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Selecting, sizing transformers for commercial buildings While commercial building designs change, their electrical loads remain fundamentally unchanged. Properly sizing and selecting transformers ensures that these loads are accommodated. By Ralph Baeza, PE, LEED AP, TLC Engineering for Architecture, Miami Transformers, along with other power distribution apparatus, remain a fundamental component in electrical systems distribution for commercial buildings. This article presents several useful design concepts for selecting and sizing transformers in the design of electrical systems for commercial buildings. Transformers change voltage levels to supply electrical loads with the voltages they require. They supply the required incoming electrical service to the buildings. Transformer primary and secondary voltages can be 2,400; 4,160; 7,200; 12,470; and 13,200 for 15-kV Class, and 120, 208, 240, 277, and 480 for 600-V Class. Transformers are located either outdoors or inside buildings in an electrical room or other areas as permitted by code. The electrical phase characteristics associated with the transformer’s primary side is 3-phase, 3-wire or Delta connected. The secondary is 3-phase, 4-wire or Wye connected. There are different construction types for transformers used in commercial buildings. Our understanding of their general characteristics will allow the designer and end user to make the proper selection for the electrical system application. Following are some of the transformer types available in the industry along with a few of their characteristics: Ventilated dry-type transformers are ventilated by air, use larger space for clearance, and use different insulating materials to augment the dielectric strength of the air. They contain an enclosure surrounding the windings for their mechanical protection and the safety of personnel. This type is the most common to be used in the building indoor electrical system distribution. See Table 1 for typical dry-type transformer ratings, dimensions, and weights. Sealed dry-type transformers are similar to dry type in most of their characteristics. The difference is they contain an enclosed tank with nitrogen or other dielectric gas to protect the windings. They can be installed outdoors or indoors. They are useful in areas with a corrosive or dirty atmosphere. Cast-coil transformers are constructed with the primary and secondary windings encapsulated in reinforced resin. They can be installed where moisture or airborne contaminants exist. Nonventilated dry-type transformers are similar to the ventilated type but are totally enclosed. This type can be installed in areas with corrosive or dirty atmospheric conditions where it would be impossible to use a ventilated-type transformer. Oil-filled transformers are constructed with the windings encased in an oil-tight tank filled with insulating mineral oil. It is good practice to regularly test this type of transformer in order to determine dielectric breakdown, which affects its useful life. There are different ways in which transformers are installed and used as part of a commercial building electrical system. These application types include: Indoor distribution transformers are used with panelboards and are separately mounted to supply the specific electrical load requirements in a system-specific application within the system distribution. Several transformer types rated higher than 600 V for oil insulated type, higher than 35,000 V for dry type, and other transformers rated higher than 600 V are required to be located in vault rooms, which must be built with fire-rated enclosures depending on the transformer type and applicable local authority requirements, when indoors. Transformers that are not over 600 V and are part of the indoor building electrical system distribution have both primary and secondary voltages below 600 V with the most common voltage level change from 480 V to 208 Y/120 V. Pad-mounted transformers are installed outside and are considered the first option for supplying service entrance voltage to the building electrical system based on the project size and requirements. They typically have primary voltages higher than 600 V and secondary voltages lower than 600 V with compartments for the associated protective devices assembled in an integral tamper-resistant and weatherproof unit. In addition, the size of the commercial facility will determine the appropriate approach for designing the electrical distribution system for the specific application. In this electrical system design, the transformer can be used as part of a substation, primary unit substation, secondary unit substation, or network configuration. The electrical size of the transformer load is rated in kVA. This rating provides the associated power output delivered for a specific period by the loads connected to the transformer on the secondary side of the equipment. The loads, which are calculated as part of the building electrical system design phase, are shown in the construction documents’ respective equipment schedules in VA or kVA. A general approach to determining transformer capacity and selecting the proper rating for the design application is to obtain the calculated design load from the respective electrical schedule and add 20% spare capacity for future load growth to be shown in the equipment schedule, unless otherwise directed by the facility based on design parameters. For example, the code-based demand load of a 208 Y/120 V, 3-phase, 4-wire panelboard is 42 kVA, which does do not include spare capacity for future growth. Therefore, the transformer size required for converting the system voltage from 480 V, 3-phase, 3-wire to 208 Y/120 V, 3-phase, 4-wire is: Transformer size in kVA = 42 kVA x 1.25 = 52.5 kVA Therefore, a 75 kVA transformer would be selected for this application out of the available standard ratings for a 480 V primary to 208 Y/120 V secondary. The most common building industry standard ratings are 3, 6, 9, 15, 30, 37.5, 45, 75, 112.5, 150, 225, 300, 500, 750, and 1,000 kVA. The above simple calculation meets the intent to achieve the normal life expectancy of a transformer, which is based on the following basic conditions: - The transformer is equal to or less than its rated kVA and rated voltage. - The average temperature of the cooling air during a 24-hour period is 86 F. - The temperature of the cooling air at no time exceeds 104 F. Transformer selection starts with the kVA rating required to supply the loads connected in the electrical system. Another consideration for indoor distribution transformers is the type of load: linear or nonlinear. Linear loads include resistive heating and induction motors; nonlinear loads are produced by electronic equipment that contributes to the distortion of the electrical power signals by generating harmonics. The harmonics resulting from nonsinusoidal currents generate additional losses and heating of the transformer coils, which reduce the transformer life expectancy. Indoor transformers for nonlinear loads can be selected with a K rating, which allows the transformer to withstand nonlinear conditions in the electrical system. K-rated transformers do not mitigate or eliminate harmonics. However, they do protect the transformer itself from damage caused by harmonics. For harmonic mitigation, K-rated transformers can be combined with harmonic filters or chokes. For linear load applications, transformers should be selected with lower core losses. Other factors that should be considered in selecting transformers are voltage ratings for both primary and secondary, voltage taps, efficiency, impedance value, type of cooling and temperature rise, voltage insulation class, basic impulse level, and sound level. In the past two years, two large projects in Miami Dade County have been built: the Florida International University football stadium and Miami International Airport South Terminal. Both projects included dry-type 480 V, 3-phase to 208 Y/120V V step-down transformers (in NEMA 2 enclosures), ranging from 15 kVA to 112.5 kVA in the electrical system distribution design. The 18,688-seat FIU football stadium was designed with about 12 transformers as part of the electrical system distribution in order to supply general-use receptacles, small motors, and other loads in the stadium building structure and the attached field house building. The MIA South Terminal expansion was designed with about 50 transformers with similar intent as the stadium’s but a more diverse group of loads for the 208 Y/120 V 3-phase, 4-wire system, which also included lighting loads, signage, telecommunication, security systems, and other loads part of this building project (Figure 1). The installation of power transformers and transformer vaults must comply with the requirements of National Electrical Code (NFPA 70) article 450 and specific local authority having jurisdiction requirements. Some principles to consider for transformer installation include locating them in isolated rooms with proper ventilation, clearances, and accessibility. Otherwise, they can be installed on open walls or steel columns or above suspended ceilings. In addition, there are other specific requirements based on the transformer type, such as weatherproof enclosures for dry-type transformers installed outdoors or a transformer vault room for oil-insulated transformers installed indoors. In addition, a good design and installation require the proper transformer feeder and overcurrent protection device size based on NEC articles 240, 250, 450, and applicable sections of Article 310 (Figure 2). Transformers remain a fundamental component of electrical distribution systems. Equipment operation characteristics will continue to change. However, their operating principles will remain with the same. The industry trend is to continue building transformers with less core losses, and that comply with Energy Star efficiency requirements. Baeza is a principal and senior electrical engineer at TLC Engineering for Architecture in Miami. He is a registered professional engineer with more than 29 years of experience in electrical engineering, project management, building design, and construction. |Search the online Automation Integrator Guide| Case Study Database Get more exposure for your case study by uploading it to the Control Engineering case study database, where end-users can identify relevant solutions and explore what the experts are doing to effectively implement a variety of technology and productivity related projects. These case studies provide examples of how knowledgeable solution providers have used technology, processes and people to create effective and successful implementations in real-world situations. Case studies can be completed by filling out a simple online form where you can outline the project title, abstract, and full story in 1500 words or less; upload photos, videos and a logo. Click here to visit the Case Study Database and upload your case study.

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First-of-Its-Kind Chemical Health Program Addresses the Needs of Individuals with Brain Injuries When Vinland began offering chemical health services for adults with brain injuries in 1990, no other organization was providing a similar type of specialized service. Thanks to advancements in medical technology during the 1980s, survival rates for traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients had more than doubled. Services were evolving and expanding in scope to meet the growing demands of this population. Recognizing A Need In 1989, Vinland was awarded a grant from the State of Minnesota to assess chemical abuse among persons with head injuries and other cognitive disabilities. Research at the time showed alcohol and drug use were involved with roughly fifty percent of traumatic brain injury accidents, and of those cases fifty percent of the people involved had a previous history of substance abuse. Unfortunately, brain injury and drugs and alcohol often go hand in hand. People who abuse drugs and alcohol have a higher incidence of sustaining a brain injury — from falling or driving while intoxicated, for example. And the effects of alcohol and drugs only get worse for people after a brain injury. A study conducted in 1986 identified four factors that increase the risk for substance abuse following a brain injury: increased free time and boredom, enabling by family and friends, uncertainty about the future, and physical and mood changes. Vinland realized the need for a specialized chemical health program was there. Understanding the Challenges After sustaining a brain injury, many people experience devastating physical, emotional, and behavioral changes. While there are similarities between brain injuries, it is important to remember that each injury is unique. Individuals may have few problems or a combination of several problems. The most common long-term effects associated with brain injury are impairment of memory, decreased self-awareness, impairment of abstract thinking, short attention spans, inappropriate social behavior, changes in mood, impaired communication skills, and problem solving difficulties. These long-term effects impact the skills that are important in traditional chemical dependency treatment programs, which is why many TBI survivors are unsuccessful in those types of programs. Individuals struggling with abstract thinking impairment are unable to move beyond concrete terms to the abstract meanings of simple sayings. These people tend to struggle with the abstract concepts behind Alcoholics Anonymous’ 12 Steps. In addition, short-term memory issues and inappropriate social behavior might be interpreted as resistance to treatment when a professional is not familiar with the common symptoms of brain injuries. In 1990, Vinland started the first-ever chemical health program for individuals with brain injuries. The program was designed to accommodate TBI survivors’ barriers to success and increase their chance for long-term sobriety. The new program placed an emphasis on positive reinforcement and low confrontation as a more appropriate way to interact with people living with brain injuries. The new program proved beneficial not just for adults living with brain injuries, but people living with other types of disabilities such as learning disabilities and mental illnesses. Twenty-five years later, Vinland remains one of only a few treatment centers that provides chemical health services tailored for adults with cognitive impairments. Vinland beliefs integrated treatment offers the best outcome for individuals struggling with substance abuse, mental health issues, and cognitive impairments. There are many barriers to achieving long-term sobriety, so Vinland’s program addresses the needs of the whole person – mind, body, spirit. Vinland provides a variety of complementary care services to meet the needs of its clients. The therapeutic exercise program is the largest and provides each participant with a personalized fitness program designed under the supervision of a fitness and wellness manager. Vinland’s fitness staff works closely with each participant to improve overall physical health and relieve symptoms of chronic pain. Vinland also offers psychology and psychiatry services, mental health counseling, family programming, traumatic brain injury groups, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and recreation activities. The chemical health program started out as a residential program with 10 beds at Vinland’s main campus in Loretto. Demand for the program grew steadily, and Vinland expanded capacity to meet demand. Today, Vinland serves individuals with varying cognitive impairments. The majority of our clients are people living with brain injuries, but an individual does not have to have a brain injury to receive treatment at Vinland. In 2013, Vinland completed a building expansion at its main facility in Loretto. The expansion added 20 beds, new kitchen and dining room, new office space, and renovated therapeutic exercise center. Vinland also expanded office space at its outpatient location in Minneapolis, making it possible to expand services and serve more clients. Today, Vinland has 61 beds at its main campus, where 500 individuals are served annually on average. The outpatient program in Minneapolis annually serves 100 individuals on average. Sources: Vinland archives; Jones, G. (1989). Alcohol Abuse and Traumatic Brain Injury. Alcohol World Health & Research, 13(2); Jones, G. (1992) Substance Abuse Treatment for Persons with Brain Injuries. NeuroRehabilitation, 2(1).

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By popular demand, I thought I would write a blog post about the tallest mountain on Io, Boösaule Montes. Not sure why it is so popular, but you got to give the people what they want... Boösaule Montes was best seen during the 1979 Voyager 1 encounter with Io but it can also be seen in several global views acquired by Galileo and New Horizons. The image at right is part of a mosaic acquired by Voyager 1 and is the highest resolution images of this feature at around 0.9 km/pixel. Boösaule Montes, located just to the northwest of the Pele plume deposit, actually consists of not one, but three separate mountains connected by a raised plain. Each mountain displays a unique morphology. Boösaule Montes "South", seen near the bottom of the image at right, is the tallest mountain on Io. Based on stereo work performed by Paul Schenk et al. 2001, this massif is at least 17.5 kilometers in height. This is more than four kilometers greater than the next tallest mountain on Io, Euboea Montes. The mountain has an irregular morphology, with a relatively gentle slope throughout much of the mountain except for an abrupt scarp on the peak's southeastern margin. According to Schenk et al. 2001, this scarp has a height of approximately 15 km and a slope of 40°. Such a sharp scarp would suggest that a landslide transported some of the mountain's material downslope, but unlike most landslides on Io, the material doesn't seem to have been transported very far from the mountain. Instead, a textured deposit ~3-5 km thick can be seen at the base of the scarp. Based on this morphology, Schenk et al. interprets this sharp slope as a slump scarp. The mountain is surrounded by a broad plateau that likely represent mass-wasted material, but again, this is oddly absent on the mountain's southwestern margin. On potential sink for material seen at other mountains on Io, paterae, is absent from the immediate surroundings of Boösaule Montes "South". However, to the southwest of Boösaule "South", an old lava flow follows the basal scarp of the mountain. The flow originates from the southern end of a patera (seen at center left in the above image) to the northwest of Boösaule "South". I'm not sure if that's why there is no long-runout landslide deposit in that direction. Boösaule Montes "North", seen above center in the image at top, is an 8.5-km-tall, dome-shaped mountain with a large fracture running north-south through it. This type of morphology is akin to lava domes on Earth. One possible formation mechanism for this feature is that this mountain sits atop a diapir, created from rising magma in Io's lithosphere. A plateau, perhaps formed by landslide debris, can be seen between both mountains. The last component, Boösaule Montes "East", seen near upper right in the image at top, is a 7-km tall plateau with two mophologic sections. The western part has a rugged surface with several lineaments running down the length of the mountain. Evidence for mass wasting can be seen along this sections southwestern margin. The eastern part of this mountain has a lower elevation and has a plateau-like morphology. Parts of this plateau have a scalloped margin, suggestive of sapping. Such activity would suggest the presence of sulfur dioxide within some of the layers in the mountain. Coming up later this week, I will address Io's mountains more generally by looking at some features many of these mountains have in common.

