Nalchapra, which greatly need hospitals and medical facilities. The people from the Garo community have to go to the local pharmacy for minor diseases or injuries. For major problems, they have to take the patient to the town, which is about 35 kilometers away. The Garo have only one high school (sixth through 10th grade) with a capacity of only 300 children. This government school has only nine teachers. There are also two primary schools in those villages with limited capacity and facilities. The houses of the Garo people are made of bamboo walls and straw or tin roofs. Some houses have mud walls with a roof of straw and plastic sheets. House are typically 7 feet wide and 14 feet long. The Garo build their own houses. Usually they have free spaces in front of their houses. They keep cows, chicken and ducks as pets. Garo families usually have an average of two to three children. Thirty percent of the Garo people have completed high school. However, the remaining 70 percent have not; the poor families can’t afford to send their children to school. The government of Bangladesh has ensured that all children can attend primary school. But many children from the Garo community drop out after the primary level. The educated people from the Garo community work in nongovernmental and other corporate organizations. The poorer Garo people earn their keep by working as day laborers, usually in the crop fields for nine or 10 hours daily. Available transportation in Garo villages is cycle or rickshaw, especially for long distances. But since most peope can’t afford the rickshaw fare, they walk. Cycle-vans are used to carry goods. In the Garo culture, both male and female have to work for the family. The interesting part is that the Garo ladies get ownership of the properties from the family, a tradition completely opposite of the Bengali people. The Garo festivals are very colorful and full of music and dancing. Christmas and Easter are the two major religious festivals. Their biggest cultural festival is called Wangala. Wangala is the festival when the Garo thank God for the new crops. It takes place just after the harvesting period. The Garo prepare pitha (homemade pies), sweets and other food to celebrate this occasion. At the celebration, Garo girls wear their traditional dress and sprinkle puffed rice and dry rice with their hands. The traditional dress of the Garo ladies is called Dokbanda, a combination of a long skirt and blouse. The gents wear regular shirts, trousers and lungi (Bangladeshi skirt for men). The favorite dishes of the Garo are pork, snails, eel and little tortoises. They use a special substance called Khari to make the food more tasteful. They prepare the Khari at home. Compassion-assisted child development centers that serve the Garo people include: BD-401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411 and 412.

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In the earliest times, the many gods of the Egyptians were unique children of One Great God, the Source of All Life. Among the many gods, none of them was considered to be the ultimate god. Each was a free-willed portion of the Great Oneness which composed the Most High God. Even in Genesis the plural form is used as the name of God, indicating that the One was composed of many, and the many contained the Universal, Omnipresent One. John Van Auken Source: Ancient Egyptian Mysticism and Its Relevance Today, Pages: 5

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Using the Congressional Serial Set for Genealogical Research By Jeffery Hartley (This article appeared in the Spring 2009 issue of Prologue. It has been excerpted and reprinted here with the permission of the author. The Historical Documents section in GenealogyBank includes over 243,000 reports from the US Serial Set and the American State Papers). Click here to search the American State Papers and US Congressional Serial Set in GenealogyBank.com Genealogists use whatever sources are available to them in pursuit of their family history: diaries, family Bibles, census records, passenger arrival records, and other federal records. One set of materials that is often overlooked, however, is the Congressional Serial Set. This large multivolume resource contains various congressional reports and documents from the beginning of the federal government, and its coverage is wide and varied. Women, African Americans, Native Americans, students, soldiers and sailors, pensioners, landowners, and inventors are all represented in some fashion. While a beginning genealogist would not use the Serial Set to begin a family history, it nevertheless can serve as a valuable tool and resource for someone helping to flesh out an ancestors life, especially where it coincided with the interests of the U.S. federal government. Since its inception, the U.S. government has gathered information, held hearings, compiled reports, and published those findings in literally millions of pages, the majority of which have been published by the Government Printing Office (GPO). These publications include annual reports of the various executive branch agencies, congressional hearings and documents, registers of employees, and telephone directories. Their topics cover a wide range, from the Ku Klux Klan to child labor practices to immigration to western exploration. In 1817, the Serial Set was begun with the intent of being the official, collective, definitive publication documenting the activities of the federal government. Following the destruction of the Capitol in 1814 by the British, Congress became interested in publishing their records to make them more accessible and less vulnerable to loss. In the early Federal period, printing of congressional documents had been haphazard, and the Serial Set was an effort designed to rectify that situation. Although initially there were no regulations concerning what should be included, several laws and regulations were promulgated over the years. The contents, therefore, vary depending on the year in question. In 1831, 14 years after the Serial Set was begun, the printers Gales & Seaton proposed that a compilation of the documents from the first Congresses be printed. The secretary of the Senate and the clerk of the House were to direct the selection of those documents, 6,278 of which were published in 38 volumes between 1832 and 1861. This collection was known as the American State Papers. Because it was a retrospective effort, these 38 volumes were arranged chronologically within 10 subject areas: Foreign Relations, Indian Affairs, Finance, Commerce & Navigation, Military Affairs, Naval Affairs, Post Office, Public Lands, Claims, and Miscellaneous. Although not technically a part of the Serial Set, the volumes were certainly related, and therefore the volumes were designated with a leading zero so that these volumes would be shelved properly, i.e. before the volumes of the Serial Set. (1) The Congressional Serial Set itself includes six distinct series: House and Senate journals (until 1953), House and Senate reports, House and Senate documents, Senate treaty documents, Senate executive reports, and miscellaneous reports. The journals provide information about the daily activities of each chamber. The House and Senate reports relate to public and private legislation under consideration during each session. Documents generally relate to other investigations or subjects that have come to the attention of Congress. Nominations for office and military promotion appear in the Senate Executive Reports. Miscellaneous reports are just thatwidely varied in subject matter and content. With the possible exception of the treaty documents, any of these can have some relevance for genealogists. The documents and reports in the Serial Set are numbered sequentially within each Congress, no matter what their subject or origin. The documents were then collected into volumes, which were then given a sequential number within the Serial Set. The set currently stands at over 15,000 volumes, accounting for more than 325,000 individual documents and 11 million pages. The Serial Set amounts to an incredible amount of documentation for the 19th century. Agency annual reports, reports on surveys and military expeditions, statistics and other investigations all appear and thoroughly document the activities of the federal government. In 1907, however, the Public Printing and Binding Act provided guidelines for what should be included, resulting in many of these types of reports no longer being included as they were also issued separately by the individual agencies. The number of copies was also trimmed. With that stroke, the value of the Serial Set was lessened, but it nevertheless stands as a valuable genealogical resource for the 19th century. So what is available for genealogists? The following examples are just some of the types of reports and information that are available. The Serial Set contains much information concerning land claims. These claims relate to bounty for service to the government as well as to contested lands once under the jurisdiction of another nation. In House Report 78 (21-2), there is a report entitled “Archibald Jackson.” This report, from the House Committee on Private Land Claims, in 1831, relates to Jackson’s claim for the land due to James Gammons. Gammons, a soldier in the 11th U.S. Infantry, died on February 19, 1813, “in service of the United States.” The act under which he enlisted provided for an extra three month’s pay and 160 acres of land to those who died while in service to the United States. However, Gammons was a slave, owned by Archibald Jackson, who apparently never overtly consented to the enlistment but allowed it to continue. That Gammons was eligible for the extra pay and bounty land was not in dispute, but the recipient of that bounty was. Jackson had already collected the back pay in 1823 and was petitioning for the land as well. The report provides a decision in favor of Jackson, as he was the legal representative of Gammons, and as such entitled to all of his property. (2) Land as bounty was one issue, and another was claims for newly annexed land as the country spread west. In 1838, the House of Representatives published a report related to Senate Bill 89 concerning the lands acquired through the treaty with Spain in 1819 that ceded East and West Florida to the United States. Claims to land between the Mississippi and the Perdido Rivers, however, were not a part of that treaty and had been unresolved since the Louisiana Purchase, which had taken the Perdido River as one of its limits. The report provides a background on the claims as well as lists of the claimants, the names of original claimants, the date and nature of the claim, and the amount of the land involved. (3) Other land claims are represented as well. In 1820, the Senate ordered a report to be printed from the General Land Office containing reports of the land commissioners at Jackson Court House. These lands are located in Louisiana and include information that would help a genealogist locate their ancestor in this area. Included in this report is a table entitled “A List of Actual Settlers, in the District East of Pearl River, in Louisiana, prior to the 3d March, 1819, who have no claims derived from either the French, British, or Spanish, Governments.” The information is varied, but a typical entry reads: No. 14, present claimant George B. Dameson, original claimant Mde. Neait Pacquet, originally settled 1779, located above White’s Point, Pascag. River, for about 6 years. (4) Among the reports in the Serial Set for the 19th century are the annual reports to Congress from the various executive branch agencies. Congress had funded the activities of these organizations and required that each provide a report concerning their annual activities. Many of these are printed in the Serial Set, often twice: the same content with both a House and a Senate document number. Annual reports in the 19th century were very different from the public relations pieces that they tend to be today. Besides providing information about the organization and its activities, many included research reports and other (almost academic) papers. In the annual reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, for instance, one can find dictionaries of Native American languages, reports on artifacts, and in one case, even a genealogy for the descendants of a chief. (5) These reports can often serendipitously include information of interest to the family historian. For instance, the annual report of the solicitor of the Treasury would not necessarily be a place to expect to find family information. The 1844 report, however, does have some information that could be useful. For instance, pages 36 and 37 of this report contains a “tabular list of suits now pending in the courts of the United States, in which the government is a part and interested.” Many on the opposite side of the case were individuals. An example is the case of Roswell Lee, late a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, against whom there has been a judgment for over $5,000 in 1838. Lee was sued in a court in Massachusetts and in 1844 still owed over $4,000. In a letter dated May 5, 1840, the district attorney informed the office (6) that Mr. Lee is not now a resident of the district of Massachusetts, and that whether he ever returns is quite uncertain; that nothing, however, will be lost by his absence, as the United States have now a judgment against him, which probably will forever remain unsatisfied. Another set of annual reports that appear in the Serial Set are those for the Patent Office. The annual reports of the commissioner of patents often include an index to the patents that were granted that year, arranged by subject and containing the names of the invention and the patentee and the patent number. The report included a further description of the patent, and often a diagram of it as well. Each year’s report also included an index by patentee. Unfortunately, the numbers of patents granted in later years, as well as their complexity, led to more limited information being included in later reports. The 1910 report, for instance, simply contains an alphabetical list of inventions, with the entries listing the patentee, number, date, and where additional information can be found in the Official Patent Office Gazette. (7) The Civil War gave rise to a number of medical enhancements and innovations in battlefield medicine, and the annual report for 1865, published in 1867, contains a reminder of that in the patent awarded to G. B. Jewett, of Salem, Massachusetts, for “Legs, artificial.” Patent 51,593 was granted December 19, 1865, and the description of the patent on page 990 provides information on the several improvements that Jewett had developed. The patent diagram on page 760 illustrated the text. (8) This annual report relates to a report from May 1866, also published in the Serial Set that same session of Congress, entitled “Artificial Limbs Furnished to Soldiers.” This report, dated May 1866, came from the secretary of war in response to a congressional inquiry concerning artificial limbs furnished to soldiers at the government’s expense. Within its 128 pages are a short list of the manufacturers of these limbs, including several owned by members of the Jewett family in Salem, Massachusetts, New York, and Washington, D.C., as well as an alphabetical list of soldiers, detailing their rank, regiment and state, residence, limb, cost, date, and manufacturer. Constantine Elsner, a private in B Company of the 20th Massachusetts living in Boston, received a leg made by G. B. Jewett at a cost of $75 on April 8, 1865. 9 This may have been an older version of the one that Jewett would have patented later in the year, or it may have been an early model of that one. Either way, a researcher would have some idea not only of what Elsner’s military career was like, but also some sense of what elements of life for him would be like after the war. Congress also was interested in the activities of organizations that were granted congressional charters. Many of the charters included the requirement that an annual report be supplied to Congress, and these were then ordered to be printed in the Serial Set. One such organization is the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR). As one would expect, the DAR annual reports contain a great deal of genealogical and family history information. The 18th annual report is no exception. Among other things, it includes, in appendix A, a list of the graves of almost 3,000 Revolutionary War soldiers. The list includes not just a name and location, but other narrative information as well: Abston, John. Born Jan. 2, 1757; died 1856. Son of Joshua Abston, captain of Virginia militia; served two years in War of the American Revolution. Enlisted from Pittsylvania County, Va.; was in Capt. John Ellis’ company under Col. Washington. The evening before the battle of Kings Mountain, Col. Washington, who was in command of the starving Americans at this point, sent soldiers out to forage for food. At a late hour a steer was driven into camp, killed, and made into a stew. The almost famished soldiers ate the stew, without bread, and slept the sleep of the just. Much strengthened by their repast and rest, the next morning they made the gallant charge that won the battle of Kings Mountain, one of the decisive battles of the American Revolution. Washington found one of the steer’s horns and gave it to Abston, a personal friend, who carried it as a powder horn the rest of the war. (10) Another organization whose annual reports appear is the Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, which later became Gallaudet University. These reports, found in the annual reports of the secretary of the interior, contain much of what one would expect: lists of faculty and students, enrollment statistics, and other narrative. While that information can help to provide information about one’s ancestor’s time there, there are other parts of the narrative that include information one would not expect to find. For instance, the 10th annual report for 1867 has a section entitled “The Health of the Institution.” It concerns not the fiscal viability of the institution but rather the occurrences of illness and other calamities. One student from Maryland, John A. Unglebower, was seized with gastric fever and died: “He was a boy of exemplary character, whose early death is mourned by all who knew him.” Two other students drowned that year, and the circumstances of their deaths recounted, with the hope that “they were not unprepared to meet the sudden and unexpected summons.” (11) Both the faculty and the student body contributed their memorials to these two students in the report. Other organizations represented in the Serial Set are the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America, Veterans of World War I of the United States, proceedings of the National Encampment, United Spanish War Veterans, the American Historical Association, and the National Convention of Disabled American Veterans. Lists of Pensioners The history of pensions provided by the federal government is beyond the scope of this article. However, the Serial Set is a source of information about who was on the rolls at various times. For instance, an 1818 letter from the secretary of war was published containing a list of the persons who had been added to the pension list since May 28, 1813. The list provides information on the likes of Susanna Coyle, certificate of pension no. 9, heiress of deceased soldier William Coyle, alias Coil, a private who received pay of four dollars per month. (12) Sundry lists of pensions appeared in 1850, related to the regulation of Navy, privateer, and Navy hospital funds. The report included four lists: those placed in the invalid list who were injured while in the line of duty; those drawing pensions from wounds received while serving on private armed vessels; widows drawing pensions from their husbands who were engineers, firemen, and coal-heavers; and orphan children of officers, seamen, and marines pensioned under the act of August 11, 1848. (13) One of the most widely consulted lists is that for 1883, “List of Pensioners on the Roll, January 1, 1883” (Senate Executive Document 84 [47-2]). This five-volume title, arranged by state and then county of residence, provides a list of each pensioner’s name, his post office, the monthly amount received, the date of the original allowance, the reason for the pension, and the certificate number. An example is the case of Eli G. Biddle, who served in the 54th Massachusetts. Biddle can be found on page 439 of volume 5 of the “List,” and a researcher can learn several things without even having seen his pension file: his middle name is George, he was living in Boston in 1883, and he was receiving four dollars each month after having suffered a gunshot wound in the right shoulder. His pension certificate number is also provided 99,053 and with that one could easily order the appropriate records from the National Archives. The Serial Set serves as a source of military registers and other lists of government personnel as well. Both Army and Navy registers appear after 1896. The Army registers for 1848–1860 and the Navy registers for 1848–1863 are transcripts of the lists that appeared the preceding January and include pay and allowances, with corrections to that earlier edition for deaths and resignations. The Official Register, or “Blue Book,” a biannual register of the employees of the federal government, appears for 10 years, from 1883 to 1893. If one’s ancestors were employees at this time, their current location and position, place from which they were appointed, date of appointment, and annual compensation can be gleaned from this source. The Serial Set often provides unexpected finds, and the area of registers is no exception. There is a great deal of material on the Civil War, from the 130 volumes of the Official Records of the War of the Rebellion to other investigations and the aforementioned registers and lists of pensions. There are not, however, large amounts of compiled unit histories. One exception, however, is the report from the adjutant general of Arkansas. Shortly after the Civil War, the adjutant general offices of the various Union states prepared reports detailing the activities of the men from their states. The same was done in Arkansas, but the state legislature there, “under disloyal control,” declined to publish the report. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts, chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs, brought it to the committee in 1867, and it was ordered to be printed in the Serial Set so that the loyal activities of these 10,000 men would be recognized. (14) The report includes brief histories of each unit as well as a roster of the unit and rank, enlistment date, and other notes on each soldier. Accessing Information in the Serial Set The indexing for the Serial Set has long been troublesome to researchers. Various attempts have been made to provide subject access, with varying degrees of success. Many of the indexes in the volumes themselves are primarily title indexes to the reports from that Congress and session. The Checklist of United States Public Documents, 1789–1909, does provide information about what reports listed therein do appear in the Serial Set, but the researcher has to know the name of the issuing agency in order to access that information. The Document Index provides some subject indexing by Congress, and other efforts such as those by John Ames and Benjamin Poore can also be used, but none index the tables and contents of many of the reports that have been discussed in this article. (15) The best comprehensive print index is the Congressional Information Service’s (CIS) U.S. Serial Set Index, produced in conjunction with their microfilming of the volumes through 1969 beginning in the mid-1970s. In this index, a two-volume subject index covers groups of Congresses, with a third volume providing an index to individual names for relief actions, as well as a complete numerical list in each report/document category. The index, however, does not index the contents of the documents. For instance, although the title given for the Archibald Jackson land claim includes James Gammons’s name, the latter does not appear in the index to private relief actions. In addition, users must often be creative in the terms applied in order to be sure that they have exhausted all possibilities. In the mid-1990s CIS released these indexes on CD-ROM, which makes them somewhat easier to use, although the contents are essentially the same. The indexing problems have been rectified by the digitization of the Serial Set. At least two private companies, LexisNexis and Readex, have digitized it and made it full-text searchable. [The Serial Set and American State Papers are available in GenealogyBank. Click here to search them online] This article can only hint at some of the genealogical possibilities that can be found in the Congressional Serial Set. It has not touched on the land survey, railroad, western exploration, or lighthouse keeper’s reports or many of the private relief petitions and claims. Nonetheless, the reports and documents in the Serial Set provide a tremendous and varied amount of information for researchers interested in family history. Jeffery Hartley is chief librarian for the Archives Library Information Center (ALIC). A graduate of Dickinson College and the University of Maryland’s College of Library and Information Services, he joined the National Archives and Records Administration in 1990. 1 For a more complete description of the American State Papers, and their genealogical relevance, see Chris Naylor, “Those Elusive Early Americans: Public Lands and Claims in the American State Papers, 1789–1837,” Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration 37 (Summer 2005): 54–61. 2 H. Rept. 78 (21-2), 1831, “Archibald Jackson” (Serial 210). 3 H. Rept. 818 (25-2), 1838, “Land Claims between Perdido and Mississippi” Serial 335. 4 S. Doc. 3 (16-2), 1820, “Reports of the Land Commissioners at Jackson Court House” (Serial 42). 5 H. Misc. Doc. 32 (48-2), 1882, “3rd Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology” (Serial 2317). 6 H. Doc. 35 (28-1), 1844, “Annual Report of Solicitor of the Treasury” (Serial 441), p. 37. 7 H. Doc. 1348 (61-3), 1911, “Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1910″ (Serial 6020). 8 H. Exec. Doc. 62 (39-1), 1867, “Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1865″ (Serial 1257-1259). 9 H. Exec. Doc. 108 (39-1), 1866, “Artificial Limbs Furnished to Soldiers” (Serial 1263). 10 S. Doc. 392 (64-1), 1916, “Eighteenth Report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, October 11, 1914, to October 11, 1915″ (Serial 6924), p.155. 11 H. Exec. Doc. 1 (40-2), “Tenth Annual Report of the Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb” (Serial 1326), pp. 429–430. 12 H. Doc. 35 (15-1), 1818 (Serial 6), p. 17. 13 See H. Ex. Doc. 10 (31-2), 1850, “Sundry Lists of Pensioners” (Serial 597). 14 See S. Misc. Doc 53 (39-2), 1867, “Report of the Adjutant General for the State of Arkansas, for the Period of the Late Rebellion, and to November 1, 1866″ (Serial 1278). 15 A good discussion of how some of these indexes work can be found in Mary Lardgaard, “Beginner’s Guide to Indexes to the Nineteenth Century U.S. Serial Set,” Government Publications Review 2 (1975): 303–311.

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It is obvious that some people are more successful in different intellectual domains than others. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences suggests eight different domains of intellectual skill people can identify with. The domains consist of the following, in which people can score any level in all categories: linguistic, logico-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. Although his model is impossible to falsify, this idea is important because it serves as a good starting point in which scientists can begin distinguishing what qualifies as an "intelligence" versus a talent. However, it is possible that talents and intelligence are actually the same, when intelligence is defined among Gardner's approach. It is impossible to say Einstein had a talent in math yet didn't identify with that intelligence. A causation approach seems to be inapplicable because research points towards intelligence being considerably stable, while talents can be improved... yet those talents remain in the same realm as its partnering intelligence. This article talks about how there is a controversy on the misuse of his idea into new teaching methods. However, who said that just because someone is intelligent in music means that they will all of a sudden learn geography classes significantly better based on singing the information? They would simply just excel in the musical part of tasks, further concluding their continued talent/intelligence. As suggested in the text, I prefer to conclude I have an intelligence in humor, but one could beg to differ. Overall, I now wonder if someones IQ could actually be the degree in which every arguable intelligence is taken into consideration, then somehow calculated. The WAIS test seems to imply there are different areas of intelligence, so why not add them all...? Oh, how psychology is incredibly ambiguous. Multiple Intelligences: possibly interchangeable with talent? TrackBack URL: http://blog.lib.umn.edu/cgi-bin/mt-tb.cgi/168052

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Reflecting on the story of the Internal Revenue Service targeting groups with names that included tea party, patriot or any other name that marks a group as pro Constitutional, pro Freedom or pro Bill of Rights, leads us to consider the history of the IRS. Why would you even approach the IRS for blessing? Your group is, itself considered to be an enemy of the Fed to which the IRS owes allegiance. Any way they can, the IRS will cause opposition to its perceived enemy. Did the American army ask the enemy governments to finance them for WWI or WWII? The federal income tax was created in 1913 with the ratification of the 16th amendment to the Constitution. Before that time the Fed ran on “tariffs.” Using only tariffs was wise, it kept the government constrained to its Constitutional duties. There were some high tariffs, which did cause some anger and resulted in the “Tariff of Abominations,” but even that was not so high as to stifle the free enterprise system. And the Fed had plenty of money to run what is properly within its scope. In arguments during the consideration of the 16th amendment (1909), Representative Samuel McCall (Mass.) stated “….leads me to believe that the chief purpose of the tax is not financial, but social. It is not primarily to raise money for the state, but to regulate the citizen and to regenerate the moral nature of man. The individual citizen will be called on to lay bare the inner-most recesses of his soul in affidavits, and with the aid of the Federal inspector, who will supervise his books and papers and business secrets, he may be made to be good, according the notions of virtue at the moment prevailing in Washington.” Continue Reading →