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The hunt officially started on Oct 19th, 1964 when Peter Higgs published a paper called “Broken symmetries and the masses of gauge bosons” on Physical Review Letters (Vol 13, No. 16). Nowadays, his brilliant explanation about the origin of the mass of elementary particles is being tested in two laboratories: at Fermilab, 80 miles south of Chicago (USA), and at CERN, in the outskirts of Geneva (Switzerland). Friday Jul, 22th marks an important date on the long quest for the Higgs boson. At the EPS conference in Grenoble (France) the four main experiments in particle physics gathered for a showdown. Has the god damn boson finally cornered? The most successful theoretical explanation of known phenomena in particle physics is called the Standard Model(SM). It is a Model, because it tries to make testable predictions but keeps away from making firm statements about the reality itself. And it is Standard because it is widely accepted from the scientific community. In fact, in the last decades, its predictions have always been verified within experimental uncertainties. Anyway, physicists find this model unsatisfactory. Too many free parameters, too many ad hoc assumptions (“it just works fine“) and, last but not least, it makes the worst prediction ever in physics! (see: cosmological constant and vacuum catastrophe) At the core of the Standard Model lies the concept of field. A field is a an “entity” which is defined everywhere in the spacetime. For instance, weather forecasts show temperature and wind fields across the Country. In our case, a field is associated to every kind of elementary particle: electrons, photons, quarks and the like. Fields are classified in two groups according to an intrinsic property called spin: when measured in units of “reduced” Planck constant h, integer-spin particles are called bosons, and half-integer spin particles are called fermions. It turns out that matter is made of fermions (electrons, quarks) while forces (electromagnetic, strong, weak) are mediated by the exchange of bosons among fermions. Not all the particles are elementary: for instance, the proton is made of three quarks soaked in a sea of gluons and other, fainter quarks. At the LHC, these constituents of the proton interact among each other. We aim to understand the underlying physics looking at what comes out of these high-energy accidents. Since a long time, experiments show that there are some quantities that are conserved through interactions, such as the sum of all electric charges of a system. To account for this fact, the mathematical description of the fields is scrutinized in the search for invariant (=preserved) properties. This idea is encoded in a theorem due to Amalie Noether (she was among the first women who taught in a German University in 1915!). According to this theorem, to every symmetry there is an associated conserved current. In turn, thanks to Gauss’ theorem, for every conserved current there is a conserved quantity that we call charge. In the simplest case, a symmetry called U(1) explains the origin of the electric charge, a property owned by several fields (e.g. electron, quark) but not all. Add Einstein’s Special Relativity and voilá you get a description of the electromagnetic force. A more complicated symmetry called SU(2) gives rise to the so called weak isospin, and its related charge T3 explain why in nuclear beta decays only certain types of particle can be created, and not others at will. Those decays are due to the weak force. Finally, the SU(3) symmetry introduces the color interaction, whose by-product is the strong nuclear force that binds protons and neutrons together inside atomic nuclei. It is so strong (hence its name) that it even overcomes electrostatic repulsion. As the photon mediates the electromagnetic force, so the gluon mediates the strong force. The main difference between the two is that the photon carries no electric charge, and so there is no photon-photon interaction. On the other hand, gluons alwasy carry a color charge: gluon-gluon interactions can happen. This fact brings funny things inside the proton, and it is the main ingredient for the physics at the LHC! Finally, some theoreticians believe that some other symmetry could explain the gravitational force. Its mediator would be a spin-2 boson called graviton. So far, nor this symmetry nor any graviton have ever been seen (or is it?). Why so many interactions? In 1865 Maxwell published “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” in which he first proposed an explanation of light as the result of the unification of electricity and magnetism. You can still buy yourself a copy of this book on Amazon! Try to imagine what a breakthrough it was: for centuries, electricity, magnets and light was seen as three completely different phenomena. Following this school of thought, Salam, Glashow and Weinberg proposed the unification of electromagnetic and weak interactions in what we call now electroweak force. If blending electricity and magnetism explains the origin of light, what could show up merging electromagnetism with the weak force? A long-time unresolved puzzle concerns the typical length of the interactions. While light has an infinte range of actions (photons arrive to Earth from stars millions of light-years away from us!), weak interaction seems to be very short-ranged. A possible explanation would be that the force is mediated by some kind of heavy photon, that fades away in a very short time (a billionth of billionth of a second). As a joke, this is sometimes referred to as “heavy light”! A good hint came from the theory that explains why we can make permanent magnets with some metals, but not with others. Every atom can be seen as tiny magnet. When all the magnet axes point toward the same direction, the overall effect is enhanced and becomes macroscopic. Otherwise, if chaos rule, no net effect can be seen in the material. Scientists discovered that there is a temperature above which this property can be imposed, using an external magnetic field. An interesting effect is the discovery that Earth’s magnetic field reversed its polarity several times in the past! Although it seems irrelevant to the problem of the electroweak unification, it turned out that the same mathematical equations can be used to explain a number of phenomena in particle physics. First, remember that in order to rise the temperature of an object, you have to give it energy, as a kettle on a gas stove. In our case, temperature is proportional to the energy of the interacting particles, the constituents of the proton: quarks and gluons. So, at extremely high temperatures, only the electroweak force exists. Mathematically, it can be described by a symmetry called U(1)×SU(2). When the temperature gets lower (e.g. at room temperature), if this symmetry gets “broken” for some unknown reason, we can see two completely different forces: electromagnetism and weak force. So the question is: what breaks the symmetry? Enter: Peter Higgs Well, the answer is not so simple but one man suggested a minimal solution. Some years before, Landau and Ginzburg proposed a model to exaplain superconductivity, the lack of electrical resistance shown by some materials when the temperature drops under a certain threshold. In their model, the energy of the system is described by a quartic function whose unique minimum is trivially zero at room temperature. Wherever the energy reaches a minimum, the system is said to be in equilibrium. Superconductivity can appear if the temperature gets low enough: in this case other, more stable minima appear (the function, with properly adjusted coefficients, is called mexican hat). It looks like a ball sitting at the top of a hill: even a slight kick (in this case given by quantum fluctuations) makes the system to go downhill. Physically, this triggrers a phase transition. Such a process is sometimes dubbed spontaneous symmetry breaking. Peter Higgs worked out how to make use of this process in order to explain why the electroweak force is broken at room temperature. First, let’s suppose that everything in immersed with a scalar field whose energy looks like the mexican hat. Some of the particles are drenched with this field, other don’t. The ones who do, have weight. The ones who don’t, are weightless. When the mediators of the electroweak force “eat” this scalar field they acquire weight and the symmetry is broken. The leaftover crumbles are the Higgs bosons. Two birds, two stones: this explains why the weak interaction is short-ranged, and why we do not see the unified electroweak symmetry in everyday life! Anyway, it is important to stress that this is just one explanation of the phenomenon. Nature could have chosen a more complicated one, involvin for instance more than one scalar field. Only experiments can wipe out wrong theories. Merging all togheter, theoreticians predicted the existence of 5 particles: the already-known massless photon (which is in fact…light) plus four massive bosons, never seend befor. They were the three mediators of the weak interactions (W+, W- and Z), and one Higgs boson (H). The Z boson has been discovered at CERN in 1973 by the Gargamelle experiment (now on display in CERN’s garden). In 1983, again at CERN, the UA1 and UA2 experiments finally catched the charged W bosons. Salam, Weinberg and Glashow were awarded with the Noble prize in 1979. Rubbia and Van der Meer shared another Nobel prize in 1984. The Standard Model was firmly established in 1995 when the top quark was eventually discoverd at Fermilab. So only one tile in the puzzle is missing. The Quest for Go(l)d Particle As the water flows downhill from its spring to the sea following different paths, so a particle can decay through different “channels” until stable grounds are reached. To our present knowledge, only photons, protons, electrons and to some extent neutrinos are stable. All the others crumble down unitl stable particles are eventually produced. The decay process is not completely arbitrary: it must fulfill a set of rules described by quantum mechanics (QM). We can use these rules backward and make an educated guess of what is more likely to have produced the particle we observed. The sum of all the probabilities must give 100%: this fact is so important that it even has got a name: unitarity. Anyway, with QM we can calculate the probability that a path is followed, but which one is actually taken is a matter of chance and is intrinsecally unpredictable. If you toss a quantum coin you have a 50% probability of getting head or tail. Apparently, Nature prevents ourselves from predicting exactly which side of the coin will show up. So it is for the Higgs boson. The first thing we want to do sounds quite simple: just count how many of them we see! The quest is twofold: theory predicts a number of different way to produce it, and several decay paths it can follow. What is actually predicted is a quantity called cross-section. It can be loosely interpreted as the probability to generate a desired particle given certain conditions. This probability depends strongly on the type of particles you collide, on the energy of the collision and on the mass of the particle you aim to produce. While you can control the first two using different kinds of accelerators (e.g. Tevatron or the LHC), the third is set by Nature. In our case, we don’t know which is the mass of the Higgs boson: at the end of the game, we will discover its value by inference. Once you managed to produce some Higgs bosons (congratulations!), you still have to calculate the chance to see them decaying into each possible channel. Most importantly, it turns out that the probability of each channel depends on the mass of the Higgs boson. But this is not the end of the story: the Higgs is likely to produce intermediate particles, which in turn decay until stable ones are generated. A definite set of stable particles describing the end of a decay chain is called final state. Some final states are considered extremely appealing from an experimental point of view: they are easy to study and so they are dubbed golden channels. A quite strong assumption is that the production and decay probabilities are independent of each other. This means that daughter particles have only a loose memory of their parents. If you think about it, a lot of animals behave this way! So far, it always proved to be true for all know particles: there is no reason to believe that the Higgs might have a different opinion. It cannot say “I accept to decay to a couple of Z bosons, but only if they promise me they will decay into four charged leptons!”. But you never know… Unfortunately, the Higgs boson shares its possible final states with other less interesting processes. In jargon it is said that what you’re looking for is the signal, while all the other stuff is the background. Most of the intersting signals are very tiny, and most of the events are rubbish. The proportion is usually less than 1 in one billion. Being an experimentalists consist mostly in trying to extract signals out of the background. There are many techniques to do it. The simplest one is to apply “cuts“: final states are sifted and only the very interesting ones end up in your histograms. If your analysis is set up correctly, some peak should rise above the background. For the die-hard nerds, more advanced techniques involve neural networks and other pattern recognition techniques. Pushing to the Limits Now that you have all the tools of the trade, you can join the Search for Gold. Pick your preferred final state, calculate its probability as a function of Higgs boson’s mass and start looking for it digging into data. Some suggestions are: - A very light Higgs is more likely to produce two photons, or two b-quarks, or two tau leptons; - A moderately heavy Higgs could produce a couple of W bosons. In turn, the can decay into two pairs of charged leptons and neutrinos; - A heavy Higgs could decay into two Z bosons. The final state with four charged leptons is the golden channel; - An extremely heavy Higgs breaks unitarity so it’s not believed to exist! Do not jump into conclusions too fast! The golden channel has a very clean signature (few processes end up with four charged leptons!) but it is very very rare and it works fine for a heavy Higgs. Other channels have a higher probability in some mass ranges, but they suffer from a larger background – so it’s harder for you to teach your computers how to recognize this particle! If the Higgs boson really exists, with an infinite amount of data we would be able to see it in every channel. However, with a limited number of events we must play smart. The key to success in the search for the Higgs boson is in the combination of all channels. This is done using statistical procedures that take into account what is shared among the channels, and what is specific of each one. At the end of the day, one hope to see a combined signal rising above the background. But what if we see no signal at all? Again, do not jump into conclusions too early. The calculation of the cross-section, along with machine parameters such as luminosity, center-of-mass energy and detector efficiency tells you how many events you must collect before you can say Eureka. If you have acquired enough data and you still have seen nothing, perhaps the particle you are looking for does not exist at all! Othere possibilities are that its production rate is lower than you thought, or it’s just that you have been unlucky: a downward statistical fluctuation produced less Higgs bosons than expected and you just happened to see none. In these unfortunate cases, what’s done is to set limits, which is to say: “I collected a certain amount of data, but the signal did not show up. I conclude that its strength s* must be f times smaller than that as predicted by the theory s_th“. In order to take into account statistical fluctuations, f is presented along with an uncertainty. This range of possible values gives you a confidence level or credible interval. Their meaining is roughly this: “The strength of the signal has an unknown but fixed value s*. If I could run an infinite number of experiments, 68% of these would say that s* lies within the quoted uncertainty“. Most common intervals are 68% (stringent), 90% and 95% (loose) confidence levels. If you test your hypothesis about f as a function of the mass of the Higgs boson, you obtain a graph that looks like this: The observed data are tested against two hypotheses for each mass point: background-only and signal+background. Before taking data, one runs the simulation for the background-only scenario, obtaining the dashed curve, surrounded by it uncertainty (the green-yellow “Brazil band”).When the dashed line drops under the horizontal level (fraction = 1 that means s* = s_SM ) theory predicts that you are supposed either to find or not the signal. Once these data are taken, limits on the signal strength are calculated (the solid black line). If there is no signal at all, the black line is supposed to be very close to the dashed line. If this is not the case, something is going on! The more the two lines are separated, the higher the probability that what you are seeing is not due to a statistical fluke! So, what do you see in this graph? The black line drops under f=1 between 155 and 190 GeV. We saw no Higgs there. However, there is a broad excess between 120 and 150 GeV (the black line is still over f=1, but it is clearly outside the yellow band). How to interpret this observation? At the moment, the only thing that we can say is that experiments seem to contradict the background-only hypothesis. Whether it is consistent or not with the presence of the Higgs boson is a matter of debate. The statistical significance is low (it’s still too close to the yellow band to tell), but at the end of the 2011 there should be 5 times more data to be analyzed. The answer is near! After almost 40 years we will see if Peter Higgs’ explanation of the electroweak symmetry breaking is right or wrong. Either way, this answer will be a turning point in the history of particle physics. For some theoretical reasons and astrophysical observation, the Standard Model is already in dire straits. Understanding what lies beyond is LHC’s business.

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The Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries Ministry of Culture of Montenegro Le Secrétariat de l’UNESCO et le Centre du patrimoine mondial ne garantissent pas l’exactitude et la fiabilité des avis, opinions, déclarations et autres informations ou documentations fournis au Secrétariat de l’UNESCO et au Centre du patrimoine mondial par les États Parties à la Convention concernant la protection du patrimoine mondial, culturel et naturel. La publication de tels avis, opinions, déclarations, informations ou documentations sur le site internet et/ou dans les documents de travail du Centre du patrimoine mondial n’implique nullement l’expression d’une quelconque opinion de la part du Secrétariat de l’UNESCO ou du Centre du patrimoine mondial concernant le statut juridique de tout pays, territoire, ville ou région, ou de leurs autorités, ou le tracé de leurs frontières. Les noms des biens figurent dans la langue dans laquelle les États parties les ont soumis. The system composed by the Venetian Works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries is the proposed nomination of a serial transnational site to the World Heritage List; it is representative of the more complex defensive system, designed and built by the Serenissima Republic of Venice in order to control its territories and the commercial routes leading to the East. The site extends for more than 1.000 km from the Pre Alps of Lombardy to the Eastern coast of the Adriatic, in the area between the western outpost (Bergamo, Italy) and the Bay of Kotor (Montenegro). Between the Stato di Terra (State of Land: Lombard-Venetian) and the Stato di Mare (State of Sea: Croatia, Montenegro), this unique and ancient enclave bears nowadays significant examples of the Venetian fortifications, important testimony of the interaction among peoples and, more in general, of the culture expressed by Venice in the world. The components of the nominated property summarize the most representative expression of the defensive system –still evident at present- conceived as a real network, where any fortified element played a precise role within a wide and unitary project. The Serenissima Republic of Venice, in fact, tests and completes in a vast territory a new defensive system – technically recognized as “alla moderna” (“modern style”)- characterizing the period of time between XV and XVII century. During the first phase, that can be considered as “transitional”, Venice undertakes a series of interventions and experiments, revealing the evolution from the medieval warfare techniques to the new and modern defensive systems (end of XV century). But it is in XVI century that the most advanced Venetian military structures see their maximum diffusion as they were to resist the newly invented firearms. Finally the XVII century is characterized by the completion of the previously started works and by the improvement of the defensive techniques, which represent as a whole outstanding examples of the new military architecture. The site is composed by a complex system that show different defensive solutions: continuous walls reinforced by bastions with forts and citadel (Kotor), hill top castle and sea fortress (Herceg-Novi). These structures are still highly connoting the urban and geo-morphological context they are in. This extraordinary operation conducted by Venice at a such vast territorial scale was carried out thanks to an impressive circulation of professionals, the fortifications’ architects themselves and of a consistent heritage of treaties; at the same time, regulations, social models and new type of governance led Venetian culture to merge with the cultures from the Eastern Adriatic sea and from here, by land, to the East: all territories where numerous and various material and immaterial evidences of the Venetian centuries-old presence remain. Because of this variety of aspects, the nomination proposal is representative of a system formed by a series of components which are interdependent from one another and, at the same time, constitute systems with their own precise and recognizable connotation. Nom(s) de l’élément/des éléments constitutif(s) 1.c Name(s) of the national component part(s) 1.d State, Province or Region Defensive system of the Boka Kotorska with fortified town of Kotor and fortified town of Herceg-Novi Montenegro, Boka Kotorska Description de l’élément/des éléments constitutif(s) In order to achieve the most complete representativeness of the site, the selection of the Italian components with Bergamo, Peschiera del Garda and Palmanova, is representative of the most significant fortifications in the State of Land, while the lagoon defensive system (Venezia-Chioggia) represents the connection between the mainland and the State of Sea, here represented by the components of Croatia and Montenegro. Defensive system of the Boka Kotorska with fortified town of Kotor and fortified town of Herceg-Novi: The Boka Kotorska are made up of a series of inlets, with broad valleys between them, connected and set deeply into the hinterland. They form one of the best natural ports of the Mediterranean Sea and, thanks to this feature, for centuries the Venetians and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire used the area as a well-equipped and unconquered naval military base, controlling the entrance of the Adriatic Sea. This unique geomorphological scenario is home to the defensive structures of Herceg-Novi and Kotor. Herceg-Novi stands where sea runs into the broad, articulated fjord of the Boka Kotorska, surrounded by very high mountains. Republic of Venice held it stably only from 1687, after a long and ferocious period of Ottoman rule (from 1483). The defensive system created by Venice is characterised by the strengthening of the large Medieval circuit which highlights the town’s development towards the sea. It circumscribes the higher village further north, culminating with the Land Castle (Town Castle), and the lower village in the south, culminating with the Citadel (on the south-east peak) and with the Sea Castle (on the opposite peak). The defensive system of Herceg-Novi was strengthened when Ottoman rule was briefly interrupted by that of Spain (1538-1539), with the construction of the first isolated fortress located further upstream (High Fort, also known as the Spanish Fort) later on radically rebuilt by Ottomans and used during Venetian and Austro-Hungarian period. Kotor, one of the Venetian “fortezza chiave” (key fortress), stands in the innermost basin of the Boka, on an almost triangular strip of land formed on the alluvial fan of the River Skurda, and is surrounded by very steep mountains that stretch up to an altitude of over one thousand metres. Venetian since 1420, fortified town of Kotor is characterised by an articulate and complex defensive system which originates from the unusual morphological characteristics of the place. The western part of the town, facing the sea, and the northern part, which looks out towards the river, are delimited by walls which climb up the mountain behind the town as far as St. John Castle, at an altitude of 260 metres. Republic of Venice intervened conspicuously on this system (in the 16th century), strengthening it mainly in the part overlooking the River Skurda with the construction of strong curtain walls and three bastions: the Riva Bastion, further upstream, the Bembo Bastion just below, and Kampana Fort, where the stream flows into the sea, while two ravelins defend the curtain wall on the other side of the stream. At the same time, it intervened on the part facing seaward, strengthening the perimeter walls by adding two bastions, Valier and Corner,(17 th century) one platform (16 th century) , and tower Gurdic (15 th century). The upstream walls start from the two ends of this curtain wall and run as far as the castle above. The Sea Gate was opened in the front towards the sea between the Kampana and Valier bastion. The River Gate is set between the Riva and Bembo bastions, with a bridge crossing the stream. Hit by numerous earthquakes (1563, 1667, 1979), Kotor was made a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979. Venetian rule left a deep imprint on the urban structure of Kotor and its customs. Italian was the language used in all the public deeds and in teaching, particularly due to the influence of the nobility and the powerful classes of merchants and naval captains, until the end of XIX century. This articulate sit forms the southernmost tip of the Venetian defensive system, developed continuously to the Boka Kotorska and then interrupted until Corfu. Justification de la Valeur Universelle Exceptionelle The Venetian works of defence between 15th and 17th centuries represent an exceptional and unique example of defensive and unitary project (at a transnational scale today) realized and managed in a period of time and in a geographical area, the Republic of Venice’s territories, highly characterized by a certain lively way of think and action, that was able to elaborate and spread its culture with its own personal language. The site shows, through its fortifications, designed and built by the most famous architects and military engineers of the time, the exceptional and enormous economic and design effort of the Venetian Republic, giving the vastness of the territory and the different morphological and functional conditions of each domain. These aspects made necessary to develop many typological solutions –whose most representative examples form the serial site- which constitute the diversified scenery of isolated forts, defensive systems and fortified cities, by the sea and on land. These material evidences are closely connected to commerce, wars, strategic politic alliances and, above all, to the high management skill that allowed the Serenissima to assert itself as a big power in the Mediterranean for a long time (XI-XVIII centuries) and to have a leading power in the geo-political scenery between the West and the East. During the first half of 1400, Venice was a great power with important terrestrial and maritime domains: it controlled the maritime and terrestrial routes that linked the Adriatic to the core of Europe, it dominated a big part of the Mediterranean, creating one of the widest Italian State, in which ancient Rome’s, Greek and Byzantine cultural models were taken as inspiration. Venice in fact, asserted itself as “the new and true Rome” and “the alternative to Byzantium”. Also arts and literature helped to support the myth and the image of Venice as an essential authority, recognized by the western and the eastern world. As the conflicts encouraged by the emerging European powers and the Ottoman Empire increased, the sites vital to preserve and control the commerce on land and the maritime routes and to assure the wellbeing of the Republic, became vulnerable. For all these reasons a big project on vast scale was put in place in order to assure the growth and the socio-cultural development of the Venetian settlements and it took the Republic all the following century to complete it. Therefore it was very important to guarantee the safety of the territories: the first experiments by architects and engineers designated by the Serenissima to create a “new art of fortifications”, involving both the military architecture and the very own structure of the cities themselves, which remoulded urban layouts and existing buildings. The application of these new methodologies and techniques made Venice a dominant figure in the cultural debate concerning “modern style” fortifications, theoretically discussed by Francesco di Giorgio Martini in his famous Renaissance treaties and by Leonardo da Vinci: their relationship with Venice is well documented by many historical sources. The skills and the building techniques were exported from the mainland territories to the maritime domains. Designers, materials and professionals, moved from the Republic of Venice and went working in the Venetian properties in the Adriatic. The new unified vision of the defensive system based on the modernization of the fortification techniques, had Venice as its “heart and soul”, the domains on the inland as its ramparts and the coastal cities as the nodal points of a communication network to sustain the territorial and commercial policies of the Republic. Criterion (ii): the complex of the venetian defensive works is an outstanding example of the interchange of influences and values between Venice and the diverse civilizations located along the Adriatic sea from the Middle Age and more intensively between XVI and XVII century. The exceptional administrative and managerial skills of the Republic of Venice allowed to spread the most advanced knowledge about fortifications, arts and, more in general, social models. This was channeled by a number of workers, operative tools, construction materials and arts in general and it is finds its more tangible and more complete testimony in the proposed defensive works Criterion (iii): the site is representative of a varied heritage that testifies the Venetian cultural tradition and had its core in the Adriatic “Gulf”, mainly between XV and XVII century. The defensive structures and the landscape around them -carefully designed by the architects of the Serenissima- have kept their integrity or are still legible in their layouts, characterizing the facies of the proposed sites. Moreover the uniqueness and the outstanding value of the Venetian culture is testified by the rich publishing production with its worldwide known treaties, the presence in this area of cultural heritage objects referring to the city Capital and the numerous letters bearing witness of the communication between Venice and its faraway domains. All these written documents, conserved in many archives and collections, allow to retrace in details the fortunes of Venice. Beyond all the architectural and archive heritage, an endless and peculiar documental heritage, still perfectly conserved, contribute to assert the outstanding nature of the Venetian defensive system. Criterion (iv): the site is an outstanding example of defensive system generated by a unitary project and conceived to guarantee the safety of the maritime commerce and to protect the domains from invasions. Since the Venetian sites were particularly desirable, a branched communication network had to be established over a wide transnational territory. The generating element of the whole project was the use of the new fortification techniques experimented by the Venetian professionals after the widespread introduction of gunpowder and firearms: these advanced results became outstanding examples of "modern style" (“alla moderna”) fortifications, as exemplar models for next realizations. Déclarations d’authenticité et/ou d’intégrité The authenticity of the serial system is guaranteed as every element has conserved visible, in different shapes resulting from different typologies, the architectural, planning and landscape choices connected to the defense project wanted by the Serenissima. The structural features of the architectures have maintained their integrity, in the shapes and in the materials, although with a different function. Moreover one of the widest archive heritage in Europe testifies these extraordinary realizations. In fact the documental sources, both written and cartography, perfectly match with the real places and significantly validate the influence of the Republic of Venice in the culture of the Adriatic sea between XV and XVII century. The ensemble of the defensive works is a system, which includes the most significant examples of the different defensive typology connected by terrestrial and maritime routes along which commerce flourished, in a unitary territory comprising the State of Land and the State of Sea of the Republic of Venice. Justification de la sélection de l’élément/des éléments constitutif(s) en relation avec la future proposition d’inscription dans son ensemble Defensive system of the Boka Kotorska with fortified town of Kotor and fortified town of Herceg-Novi: The Boka Kotorska are the southernmost part of the nominated system and, historically, the main natural harbours of the Adriatic Sea, known as the “Gulf of Venice” in the past. Inside this articulate basin made up of fjords and inlets, the complex defensive system with two fortified towns that best represent the influence exercised by the Most Serene Republic of Venice during its troubled presence in the area has been chosen. Comparaison avec d’autres biens similaires In order to underline the outstanding values expressed by The Venetian Forts of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries in the Eastern Mediterranean a comparative analysis with other sites already inscribed on the World Heritage List and similar in theme and characteristics was carried out. The main features of the nomination proposal were taken as criteria for comparison, classified in a hierarchic order, which allowed to progressively restrict the selection and highlight the uniqueness of the Venetian works of defence. As further verification, the previous results were confronted with the selection of sites obtained from a criteria comparison. Finally, among the sites already on the WHL for the criteria (ii) (iii) (iv), the serial ones concerning defensive works were chosen. The comparison showed three sites that could be confronted with the Venetian works of defence: Kunta Kinteh Island and Related Sites (Gambia), Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions (Ghana), Fortifications of Vauban (France). Theme and seriality: each case has a variety of fortified structures, realized to guarantee the defense of the territories of particular economic interests. The Venetian works are the most significant and numerous “modern style” fortifications, spread all over the Mediterranean basin. System and/or route: the African sites are representative of a route along which the cultural interchange among different geographical realities developed. Except the Fortifications of Vauban (which are not located along a waterway)- Ghana, Gambia and Venice exploited a waterway –river or lake- as a generator element of each route (the river Gambia, the Gulf of Guinea, the Mediterranean). Unlike the others, the Serenissima Republic of Venice built its cultural, economic and territorial primacy on the sea, controlling for centuries the Mediterranean basin. Unitary project: the sites of Ghana and Gambia give a partial vision of the more spread phenomenon of the slavery, which involved more civilizations (Portuguese, English, Dutch, …), more Countries at an international level and many other navigation routes. In fact the Gambia nomination presents an inhomogeneous design, testified by military and civil architectures, converted in time; the Ghana site shows a higher level of typological uniformity of the fortifications, which are however all located along the Guinea Gulf. As for the French site, it can be stated that the fortification of Vauban are not located along an itinerary, as for the previous cases. Whereas the completeness in the representation of the series and so in the unitary project which generated it, can be underlined in the proposed Venetian defensive works. The wide and articulated route in which the Venetian works have been selected, even in the complexity of the historical events, is highly representative of the Venetian culture and the defensive project of the Serenissima only. In conclusion, the nomination proposal for The Venetian works of Defence between 15th and 17th centuries is very dissimilar from the abovementioned sites, because it is representative of the domination of a single civilization, the Venetian, spread in a multitude of Countries, all represented here, where its exceptional design and constructive knowledge was declined following the local language and habits and developed along a single route. The uniqueness of the Venetian system is also shown by the typological variety of the military architecture; in fact the selection of sites means to underline the excellencies of the “modern style”, that are all those artifacts built between XV and XVII century by the main experts of the time. Each work (fortifications, walls, fortified city, …) played a precise role within the overall system, with a typology that followed the morphologic context. All these aspects concur to create a rich palimpsest of typological solutions, not found in other sites. The state of conservation of the Venetian site still guarantees the legibility of the system at a macro and micro scale, not so visible in the Gambia and Ghana sites. In this sense represent an exception the fortification of Vauban, which are perfectly conserved and with a high typological and settlement variety. The architectural typology conceived by Vauban represents a fundamental moment in the European military engineering, already experimented by the technicians of the Serenissima in the Mediterranean basin, where the Venetian culture’s spread involved not only the defensive apparatus, but more in general the socio-economic and settlement development. To synthesize, from the comparison with the other sites on the WHL, emerges the outstanding values born by the Venetian defensive works, given their international scope, their seriality and the unitary project, which is deeply represented by the site. From the comparison with the other sites on the World Heritage List, emerges the outstanding character of the Venetian defensive works, given the international scale, the seriality and a unitary planning completely represented by the site.

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Arbitration is an alternative method of resolving disputes in which two parties present their individual sides of a complaint to an arbitrator or panel of arbitrators. The arbitrator decides the rules, weighs the facts and arguments of both parties, and then decides the dispute. Arbitration may be voluntary or mandatory. In voluntary arbitration, both sides in the dispute voluntarily agree to submit their disagreement to arbitration after it arises, and they have an opportunity to investigate their best options for resolving their claim. In forced arbitration, a company requires a consumer or employee to submit any dispute that may arise to binding arbitration as a condition of employment or buying a product or service. The employee or consumer is required to waive their right to sue, to participate in a class action lawsuit, or to appeal. Forced arbitration is mandatory, the arbitrator’s decision is binding, and the results are not public. Forced arbitration is being written into more and more terms of agreement and contracts, including those used for employment, insurance, home-building, car loans and leases, credit cards, retirement accounts, investment accounts, and nursing facilities, to name a few. Generally not. Most Americans have never noticed this clause in the fine print of terms of agreement or contracts. Moreover, companies may call the condition “binding mandatory arbitration,” “arbitration,” “mandatory arbitration” or even call it a “dispute resolution mechanism.” Nothing, if its “voluntary” arbitration. In fact, you always have the right to arbitrate. But you never want to give away the right to sue if arbitration does not work. Companies want you to give away that right because they have advantage in arbitration and can evade accountability. No, most refuse to use forced arbitration in their dealings with other businesses. As a matter of fact, car dealers were so afraid of forced arbitration for their disagreements with manufacturers that they spent millions lobbying Congress to pass a federal law that prohibits automobile manufacturers from requiring forced arbitration in disputes related to dealership franchise contracts. The law passed in 2002. One of the alleged benefits of arbitration is that it costs less than litigation, but frequently this is not true for consumers and employees. Forced arbitration frequently costs more than taking a case to court and can cost thousands of dollars. Individuals often have to pay a large fee simply to initiate the arbitration process. If they are able to get an in-person hearing, individuals sometimes have to travel thousands of miles on their own dime to attend the arbitration. In the end, the loser (usually the individual) often pays the company’s legal fees. Forced arbitration is preferred by companies because it benefits companies - not the employee or consumer. Here are problems and dangers noted by consumer advocates: Yes, there are still some businesses that don’t require forced arbitration. These are usually the companies with the fewest consumer complaints. Unfortunately, forced arbitration is becoming so widespread that in many industries that it is not possible to shop around for a product or service that doesn’t require forced arbitration. Today it is increasingly difficult to find insurance, a credit card, cell phone, a brokerage for a retirement account, or a nursing home, for example, where forced arbitration isn’t required. Try to find an alternative. If possible, try to negotiate this term of the contract. But ultimately, in order to ensure that you can buy products and services and be employed without giving up your legal rights, legislation must be passed to ban forced arbitration. You can find out more about how to support passage of this legislation at www.FairArbitrationNow.org.