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“In nine months, a group of children left alone with a computer in any language will reach the same standard as an office secretary in the West.” ~ Dr. Sugata Mitra One fine day on 26 January 1999, the Chief scientist at NIIT and his team plan to dig a hole in their office wall adjacent to the Delhi Slum Area. They install a freely accessible computer and observe the rest. This computer created instant ripples and the inferences were revolutionary. The slum children not only learn basic computer skills but teach other children as well. This experiment known as the Hole in the Wall is the discovery of Professor Sugata Mitra. He also coined the concept of Minimally Invasive Education; a pedagogy under which children driven by curiosity and peer support teach themselves and others. Professor Sugata Mitra had always been fascinated with the idea of unsupervised learning and computers and when finally he put it into practice, it won him another award. On Tuesday, February 26. Dr. Mitra was given the TED Award 2013 which grants him $1 million to set up his own learning laboratory based on this concept. Dr. Mitra plans to set up learning spaces that would be totally automated and controlled from the Cloud. The supervisor will not be a teacher or a computer expert but only a safety and health supervisor. Probably set up in India, these learning spaces would take the Hole in the Wall Experiment to the implementation stage. Dr. Mitra has been the Chief Scientist at NIIT and is currently Professor of Educational Technology at Newcastle University, UK. Dr. Mitra is a winner of “Man of Peace Award” from Together for Peace Foundation, USA, and “Social Innovation Award” from Institute of Social Inventions, UK. He has also been given the “Dewang Mehta Award” by the Government of India in recognition for his work related to Hole-in-the-Wall. According to Dr.Mitra, the learners of the new age need two things. A broadband connection and a teacher to stand back. He says, “The Victorians were great engineers. They engineered a [schooling] system that was so robust that it’s still with us today, continuously producing identical people for a machine that no longer exists.” We were fortunate enough to have Prof. Mitra with us in one of the WizIQ Conversations. You can revisit his works and words anytime. Professor Mitra was self-taught and has a firm belief that others can do the same through technology and the Internet. Finally I leave you with a reiteration of the topic: Are teachers really keeping students from learning in the digital age?

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Get the Today’s Document App Tag: October 10 On February 27, 1951, the Twenty-Second Amendment was ratified, officially limiting Presidents to two terms. This cartoon satirizes Theodore Roosevelt’s reversal of his anti-third term promise during the election of 1912. After his victory in the 1904 election, President Theodore Roosevelt promised that although his first term had lasted only three years (beginning after the [...] Posted by Darren Cole on February 27, 2011, under Documents, February, October. Highest Rated Documents Find Documentsfor May 21 Subscribe to Email Updates You can also subscribe to the RSS feed

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HPV virus is linked to 25,000 cancers over five years. The human wart virus known as HPV caused 25,000 cases of cancer in the United States between 1998 and 2003, including not only cervical cancer but also anal and mouth cancers, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported on Monday. The study suggests the need for screening of both men and women to be expanded for human papillomavirus, or HPV, said another team of researchers, who did a similar study. HPV includes about 100 different viruses, and they are the leading cause of cervical cancer. The viruses, transmitted sexually and by skin-to-skin contact, can also cause anal and penile cancers, as well as cancers of the mouth and throat. HPV also causes common warts. Both Merck and Co. and GlaxoSmithKline make vaccines against some of the strains of HPV most strongly linked with cervical cancer, but not all. The vaccines are recommended for girls and young women who have not yet become sexual activity. ”Currently available HPV vaccines have the potential to reduce the rates of HPV-associated cancers, like oral and anal cancers, that are currently on the rise and for which there is no effective or widely applied screening programs,” the CDC’s Dr. Mona Saraiya, who led the study, said in a statement. “This gives us baseline data to measure the impact of HPV vaccine and cervical cancer screening programs in reducing the incidence of cervical cancer and other HPV-associated cancers… .” Sleep is seen as the newest obesity fighter. Consistently getting a good night’s sleep may help protect children from becoming overweight adults, a study published Monday suggests. Researchers found that among more than 1,000 people followed from birth to age 32, those who got too little sleep as children were more likely than their well-rested counterparts to become obese adults, Reuters News reports. The link between sleep deprivation during childhood and obesity risk later in life held up even when the researchers figured in things like the impact of a child’s weight or TV habits, and adulthood exercise level. All of this supports the idea that early sleep habits have a direct effect on weight in the long term, according to Dr. Robert John Hancox, the study’s senior author. “Although we cannot prove that this is a cause-and-effect relationship,” he told Reuters Health, “this study provides strong evidence that it probably is.” Eating more fish can help you control diabetes. Centering your dinner around a fish dish at least twice a week might help people with diabetes lower their risk of kidney disease, a study suggests. In the November issue of the American Journal of Kidney Diseases, British researchers analyzed the records of more than 22,300 middle-aged and older English men and women who were part of a large European cancer study to determine the effect of fish on kidney disease. What they found is that of the 517 study subjects who had diabetes (most of whom had type 2), those who on average ate less than one serving of fish each week were four times as likely to have albumin in their urine than people with diabetes who ate fish twice a week. Adler speculates that the nutrient content of fish may affect kidney function and improve blood glucose control. But the researchers could not say what type of fish had the biggest impact, reports USA Today.To get more help with diabetes, go to BET.com/Body &Soul.

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Mississippians know the strength of longleaf pines. These native trees braved Hurricane Katrina 48 percent better than their loblolly cousins. Even so, the ancient longleaf pine forests of the South are a threatened ecosystem. These forests once dominated the region, spanning 90 million acres. Now, they cover just 3 million acres. As longleaf habitat disappears, so do many important and endangered species, like the gopher tortoise, which rely on it. The gopher tortoise is considered a keystone species in longleaf pine habitat, with more than 300 different vertebrate and invertebrate species relying on burrows dug by the reptiles for their homes. Longleaf pine forests are home to at least 122 endangered or threatened plant and animal species. In addition, they can contain as many as 300 different species of groundcover plants per acre, and about 60 percent of the amphibian and reptile species found in the Southeast. USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) wants to restore longleaf forests to their former glory with the help of landowners like Orby Wright of Purvis, Miss. The Healthy Forests Reserve Program (HFRP) offered by NRCS allows Wright to manage his tall stands of longleaf pines and the blanket of legumes and forbs across the understory of his Quail Hollow Ranch. HFRP is one of several programs in the tool chest of the Longleaf Pine Initiative, a nine-state effort to bolster longleaf pine forests. Forbs are clovers, sunflowers, milkweed and other common wildflowers typical of the Mississippi forest floor. Both forbs and legumes provide sustenance and cover for a wide range of wildlife. Wright purchased about 2,000 acres four years ago from a pecan company. The land boasts longleaf pines of different ages—some are decades old, while others are just saplings. With the help of NRCS, Wright has planted new longleaf pines while taking care of his older, taller trees. A healthy longleaf pine ecosystem requires occasional fires. Many years ago, wildfires frequented the longleaf landscape, creating food for wildlife and providing other benefits. To help maintain this rugged habitat, Wright has installed fire lanes and carries out prescribed burns, all with NRCS’ assistance. So far, NRCS programs have helped restore 1,641 acres of longleaf pines in Mississippi and assisted in prescribed burns on 1,812 acres. In Lamar County, where Wright lives, 669 acres of longleaf pines were restored in 2010. Approved participants receive financial assistance for implementing conservation practices including planting longleaf pine, installing firebreaks, conducting prescribed burning and controlling invasive plants. Check out more conservation stories on the USDA blog. Follow NRCS on Twitter.

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Millennial themes: age, education, services December 01, 1999 The Bureau of Labor Statistics recently released its work force projections for the period 1998-2008. Some of the themes that may be important to watch unfolding over the next several years include: - The continuing aging of the labor force. The median age of workers is projected to rise to nearly 41 years. At that level, the median age of the labor force will just exceed the previous high of 40.5 years reached in 1962. - The growing importance of education. Occupations that require at least an associate degree will account for 40 percent of all job growth out to 2008, compared to a one-quarter share of all jobs that existed in 1998. - The dominance of the service-producing sector as a source of employment growth. In the projection period—1998 to 2008—the service sector will account for more than 90 percent of job growth. Projections of the labor force and the industrial and occupational composition of employment are a product of the Employment Projections program. To find out more, see articles from the November 1999 issue of Monthly Labor Review. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, The Editor's Desk, Millennial themes: age, education, services on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/1999/nov/wk5/art03.htm (visited May 21, 2013). Spotlight on Statistics: Productivity This edition of Spotlight on Statistics examines labor productivity trends from 2000 through 2010 for selected industries and sectors within the nonfarm business sector of the U.S. economy. Read more »

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Marlin, Blue – Hawaii Blue Marlin is a large pelagic species, found globally in both tropical and temperate waters. Blue Marlin mature early, produce many eggs , and grow fast, reaching sizes up to 450 cm and 900 kg. They are caught commercially throughout the Pacific Ocean and are considered to comprise a single, ocean-wide population. The last population assessment for Blue Marlin in the Pacific indicated that abundance levels were moderate, but the assessment has not been updated for over a decade. There is some indication that Blue Marlin abundance around Hawaii may be declining. This species is primarily captured with pelagic longlines, which result in minimal habitat damage and moderate bycatch rates. Around Hawaii, trolling is another common method used to catch Blue Marlin. Regulations for pelagic fisheries that capture Blue Marlin are set at both the international and national level, and include measures to effectively reduce fishery interactions with protected seabirds and sea turtles. This fish may have high levels of mercury that could pose a health risk to adults and children. More mercury info here.

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Swordfish – Indian Ocean Swordfish is a large, pelagic species found throughout tropical and temperate waters around the globe. They grow at moderate rates and produce many eggs. In the Indian Ocean, Swordfish are captured by fishing fleets from many nations including Taiwan, Spain, Pakistan and Japan. Their abundance decreased through the 1990s and early 2000s as catches increased, but current Swordfish abundance in the Indian Ocean is at a medium level. The majority of Swordfish in the Indian Ocean are taken with pelagic longlines, and some with gillnets. These fishing gears result in minimal habitat damage, but may accidentally catch endangered and protected species like sea turtles. Regulations for Swordfish fisheries are set by the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, but compliance with these regulations at the national level is poor. This fish may have high levels of mercury that could pose a health risk to adults and children. More mercury info here.