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Engineer Syed Mahbub Alam In several places, the Glorious Qur’an uses inquiring phrases such as ‘do they not think,’ ‘do they not ponder,’ or ‘reflect,’ and asks the Qur’anic reader ‘to enquire about certain statements to those who have knowledge and expertise.’ The approach of the Qur’an is to invite to reason, logic, rationality and intelligence. The more one researches on different verses in the Noble Qur’an, more deeper meaning one gets. Many books and articles have been published as a result of heeding to the Qur’anic Ayat exhorting the Qur’anic readers to think, reflect and ponder over natural phenomena both in the heavens and the earth including the human beings. The Qur’an inspires man to observe, experience and investigate. It acknowledges sense, perception and experimental as rewarding. In short, the spirit of the Qur’an, unlike some other religions, is scientific. Allah says in the Qur’an, “And hath made of service unto you whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth; it is all from Him. Lo! herein verily are portents for a people who reflect.” (45:13) “And of His sign is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the difference of your languages and colours. Lo! Herein indeed are portents for men of knowledge.” (30:22) That is why the Qur’an speaks of those who study nature and try to discover the laws that govern it as “men of knowledge and insight”. Furthermore, the Noble Qur’an says: “Lo! In the heavens and the earth are portents for believers” (45:3). In seeking knowledge, the believers are spurred on by their faith (Iman) t.. They know that: The alternation of night and day and the provision that Allah sent down from the sky and thereby quickened the earth after her death, and the ordering of the winds, are portents for a people who have sense (45:5). Our faith in Allah (SWT) does not follow from purely logical arguments; but it springs from the direct experience of order, harmony, and beauty in nature. Before the time of the last Prophet of Islam, the ancient civilisations such as Greek, Egyptian, Roman and Persian-all were polytheistic (shirk) in their beliefs. That is why they worshipped natural phenomena such as the earth (Goddess Gaiga now in the West), rivers, mountains, sun, moon or stars. Only Islam was able to displace them from the pedestal of worship and created the intellectual frame of mind, which is known as the scientific revolution. The polytheists believed the river to possess divine attributes. They believed the goddess of river caused the water to move and made it useful or harmful. In Islam the river is a creation of Allah and not a creator and it was a servant of Allah and not the Lord. Thus the Muslims found ways and means to exploit the rivers on a large scale. The history tell us that there is no precedent in any nation to the large-scale irrigation system developed by the Spanish Muslims. The Spanish Muslims developed agriculture and created Departments of Agriculture, Science and Irrigation in the universities. They studied trees and carried out research on the properties of soil. The infertile lands were converted into orchards and lush green fields, in today’s terms-a ‘green revolution’. Before this, people treated rivers, springs and sea as gods. But the Muslims brought the green revolution because of their monotheistic thinking. Polytheism (shirk) was prevalent until the 7th century. It was replaced with monotheism (Tawhid) by the Islamic Revolution. This in turn opened the doors of research and investigation by abolishing the practice of worshipping the natural phenomena. Modern industrial progress owes its existence to the Arab Muslims due to their Creed of Monotheism, which instilled them a mental and practical revolution. Islam changed the basis of thinking and contributed to the modern scientific revolution. Historians acknowledge that Islam changed the face of the globe. Polytheism and superstition blocked the progress and advancement of human development. Islam encouraged the investigation of nature and destroyed the ‘sanctity’ of nature. Islam also destroyed the concept of intermediaries between God and man, such as the kings and priests who claimed as God’s representatives on earth or even the incarnations of God on earth. Polytheism (shirk) curbed freedom of thought. Polytheism and superstition were the major obstacles to all kinds of progress. Superstitious beliefs were an obstruction in the path of free enquiry. The search for new truths and discovery of nature’s secrets remained forbidden areas for them for centuries. Before the Islamic revolution, the world had been swept by superstitious belief and idolatry. The revolution based on Monotheism of Islam put an almost complete end to polytheism (shirk). The Greeks excelled in the fields of art and philosophy. Their contribution to the field of science (except Archimedes’ hydrostatics) was actually quite negligible. Plato’s teacher Socrates (may be construed as a Haneef) never worshipped the pagan gods which were worshipped by the Athenians in Greece and instilled free enquiry among the youth of Athens and for that he was forced to drink hemlock as a punishment in 399 BC. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in 212 BC failing to recognise him. The atmosphere for scientific progress did not exist in ancient Greece. Similarly, the mighty Roman Empire never produced a single scientist. Islam with its foundation of monotheism created an atmosphere and environment and stimulated scientific research that lead to the conquest of natural phenomena. The modern age which is the age of science and industry, of freedom and equality is the direct consequence of the Islamic revolution rooted in the Qur’an. From the sixth century to the 10th century Europe was in dark ages while the Islamic civilisation attained the pinnacles of science and technology. After the crusades the Europeans came in contact with the Islamic civilisation. They went to Muslim universities in Spain, Sicily, Cairo, and Baghdad. They translated the Arabic works into Latin for over two hundred years. The European renaissance started in the 15th century and culminated in the emergence of the modern industrial civilisation. Islamic revolution is responsible for the emancipation of human thought. During the Abbasid era, paper was being manufactured on a large scale and so books could be produced without the dearth of paper. There were more than 400,000 books in the library of Cordova (Spain) in the tenth century, whereas in Europe at that time, the library of Canterbury-the top of the list of the Christian libraries-contained only 1800 books in the 13 the century. In many countries scholars were born with creative minds who could think independently of the their fellow citizens. But due to the unfavourable atmosphere and hostile environment of times, their efforts could not be brought to fruition. Their knowledge withered away before they could flower. On the other hand, Islamic revolution produced favourable atmosphere, it unleashed a mighty flood of knowledge which had been kept pent up for thousands of years by the dam of polytheism (shirk) and superstition. For progress of Science and Technology an atmosphere of free investigation is essential. One may be surprised to know that even today there are some people and societies who believe that the earth is flat. Even today some Hindus with MD and Ph.D, degrees worship the Sun as god and believe that the lunar and solar eclipses are caused when the snakes Rahu and Ketu swallow them. One thousand years ago Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni explained how the solar and lunar eclipses are caused by the shadows of moon and earth falling on the sun and moon respectively. The Hindus believe in many gods and goddesses. The whole life is not enough to recite the names of so many gods and goddesses. Islam is the religion of truth and it is balanced. The Glorious Qur’an denounces irrational religion as religion evidently false. Again and again the Qur’an urges men to use their reason, to ponder and to reflect. The West thinks there is conflict between religion and science; but for Muslims there is no conflict between Islam and Science. According to Dr. George Sarton, former Professor of History of Science at Harvard University, Islam is responsible for the meteoric rise of sciences during the middle ages while Europeans lived in the dark ages. This is because both the Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad (S.A.S) extolled the Muslims to learn, to seek education and knowledge. In Islam there is no distinction between secular education and religious education. The Noble Qur’an is not a scientific treatise. It is a Book of guidance, a Book of wisdom. However, there are more than 1200 verses (Ayath) which can be interpreted in the light of modern science. The Qur’an gave a great impetus to learning, particularly in the field of natural sciences. The Qur’an Majid may be called the cause of modern scientific and material progress. Mankind is at the threshold of the 21st century in terms of the common era. This age is rightly called the information age with computers, electronic mail and business and commerce and the Internet with WEB pages. To a section of thinkers religion is alien to science. Science simply means a specialised branch of knowledge. In Arabic it is called ‘Ilm. A scientist in Arabic is called an ‘Alim. The West is wrong in separating Science from Religion. The great universal Muslim scientists about thousand years ago were at the forefront of knowledge particularly in the sciences and technology without ever giving up their religion. In fact Islam in general and the Qur’an in particular inspired the Muslim scientists to seek and advance knowledge. Hence they achieved all these without any conflict with religion. Today many western educated Muslims follow the western path of separation of religion from science. On the other hand, those Muslims trained in Islamic theology have refrained from modern sciences. By moving away from the reading and in-depth study of the Qur’an Muslims have lost the golden opportunity of many a scientific discovery and advancement of knowledge. By moving away from their Scriptures the Western people made many scientific discoveries and inventions. This is because of the suppression and obscurantism practiced by the Church against the scientists and intellectuals in the past. Even the Scriptures themselves were a hurdle to the cause of seeking the truth through observation and experimentation as lucidly pointed by Dr. Maurice Bucaille in his most popular book “The Bible, Qur’an and Science.” Science is not a divine Revelation but it provides a means for the welfare of man and to better understanding the creation of Allah (SWT), the natural phenomena and their purpose. In simplest terms, science means knowledge and Islam exhorts its followers to relentlessly pursue knowledge. The Noble Qur’an, Allah (SWT) ordained His servants to pray to Him thus: “O Lord! Increase me in knowledge.” (20:114) It is reported that the Messenger(SM) of Allah (SWT), to have once said, “Learning comprises treasure houses whose keys are queries.” Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) encouraged the spirit of investigation and analysis of facts. One of the most inspiring Ayats (verses) in the Qur’an is the following: “And He has subjected to you, as from Him, all that is in the heavens and on earth: behold, in that are signs indeed, for those who reflect.” (45:13) To reflect is really the scientific spirit, which leads to understanding and discoveries about Allah’s (SWT) creation and natural phenomena. Allah (SWT) guides the efforts of the scientists to meaningful purpose. We are enjoying the fruits of modern science and technology every second, every minute and every day. Examples: Electricity, microphone, AC., Automobiles, Airplanes, Space Travel, Missile Shield or Star Wars, Computers, Cyber Space and Internet, Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, GPS-Global Position System, Cellular Phones, Digital Media Entertainment-TV, DVD, MP3, Tele-Medicine and Tele-Surgery, Artificial Organs: Abiocor, Organ Transplants-Hand transplant surgery, stem cells in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimers, Spinal Cord Injury, Diabetes, Heart tissue repairs, or any organ repair, etc. Simply put modern science and technology is improving the quality and longevity of life of a man or woman. One must be very cautious as Science and Technology is a double-edged sword and without Islamic ethics it can destroy every human being. These fruit yielding trees were grown in Muslim lands such as Afghanistan, Bukhara, Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova, Damascus, Delhi, Granada, Fez, Isfahan, Qairwan, Seville, Sicily, Zeituna and other great cities throughout the Muslim World. These trees were grown from a single seed. What is that seed and who planted the seed and where was it planted? Without the advent of our Nabi Karim Muhammad Mustafa (SAW) and the final establishment of Monotheism or Tawhid on earth, none of what we take for granted in the modern world could possibly have developed. Muhammad Mustafa (SAW) planted the seed of Tawhid (La Ilaaha Illallah) in Hejaz in Arabia about 1400 years ago. La Ilaaha Illallah, literally means “No God Except Allah. It means there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah (SWT). Anyone can become a Muslim by reciting the Kalima or Shahadah La Ilaaha Illallah Muhammadur Rasuulullah”. The greatest achievement of our Prophet Muhammad (SAW) is that he made every Muslim a scientist by firmly instituting the concept Tawhid in body, soul and mind of every Muslim. For Sufis recitation of “La Ilaha Illallah” is the Tariqah (path) to the Haqiqah (Haqiqath) or the Ultimate Reality. Polytheism and superstition looked upon things and creatures as deities, and encouraged their worship. Before the advent of Islam as the complete Code of life polytheism dominated the entire world. Because of the polytheistic view, natural sciences had become forbidden territory and natural phenomena were given sanctity. Tawhid destroyed Polytheism, superstition, nature worship or worship of natural Phenomena. Tawhid created the intellectual frame of mind and opened the doors of research and investigation by displacing nature from its sacred pedestal and abolishing the practice of worshipping the natural phenomena. Holding the moon to be sacred was a major obstacle to even thinking of conquering it. Sources as diverse as George Sarton, Bertrand Russell and Encyclopaedia Britannica, say. “We reach the conclusion that without monotheism the concepts of experimentation and scientific enquiry, not to mention modern industrialization, would not exist.” Historians acknowledge that Islam changed the face of the globe. Polytheism and superstition blocked the progress and advancement of human development.

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Definition of klomp : a wooden shoe worn in the Low countries Start your free trial today and get unlimited access to America's largest dictionary, with: - More than 250,000 words that aren't in our free dictionary - Expanded definitions, etymologies, and usage notes - Advanced search features - Ad free! Origin and Etymology of klomp Dutch klomp lump, wooden shoe, from Middle Dutch clompe clod, block; akin to Low German klump lump, clump Seen and Heard What made you want to look up klomp? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).

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This is the official home page of the american angus association. Unlike portable computers, most pdas are pen-based, using a stylus rather 5 supercomputer supercomputer is a broad term for one of the /different- types-of-computer-information-technology-essayphpvref=1. This personal gadget in aminimalist pen style enables the ultimate ubiquitous computing fig: 1 diagram of 5 pen pc technology 2. A digital pen is a writing instrument that allows the user to save a handwritten note as an to let the user upload the handwritten notes to a personal computer (pc) high-end digital pens are wireless, taking advantage of bluetooth technology impact sans serif serif tahoma trebuchet ms verdana 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. The 5 pen pc technology with digital pen and paper makes it possible to get a digital copy of handwritten information, and have it sent to digital. Body-borne computers, also referred to as wearables, are related to the fields of we will write a custom essay sample on wearable technology specifically for you proceedings of the ieee, vol68, no11, november, 1998, 29 pages peter body-adapted wearable electronics 5 pen pc technology google glass. Free essay: technology use in the mathematics classroom technology is a growing field that affects calculators are replacing the pen and paper method of tabulating answers twenty-five years ago, there were no personal computers. Pen computing refers to any computer user-interface using a pen or stylus and tablet, over input devices such as a keyboard or a mouse pen computing is also used to refer to the usage of mobile devices such as tablet computers, pdas and gps receivers microsoft's acquisition of the technology is the subject of a separate lawsuit. Which is better – pen and paper or the computer keyboard essays etc) using pen and paper and longer pieces (novels, autobiographies, august 22, 2016 at 5:11 pm i think pens and papers are near to be rare, most of people now prefer to use technological thing as tablets and computers to write all things in there. 5 pen pc technology is a gadget package including five functions: a pen-style cellular phone,virtual keyboard, a projector, camera scanner. It's a sky wifi smartpen, a piece of gee-whiz technology from a company just one stroke compared to the four or five that comprise the roman “b their secretaries they wrote them themselves on their desktop computers. Free essay: evaluate the importance of anti oppressive practice in social 1 issue 1 5 pen pc technology mrs sarika tyagi shweta garg. Certified that this report titled “5 pen pc technology” is a bonafide record of the seminar work done by ksmidhun krishna under our supervision and.

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Measles is preventable: 99% of those who receive the two-step vaccination develop immunity. The measles vaccine uses a live attenuated virus, which means a deactivated virus that can still provoke immunity but no longer get people sick. However, there's a growing irrational fear of vaccinations that is not connected to fact. This fear leads to disuse of a crucial preventative. Thimerosal,which in one study caused laboratory mice to be irritable and tremorous, has never been shown to cause serious problems in children. But the fear of its being the culprit for the increasing rate of autism has given rise to a fear of vaccines in general. This fear has extended from traditional MMR vaccines to the newly released MMR-varicella (chicken pox) vaccines, Priorix-Tetra (GlaxoSmithKline), and ProQuad (Merck). Fear of autism has also been linked to MMR vaccines, despite the fact that they don't contain thimerosal. A study in Pediatrics in July 2006 cleared both MMR and thimerosal-containing vaccines as NOT being linked to autism, but the fear remains. While it's understandable that parents are concerned about vaccines their child receives, the measles vaccine requires 100% compliance to effectively prevent reoccurrence and control spread of a deadly disease. In 2005, 98% of the people who lived in the area where the measles outbreak occurred had been previously immunized, a crucial factor in containing the outbreak. Nervous fear of a lifesaving vaccine must be outweighed by a much more healthy fear of a killer disease. Marc Siegel, MD, is an internist and associate professor of medicine at New York University and the author of False Alarm: The Truth About the Epidemic of Fear

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Tecota Mark 6 Trilene anaesthetic inhaler, England, 1970-1978 Used by mothers during childbirth, the anaesthetic Trilene (trichloroethylene) was inhaled through a face mask attached to the rubber tubing and the vaporising chamber. The Trilene was poured into the chamber to be turned into a vapour. The machine was used in the obstetric wards at University College Hospital, London. Trilene was introduced in the 1940s and is sometimes still used today. The machine was made by Cyprane Ltd. Related Themes and Topics There are 539 related objects. View all related objects An agent that causes insensitivity to pain. Applied to either the whole body (general anaesthetic) or a particular area or region (local anaesthetic). A device for breathing in a drug in order to deliver it to the airways or lungs.

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Doctor insights on: Cancer End Of Stage Kidneys Shut Down Yes.: Many cancers that arise from organs within the abdominal cavity can lead to spread of cancer throughout the lining of the abdominal cavity, called carcinomatosis. This can lead to intestinal obstruction, effectively causing the intestines to "shut down". These cancers may occasionally be responsive to chemotherapy but are more typically a pre-terminal finding. ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer Cancer is a group of diseases that is characterized by uncontrolled cell growth leading to invasion of surrounding tissues that spread to other parts of the body. Cancer can begin anywhere in the body and is usually related to one or more genetic mutations that allow normal cells to become malignant by interfering with internal cellular control mechanisms, such as programmed cell death or by preventing ...Read more Stage 4 cancer that has mets to brain, lungs, adrenal gland and now liver, cause bowels to shut down? If so what are the signs that it is happening? It depends on so man: Bowel obstruction can occur in any advanced abdominal cancer. If the bowels are compromised by tumor they can close/obstruct. It is not difficult to tell when that happens because no food will pass through them. As a result patients become constipated/obstipated and have increasing pain in the abdomen and are unable to eat and drink due to persistent nausea and vomiting. The belly swells up also. ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer Depends on how much: If someone has a zero percent kidney function, his longevity is very short i.e. Days but if it is say 15% which is the definition of end stage kidney disease, the longevity could be as long as several months. Of course if you take dialysis or transplant, the longevity is in years. ...Read more If your right kidney has shut down completely does that mean you attached renal gland has shut down also? Not. necessarily: The adrenal gland that is proximate to the kidney is an endocrine secreting hormones into the bloodstream and separate from the kidney making urine. You Don,t say why the kidney shut down. If it was a destructive process like a tumor it could invade the adrenal gland, but if it,s not a potentially destructive process the adrenal gland should work properly and secrete hormone. ...Read more My brother is having his"plug" pulled today. His kidneys have shut down how long before he passes? Time of demise: If your brother has kidney failure he may survive up to a week without dialysis. He may pass due to high potassium levels or fluid overload. It is difficult for an outsider to answer your question in a meaningful manner. You should speak to his physicians, as they have more insight of his prognosis than anyone else. ...Read more Does dialysis happen when the kidneys completely shut down or when they're still functional to some degree? Dialysis: Dialysis usually starts before the kidneys completely shut down. Renal function (GFR) is measured on a scale of 60 to 0, and dialysis usually starts around a level of 15-10. For successful dialysis early planning is important. The shunt (vascular access) needs to be put in at least 6 months before intended use. Most affected persons should see a nephrologist by time their GFR is in the 30-20 range. ...Read more I have pain in my right lower back after walking for about 15 minutes. Oct. 2010 i had an incident where i bled out and all my systems shut down. Could this be kidney related? This : This does need to be evaluated based on your past medical history. It could be musculoskeletal pain. Try to note if the pain radiates down your leg when you get it. Because of your history of kidney problems, you should be tested for infection or blood in your urine. Please see your doctor, share your past medical history, and schedule a complete evaluation. ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer I have pain in my right lower back after walking for about 15 minutes. Oct. 2010 i had an incident where i bled out and all my sysstems shut down. Could this be kidney related? This : This does need to be evaluated based on your past medical history. It could be musculoskeletal pain. Try to note if the pain radiates down your leg when you get it. Because of your history of kidney problems, you should be tested for infection or blood in your urine. Please see your doctor, share your past medical history, and schedule a complete evaluation. If you have increased pain, fever, or vomiting than you will have to go to the emergency department immediately for evaluation. ...Read more Kidneys: Drinking water should not cause your kidneys to shut down. Stay well hydrated is actually beneficial to the kidney function. Not getting enough fluids can hurt the kidneys. Certain other beverages have been show to have some impact on kidney function. Diet sodas have been linked to a higher risk of kidney issues in one study. Too much alcohol can be a problem too. ...Read more Kidney failure signs: The signs of kidney failure are an elevated BUN, potassium and creatinine, phosphorous and a low CO2 and hemoglobin on a blood test. The symptoms of kidney failure a patient with it may have are itching, nausea, vomiting, lack of appetite, prolonged bleeding, a bitter taste in the mouth and reversal of the day night sleeping pattern, among others. ...Read more I just took two, 500 mg acetametaphins by accident. If I take anything with aspirin, my kidneys will shut down. Should i go to the hospital? Dosing: if you have taken 1 gm don't take anymore and that can be used as a single dose in some patients. If you don't have any liver disease, you should not have any major issues. Would suggest not to exceed the total dose on the bottle. If you feel ill then sure seek attension. 1 GM is not an overdose. ...Read more My father in law is on life support from a drug overdose and his kidneys are shut down. Will he ever b the same? He was unresponsive w/ bed sores also HI I am a 21 year old male and I am new here. I have no family history of colon cancer or colon problems but my grandfather had kidney cancer got his kidney removed and caught lymphoma and ended up dying from it at 61. About 2 weeks ago, I was on vacation I had kidney cancer and now have pain in my right hip area and going down the right side of my bottom CT scan show a lesion in the right medial ilium? Further testing: More detailed imaging may be helpful and possibly a biopsy of the area to determine the exact cause of pain. In cases of isolated bony metastasis, focused radiation therapy can provide significant relief from pain. Other therapies may be available as well depending on your particular situation, but it is certainly possible that'll none of this is cancer related. Good luck and keep in touch! ...Read moreSee 1 more doctor answer ?Hernia ?Back Disc: Unlikely cancer! sometimes small groin hernias will push on nerves very early, before you can feel a lump, and cause the kind of pain that you're describing. Another possibility is a herniated disc in your back, pressing on the nerves to go to these areas. You need to see a physician to sort this out, may need x-rays, and perhaps even a referral to a specialist. Good luck and get well soon! ...Read more Lower back pain/cramping in pelvis-goes down thighs/ winced in pain when dr. Pushed on right pelvis ovary area, said he felt something, cancer at 27?!, sent me 4 pelvic ultrasound, scared 4 result The kidneys are paired organs that lie on either side of the vertebral column. Part of their critical functions include the excretion of urine and removal of nitrogenous wastes products from the blood. They regulate acid-base, electrolyte, fluid balance and blood pressure. Through hormonal signals, the kidneys control the ...Read more

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4. This question is about transverse waves. Adam throws a stone into a lake. He watches the waves move towards the edge. The distance between each wave is 10 cm. Adam counts two complete waves reaching the edge in each second. (a) Calculate the speed of the wave. You must show how you work out your answer, including and equation used. wave speed = .......... unit = .......... (b) The waves travelling towards the edge of the lake are reflected. Finish the diagram to show how these three waves are reflected from the edge. (c) Adam goes to another part of the lake where there is a beach. He throws in a stone. This is what he sees. (i) Suggest why the wave are getting closer together as they move towards the beach. (ii) Adam notices that the waves get more difficult to see as they spread out across the water. What happens to the amplitude of the waves as they spread out? Explain why. (d) Adam uses a ripple tank to try to reproduce the effect he saw in the lake. He places a sheet of glass under the water on the right hand side of the tank. (i) State what happens to each of the following as the ripples change direction in the tank. (ii) On the diagram, carefully draw a line to show the edge of the glass sheet that causes the ripples to change direction. Hints and Answers coming soon!

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Internet service providers (ISPs) say the cost of installing a super-fast broadband network throughout the UK is expensive because of the cost of laying the fibre cable connections, which are necessary to deliver higher speeds. Businesses based in areas where demand for high speed broadband might not justify an operator investing in installing fibre could be left with second rate connections, according to analysts. But a new approach to manufacturing "hollow core fibre" - a type of fibre which uses air rather than conventional glass fibre to transmit data as light - could make installations cheaper in the future. To understand why hollow core fibre is better than conventional fibre, a science lesson is needed. Conventional fibre optic connections carry data using light through shafts of cylindrical glass, which look a bit like plastic straws. But because the light has to travel through glass, the speed of data transfers can be slowed. For example, the glass can be damaged if there is too much light. Glass also causes light to spread out in a blurring effect, which could disrupt or slow the flow of data. In hollow core designed fibre, light travels down a hollow core and is guided by tiny air holes rather than glass, overcoming the limitations. These fibres - which can be a kilometre in length and the width of a human hair - can trap light so that it does not become absorbed by matter or lose its power. It does this by the structure of the tiny round holes running the length of the photonic crystal fibre, arranged in a honeycomb shape. Jonathan Knight, a professor at the University of Bath, said that the problem in developing hollow-core fibres is that only a special sort of optical fibre can guide light down an air hole. Knight said that the detailed nature of these fibres means that they have been difficult to produce and they can only work for a limited range. The new procedure developed by the Bath photonics group, shows how a tiny change to these fibres - narrowing the wall of glass around the large central hole by just a hundred nanometres (a 10-millionth of a metre) broadens the range of wavelengths that can be transmitted. The procedure omits some of the most difficult steps in the fabrication procedure, reducing the time required to make the fibres from around a week to a single day. The superior performance of the fibre means that it could have a significant impact in a range of fields such as laser design and pulsed beam delivery, spectroscopy, biomedical and surgical optics, laser machining, the automotive industry and space science, said Knight "The consequences of being able to use light rather than electrical circuits to carry information will be fundamental," said Knight. "It will make optical fibres many times more powerful and brings the day when information technology will consist of optical devices rather than less efficient electronic circuits much closer." For biomedical research, the fibres could be used to deliver light for diagnosis or surgery anywhere - even deep inside the body. "The most immediate use of these types of fibre will be in manufacturing, though," said Tim Birks, a professor in the project team. A manufactuer of laser equipment is trialling the fibre for fine laser cutting in its manufacturing process. "The fibre is of particular use in delivering highly focused and concentrated pulses of light - so any application in biomedical or manufacturing operations will be relevent. Birks said that the application for broadband was still some way off, but that the first steps had been paved for greater innovation.

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A tablet sits on a desk, surrounded by a coffee cup, pen and papers. A web page is on the screen that shows people posting images and chat online. Do you manage a website, blog or social media page? The screen scrolls down to reveal a picture of a naked woman that someone has posted online. One of the people chatting turns red with anger and the chat becomes nasty. A warning sign appears. Did you know that if people use your pages to bully, harass or defame others, you can be held responsible? The screen changes to show a ribbon with a shield of protection. But there is a way you can let people have their say, without you having to take the rap if they go too far. An arrow moves across the ribbon, punctuated with dots along the line. The dots pulse in sequence. If you follow a specific process when you receive complaints, you can’t be prosecuted for harmful or illegal content that other people post. The words ‘safe harbour’ appear below the arrow. On the shield a see-saw appears and swings until it finds its balance point. That process, called safe harbour, recognises that everyone has a role to play in helping prevent and deal with cyberbullying and other forms of harassment. It balances the need to remove harmful content with people’s right to free speech. The screen and safe harbour symbols slide away. It’s optional whether you use the safe harbour process or not. And you might not be able to because of the time and effort it takes … so let’s look at what you have to do. The scene changes to show Sarah working at a computer on her desk. She has movie posters on the wall. Sarah is swinging her leg and clicking her computer mouse. Meet Sarah. She runs a movie review forum where other people can post reviews and links. The video zooms into Sarah’s screen where we can see an angry person bullying or abusing someone else. If Sarah turns a blind eye to people using her forum to abuse others, she could be prosecuted. The safe harbour arrow pulses through the steps. If she wants to be able to claim safe harbour protection Sarah has to prepare, then take certain steps within certain time limits. The screen changes to show text with a complaints button on it. First, she changes her website so it’s easy for people to contact her to make a complaint. Icons show some of the information people have to provide when they make a complaint; name, phone number and address. She also explains what information people have to provide when they complain, such as their name and contact details. On the screen a star on an online calendar vibrates like an alarm. Next, she sets up a reminder to check her site and emails often. That way she can respond to complaints within the time limits she has to meet. The safe harbour ribbon and shield reappears and pulses. Because Sarah is now ready to follow the safe harbour the shield is checked. Now Sarah can follow the safe harbour process when she wants to. We see Sarah’s website rules page. As Sarah moves her mouse over the update button it pulses. She doesn’t have to, but Sarah also updates the terms and conditions that people agree to when they post comments and reviews. The red abusive person appears back on screen, then fades. Her update makes it clear that if people breach her rules, she can choose to take down their content straight away. Sarah is seen back on her forum with the safe harbour shield of protection ready for when she wants it. Safe harbour is optional. If you have the time and ability to update your social media page or website and to check often for complaints it could be right for you. The website URL appears: The Ministry of Justice logo is below it. The video closes with the Ministry of Justice logo on screen and then the safe harbour website address, www.justice.govt.nz/safeharbour This page was last updated:

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The Wild Fires of Crown King The residents of the historic ghost Crown King located in the Bradshaw Mountains near Prescott, have been waiting for news about their homes and if the wild fire destroyed them. Named the Gladiator Fire, the blaze has consumed over 8,000 acres and as of Thursday (May 17th), is only 5% contained. The fire fighters have the elements against them with winds gusting about 45 miles per hour. The fire is spreading fast and furious. On July 1, 1875, Rod McKinnon discovered the first gold mine claim in the Bradshaw Mountains he called, “Buckeye”. After his claim and over the next 40 years more than 15 mine claims were filed. The mine was named the Crowned King mine and shortened to just Crown King in 1888. The town started growing and during its peak it had about 500 buildings. Some of the structures consisted of several stores, boarding houses, a couple of Chinese restaurants, and a post office. They started to enjoy having electricity in 1897, but only had one telephone. The railroad ran through town but because of failure it was deserted by 1926. Today, Crown King only has a few of the old buildings standing. The Crown King Restaurant and Saloon was built in another location and brought to the town in 1910 in pieces on the back of mules. It used to serve as a brothel and bar in the town’s heyday. The one room schoolhouse was built in 1917 and is still being used by K-8 students. The post office, established on July 29, 1888, closed its doors on May 15, 1954 and is now the general store.