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NASA is giving the public the power to journey through the solar system using a new interactive Web-based tool. The "Eyes on the Solar System" interface combines video game technology and NASA data to... Wednesday, 07 September 2011 This is basically a Key Stage 2 maths website - but we also offer many Key Stage 1 and some early Key Stage 3 materials. This is what you'll find here : The TOPICS section contains simple, straightf... Tuesday, 06 September 2011 See the great new features (if you can't see the video it means You Tube is blocked at your school!) 9XtEqyTkneY See global changes with decades of historical imagery If you've ever wondered how y... Wednesday, 11 February 2009 Education Bradford resources and guidance to delivering ICT across the Primary Curriculum. This area will develop over the coming months. If you have any queries about developing a scheme of work or ... Thursday, 18 December 2008

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Combined Gas Law The Combined Gas Law combines Charles Law, Boyle s Law and Gay Lussac s Law. The Combined Gas Law states that a gas pressure x volume x temperature = constant. Alright. In class you should have learned about the three different gas laws. the first one being Boyle's law and it talks about the relationship between pressure and volume of a particular gas. The next one should be Charles law which talks about the volume and temperature of a particular gas. And the last one should be Gay Lussac's law which talks about the relationship between pressure and temperature of a particular gas. Okay. But what happens when you have pressure, volume and temperature all changing? Well, we're actually going to combine these gas laws to form one giant gas law called the combined gas law. Okay. If you notice then these three gas laws the pressure and volume are always in the numerator. So we're going to keep them on the numerator. p1v1. And notice the temperature is in the denominator over t1. So all these things are just squished into one and then p2v2 over t2. Okay. So this is what we're going to call the combined gas law. So let's actually get an example and do one together. Alright, so I have a problem up here that says a gas at 110 kilo pascals and 33 celsius fills a flexible container with an initial volume of two litres, okay? If the temperature is raised to 80 degrees celsius and the pressure is raised to 440 kilo pascals, what is the new volume? Okay. So notice we have three variables. We're talking about pressure, temperature and volume. Okay, so now we're going to employ this combined gas law dealing with all three of these variables. So we're going to look at our first, our first number 110 kilo pascals and that's going to, that is the unit of pressure. So we know that's p1. Our p1 is 110 kilo pascals, at 30 degree celsius. I don't like things with celsius so I'm going to change this to kelvin. So I'm going to add 273 to that which makes it 303 kelvin. That's our temperature. And my initial volume is two litres so I'm going to say v1=2 litres. Okay then I continue reading. If the temperature is raised at 80 degree celsius, again we want it in kelvin, so we're going to add 273 making it to 353. So our t2 is 353 kelvin and the pressure increased to 440 kilo pascals, the pressure p2 is equal to 440 kilo pascals which I'm very happy that I kept it in kilo pascals that I kept it in kilo pascals. I've got to make sure these units are the same because pressure can be measured in several different units. I'm going to make sure all units are the same. And what is the new volume? So our v2 is our variable, what we're trying to find. Okay. So let's basically plug all these variable in into our combined gas law to figure out what the new volume would be. Okay. So I'm going to erase this and say our pressure one is 110 kilo pascals. Our volume one is two litres. Our temperature one is 303 kelvin. Our pressure two is 440 kilo pascals. We don't know our volume so we're just going to say v2 over 353 kelvin. Okay. When I'm looking for a variable I'm going to cross multiply these guys. So I'm going to say 353 times 110 times 2 and that should give me seven, 77660, if you put that in a calculator. So I just cross multiply these guys. And I cross multiply these guys 303 times 440 times v2 gives me 133320v2. Okay, so then I want to get my, I want to isolate my variable, so I'm going to divide 133320. 133320. And I find that my new volume is 0.58. 0.58 metres. And that is how you do the combined gas law.

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Disease outbreaks, such as cholera, are commonly thought to happen after earthquakes and other natural disasters, but studies have found no evidence to support this. And the persistence of this belief may be hurting relief efforts. The devastating earthquake in Haiti in January 2010 was followed by a deadly cholera outbreak. Many saw this as an inevitable outcome of the disaster, as poor sanitary conditions combined with numerous dead bodies and survivors housed in cramped quarters to produce an incubator for deadly diseases. “It’s what all of us worried about when we arrived in Haiti just hours after the quake,” said NBC's Brian Williams, according to Popular Science. “Beyond the death toll, the inevitable spread of disease.” However, a forensic analysis of the outbreak has shown that it had very little to do with either the earthquake or the conditions in Haiti afterwards. The spread of the disease was traced back to a small military base, that was built years before, and its faulty sanitation system that allowed human fecal matter to pollute the nearby river. Analysis of the strain of Vibrio cholerae that swept through the Haitian population showed that it was identical to the one that was infecting people in Nepal, where some of the soldiers at the base were stationed before they joined the Haiti relief efforts. [ More Geekquinox: Man maps out stunning Earth-like Mars ] The problem with the belief in the 'inevitability' of the outbreak, according to what journalist and author Jonathan M. Katz wrote in his PopSci article, is "most journalists and responders shrugged off cholera as a natural product of the disaster. The attitude made epidemiologists and aid workers less likely to seek out the source of what was in fact a particular infection not only new to Haiti, but the entire hemisphere." "And it has since continued to provide cover for the United Nations as advocates press for reparations, and public health experts try to reform the peacekeeping system to prevent such a catastrophic error from happening again." he added. "Conditioned to look for a problem that wasn’t there, responders ignored the greatest public health threat of all: themselves."

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Native American (Navajo) woman sits in a brush shelter and prepares ground cornmeal. A pile of corncobs and husks and a pile of ground cornmeal lie on outspread blankets in front of the woman. Above the woman's head is a coffee can which reads... Indians of North America--Domestic life--1900-1910.; Navajo Indians--Women--1900-1910.; Corn--1900-1910.; Home food processing--1900-1910.; Interiors--1900-1910. Display a larger image and more item information when the pointer pauses over a thumbnail Thumbnail with title Grid with smaller thumbnails and more detail Select the collections to add or remove from your search

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Water, United States, North America, Government, Membranes Quenching a Desert Community's Thirst Desalination Facilities Create Sustainable Water Supply for El Paso In the arid southwestern United States, El Paso Water Utilities was challenged by limited freshwater resources. To create a sustainable drinking water supply, the utility formed a unique partnership with Fort Bliss Army Base, and implemented the 27.5-million-gallon-per-day (mgd) Kay Bailey Hutchison desalination facilities—North America’s largest desalination plant. North America’s largest desalination system applies reverse osmosis membranes to treat brackish groundwater and uses deep-well injection for inland disposal of concentrate—delivering reliable, economical drinking water to a growing desert community. The $87 million, state-of-the-art project taps brackish groundwater beneath the desert floor. We uniquely applied and refined reverse osmosis membranes—a proven technology for coastal desalination—for this inland application. Fueled by solar energy, deep-well injection safely deposits 3-mgd of concentrate more than 3,500 feet below ground with no adverse environmental impacts. Supported by this new drinking water supply, the Army increased personnel and operations at Fort Bliss, supporting military readiness and benefiting the local economy. This flagship project demonstrates a holistic water supply approach—integrating fresh groundwater, brackish groundwater and surface water to maximize limited supplies. It will serve as a model and center of learning for other communities that are looking for sustainable options to meet their long-term water needs.

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Previous |Next |Title Although the process of forming national constitutions in European states began more than two centuries ago, the actual texts of EU member state constitutions all date from the present century, with the single, obvious exception of the British constitution. The venerable British texts merit an obligatory nod of tribute to that paradoxical cradle of the constitutional state. A few European constitutional texts are the cumulative result of successive reforms of texts originally drafted in the nineteenth century or earlier, and are found in those societies that managed to avoid the dramatic upheavals which punctuate the histories of other European states. The majority of the constitutions were promulgated after the Second World War, following governmental ruptures of varying intensity and duration. A final group of texts have their origin in the inter-war period and were drafted concurrent to the creation, or re-creation, of their corresponding states. The "reformed" texts often contain some structural traces of their origins in the preservation of the monarchy, or in the use of traditional formulae. However, the depth of the changes that were carried out makes it virtually impossible to establish clear distinctions, based upon constitutional content, between these and the newer texts. Even those differences arising from the opposition of monarchy and republic are difficult to delineate clearly, in part due to the anomaly presented by Spain. The Spanish constitution is a new constitution, but it is also monarchical. In addition, the opposition in Spain to the constitutional order is no longer of political importance. The King of Spain is reputed to have stated long before his coronation that "my aspiration is to be king of a Spanish Republic" - a sentiment that acknowledged the reality that European monarchies are nothing more than republics with crowns. This set of cases includes Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Sweden. The Swedish Instrument of Government, the oldest written constitution in Europe, dates from 1720. Prolonged and serious ruptures occurred in Germany, Spain, Greece, Italy, and Portugal. In France the rupture brought about by the Vichy regime was shorter and concluded with the Constitution of 1946. A new and clear break occurred in 1958 when political circumstances surrounding the army revolt in Algeria led to the replacement of the 1946 Constitution. Included here are the cases of Austria, Finland, and Ireland. These constitutions have a number of distinctive characteristics which are not considered here. In the case of Belgium, the extent of the constitutional reform affected the very contour of the state. Previous |Next |Title Top of the page

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- Autonomy and freedom from bureaucratic rules - Choice for parents, so they can choose to leave schools that fail them and go to schools that they think will do better - A willingness to take risks - A willingness to close or replace innovations and charters that fail Here's what I think is the key passage: How much risk and failure are we willing to tolerate to create much better schools for students who don’t have them today? Or, put another way, if I told you there was a way to create 10 outstanding networks of schools for students who lack decent educational options now but that the cost of doing this would be the creation of four lousy networks of schools, would you take the deal? Critics of charter schools say this choice is a false one and that we should instead focus on improving existing schools. But their argument ignores the immediacy of educational failure. We’re talking about communities where public schools are not failing just a little but where the catastrophe of broken lives unfolds every school year, places where less than half of high schoolers graduate and where fewer than one in ten students finish college by their mid-20s. And let’s not forget, despite all the noise about turning around persistently failing schools, that successful turnarounds are like snow leopards — more mythical than actually observed. Charter proponents also disagree with the lose-some-to-win-some premise. Their main argument against it is that bad charters can be shut down. It’s true that this does happen — government officials have refused to renew some charters — but it’s proving to be more difficult in practice than in theory. There is an old saw in education that closing a school is like moving a cemetery: you get very little help from the inside. Charter parents and teachers often resist school closures just like their counterparts in the traditional system, and today there are not enough effective — read strong — charter school authorizers around the country.And I agree with that completely. If we want to achieve great success, the only way to figure out what works better is to try new approaches, and some of those approaches will not succeed--may even be worse than already exists. But the difference is the choice that parents have. Leaving just the monopoly system without real variety and choice for parents shackles students to a school and a system that has been mediocre or worse for decades. When charters fail, there are no shackles, and parents can freely leave to greener pastures. However, Utah also faces the same conundrum from the study noted above, namely that parents and school officials often resist the closure of a charter just like the same groups do at traditional schools. That makes it politically difficult to pull the closing trigger, and it's never actually happened in Utah. I'm a free-market guy who generally believes that if parents are satisfied enough to stay a a school, even if the bureaucracy or the government doesn't like it, we should give deference to what parents are choosing as the best option for their kid, even if the system thinks they shouldn't. Finding the balance between parental choice and public accountability is a tricky balance. So, I suggest that Utah needs the following: - Expansion of charter schools, particularly successful charter schools, so that parents' choices are not limited by mile-long waiting lists; - School districts that embrace innovation, relying less on boundaries, and that really empower schools to innovate and achieve--along with the inherent risks that come with allowing parents to choose to leave; - A realistic mechanism to close or replace failing schools, both traditional and charter, including making it easier to convert a traditional school to a charter (the state Charter Board has made progress in this area, but I believe they also need an enrollment trigger); - Real freedom in schools to allow for the variety that gives families real choices, including freedom in whom they hire, what they teach (let a school decide that more time teaching reading is more important than teaching how to use laundry detergent), and how they spend money; - No fear to try something and fail.