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Howe's Mother's Day Proclamation, written in 1870, was her comment not only on the American Civil War, but on all war, in general. It was a pacifist, feminist manifesto, dedicated to the notion that the mothers of the world deserve better than to raise sons as cannon fodder and that mothers have a duty to shape the destinies not only their families, but also of the societies in which they live. Howe's proclamation was the first call for a special day, for mothers in America and far from being sweet and sentimental, it was a clarion call. This Mother's Day let's remember not only own mothers, but also the women who, whether or not they gave birth to children of their own, have nurtured the world . Happy Mothers Day world!

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The global movement against the shark fin trade gains momentum with Chile, the Bahamas and Fiji all introducing legislation this week that would reduce the trade. Not only is the declining shark population potentially devastating to marine ecosystems, but also certain nations are realizing the economic value of sharks as a tourist draw. According to the Pew Environmental Group, tourism brings in USD$80 million annually in the Bahamas, with each reef shark estimated to be worth about USD$250,000. In Chile, the National Congress passed legislation today that completely bans shark finning, requiring that every shark caught by fishermen be landed with their fins naturally attached. In the Bahamas, the new legislation announced on Tuesday outright prohibits shark fishing in its territorial waters and also prohibits the sale, import, and export of shark products. In Fiji, the Department of Fisheries and Forests announced today that the government is reviewing current fisheries management law in order to incorporate a ban of all products derived from any shark captured in Fiji waters, especially fins. In the US, California’s ban (AB 376) next heads to the Senate Appropriations Committee on before heading to the Senate floor. The bill passed on the Assembly floor with a vote of 60-8. If passed, California will join Hawaii, Washington, Oregon, and the US territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, where similar bans have been passed. Up to 73 million sharks per year are slaughtered for their fins, the primary ingredient in the Asian delicacy, shark fin soup. Captured at sea and hauled on deck, the sharks are often still alive while their fins are sliced off. Because shark meat is not as valuable as shark fin, the maimed animals are usually tossed overboard to drown or bleed to death. The process is called shark finning, a wasteful and cruel practice. To sign WildAid’s Global Petition for Sharks, click here.

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What we demand in this war, therefore, is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It is that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and particularly that it be made safe for every peace-loving nation which, like our own, wishes to live its own life, determine its own institutions, be assured of justice and fair dealing by the other peoples of the world as against force and selfish aggression. All the peoples of the world are in effect partners in this interest, and for our own part we see very clearly that unless justice be done to others it will not be done to us. The program of the world's peace, therefore, is our program. Woodrow Wilson, 1918 Peace is only in the interest of satisfied powers. Hans Morgenthau, 1956 Wilsonian idealism is the term of passive rebuke frequently applied to the system of foreign policy of Woodrow Wilson, U.S. president during WWI. Also known as political idealism, this strand of thought has been grossly distorted by overuse over the course of the past 50 years; originally coined as a shot at Wilson for his responsibility in the breakdown of the balance of power that set the stage for WWII, political idealism has since been expounded into a system of thought that provides a polar opposite to political realism (and, with that, a more specific definition of the latter). Woodrow Wilson believed that war was made inevitable only by the assumption that war was inevitable, that the balance of power was a system of making war rather than averting it. Wilson believed that a program of collective security was the end-all means of achieving peace. He believed that every nation of the world could join together to secure the peace of the world, because war was always in the interest of a minority that could be overcome by the majority of "peace-loving" nations. The balance of power had, afterall, done little more than ensure a perpetual wavering between war and peace, the occasional but certain bloodletting-unto-stalemate from time to time. This seemed to Wilson an imperfect system, which he sought to improve upon at the end of The Great War. The great imperfection of this nomenclature, on the other hand, is that the "ideal" is by definition unattainable; that is, to call Wilson a "political idealist" is to call him a fool. This term is made all the more tragic and misleading by the fact that Wilson clearly perceived a growing trend of globalization, a strengthening of the interconnectedness of all states; he understood (as our dear political realism failed to understand, and is only now beginning to digest) that no nation really was wholly free to make its own decisions, that no (reasonable) nation really was wholly autonomous, but that it was rather part of a greater system, a system that influenced its decisions and curtailed the freedom of its foreign policy. What Wilson envisioned was nothing more than a sort of supernational society, the individuals dependant upon and loyal to each other; why do we call this impossible, why do we call this idealism when we see it so smoothly practiced every day? To call Wilson's political mindset "idealism" is to claim, unequivocally, that he was wrong. We do not know this (his plans were never carried out), and for that reason I wince to hear the term. This pill is not made any easier to swallow when I realize that these same people throwing around this ugly term of snide self-assuredness are the same people who are still singing the virtues of "political realism" and the balance of power system, the "right" and "true" branch of political "science", which has quietly retreated into the anonymous background of the world as we know it today. They say Mr. Wilson got his collective security in the foundation of the League of Nations, and that the second World War was the result of the realization of his failed ideal. But Mr. Wilson disagreed, and died spreading the omenous word of the world to come, a world without the "ideal," in which war was inevitable rather than impossible: You are betrayed. You fought for something you did not get. And the glories of the armies and the navies of the United States are gone like a dream in the night. And there ensues upon it the nightmare of dread, and it will come some time in the vengeful providence of God another war in which not a few hundred thousand will have to die, but many millions.

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Parents, Adolescents, and the Nature of Conflict Conflict is how parents and adolescent need to get along. Posted Oct 24, 2011 Parent/child conflict increases during adolescence as the healthy teenager pushes for more independence to grow and healthy parents restrain that push in the interests of safety and responsibility. Each of "the five engines that drive independence"—separation, expansion, differentiation, opposition, responsibility (see 9/13/11 blog)—creates a different source of dispute. SEPARATION can cause disagreements over time with peers versus time with family. EXPANSION can cause disagreements over what one is old enough to do versus what one is not old enough to do. DIFFERENTIATION can cause disagreements over what expression of individuality is okay versus what expression of individuality is not okay. OPPOSITION can cause disagreements over living on adolescent terms versus living on parental terms. RESPONSIBILITY can cause disagreements over what decisions one is not accountable for versus what decisions one is accountable for. Given this inevitability of more friction in the relationship, here are some notions about conflict that parents might find helpful to consider. PARENTS ARE TRAINED IN CONFLICT and they need to know what their training model is. In their family of origin they witnessed and experienced conflict in formative ways. If it was a safe and constructive model (calm discussion leading to reasonable resolution), they might want to continue it with their adolescent; if it was an unsafe and destructive model (explosive attacks leading to hurt feelings), they might want to change it with their adolescent. Parents can modify the way of conducting conflict that they learned growing up if they want. CONFLICT IS COOPERATIVE as opposing parties work together to contest some significant point of difference between them. Conflict is a matter of mutual agreement. It takes two to start a conflict, and only one (by disengaging) to stop it. ("Suppose they gave a war and nobody came, or only one side came?") Any time a parent finds themselves fighting with their teenager, they need to ask themselves: "Why did I agree to cooperate in this argument, and do I want to discontinue my involvement?" (To stop an argument, just stop arguing back) Just as bickering siblings are jointly accountable for their ongoing rivalry, parent and adolescent are jointly responsible for any conflict between them. Engagement in conflict is a matter of personal choice. CONFLICT CAN CREATES RESEMBLANCE, the influential conduct of one party often causing imitation in the other. Thus, if the teenager starts interrupting, voice-raising, and making general accusations when in conflict with the parent, it can be tempting for the parent to respond in kind. However, the adult must resist this temptation and model the kind of mature behavior he wants the adolescent to learn instead—hearing the other person out, speaking calmly, and sticking to specifics. When in conflict with their teenager, parents want resemblance to come their way. CONFLICT CAN BE INSTRUCTIVE, the adolescent learning from the exchange. Conflict is not something parents have with their teenager; it is something they do with their teenager. It is a performance act. Each time they engage in conflict the parent is teaching one more lesson (by example and interaction) how to do conflict. And this education bears not only on now, but later as well. Teenagers who learn how to constructively manage conflict with their parents (talking it out respectfully and not acting it out harmfully) are given valuable tools for managing conflict in later significant relationships of their own, as partners and parents, for example. RESEMBLANCE CAN CREATE CONFLICT when parent and adolescent share similar antagonistic traits. Perhaps they are equally stubborn. Perhaps they each have to have the last word. Perhaps they are both very strong-willed. Perhaps they are highly competitive. When parents recognize such a similarity connection they need to bring it out in the open for discussion. They do this with the adolescent in order to find strategies for managing future disagreements without getting trapped in the old familiar, similar way. The problem with conflicts of resemblance between parent and teenager is that they intensify very quickly and resolve very slowly, if at all. COOPERATION CAN CREATE CONFLICT because cooperation requires that two parties manage to share something in common. So telling teenage siblings to share the computer creates all kinds of cooperation questions that can lead to conflicts. Who goes first? Who's in charge? Who gets most? What is fair? What is a fair share? Who decides? Who knows best? Who is right? Whose is the right way? When is whose turn? If parents want to reduce cooperation conflicts between siblings, then they can declare how the sharing is to be done. CONFLICT IS HOW SIBLINGS GET ALONG; it doesn't mean they are not getting along. Conflict allows siblings to provoke interaction, compete against each other, practice arguing, take up for themselves, test their power, assert dominance, work out differences, and ventilate emotions, among other things. So long as parents monitor the conflict to make sure no verbal, emotional, or physical harm is being done (in which case they need to intervene, stop the proceedings, and confront the violator), and so long as siblings also have harmonious times together, the push and shove of sibling conflict can teach them how to get along when disagreeing with each other is what they choose to do. CONFLICT CAN CHANGE QUALITY OF COMMUNICATION as choice of language tends to alter with rising tension. So, for example, as impatience builds, the words parent or teenager choose to use can change from objective, declarative, and moderate ("You didn't do what you promised") to evaluative, accusatory, and extreme ("You're completely untrustworthy!") It's up to the parent to monitor the level of discourse so it does not become inflammatory. When provocative speech intensifies conflict, parents to need to stop action, agenda the issue at difference, and take time to discuss constructive language that needs to be used. CONFLICT CAN LEAD TO VIOLENCE when frustration with opposition leads to anger and anger leads to verbal or physical abuse. This is why the number one priority in family conflict is the management of emotional arousal, the issue at disagreement always of secondary importance. Each person must take responsibility for monitoring and managing their own state of feeling. If anyone, parent or teenager, feels in danger of emotionally ‘losing it,' they need to declare a time out to cool down, and commit to resuming the dispute at a more emotionally sober time. The rule of safety must prevail and it is simply this: conflict is never to be used as an excuse to do anyone in the family harm. Between parent and adolescent, disagreements are normal, conflict is to be expected, but violence is neither. TOLERANCE FOR CONFLICT CAN VARY BETWEEN PARENTS with mothers frequently more comfortable in conflict with their teenager than are fathers. For example, a mother who was socialized with female peers to value closely communicative, emotionally intense relationships growing up may treat conflict with the adolescent as a chance to better understand her more argumentative son. The father, however, perhaps less comfortable with emotional interactions and more male socialized to treat conflict as competition or even combat, may want to win, shut the opposition down, and get the disagreement over with. Sometimes fathers have to work at hanging in there in conflict with the adolescent in order to provide an opinion or stand that the teenager needs to hear and to hear what the teenager has to say.. TOLERANCE FOR CONFLICT CAN VARY BETWEEN PARENT AND ADOLESCENT, the teenager more often up for an argument than the adult. Why is that? Conflict is one way the adolescent takes on the adult to fight for older, equal standing, and ultimately independence, against the most powerful adult in her world. Even if losing the argument, the teenager comes out stronger for the effort. As for the parent, there is less to personally gain and more stress to endure—having to invest energy and emotion in a dispute of questionable value that can leave the adult exhausted, while the teenager seems hardly winded. For the adolescent, in fighting trim and with more freedom on the line, conflict with parents is just a normal part of growing up: "Bring them on!" Next week's entry: Adjusting to your child's entry into adolescence

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Time Lords are indistinguishable from Humans at a glance, but there are significant internal differences. The most obvious difference is that Time Lords have two hearts, but they also have telepathic abilities and extremely long lifespans. A Time Lord can easily expect to live for centuries, and they can further extend their lives via "regeneration", a process that physically renews the Time Lord's body, giving him or her a new appearance in the process. A Time Lord can typically regenerate twelve times, giving each a true life expectancy of millenia. Time Lords have telepathic abilities, but their extent varies among individual Time Lords, and their capabilities are difficult to determine. They seldom engage in telepathic communication, but many are adept at shielding themselves against telepathic intrusion. Time Lords can apparently speak any language like a native without effort and share this ability with their traveling companions; this ability may be linked to their telepathy. At an unspecified time in the distant past, the Time Lords discovered technology to create vehicles that could travel through time and space, essentially taking passengers to any location in the galaxy and any date in history. Their ability to move through space and time in this manner gave them immense power. They explored space and time, eventually becoming complacent, believing that they had learned everything there was to know and retiring to live esoteric lives of contemplation on Gallifrey. Their complacency and isolationism eventually left them vulnerable to repeated invasions by less advanced civilizations.

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ScienceDaily is reporting that a new exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York is part computer, part robot, and part child . Part of the "Design and the Elastic Mind " exhibit "WizKid" is able to focus on human faces and follows your movement allowing you to interact with objects on its display simply by waving your arms. "Wizkid looks like a computer with a neck. But there the similarities with the familiar personal computer end. Wizkid isn't static. The screen on the mobile neck moves about like a head, and it's trained to hone in on human faces. Once it sees you, Wizkid focuses on you and follows your movement. Unlike a computer, which requires you to stop what you're doing and adapt your behavior and social interactions in order to use it, Wizkid blends into human space. There's no mouse and no keyboard. You don't touch anything. There's no language getting in the way. On Wizkid's screen you see yourself surrounded by a "halo" of interactive elements that you can simply select by waving your hands. If you move away or to one side, Wizkid adapts itself to you, not the other way around. If you're with a friend, Wizkid finds and tracks both of you and tries to figure out your relationship, expressing surprise, confusion or enjoyment when it gets your response."

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This week we have been learning about subtraction. We learnt what the subtraction sign looks like and practised solving subtraction number sentences using objects. Can you solve these subtraction number sentences? 5 - 2 = 7 - 4 = 6 - 5 = 10 - 3 = In maths this week, we have been learning about 1 less. We sang counting songs like 5 Little Men in a flying saucer and 5 Currant Buns in a Baker’s Shop. Then we practised counting backwards from 20. We also used our fingers to show one less. In maths this week, we have been learning about 2d shapes. We went over the shape names (square, triangle, circle, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon and octagon). We looked around the classroom to see if we could see these shapes in the environment and played shape bingo. We also talked about the characteristics of these shapes. Can your child find any objects that are these shapes at home? This week we have continued work on addition. We have been solving number sentences using objects and we are beginning to write our own number sentences. Can you solve these number sentences? 2 + 4 = 5 + 5 = 7 + 6 = Can you write your own number sentences? This week we have been doing work on addition. We learnt about the add and equals sign and then put groups of objects together to work out how many objects we had altogether. We will be moving on to solving number sentences next week. This week we have been learning about one more. We have been using objects to work out what one more than a number is. We are getting really good at this and many of us are now able to work this out without using objects. This week, we will be learning about money. We will be discussing the value of each coin and then play shops to practise using the correct coin to pay for objects.