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Epilepsy Phenome/Genome Project (EPGP) The purpose of this study is to collect detailed information about the characteristics and genetics of a large number of individuals with epilepsy. |Study Design:||Observational Model: Case Control Time Perspective: Prospective |Official Title:||Epilepsy Phenome/Genome Project: A Phenotype/Genotype Analysis of Epilepsy| - EPGP will recruit persons with specific forms of epilepsy. DNA will be isolated from participants' blood and genetic variants associated with common forms of epilepsy will be identified. [ Time Frame: over 4.5 years ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ] Biospecimen Retention: Samples With DNA |Study Start Date:||November 2007| |Estimated Study Completion Date:||December 2013| |Estimated Primary Completion Date:||December 2012 (Final data collection date for primary outcome measure)| individuals with epilepsy Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders and is a major public health concern. Approximately 30 percent of people with epilepsy have medically intractable epilepsy, and the medical and social consequences of the disorder are enormous. Treatments developed for epilepsy have largely been experimental rather than based on knowledge of basic mechanisms because the mechanisms are poorly understood. The Epilepsy Phenome/Genome Project (EPGP) is a large-scale, international, multi-institutional, collaborative research project aimed at advancing the understanding of the genetic basis of the most common forms of epilepsy. The overall goal of EPGP is to collect detailed, high quality phenotypic (i.e., characteristics of individuals, from the molecular level to the whole person) information on persons with epilepsy and to compare the phenotypic information with genomic information. EPGP will provide a resource that may lead to many discoveries related to the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy, including the eventual development of new therapies based on a better understanding of causes of the disorder. Show 25 Study Locations |Principal Investigator:||Daniel Lowenstein, MD||University of California, San Francisco, Department of Neurology| |Principal Investigator:||Ruben Kuzniecky, MD||New York University, Comprehensive Epilepsy Center|

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Cybercrime costs $388 billion dollars in annual losses globally and it affected almost 7 in 10 adults last year. This week Norton is released the results of the Norton Cybercrime Report 2011, a study on the impact of cybercrime that included a survey of over 12,000 adults in 24 countries. This provides an important and accurate picture of the scope of cybercrime globally and the results are shocking! Every day of the past year, over 1 million online adults in 24 countries experienced cybercrime. This can also be broken down to 50,000 victims per hour, 820 victims per minute, or 14 victims every second. In just the last 12 months 44% of people have been a victim of cybercrime while only 15% have been a victim of physical crime in the same period. I regularly meet with law enforcement who are fighting cybercrime. The above statistics clearly illustrate the biggest challenge faced by law enforcement—the enormous scope of the problem. With so many victims in many different countries, police can successfully stop one cybercriminal but still be left with thousands of more cases. The police do a great job trying to stop cybercrime but the problem requires significantly more resources than are currently being devoted to stop it. Only 21% of people in the Norton study reported the cybercrime to law enforcement. This also creates a significant problem for police and prosecutors. Some prosecutors will only accept cases that exceed a certain amount of victims or high level of damages. US law allows federal prosecutors to combine multiple victims into a common case if the crime is linked. This is critical in many cybercrime cases where there may be a small number of victims who have lost a relatively small amount individually. However, failure to report cybercrime prevents law enforcement from effectively addressing the problem. Finally, the key message of this report is one of hope. Despite the really frightening statistics on the scale of cybercrime, cybercrime is still largely a preventable crime. Globally the three most common reported forms of cybercrime were viruses, online scams, and phishing attacks. All of these crimes are largely preventable by following good security practices and using updated security software. I have worked with crime victims in some capacity for over a decade now. Nobody wants to be a victim. The police are trying to help but it is an extremely rare cybercrime case in which a victim actually recovers their lost money . Time dealing with cybercrime is also lost forever. It is far better to use good security software and follow careful safety steps online that can greatly reduce the likelihood of becoming one of the 7 in 10 global cybercrime victims last year.

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Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) Passed in 1996, The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) denies federal recognition of gay marriages and gives each state the right to refuse recognition of same-sex marriage licenses issued by other states. The act does not prohibit states from allowing gay marriages, but neither does it obligate states to recognize the gay marriages from other states. For the first time in history, the federal government defines marriage in the Act as a "legal union between one man and one woman as husband and wife," and spouse is defined as "a person of the opposite sex who is a husband or a wife." Marriages that do not fit this description are not eligible for any benefits offered by the federal government. For More Information on DOMA, see Senate Subcommittee Hearing on the Proposed Federal Defense of Marriage Act.

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A compiler is a computer program that takes code and generates either object code or translates code in one language into another language. When it generates code into another language usually the other language is either compiled (into object code) , interpreted , or even compiled again into another language. Object code can be run on your computer as a regular program. In the days when compute time cost thousands of dollars compilation was done by hand. Now compilation is usually done by a program. edit-hint Expand to compilation techniques?

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Expanding community resources: A collaborative effort - Chapter 7. Teaching and Learning Basic Invasion-Game Tactics in 4th Grade: A Descriptive Study From Situated and Constraints Theoretical Perspectives. Rovegno, Inez; Nevett, Michael; Brock, Sheri; Babiarz, Matthew // Journal of Teaching in Physical Education;Jul2001, Vol. 20 Issue 4, p370 Focuses on the description of invasion-game tactics using theoretical perspective. Implication of the content, instruction and learning; Recognition of the qualitative data; Identification of the high-ability and low-ability group. - The learning revolution: Perched at the millennium. O'Banion, Terry // Community College Week;01/12/98, Vol. 10 Issue 12, p4 Opinion. Comments on the shift which has emerged in education in the United States, focusing on that change in community colleges. What this shift emerged initially as; How some observers characterized this shift; Need for overhauling the architecture of education. - Feedback. Kelley, Susan; Jones, Barbara; Gordon, Brian // Community College Week;07/27/98, Vol. 10 Issue 26, p5 Presents several feedback from educators on the learning revolution. Problems with student learning; Measurement of the effectiveness of teaching; Support for and conversation about learning colleges. - What's your learning style? // Current Health 1;Oct96 1 of 2, Vol. 20 Issue 2, p23 Describes a variety of learning styles. Visual learning; Aural learning; Cooperative learning; Highlights of a teacher-students discussion on learning styles. - The notebook. White, Elizabeth Ross // Christian Science Monitor;6/16/98, Vol. 90 Issue 140, pB2 Offers news briefs related to learning. Gorp.com, a web site that provides outdoor recreation information; Details on the Children's Scholarship Fund; Maine College of Art exchange program with Hanoi Fine Arts College in Vietnam; Ministers to teach religion in a public high school in Buena... - Alignment and gategory learning. Lassaline, Mary E.; Murphy, Gregory L. // Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory & Cognition;Jan1998, Vol. 24 Issue 1, p144 Presents information on a series of studies which shows that alignment is involved in category learning. Details on the experiments; Results of the experiments; Discussion on the experiments. - Dynamic changes in hypermnesia across early and late tests; A relation/item-specific account. McDaniel, Mark A.; Moore, Brent A.; Whiteman, Howard L. // Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory & Cognition;Jan1998, Vol. 24 Issue 1, p173 Presents information on experiments which tested predictions derived from R.R.Hunt, and M.A.McDaniel's relational/item-specific account of hypermnesia. Methodology of the experiments; Results of the experiments; Discussion on the experiments. - Influences of temporal organization on sequence learning and transfer: Comments on Stadler (1995).. Dominey, Peter Ford // Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory & Cognition;Jan1998, Vol. 24 Issue 1, p234 Investigates the hypothesis that both the serial order of events and their temporal organization influence the internal representation of a sequence and thus influence its learnability. Methodology of the investigation; Results of the investigation; Discussion on the investigation. - Helping your child learn. // Humpty Dumpty's Magazine;Dec96, Vol. 44 Issue 8, p34 Suggests techniques to encourage learning in children. Promotion of reading by setting up a home library; Telling of family stories; Meeting with teachers.

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Martial arts is the collective name given to a variety of hand-to-hand fighting styles, or fighting styles that involve weapons that are used as an extension of the body. Most fighting styles are unique to a particular culture, such as Karate to Japan, and TaeKwonDo to Korea. While many have roots in the period BC, there are variations of the styles that evolved in the last 200 years. Interestingly enough, Karate is more of an anti-martial art, designed to help common folk prepare to fight against martial rule, during a time of weapons bans. Kara te do means "empty hand way" referencing this style without weapons. TaeKwonDo means "the way of the hands and feet". Most martial arts were originally intended to be used for serious fighting, but in the modern age they are mainly practised as sports, with strictly codified rules; indeed some, such as Judo, were developed from other martial arts purely for sporting purposes. Many people, especially women, also learn martial arts for self-defense.

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What Your—Grader Needs to Know In one volume per grade, this eight-volume series provides parents, teachers, and children with an introduction to the important knowledge outlined in the Core Knowledge Sequence. More… Learn how Core Knowledge schools in nearly every state are succeeding with a sequenced, solid, specific, and shared curriculum. More… Benefits of Core KnowledgeAll Stakeholders Benefit from a Coherent, Cumulative, and Content-Specific Curriculum - provides a broad base of knowledge, and - provides the rich vocabulary needed for reading achievement and academic success. - provides a plan for coherent, sequenced learning from grade to grade, - promotes teamwork and an institution-wide focus, and - enables schools to work more effectively while meeting and exceeding state standards. For School Districts - decreases the learning gaps caused by student mobility, - provides a strong foundation of knowledge for success in high school and beyond, - creates a common focus to share information and expertise, and - encourages cooperation among schools to provide a quality learning experiences for all students. For Parents and Communities - enhances accountability and parental engagement by providing a clear outline of what children are expected to learn in school, and - provides a common ground for communication—in school and in life.

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Last Updated: Feb 17, 2012 Fair trade is a sales model that honors each participant in the production and purchase process. It focuses on sustainability and protection of the environment, and is rooted in fair economic practices and interpersonal connections. When you purchase an item labeled as fair trade, you are helping support fair prices, environmental protections, direct trade, fair labor conditions, and local communities. Why Buy Fair Trade Our modern world economy puts a heavy focus on the bottom line: in the decision between two similar products, price is usually the deciding factor. However, this practice often discriminates against small farmers, craftsmen, and labor cooperatives, since their per-unit production and materials costs are higher than those of mass producers. Additionally, major manufacturers may employ unjust business practices, such as low wages or poor worker rights, to maintain low prices for their finished products. Fair trade, on the other hand, honors the developing world's small businesses and promotes equal rights for workers and producers around the world. Additionally, this business model supports social development, helping fund schools and community growth, and directly benefits some of the world's poorest communities. Fair Price & Fair Labor The international Fair Trade Labeling Organization sets the price for all Fair Trade Certified™ products, ensuring that each item is priced justly. By these standards, a fair price adequately covers the cost the production and living wages for workers. A living wage is defined as sufficient to cover medical care, education, food, shelter and cost of living. Fair trade companies, farmers and artisans respect their environment and engage in sustainable production. For example, fair trade farmers avoid the use of most agrochemicals by employing natural methods like crop rotation and biological pest control. Almost 85% of Fair Trade Certified™ coffee is produced organically. The conventional supply chain employs many intermediaries – buyers, exporters, and importers, among others. Fair trade supports a more direct route, connecting a producer or cooperative to a fair trade distributor, then to the store. This process allows for less profit dilution, and fosters long-term relationships between producers and importers. Support Local Communities Without fair trade, artisans, farmers and cooperatives from small, developing communities would not have access to the global market. By purchasing fair trade items produced by these workers, you contribute directly to their local economy. In fact, many fair trade producers invest profits back into their businesses and communities. Additionally, all fair trade sales include a "social premium," which is a set fee paid to the cooperative that must be invested in community development. Each cooperative makes a collective decision as to how to invest their social premium.

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Influenza, or “the flu,” is a contagious viral infection of the nose, throat, and lungs which occurs most often in the late fall, winter, and early spring. Flu is a serious infection which is associated, on average, with more than 200,000 hospitalizations due to flu related complications and can lead to thousands of deaths every year in the United States. “No one wants to spread the flu to family, friends, or colleagues. Yet many of us admit to tossing our manners aside when we have the flu,” said Anna Post, great-great-granddaughter of Emily Post and co-author of the 18th edition of Emily Post’s Etiquette. “Knowing how to politely cancel an event you’re hosting or how to avoid shaking your client’s hand because you’re sick can help avoid a potentially difficult and awkward situation. By following appropriate flu etiquette, we can all play a role in preventing the spread of the flu virus.” The Emily Post Institute offers the following etiquette tips to manage common situations where the flu virus might be spread from one person to another: 1. Share space, not the flu – Covering sneezes and coughs is a good habit all year round, especially during flu season. The flu virus can spread up to six feet away from coughing, sneezing, or even just talking. 2. Know when to take a sick day – The flu is highly contagious and the people you work with don’t want to get sick. Knowing the symptoms of flu versus a cold is important so you know when to take a sick day and see a doctor. Remember the acronym F.A.C.T.S. to recognize if you might have the flu (Fever, Aches, Chills, Tiredness with Sudden Onset). 3. In tight quarters – It’s tough to point out someone’s behavior mid-flight with hours left to go. However, flu is highly contagious. If there’s no other seat available, consider saying, “I can see you’re not feeling well—would you mind covering your mouth when you cough? Thanks.” Most people when prompted are eager to show good manners and do the right thing. “Every year, millions of Americans get influenza. We are all personally responsible for helping to control its spread,” says Susan J. Rehm, MD, medical director at the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases (NFID). “The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends flu vaccine as the first and most important step in preventing influenza, as well as good hygiene. If symptoms arise, see a doctor quickly. The flu can be treated with prescription antiviral medicines.” To help children recognize flu symptoms, learn good habits, and pass the time with a fun activity this winter, download a free coloring book at FluFACTS.com. On FluFACTS.com, you’ll find information to help you distinguish between flu and cold symptoms, sign up for flu alerts in your area, and download a free “Fight the Flu” iPhone app. This influenza education campaign and survey are supported by Genentech, a member of the Roche Group.

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In 1996, the Phoenix Zoo's first pair of wolves, Chico and Rosa, gave birth to 3 pups. The female pup was chosen by the American Zoo and Aquarium Association's Species Survival Plan and the Mexican Wolf Recovery Team to be paired up with a male wolf and released into the wild. On May 7, 1999 Chico and his new mate, Eureka, produced one healthy pup that was later sent to another breeding facility. In 2003 Eureka was retired to Southwest Wildlife Rehabilitation Center where she lives with a retired male. Currently the Zoo has Sonora and Morela, both females born in 2001. The related females are held on exhibit in the Arizona trail. There are no current plans to breed them. They are part of the SSP and are being housed in a large, naturalistic exhibit meant to properly interpret their current habitat type. Other species in the same area representing northeastern Arizona are thick billed parrots, bobcats, and a mountain lion. The wolves at the Phoenix Zoo are managed in a way so that the least amount of interaction as possible is made between them and the animal keepers. This is done to keep the wolves as "wild" as possible, by fostering behaviors and characteristics that will enhance their ability to survive in the wild. Wolf Awareness Week is an interpretive program that is held annually. During this week, lectures, presentations, and stands are set up to increase visitor awareness of wolf issues in general, and of the Mexican wolf reintroduction process in particular. - Non-invasive research in coordination with the AZA's Reproductive Advisory Group and the Mexican Wolf SSP. - Coordinated interpretive and research programs in collaboration with Southwest Wildlife Rehabilitation and Education Foundation, as well as other local and regional NGO's and zoos holding wolves in captivity. - Review and input into the Wolf Adaptive Management Oversight Committee of the Arizona Game and Fish Department and cooperators during updates and public

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RECORD: Darwin, C. R. Geological diary: Port Desire. CUL-DAR34.29-34 Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker, edited by John van Wyhe (Darwin Online, http://darwin-online.org.uk/). REVISION HISTORY: Transcribed by Kees Rookmaaker and John van Wyhe, corrections by van Wyhe and Gordon Chancellor 1.2011. RN2 NOTE: This document, part of the largest scientific document composed by Darwin during the voyage of the Beagle, is written mostly in ink. Marginal notes are here integrated into the text. Editorial symbols used in the transcription: [some text] 'some text' is an editorial insertion [some text] 'some text' is the conjectured reading of an ambiguous word or passage [some text] 'some text' is a description of a word or passage that cannot be transcribed < > word(s) destroyed <some text> 'some text' is a description of a destroyed word or passage Text in small red font is a hyperlink or notes added by the editors. Reproduced with the permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library and William Huxley Darwin. N side of River. Porphyry. —ascending which you arrive at a dead level plain, much divided & cut up by vallies one side corresponds to the other. — This plain reaches up to the foot of two hills ∴ is seen stretching to the West-ward. to the SW. & South of [River]. all level forming square pieces of table land. — covered with gravel of porphyry. — endless varieties, & some white quartz. pebbles here the size of R Negro but evidently same sort — all water brackish, more or less. V [Bottle]: is it washing any salt water of old sea? In one valley, which was deep, there was a coating of salt which resembled the Salitrales more to the North. — V. Specimen. — On the high plain, there are groups of many shells lying thick together, & curiously perfect, considering exposure to weather. — Patellae. & Mytilus with colour. — (same as New bay) not covered with diluvium. — recent sea cause of sterility. — I should imagine gravel 10 20 or 30 feet thick, for beneath this there appears a white. calcareo- sandy clay — clayey sandstone in soft. forming beds. seen in vallies at foot of 2 Hills. — same as upper bed at New Bay & R. Chupat. — . 2 Hills — low range of porphyry. generally forming sort of laminae & very imperfectly crystallized. V - - - - — specimen. — compact well crystallized. & the above sort all occurring together. — Porphyry exposed by vallies evidently covered up by the calcareo- sandstone bed. — Did these hills up-heave. the modern bed or upheaved with it? On salt side. rough porphyrys. (a white variety same as in cherry garden occurring with the red sort.). — Britannia rock very porphyritic variety. — Barranca. about 5 miles on S. shore. — 130 feet high. — yellowish sandy clay. form a bed about 40 feet high. — res many large oyster especially in lower part. — chiefly characterized by Turritella. — & many large Arica. — some Pectens: (a Volut. Buccinium (, which I could not bring home). Above this immense bed of gravel. — line of separation horizontal. — Further inland great level plain, same as the northern, with white calcareo-sandstone. which is above level of gravel bed. — Therefore gravel covers great inequalities in lower modern beds. — Going up Southside of creek. meet many varieties of Porphyry. few miles beyond. Guanaco. Island. I walked into the Interior there appeared to be high table land within. but it really was not evident when approached. — was covered with gravel. & composed of calcareo-sandstone; excessive marks of diluvium. not now accountable & was vallies going east immense barriers (which are exposed) of Porphyry have been cut through. — Near here. ab calc. sandstone crossed lied upon earthy Porphyry (655. 656). — & was covered by thin bed of ferruginous sandstone: — at extremity of the creek, rock sublimely peaked & perpendicular valley most abrupt sided. — one side valley suddenly commencing with cliff of 100 feet present stream minute. depositing fine mud on the rock much pebbles: in course of river one boulder of greenstone. — It is certain that cause much more violent than now exist. must have acted. such as Volcanoes. (immense beds of gravel shows same thing). & the plain I think requires same condition. — At the very head saw square white table land. — Cliffs on this side of Wood Island. very remarkable: at first the lower part is generally more crystalline such as. (653). — then comes a sandstone with small pebbles. — Porphyry looking like jasper. — more sandstone. — sandstone sometimes largely conglomerate — (what pebbles?). — Such rocks as (653) pass into red rock. — Above the sandstone, not weak separated chalky bed. — Is it same as high land? — There are many dykes. one running (compass ENE.). — Do they cut the chalk. — Strata irregular. W by S dip most common. — Does the chalk dip? Proportion of beds? nature of superior table land. ? — Salinia. ? — Dip? Lower rocks? Has there been two upheavals? . double range of table land, lower 50 or 60 feet above sea. — higher some hundred. & some miles further back.: Dykes opposite Guanacos Island. Pitchstone occurring under porphyry. — Guanacos Island iron stone occurring in Porphyry. [sketch] The porphyry rock is often cavernous, irregularly papform. These two hills are composed of the laminated porphyry. — The great plain, at the foot of two hills, is generally covered by calcareous (1640) sandy soft sandstone. — sometimes it is not calcareous 91662). — this seems to lie over a sort of clay. salt taste (origin of salt water?) angular decomposition (1663. 1664) which contains layers of fine crystall: gypsum. — it is probable that the oyster beds belong to this plain; although not been on north side. The South Barranca (I saw. Jan 4th) are horizontally stratified; the clay bed is half the thickness of cliff. — the gravel other half & the cliff about (80 feet) or less than quarter the whole range, high plain, where we have seen Calc. sandstone. — The organic remains, in the bed & the gypsum in upper part show it to be of same age as great St Fe bed. — Area greater size. — Turritella more numerous. — but yet same general feature. — the calc. sandstone appears to be the same as occurs above oyster beds at R Chupat & New Bay. — On the — The 2 & 8 [illeg] cliffs south west of the ship are curious, they are essentially composed of feldspathic rock, but alternate & pass into each other incessantly. — The common rocks are white hard feldspathic (672. 673. 679.) They generally rest on such as red, hard. porphyry (674). — which occasionally becomes more crystalline as (677). — There are no limits to these alternations & passages. Another perhaps even more abundant rock a common feldspathic rock 1649, where the universal occurrence of very small rounded pebbles proves the action of water. — this is covered by such (674. 647. 1648 red porphyry: jasper porphyry, white [illeg] held. rock 1665 1650). — The sup more common superior bed is a rock, resembling ferruginous sandstone, but really a soft earthy snow white thick bed with particles of quartz. strikingly resembling calcareous matter. as (1651. 1675). Then the white & red, fine grained, uncrystallized feldspathic rock. — 31 verso [blank] The colouring matter of the red varieties, often times tinges the white of a delicate pink sometimes in lines. — at other times, in a horizontal section. in circular patches & parallel bands of white occur in the midst of the red. — V curious drawing on a small scale. — Following section will illustrate |Dip NW||Dip NNW| |1||rock like 1683. without water lines||1683||(like)| |2||same as 3 but much coarser||1668| |3||(1651) like mortar||1667| |4||1674 (like)||1647 (like)| all same dips |1667||1647. 1648||1672. 1673||like||1650| |1668||1649. like||1674 like| coarser variety with pebbles |1651||1766. 1765||East entrance| |(1674. 1649 like)||1767| |1768||clearly junction mark as in F| These rocks are traversed by dykes. of which I found three. 1st had even sides, straight & vertical & composed of the same substance as the surrounding mass, which was (1649), the central parts. were tinged red. — must be fissure filled up. — The two others were vertical, very tortuous & might be traced for long distance. — it the 2d was composed of rocks such as 1652 & 1672; about a foot thick — I could not perceive it altered the rocks. — it cut curious chemical nature all the beds, untill impeached the earthy feldspar, like 1651 & others something like 1683. — 3d & thus [ sand] in a NE & SW course an E & W course. — the 3d dyke was composed of rock (1670) with much mica & ran S & N — a small dyke of this nature cut through dyke 2d. — In one or two places there are conglomerate beds beneath such rocks as 1649. — 1672. 1673. 74, always of a dark red colour. — they are composed of pebbles of a size of sand to that of a mans head. — The pebbles are of highly crystalline porphiries such as do not now exist near here. — They have been deposited in rapid current. from the stratification, general dip of beds same as usual. — From this & such specimens as (1783) with water lines I conclude all these rocks have been formed under water. — If I had only seen a section such as F. I should have thought (1677) had been melted & poured over the inferior rocks. — more especially as the junction is slightly inducted. — Whatever origin of 1679 is It must be the same for all porphiries 1634 -- 39. for where section F is; the cliffs end & great porphyritic formation begins of which (1677) present in external form & nature a good type. — Yet I cannot think rocks such as 1681. which pass into 1675. & such, 1673.,. 1674. which lie over rocks of aqueous origin such rocks as 1673 passing into. 1649 & pass into each other & alternate without marked change can owe their origins to such different causes as Fire & Water. Section F is interesting, where Porphyry 1677 dips into the sea. I thought it belonged to the range of hills behind the Fort — it was only at its outcrop. I saw it overlying such rocks as 1678. 1679.) & other coarser varieties with small pebbles such as (1649). — The dip is here W N W. — which is unusual & it is the point of a bite or bay & commencement of the tw softer rocks. — The general dip of all the above rocks is NNW. — but not accurately; the stratification is in plains considerably disturbed. at Dip at about 15°. — I noticed here the same fact as at the Falklands namely outcrop behind outcrop without anticlinal lines. — [sketch of anticlinal lines] Gran 1650 1675 white [illeg] 1681 1650 1674 Red [illeg] 1649 1651 mortar & F.B. 1681 I may notice that form of harbor roughly agrees with stratification. creek running to the S. of W & E. — In the East of the Fort, where the Spaniards have quarried.. — The following rocks are visible. — 1682 —— to 1691. — which tell something like same tale as section F. viz. that Porphyry (1684) (which is part of same bed with (1690: 1691) & which include the principal varieties in the country. lies over rocks of a very earthy nature, sometimes quite soft. & very commonly lined with horizontal or waving ferruginous lines. as in sandstone, evidently formed in water. — These 6 rocks occur without any determinate order & pass into each other. — The passage of Porhyry 1684. is certain. the laminated variety 1691. occurs at top of bed. — which appears to be its common position. — These beds (porphyry) inducted dip to SSE at ∠ 10° (or about). now they rest on S side of great Porphyry range. behind the Fort. — This range runs about ENE & WSW or NE & W. which line continued falls to the South of the cliffs. & therefore their northerly dip is explained by line of violence continued, although no actual hills are produced. The following facts are I think proved by geology of Port Desire viz that earthy & crystalline porphiries were formed, were covered by conglomerates & other mechanical rock; that rocks partaking of both character of mechanical & chemical passed into each other & alternated an argument for the Wernerians; that there was a common deposit of white earthy feldspar: & that the dykes are of curious chemical nature, that the conglomerates are formed from the rolling of porphyries rocks now present. that these beds were upheaved by the chain of hills north of the Fort. — That this roughly impressed the present form of land. — That in certain places, a great bed of yellowish sandy clay was deposited abounding with large ostreae very generally same fossils. with S Josef & St Fe ∴ contemporaneous. that the upper parts of this bed was purer clay & contained layers of Gypsum, that above this there is bed of to earthy sandstone, sometimes generally (same as in R. Chupat near Rios calcareous. — That these beds show no sign of violence. — That after this a most enormous alluvial action removed parts of the lower beds & deposited a vast thickness of rounded porphyry & white quartz pebbles. (if these were two upheavals one took place at this period?) — that the sea remained or this gave time enough to leave shells which now exist, even with their colours. elevated 247 feet above the sea. — Then the land was elevated or sea subsided. — That some this there has been very great alluvial action, more than the present dry climate can account for. Even if we put out of the case the great removals & immense vallies in the upper plain, where there are little traces of water ever running. We may instance the creek, which cuts through hard Porphyry rocks, 100 to 200 feet high, nor only a little stream with which deposits mud. — Leaving about pinnacles & overhanging crags, as a mark of former. — I saw one of the rude precipitatious side ravines, commencing at once, with a cliff 60 or 70 feet high, as in volcanic country. I think volcanic earthquakes must here have been present, & aided by rapid torrents. — Would not old creeks, where is shown to exist in the harbour, when covered by modern beds yet be the lowest part & account for modern vallies coinciding with old ones. & these, leaving one to suppose present causes had effected them. when in such a case of this shells with their colour reducing you to a short period, renders it impossible. [illeg] gravel many from [2 words illeg] shells rounded from the beach & mud from [illeg] with [illeg] bones. [illeg] 30 32 .164 in same hours. 4 3/4 7 = 10/4 7 = 19/28 of .164. = .111 28/ 3116 (111) 19 31 16 supposing to conflict or Porphyry & modern beds upheave upheaved together (proposing a foot or two this N. plain) (Superposition of gravel. —) (Age of bed. calc. sandstone) 2. stratification & dip 1. General origin. — age &c &c Porphyries up harbor &c Great modern bed. (Elevation of plain, height &c Sterility salt water Vallies &c old system (Gravel above (Oyster & Porphyries) Port St. Julian Nature of gravel [sketch] (Change in life from gravel The gravel not very long after the Argilla being then not very darker for clay beds from Oyster being found higher up. — Yet after the deposit of gravel complete change of life. — modern shells inland of Pectens Julian & where It would appear to be a [Calanote] over the than species on the right & being replaced by other sorts [Turions] (shells from coast) Patella, Muscles Return to homepage Citation: John van Wyhe, editor. 2002-. The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. (http://darwin-online.org.uk/) File last updated 2 July, 2012