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Georgians lay claim to the earliest wine making in the world. There is archaeological evidence that supports this claim, but in a recent discussion with Georgians (over wine) I was told that there is linguistic evidence as well. The claim is that although the word ‘wine’ shares a common root in many language groups, only in Georgian does the word for wine have a clearly traceable root. I don’t have Georgian script, but very roughly (and with no research!), the Georgian word for wine is ghvino, with the root ghvin coming from the Georgian word ‘to bubble’ or ‘to ferment’. This, the argument goes, is additional proof that the Georgians were the first wine makers (circa 6,000BC according to archaeological evidence). I did a quick search on this site but couldn’t find any past discussions on the etymology of wine. Any history of this discussion? Considering that there are other nationalities that make similar claims to wine production, is anyone aware of similar linguistic arguments in support of their claims? I’m guessing that the Georgian version wouldn’t hold up to much scrutiny, but it makes for a great story.

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Diffie-Hellman key exchange, also called exponential key exchange, is a method of digital encryption that uses numbers raised to specific powers to produce decryption keys on the basis of components that are never directly transmitted, making the task of a would-be code breaker mathematically overwhelming. By submitting your personal information, you agree that TechTarget and its partners may contact you regarding relevant content, products and special offers. To implement Diffie-Hellman, the two end users Alice and Bob, while communicating over a channel they know to be private, mutually agree on positive whole numbers p and q, such that p is a prime number and q is a generator of p. The generator q is a number that, when raised to positive whole-number powers less than p, never produces the same result for any two such whole numbers. The value of p may be large but the value of q is usually small. Once Alice and Bob have agreed on p and q in private, they choose positive whole-number personal keys a and b, both less than the prime-number modulus p. Neither user divulges their personal key to anyone; ideally they memorize these numbers and do not write them down or store them anywhere. Next, Alice and Bob compute public keys a* and b* based on their personal keys according to the formulas a* = qa mod p b* = qb mod p The two users can share their public keys a* and b* over a communications medium assumed to be insecure, such as the Internet or a corporate wide area network (WAN). From these public keys, a number x can be generated by either user on the basis of their own personal keys. Alice computes x using the formula x = (b*)a mod p Bob computes x using the formula x = (a*)b mod p The value of x turns out to be the same according to either of the above two formulas. However, the personal keys a and b, which are critical in the calculation of x, have not been transmitted over a public medium. Because it is a large and apparently random number, a potential hacker has almost no chance of correctly guessing x, even with the help of a powerful computer to conduct millions of trials. The two users can therefore, in theory, communicate privately over a public medium with an encryption method of their choice using the decryption key x. The most serious limitation of Diffie-Hellman in its basic or "pure" form is the lack of authentication. Communications using Diffie-Hellman all by itself are vulnerable to man in the middle attacks. Ideally, Diffie-Hellman should be used in conjunction with a recognized authentication method such as digital signatures to verify the identities of the users over the public communications medium. Diffie-Hellman is well suited for use in data communication but is less often used for data stored or archived over long periods of time.

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Studies show time and time again that children do better when their parents are involved with their school and education. That doesn’t change once our kids are teens. Once a child hits the high school years, a parent’s role in their education changes. No longer is helping out on field trips or in the classroom a requirement. In fact, many teens would likely view an over-involvement from Mom or Dad as an intrusion and an embarrassment. Still there are ways we can remain actively involved in our teen’s education from arms length, such as joining their school’s Parent Advisory Council or equivalent. On a more personal level, there is a vital place for parents in their teen’s schooling at home, says education professor, Dr. Allison Preece. “We can support our adolescents and teenagers as they move into junior and senior high school the way we did when they were younger, by keeping the lines of communication open. We can talk to them about what it’s like, what they’re experiencing, enjoying and struggling with.” Education psychologists and teachers find that support on the home front is an important part of a teen’s success at school. What teens do need is a nurturing home environment, an environment that asks interesting questions about what they do in school and provides support for any activity or project. Maintaining communication between children and their teachers is also important. Things like parent/teacher meetings s are just as important at the secondary level as at the elementary level and is reflected in the schoolwork of students. Finally, Dr. Preece says “one of the things they encounter difficulty with often is time management. Suddenly they have different teachers, different courses and a multitude of assignments. One of the things parents can do in advance is help them plan by asking them how they are going to handle things, rather than assigning times when they will be doing their homework. This can be very positive and put the responsibility on their shoulders while signaling that they have our support and that we will help them with these time demands.” Adapted from The Parent Report Radio Show. Any advice or information contained herein should never be a substitute for professional and/or medical advice, diagnosis and treatment. For more information please review Terms of Service. For more about your child’s education, please click here.

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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition - n. See colostrum. from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License - n. The first milk drawn from a cow during milking; in humans, the milk secreted initially during breastfeeding, typically low in fat and rich in protein. from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English - n. The milk secreted just before, or directly after, the birth of a child or of the young of an animal; colostrum. from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. Same as colostrum, 1. from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved. - n. milky fluid secreted for the first day or two after parturition The small amount of milk produced early in the feeding is called foremilk. The milk at the start of a feed (called foremilk) is more watery and high in lactose (milk sugar). Mom and Michael went to milk Fawn because the first milk (also called the foremilk) is the most healthful and most important. They taught us that the milk at the beginning of a feeding, known as the “foremilk,” was lighter than the creamy “hindmilk” at the end. I did all of this up until I realized I had too much milk, which was mostly foremilk. This milk provides most of the calories and contains more fat and protein than foremilk. • Green frothy poop: In breastfed babies, green frothy poop signals overactive letdown or a foremilk/hindmilk imbalance. • Another possible breastfeeding-related cause of colic is lactose overload resulting from foremilk/hindmilk imbalance. To resolve foremilk/hindmilk imbalance, always let your baby self-detach before switching breasts. The point is that milk composition changes gradually throughout a feed; there isn't a foremilk part and a hindmilk part, like the oil and water in the bowl before you mix them; it's all mixed up together like inside the sponge and is released in gradually changing proportions. Wordnik is becoming a not-for-profit! Read our announcement here.

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When we think of the word 'censorship', we imagine blacked out words and authoritarian political regimes of the past. However, censorship is alive and well today, and just as pervasive in capitalist democracies as repressive regimes. Offering a potted history of the phenomenon from the execution of Socrates in 399 BC to the latest in internet filtering, Petley provides an impassioned manifesto for freedom of speech. Also explaining how media monopolies and moguls censor by limiting what news and entertainment they impart, this is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in global media in the information age. "Freedom of expression is never absolute," claims Brunel University Professor of Screen Media and Journalism Julian Petley, and throughout this compelling audiobook primer on censorship, he proves it. While assumptions about censorship may tie it to past regimes (like the Nazis) or modern, repressive governments (like China's), Petley explains how censorship is prevalent, even in Western democracies. Narrator Andrea Powell's serious tone adds weight to Petley's words as she discusses the main forms of censorship in the modern world, which include police harassment of journalists, destruction of works of art and literature, and banning works. All told, this volume is a startling listening experience that will alert audiences to censorship through history and in the modern world. We've sent an email with your order details. Order ID #: To access this title, visit your library in the app or on the desktop website.

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Gardens play a crucial role in urban and suburban areas, and potentially will become even more important in the future as our climate changes. From helping protect us against flooding and extremes of temperature, to supporting wildlife and helping gardeners to be healthy, gardens can provide an amazing range of benefits. The phrase ‘greening' simply means growing plants wherever possible in towns and cities. Each individual may only have a small garden but, together, the amount of green space we look after really adds up – it’s about 25% of the land in most cities. We really can make a difference by ensuring that every available space in our front and back garden contains planting. Benefits of Greening Grey Britain The benefits of greening urban areas include: - Improved air cooling, making it more bearable in towns and cities in hot weather - Insulation of buildings by garden vegetation - Improved air quality - Storm water mitigation which helps to reduce garden flooding - A source of habitats for wildlife - Improved health for plants and people who garden more What can gardeners do? Discover straightforward things you can do – including growing plants against walls, or on roofs; welcoming more wildlife; choosing appropriate plants for your driveway or considering the materials used when paving your drive or patio. We are helping by supporting research into how to maximise the part plants can play and we have produced a number of reports exploring the issue. Read more about our scientific review of urban greening. We are also involved in many urban greening projects that can help gardeners have a greater understanding of the environment around them, and how to get the best out of their plants. A fully peer-reviewed version of the urban greening science review was published in 2012 (R Cameron, T Blanusa, J Taylor, A Salisbury, A Halstead, B Henricot, K Thompson, 2012, The Domestic Garden - Its Contribution to Urban Green Infrastructure, Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11 (2), 129 - 137.) RHS Front Garden Summit A key part of our Greening Grey Britain Campaign is about transforming paved-over front gardens into beautiful, planted areas. Our Front Garden Summit focused attention on the negative effect this has on the environment and our welbeing, and asked: how we can turn our front gardens green again? See videos of our Front Garden Summit debate at the RHS Chelsea Flower Show at the RHS Chelsea Flower Show on 24 May 2016. Greening Grey Britain community projects There are thousands of community groups already ‘greening’ their local environment around the UK. Participants in the RHS Britain in Bloom and It’s Your Neighbourhood campaigns, make positive changes to the places they live and work. This means everything from establishing and caring for community gardens, to renovating run-down patches, tackling litter and introducing neighbourhood recycling. There are also more than 2,800 gardening clubs and societies affiliated to the RHS who organise gardening activities in their area. Find out more about community campaign Greening Grey Britain Find an RHS Britain in Bloom and It's Your Neighbourhood group near you. For more information see #greeninggreybritain or email email@example.com

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Learn more about Type 2 Diabetes with a comprehensive look at causes, prevention, symptoms, management and treatment at Health.com Introduction. As people with type 2 diabetes form a heterogeneous group, treatment regimens and therapeutic targets should be individualized. As type 2. https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Diabetes+mellitus-Type+1+vs+Type+2. Printer Friendly. Dictionary, Type 1 diabetes is controlled by insulin, Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a long-term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood. In diabetes mellitus type 1 there is a lower total level of insulin to control blood glucose, due to an autoimmune induced loss of insulin-producing. “By the time a person with type 2 starts insulin therapy, they likely already have diabetes-related complication because of poor blood sugar control,” Dr. Crandall. Mar 20, 2009. Insulin Resistance and Deficiency in Type 2 Diabetes. Some patients can control their diabetes for years with a good diet and exercise routine. Read about treating type 2 diabetes. If you have type 2 diabetes that's controlled using insulin or certain types of tablets, Insulin therapy is recommended for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and an initial A1C level greater than 9 percent, or if diabetes is uncontrolled. ABSTRACTIn type 2 diabetes mellitus, oral hypoglycemic agents and analogues of glucagon-like peptide-1 provide adequate glycemic control early in the. Conclusions. In both adults and children with inadequately controlled type 1 diabetes, sensor-augmented pump therapy resulted in significant improvement in. Research Liraglutide in people treated for type 2 diabetes with multiple daily insulin injections: randomised clinical trial (MDI Liraglutide trial) WebMD offers a primer on type 2 diabetes. What causes this chronic condition, how do you know you have it, People with type 2 diabetes make insulin, Insulin. Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes share one central feature: elevated blood. For improving blood sugar control, the American Diabetes Association. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes. If you have type 2 diabetes your body does not use insulin properly. This is called insulin resistance. Oct 6, 2017. With type 2 diabetes, your body either resists the effects of insulin — a. Physical activity helps you control your weight, uses up glucose as. Patients treated with a drug widely prescribed for type 2 diabetes can live longer than people without the condition, a large-scale study involving over 180,000. Type+2+Diabetes+ • Think&of&Type. the patient uses insulin, code E11, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, should be assigned. diet controlled and insulin controlled. This collection features AFP content on type 2 diabetes and related issues, including blood glucose levels, diabetic complications (such as ketoacidosis and. Diabetes mellitus type 2 (also known as type 2 diabetes) is a long-term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative. About 90% to 95% of people with diabetes have Type 2. But Type 2 diabetes is a little less clear-cut in terms of how it's best managed. The reason is that Type 2. Type 2 diabetes is a disease rooted in insulin resistance and a malfunction of leptin signaling, caused by chronically elevated insulin and leptin levels. Diabetes is a problem with your body that causes blood glucose (sugar) levels to rise higher than normal. This is also called hyperglycemia. Type 2. Nov 1, 2016. Most people with type 2 diabetes will eventually require insulin, but the. Blood sugar control is one of the most important parts of type 2. Just Heard about NovoLog®; Diabetes & Mealtime Insulin; Type 2 Diabetes. TYPE 2. Is your diabetes care plan no longer enough to control your blood sugar? Insulin is a naturally-secreted hormone that the body cannot function correctly without. When insulin is depleted, impaired or destroyed within the body. Second-Line Agents for Glycemic Control for Type 2 Diabetes: Are. controlled trials have demonstrated a reduction in microvascular complications Everyone with Type 1 diabetes, and some people with Type 2 diabetes, need to take insulin to control blood sugar levels (also called blood glucose levels). ★ Insulin Pump For Type 2 Diabetes ★ :: Diabete Test – The 3 Step Trick that Reverses Diabetes Permanently in As Little as 11 Days.[ INSULIN PUMP FOR. However, some people with type 2 diabetes also need to take insulin. diet and exercise might result in high blood glucose levels that only insulin can control. July 15, 2011 Volume 84, Number 2 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 183 Insulin Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus ALLISON PETZNICK, DO. Between 30 and 40 percent of people with type 2 diabetes take insulin. even more people with type 2 should be taking insulin to control blood sugar — and the. Type 2 diabetes mellitus occurs when the pancreas (an organ in the abdomen) produces insufficient amounts of the hormone insulin and/or the body’s tissues. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the efficacy and long-term safety of linagliptin added to basal insulins in type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on basal insulin with or. Get an Ultimate Guide For Managing Type 2 Diabetes. Get More Info Now! Access Comparison Information & Learn About a Non-Insulin Diabetes Treatment. Reviews and ratings for lantus when used in the treatment of diabetes, type 2. 18 reviews submitted. Diagnosed Type 1 Type 2 Diabetes Type 1 diabetes (previously known as insulin-dependent, juvenile or. Type 2 diabetes comprises the majority of people with diabetes around the world, and is. As a result, the disease may be diagnosed several years after onset, once. Living With Type 1 Diabetes. You’ve just been told you have type 1 diabetes. What now? At its Background Evidence supporting the addition of specific insulin regimens to oral therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus is limited. Methods In. ★★ Is Type 2 Diabetes Insulin Dependent ★★ ::The 3 Step Trick that Reverses Diabetes Permanently in As Little as 11 Days.[ IS TYPE 2 DIABETES. Treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes include insulin, a diabetic diet, exercise, and medication. Guidelines for diabetes treatment varies by person. In insulin-naive patients with type 2 diabetes, psychological insulin resistance ( PIR) is not uncommon and contributes to unnecessarily long delays for initiating. Type 2 diabetes — Comprehensive overview covers symptoms, treatment, prevention of this often weight-related condition. Insulin Pump Therapy for Type 2 Diabetes. You have type 2 diabetes, but diabetes shouldn’t rule your life. You want to manage your sugar levels well, but. May 3, 2017. If your type 2 diabetes symptoms can't be controlled with diet, exercise, and oral medications, you may wish to use insulin. Learn more about. Short-term studies comparing insulins show that a high percentage of people with established type 2 diabetes not well controlled with oral therapies can achieve. Causes of type 2 diabetes. Insulin is a naturally occurring hormone. Your pancreas produces it and releases it when you eat. Diabetes that's poorly controlled can: More Type 2 Diabetes Articles ... - Type 2 Diabetes Statistics In The United States: Diabetes is a problem with your body that causes blood glucose (sugar) levels to rise higher than normal. This is also called hyperglycemia. Type 2. Learn about symptoms, causes, tests and treatment for diabetes, the disease in which blood sugar leve... - Hemoglobin Levels Type 2 Diabetes: Oct 12, 2016. Blood Glucagon Levels Predict the Hemoglobin A1c Response to Saxagliptin in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Inadequately Controlled with. clinical practice n engl j med 366;14 nejm.org april 5, 2012 1321 The first step in glycemic managem... - Can You Type 2 Diabetes Take Insulin: @ Can You Have Type 1 And Type 2 Diabetes ★★ Diabetes Symptom 9 Year Old Girl The 3 Step Trick that Reverses Diabetes Permanently in As Little as 11 Days. Type 2 Diabetes Kids Information ★★ Type 2 Diabetes Information For Kids ★★ ::The 3 Step Trick ... - Blood Sugar Testing For Type 2 Diabetes: ★★ Diabetes Type 2 Blood Sugar Chart ★★ ::The 3 Step Trick that Reverses Diabetes Permanently in As Little as 11 Days.[ DIABETES TYPE 2 BLOOD SUGAR. Blood glucose monitoring is a way of testing the concentration of glucose in the blood. Most people w... - Nursing Diagnoses Related To Type 2 Diabetes: Feb 23, 2017. Considering nursing diagnoses along with medical data (e.g. diagnosis-related groups) to better identify patient-case complexity and related. RR, relative risk; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SNCP, standardised language in nursing care p... - Getting Pregnant When You Have Type 2 Diabetes: ★★ How Many People In The Us Have Type 2 Diabetes ★★ ::The 3 Step Trick that Reverses Diabetes Permanently in As Little as 11 Days.[ HOW MANY. Higher birth weight; Shoulder dystocia (when the shoulders get stuck in the. Your ob-gyn will likely monito...