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Date: December 2004 Creator: Habel, Agnieszka Description: This problem in lieu of thesis is a discussion of two topics: Brownian movement and quantum computers. Brownian movement is a physical phenomenon in which the particle velocity is constantly undergoing random fluctuations. Chapters 2, 3 and 4, describe Brownian motion from three different perspectives. The next four chapters are devoted to the subject of quantum computers, which are the signal of a new era of technology and science combined together. In the first chapter I present to a reader the two topics of my problem in lieu of thesis. In the second chapter I explain the idea of Brownian motion, its interpretation as a stochastic process and I find its distribution function. The next chapter illustrates the probabilistic picture of Brownian motion, where the statistical averages over trajectories are related to the probability distribution function. Chapter 4 shows how to derive the Langevin equation, introduced in chapter 1, using a Hamiltonian picture of a bath with infinite number of harmonic oscillators. The chapter 5 explains how the idea of quantum computers was developed and how step-by-step all the puzzles for the field of quantum computers were created. The next chapter, chapter 6, discus the basic quantum unit of information ... Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries

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Date of this Version Fathers play an important role in our families. They are role models, protectors, providers, and partners. They can be breadwinners, teachers and mentors. And sadly, sometimes they are also absent due to alcoholism, abandonment or death. How do our fathers influence and shape us? Join us as we explore fatherhood on the next Native America Calling. This document is currently not available here.

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“I think every kid has picked up an interesting rock,” she said. “Have you ever picked up a rock that’s shaped like a heart? That’s shaped like a potato? That’s shaped like a bird? Maybe it had a pretty color or had crystals in it. Just about everybody as a child has collected some kind of rock.” In this case, treasure has nothing to do with money, unless that includes the money Roberts has invested in her rock hound habit. She was one of those children who picked up pretty rocks, but her appreciation never went away. Today, she’s president of the North Mississippi Gem and Mineral Society, a group of like-minded people who think good things can be found by looking down. “We don’t do a lot digging. You’re looking at the surface or just below the surface,” said Roberts, 61, of Counce, Tenn. “A lot of material comes to the surface after a heavy rain. If you’re collecting a day or two after a heavy rain, you need your mud boots on. Mississippi is known for its ooey, gooey clay.” The society has regular field trips to hunt for new rocks and minerals. In these litigious days, it’s important to get permission from land owners before the searching begins. Provisions include a rock hammer, shovel and safety glasses, as well as containers to hold fresh finds and a screwdriver to pry things up, Roberts said. “You’ve got to pack your own lunch and water,” she said. “Some of the places we collect at are old quarries, so there aren’t any facilities. You have to be pretty self- sufficient.” Society members have loaned some of their finds for an exhibit at the Oren Dunn City Museum in Tupelo’s Ballard Park. The collection includes items on loan from the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science in Jackson. The “Mississippi’s Geologic History: Written in Stone” exhibit features fossilized sea life from the Mississippian period, which was 323 to 363 million years ago, as well as clay from Monroe County used to make kitty litter. Crystals, geodes and petrified wood also are included. The rare and common rocks, minerals and fossils will be on display until March 23. Self-described rock hounds come to the hobby in different ways. While Roberts likes to put on her mud boots and hunt for fossils, John Byzet, 65, of Tupelo, has other ways of attaining new rocks. “I go on some field trips, but not many. Some of it is mail order. Some of it is swap meets. Some of it is friends,” he said. “If I’ve got a friend going to Africa, I say, ‘Pick me up a rock or two.’ I’ve got a friend going to Israel. He’ll pick me up malachite.” When he gets hold of stones, Byzet likes to cut them into facets to reveal their beauty. “Mostly it’s amethyst,” he said. “I like that rock. It’s got a nice, purple glimmer to it.” Byzet got into collecting as a child, when a neighbor introduced him to the hobby. He didn’t know it at the time, but that neighbor and her husband were responsible for a semi-precious stone exhibit at a San Diego museum. “She gave me my first collection,” Byzet said. Rocks lost their appeal for Byzet over the years, and he put them away until about three or four years ago, when he saw them again through youthful eyes. “My grandson was up here and saw some and he drew me back into it. I’ve been enjoying it. I’ve learned a lot. You can’t help but learn if you do it and piddle around,” said Byzet, who maintains the society’s website, www.nmgms.org. At its monthly meetings at the Lee County Library, the society holds workshops on various aspects of the hobby. There are classes on faceting, as well as tips on how to collect, identify and display collections. There’s also plenty of plain, old give-and-take between the members, said Robert Langford, 64, a professional geologist from Saltillo. “I just love geology,” he said, “and it’s a good opportunity to meet with people who have the same interests.” Like Roberts, Langford focuses on fossils, and that fascination has trickled down to two of his daughters. “They have their own collections,” he said. “They have a good time collecting fossils.” The hobby has come full circle for Langford, who was helped and encouraged by his mother when he was a teenager. “It’s about hunting and finding and trying to figure out what it was,” he said. “From a family standpoint, it’s a great hobby.” Treasure comes in all shapes and sizes, and people deal with it in different ways. A lot of Langford’s collection is packed away in boxes, while Byzet combines woodworking with rock hounding to create display cases out of black walnut. “Everybody comes at it their own way,” Roberts said. “That’s what’s great about it.” There is one commonality society members share. Roberts said that at some point in their lives, “they’ve picked up a rock and said, ‘I wonder if there is someone around who can tell me what this is.’” The answer is “Yes.” “If we can’t tell them,” Roberts said, “we know where to steer them.”

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GloMax®-Multi Jr Method for DNA Quantitation Using Hoechst 33258 - Comments & Ratings Quantitation of DNA is an important step for many practices in molecular biology. Common techniques that use DNA, such as sequencing, cDNA synthesis and cloning, RNA transcription, transfection, nucleic acid labeling (e.g., random prime labeling), etc., all benefit from a defined template concentration. Failure to produce results from these techniques sometimes can be attributed to an incorrect estimate of the DNA template used. The concentration of a nucleic acid most commonly is measured by UV absorbance at 260nm (A260). Absorbance methods are limited in sensitivity, however, due to a high level of background interference.

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SEV331: Focus Vocational Skills -1hr (2012-2013) CURRICULUM PROGRAM: Special Education COURSE TITLE: Focus Vocational Skills -1hr CALENDAR YEAR: 2012-2013 GRADE LEVEL: 9-12 COURSE LENGTH: 36 weeks Major Concepts/Content: The Focus Vocational Skills course provides students with the knowledge and skills necessary to identify career options, access community resources, and practice work-related behaviors. The course provides guided "on-the-job" practice in school and community settings for a range of post-secondary careers. The skills necessary for success in the working environment are emphasized to include decision making, problem solving, critical thinking, interpersonal relationships, technology, workplace readiness, and communication. Major Instructional Activities: Practical application and generalization of course concepts occurs in natural settings such as home, school, and community. Instructional activities include personal and career planning, resume writing, interview skills, investigating personality traits associated with various types of jobs, and completion of interest inventories / forms / applications. Students have multiple opportunities to research various types of jobs, identify necessary income for post-secondary living expenses, research potential income for diverse jobs, and review employment sections of newspaper and Internet. Employer expectations will be emphasized to include decision making and problem solving skills, communication and social skills with supervisors and co-workers, following directions (oral & written), workplace readiness skills, and rights and responsibilities of employees. Work-based strategies appropriate for this course include study trips to community businesses, job shadowing, and service learning. Activities may require the student to be knowledgeable of the use of related technology, tools, and equipment. Major Evaluative Techniques: Students will be evaluated through informal and formal assessments. Multiple authentic assessments will be used as students perform, produce and demonstrate skills both in the classroom and real life settings. This course may not be mastered in one year and students may earn multiple credits in this course. Course Objectives: The essential objectives of Focus Vocational Skills are designed to facilitate learning outcomes appropriate to the instructional needs of each student. Instructional activities are based upon real world needs with the goal of increased independence and autonomy in his or her home and community.

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Labrador Retriever originated in Newfoundland, Canada. Small water dogs were used to retrieve birds and fish; they even pulled small boats through the water. Their strong desire to work, versatility, and waterproof coats impressed fishermen, one of whom brought a dog back to England with him. Lord Malmsbury saw this dog, then called a St. John’s Dog, and imported several from Newfoundland. Lord Malmsbury is credited with having started to call the dogs Labradors, although the reason is lost to history. Eventually, the English quarantine stopped additional imports from coming into the country, and the Labradors already in England were cross-bred to other retrievers. However, breed fanciers soon put a stop to that, and the breed as we know it today was born. Labrador Retriever is probably the most popular dog breed in the world. Labrador Retriever is a medium-sized, strongly built dog breed that retains its hunting and working instincts. Standing between 21.5 and 24.5 inches tall and weighing between 55 and 80 pounds, with females smaller than males, the breed is compact and well-balanced. Labrador Retrievers have short, weather-resistant coats that can be yellow, black, or chocolate. The head is broad, the eyes are friendly, and the tail is otterlike. Grooming a Labrador Retriever is not difficult, although it is amazing how much the coat can shed at times. Shedding is worst in spring and fall when the short, dense undercoat and coarser outer coat lose all the dead hair. Brushing daily during these times will lessen the amount of hair in the house. Photo: Labrador Retriever puppies – Brown, Black and Yellow. Labrador Retrievers do everything with vigor. When it’s time to play, they play hard. When it’s time to take a nap, they do that with enthusiasm, too. But this desire to play and instinct to work means that Labs need vigorous exercise every day and a job to do. They need to bring in the newspaper every morning, learn to pick up their toys, and train in obedience. Labrador Retrievers do very well in many canine activities, including agility, flyball, field tests and trials, tracking, search-and-rescue work, and therapy dog work. Labrador Retrievers still enjoy swimming, and if water is available, a swim is a great way to burn off excess energy. Early socialization and training can teach a Labrador Retriever puppy household rules and social manners. Training should continue throughout puppyhood and into adulthood so that the Labrador Retriever’s mind is kept busy. The Labrador Retriever can learn advanced obedience, tricks, or anything else her owner wishes to teach her. Labrador Retrievers are great family dogs. They will bark when people approach the house but are not watchdogs or protective. Labrador Retriever puppies are boisterous and rambunctious and need to be taught to be gentle with young children. Older kids will enjoy the Lab’s willingness to play. Most Labrador Retrievers are also good with other dogs and can learn to live with small pets, although interactions should be supervised. Health concerns include hip and elbow dysplasia, knee problems, eye problems, and allergies. The Labrador Retriever loves to swim. However, as unlikely as it may seem, Labs do not come “out of the box” knowing how to swim. Furthermore, some Labs become truly nervous around water. That having been said, most Labs can be taught to swim quickly and easily, and a few simple lessons can lead to hours of enjoyment for both you and your dog. There are a number of reasons to teach your Lab to swim while he’s still a pup. For one thing, it’s easier on the dog. A large dog has a lot of body weight to manage in the water, and for a dog new to swimming, this can increase the slope of the learning curve. Puppies, because of their small size, have an easier time. See 7.5 week old Labrador pups go to the water for the first time Even before you teach your Lab to swim, you can start off on the right foot by building his confidence around water. Take your dog for a walk around the local pond or lake. Encourage any interest that your dog shows in the water with verbal praise. If he is willing to get his feet wet, encourage him to do so and praise him when he does. Simple preliminaries like this lay a strong foundation for you because you teach the dog that there is no reason to fear water. Remember that the primary goal here is to provide positive experiences for your Lab around and in the water. Making sure that the aquatic site you’ve chosen is safe goes a long way towards ensuring such experiences. Labrador Retriever Videos Training Labrador Retrievers: Training Labrador puppies is best started around 2 months of age; the same time as the Labrador puppy is weaned from his mother. This life-long commitment is the beginning of a wonderful relationship between owner and dog. Here are some videos from dog training expert Melanie McLeroy to help you get started. Teach your Labrador to learn and respond to their name. Teach your Labrador to sit on command. Teach your Labrador to stay on command. Teach your Labrador to lie down on command. Teach your Labrador to heel. Teach your Labrador to come on command. Before your Labrador training starts, you have to consider the training method you intend to use. This method needs to be consistent, so making the decision is one that requires some research. Many professional animal trainers use what’s called positive reinforcement (believes that animals are much better behaved and easier to train when they’re earning rewards and praise than if they’re being punished).

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Fixing Math Education 2 AKA "Drill-n-Kill" vs "Inquiry Based" AKA "Traditional" vs "Progressive" Notice how some terms just naturally sound better than others? Does that have anything to do with the substance of the ideas? So there's really no general agreement on what constructivism is. Some people argue it's not curriculum or pedagogy, it's brain science. I simply use it to refer to those approaches of teaching mathematics that require students to develop their own mathematics from scratch. It might include "Problem Solving," "Discovery Learning," and "Inquiry-based Learning (IBL)." My apologies to those who will claim that I do violence to their pet definitions here. But there do seem to be two general camps. On the one hand we have those who think students should learn efficient, time-tested methods of solving problems, and learn them to mastery (automation). These I call "traditionalists." On the other hand, we have those who emphasize that students should learn to think creatively, develop strategies to solve novel problems, and develop deep insights into mathematics. These I call "constructivists." The answer is actually simple. We need both. However, when sacrifices must be made, there is one approach that is essential, and one that is merely desirable. Unfortunately, reasonable people will disagree about which is which. This, however, is my blog, so my opinion is right. The much-maligned traditional method is essential. We must first realize that there is a great deal of disinformation floating around about the traditional method. Its opponents claim the traditional method teaches rote memorization without understanding or thinking. Except perhaps in some isolated enclaves where stereotypically poor teaching took place, this has never been the case. All the widely used math textbooks of the 19th century, for example, emphasized "mental arithmetic," that is, the ability to think through multiple-step problems "in your head" and give the solution, not only without a calculator but even without a pencil. The kinds of thinking and understanding that were required differed from what is expected today, because the skill set expected of an educated person has changed. So in those days, being able to carry sums in your head was far more important than, say, sketching the graph of an exponential function. In honest debate, we must realize that "Back-to-the-Basics" or "traditional education" does not imply restricting ourselves to the content or objectives of a bygone era. The primary features of the traditional method include: 1) Understanding a mathematical concept, e.g. "What does it mean to add two numbers?" 2) Memorization of basic facts/definitions/results, e.g. "the Times Tables." 3)Application of memorized knowledge to novel problems and more advanced concepts. 4) Review and maintenance of memorized knowledge. The traditional method results in efficient learning and provides the foundation necessary for creative thinking, even if it fails to sufficiently address that objective, according to its critics. And yes, even educators from Singapore, whose students smoke the Americans in international tests, are looking with envy at the creativity of some of our students. This demonstrates that a commitment to the essential objectives may not produce all the results that are desirable. It is well documented in cognitive science that the brain has a limited capacity to manipulate objects in "working memory." It is often said that we cannot process more than seven memory objects at once, which supposedly explains why phone numbers have seven digits (only now they have 10, but that's OK, because the phone remembers all the numbers for us). The working memory is where problem solving and creative activities take place. The working memory can access permanent memory for information it needs. However, any new information that must be taken in to solve a problem must occupy space in the working memory, thus taking away from the space available for creative activity. That is why we quickly become frustrated when trying to follow assembly instructions that include many terms with which we are not familiar. Even if the actual steps in the process are simple, if they involve several terms that are not defined in our permanent memory, those terms require space in our working memory which is then not available for solving the problem. This explains why the pedagogic fad of "learning to learn" is a failure. We do indeed need skills for learning--but such skills are utterly dependent on a reliable bank of information which can be accessed instantly and does not require the use of working memory. The first step in problem solving or creativity must be putting as much relevant information as we can into permanent memory.

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A continuation of our predictions of big issues for 2011... Don’t expect the debates on teaching quality to end anytime soon. We suspect that data from test scores (a la the Los Angeles Times series of 2010) will continue to be used to determine a teacher’s effectiveness in the classroom. Beyond the problems of relying on one strand of data, this approach also reinforces the unfortunate lack of attention given to the early grades, since statewide tests are typically, and appropriately, not administered to children younger than 8 or 9. This disregard of teacher quality in the early years has led to a sorry state in many schools. A 2007 study published in Science, for example, showed that only 10 percent of poor children experience high-quality instruction throughout their elementary school years. So we applaud the focus on effective teaching in principle. What we wish is that it would go much deeper. Teachers and principals should be assessing the quality of their instruction using research-based tools that feed on most teachers’ desires to improve. Early childhood programs know this already. Tools like the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) are in use throughout the Head Start program and in several state-wide pre-k programs as well. (In fact, they may become a tool for determining which Head Start programs have to re-compete for funds.) These research-based tools use data from minute-by-minute observations of classroom interactions to determine where teachers excel and where they need to change their approach. According to anecdotal reports from teachers in these programs, the observational records are incredibly helpful in honing their craft. Could this be the year for elementary and secondary schools to wake up to the potential of these kinds of tools? Next Up: Hot Spot #5, Striving Readers and Other Competitions

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