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Economically offshore oil and gas are the most important reserves in the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) of many countries. They were generated by chemical transformation from the remains of marine plants and animals that sedimented to the bottom of stagnant anoxic shallow seas during past geological eras, and were then buried by movements of the earth. Initially deep within the rocks the high pressures and temperatures of 50–100 °C (122–212 °F) converted the organic remains into kerogen, a solid, waxy, organic substance, a forerunner of oil and gas. Further pressure cooking at temperatures of 100–160 °C (212–310 °F) converted the kerogen to oils and at still higher temperatures to natural gas (methane). The oil and gas then migrated laterally along porous rock strata, sandstones, or salt deposits, eventually becoming trapped where the strata domed or at faults where impermeable layers stopped further migration. In the North Sea the first gas was recovered in 1967, and the first oil in 1975. An example of a North Sea oil field is Forties. Discovered in 1970, it began production in 1975 and in 1982 produced its one billionth barrel of oil. It extends over a distance of 56 kilometres (35 mls.), covers an area larger than the city of Aberdeen, and each of its four main platforms, Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, and Delta, contains four times more steel than the Eiffel Tower. To date about 132 million tonnes of oil and gas have been recovered in Britain's EEZ, annually contributing £4 billion a year in taxes since 1984, and in 2004 the industry was employing about 300,000 people. Even so UK oil and gas production is only about 4% of global production. The most important reserves are still in the Middle East, but many offshore regions have large untapped reserves, especially in deposits under the Caspian Sea, and under more than 1,000 metres (3,250 ft) of water off Brazil and Angola. Oil pollution remains an unresolved issue, with serious spills from tankers and other sources occurring with depressing regularity. The industry is concerned about what will happen when most reserves eventually run dry, maybe before, or during, the second half of the 21st century, but many environmentalists believe that the climate change induced by burning all these hydrocarbons will by then have disrupted the world as we know it. M. V. Angel Subjects: Maritime History.

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Today is Thursday, Dec. 6, the 341st day of 2012. There are 25 days left in the year. On Dec. 6, 1922, the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which established the Irish Free State, came into force one year to the day after it was signed in London. On this date: In 1790, Congress moved to Philadelphia from New York. In 1884, Army engineers completed construction of the Washington Monument by setting an aluminum capstone atop the obelisk. In 1889, Jefferson Davis, the first and only president of the Confederate States of America, died in New Orleans. In 1907, the worst mining disaster in U.S. history occurred as 362 men and boys died in a coal mine explosion in Monongah, W.Va. In 1917, some 2,000 people died when an explosives-laden French cargo ship collided with a Norwegian vessel at the harbor in Halifax, Nova Scotia, setting off a blast that devastated the city. In 1942, comedian Fred Allen premiered “Allen’s Alley,” a recurring sketch on his CBS radio show spoofing small town America. In 1947, Everglades National Park in Florida was dedicated by President Harry S. Truman. In 1957, America’s first attempt at putting a satellite into orbit failed as Vanguard TV3 rose about four feet off a Cape Canaveral launch pad before crashing down and exploding. In 1962, 37 coal miners were killed in an explosion at the Robena No. 3 Mine operated by U.S. Steel in Carmichaels, Pa. In 1971, the original Auto-Train, which carried rail passengers and their motor vehicles from Lorton, Va., to Sanford, Fla., went into operation. (Although the privately owned line went out of business in 1981, Amtrak revived the service in 1983.) In 1982, 11 soldiers and 6 civilians were killed when an Irish National Liberation Army bomb exploded at a pub in Ballykelly, Northern Ireland. In 1989, 14 women were shot to death at the University of Montreal’s school of engineering by a man who then took his own life.

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Heritage of the Printed Book Database (HPB) The Heritage of the Printed Book Database (previously called the Hand Press Book Database) is a steadily growing collection of files of catalogue records from major European and North American research libraries covering items of European printing of the hand-press period (c.1455-c.1830) integrated into one file. This makes it possible for information to be retrieved in one single search across all files. New files are added to the HPB Database each year. The majority of these files consist of high-level bibliographical records created by book-in-hand cataloguing. Some files contain records created as a result of retroconversion projects, and these are gradually being replaced by sections of enhanced records. The entire system benefits from a unique spirit of international co-operation. The HPB Database is of interest to librarians and any one else with academic pursuits across many fields of study that use printed books as source material. It is especially valuable for research in intellectual history, social history, and transmission of thought — as well as in the history of printing and the history of the book. It may be accessed for information retrieval and downloading by CERL member institutions, their staff and users.

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Apple Proliferation Phytoplasma Candidatus Phytoplasma mali Witches broom on apple (cv. Golden Delicious), due to apple proliferation phytoplasma. Enlarged stipules of apple leaf (cv. Golden Delicious), due to apple proliferation phytoplasma (healthy leaf on right). Fruits of apple cv. Jonathan affected by apple proliferation of phytoplasma, showing marked reduction in fruit size; longer, thinner peduncles and shallower calyx end and peduncular cavities; healthy fruit on right. All photos in this fact sheet courtesy of: Biologische Bundesanstalt, Institut für Pflanzenschutz im Obstbau Archive, Biologische Bundesanstalt für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Bugwood.org The organism responsible for this disease of apples, stone fruits, and other perennial fruit trees is a phytoplasma: a very small bacterium lacking a cell wall and enclosed in a single membrane. Inhabiting primarily the phloem tissue of plants, it spreads from infected trees to healthy ones by tissue-feeding insects such as leafhoppers and psyllids. Of importance to the tree fruit industry, the disease can also spread via the use of infected plant material during propagation of scion wood and rootstocks used for grafting. Apple proliferation phytoplasma occurs in Europe and, if it spreads into North America, could have a significant negative impact on tree fruit production. Apple proliferation phytoplasma represents one of the most economically important threats to apple production in Europe. Nearly all apple varieties grown in Europe are susceptible. Fruit losses up to 80% can occur in the first two years of infection. Trees may recover but fruit often remains undersized and phytoplasma harbored in roots may be spread to healthy trees. Commercial production in Europe has found rates of 18% per year of apple proliferation phytoplasma spread to healthy trees in an orchard. The estimated total value of crops that could be infected in the United States is $7.2 billion. Distinctive symptoms include the untimely development of axillary buds, which leads to a proliferation of lateral shoots called witches brooms. The disease causes stunting and infected trees generally lack vigor. Infected apple trees may show decreased trunk and crown diameter, thin shoots, and discolored and dead areas on the bark. Small, stunted fruit develops on infected trees reducing the amount and quality of the crop. Leaves fail to develop normally, roll downward, become brittle, may turn yellow in summer, and their stipules may grow larger. Significant overall damage to apple trees occurs in poor growth and vigor reduction. Fruits have poor flavor, fail to color fully, and remain small—leading to decreased commercial value. Infected trees have increased susceptibility to powdery mildew and silver leaf, possibly due to altered sugar transport in phloem tissue. Premature death of trees can also result in severe cases.

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I started working on a new material recently: the guide cards for the Parallage Phrases. You can see some of the possibilities above (cut each option in half to get 2 cards). One guide card will go on each side of the phrases and will be there for students to look at as reference. The cards will be the same size as the Parallage Phrase cards so that they can be rubber banded together. I am playing around with the format right now. I would like to include all of the basic reference materials that students will need to read the phrases accurately. At this point, I know they will have the Colorful Scale, the Greek scale, and at least the basic interval symbols. I will probably create another guide card that will go above the phrases horizontally. It will have rhythms on one side and apihimas on the other (will that be possible using something bigger than a size 6 font?!). Option 1 is my fist draft. I like having the two scales right next to each other but there is a lot of wasted space on the second card. There are also a lot of interval symbols to process in such a small space. The symbols that are barely used get just as much space as those that are used frequently. I like Option 2 better in terms of format. The interval symbols that students will see most frequently are on the first card. Most of the flutter symbols on the second card will not be used very often but at least they are separate from the most used symbols. I think it makes sense to have the interval symbols next to the scales with the arrows showing whether they are ascending or descending. I feel like once students understand how the cards are set up it will be easy to use. There is the issue of what to put in the dead space at the bottom of the second card. SAHM by day; ByzB curriculum developer by night. My career was in teaching: kindergarten, first grade, bilingual reading, Suzuki piano, and Music Mind Games. Now I paint icons and spend lots of time making materials on the computer. My greatest joy is directing my students in their learning. This blog documents the process and provides a space for my other ramblings as well.

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As anyone who has experienced Peru travel will tell you, the country is rich in ruins and ancient mystery. Archeologists have only scratched the surface of discovery in many areas. A recent itch: the historic mountain-top city of Cerro Baúl. Here, at over 8,000 feet above sea level, an ancient brewery of the Wari Empire was found. Twenty ceramic 10 to 15 gallon vats suggest that this was much more than a Mom-and-Pop-shop. In fact, it may be the oldest large-scale brewery ever found in the Andes. It was used to produce great quantities of chicha, a fermented beverage similar to beer made from barley and berries of the pepper tree, Schinus molle. Chicha was an important part of many rituals feasts and daily consumption. The drink is still an influential part of today's local traditions and customs. Corn is the main ingredient in modern chicha. While Cerro Baúl was not the center of Wari's political stronghold, it is believed that the city had a large population of elite members who invited the surrounding communities to great gatherings. Chicha was served to the thousands. These assemblies were important, not only for ritualistic purposes, but they also brought citizens of the empire together, many of which were conquered people who spoke different languages. Individual consumption of 2.6 gallons of chicha during the ceremonies was common. PHEW! The gatherings helped to unify the Wari Empire into a single political structure. Pre-dating the Inca, the Wari Empire ruled Peru for nearly 400 years between 600-1000 AD. Its civilization conquered all of present-day Peru before inexplicably disappearing. The Wari paved the way - quite literally - for the road systems and regional governmental structure of the Incas. Resembling today's urban blocks, its major cities were laid out in a calculated grid-patterned design. Ruins of the same-name capital city are found near Ayacucho. A visit to the remains is a worthy stop during any Peru travel. Shaped like a giant llama, a maze of underground ceremonial sites and funeral chambers were discovered under the capital. The majority of the area is unexcavated. Just as the downfall of the Wari empire remains a mystery, no one quite knows the why the elites pulled out of Cerro Baúl. But ones thing is for sure - they left in style. After a final elaborate closing ceremony, the brewery complex was set on fire. As the flames grew, the beams and roof collapsed, burying the site, keeping it safe and well preserved for the archaeologists who would unearth it a millennium later. Want to Go?

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A handful of descendants of Confederate Civil War heroes Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson and Jefferson Davis are siding with those who believe monuments to their famous ancestors should be pulled down and moved to other settings, such as museums. And a relative of Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee says he would be fine with removing statues to his storied ancestor if it helps the country heal. Criticism of Confederate monuments has been intensifying since Saturday, when a rally in Charlottesville, Virginia turned violent after white nationalists opposed to the city’s plan to remove a statue of Lee clashed with counter-protesters. President Donald Trump agrees with some in the South who say the monuments speak to America’s history and heritage; but opponents of such symbols believe they glorify a shameful era of slavery. On Thursday, a great-great-grandson of Stonewall Jackson told The Associated Press that he believes the monument to his legendary Confederate ancestor, as well as others in Virginia’s capital of Richmond, were constructed as symbols of white supremacy and should be taken down. “They were constructed to be markers of white supremacy. They were constructed to make black people fearful,” Jack Christian said. “I can only imagine what persons of color who have to walk and drive by those every morning think and feel.” Christian told the AP that he used to be open to the idea that the statues on Richmond’s famed Monument Avenue – which memorialize southern Civil War heroes, including Jackson – might be acceptable if context were added to explain why they were built. However, the racially charged violence in Charlottesville has shown that to be impossible, Christian said. A descendant of Jefferson Davis, the first and only president of the Confederate States of America, said he supports moving the statues to appropriate settings, such as museums. Bertram Hayes-Davis told the AP on Thursday that he believes that “complete removal is wrong” and believes the best solution would be to put the statues “in a historic place where the entire story can be explained.” Robert E. Lee V, an athletic director at The Potomac School in McLean, Virginia, the great-great grandson of the Confederate general, said the family hates to see the statues be a source of division. “If taking down the statues helps us not have days like Charlottesville, then we’re all for it,” Lee said. “Take ’em down tonight.” Christian and his brother, Warren Christian, said in a letter to Richmond Mayor Levar Stoney published by Slate on Wednesday that it is “long overdue” for the city to remove overt symbols of white racism and white supremacy. The men said they want to make clear that the statue — and their great-great-grandfather’s actions — do not represent them. “While we are not ashamed of our great great grandfather, we are ashamed to benefit from white supremacy while our black family and friends suffer,” the brothers and Richmond natives wrote. “We are ashamed of the monument.” Michael Shoop, who wrote a book on the genealogy of the Jackson family, confirmed that the men are descendants of the Confederate general. Christian said he would like to see the statues preserved after they are removed from public display. He said he has heard from one relative who said she agreed with the sentiments expressed in the letter. Christian said he’s pleased the Richmond mayor has decided that the former capital of the Confederacy will consider removing or relocating its statues. The mayor had previously said he thought the monuments should stay but have context added about what they represent and why they were built, but changed course after the events in Charlottesville, where white supremacists rallied after the city voted to remove of a statue of Gen. Robert E. Lee. Chaos erupted at the Charlottesville rally, which included neo-Nazis, skinheads, Ku Klux Klan members, and is believed to be the largest gathering of white supremacists in a decade. They clashed violently with counterdemonstrators, and after authorities ordered the crowd to disperse, a car plowed into a group of marchers, killing a woman and injuring 19 others. Two state police troopers who had been monitoring the chaos were also killed when their helicopter crashed outside the city. The events in Charlottesville have quickened the pace of the removal of Confederate monuments across the country. Four Confederacy-related monuments were hauled away on trucks under cover of darkness late Tuesday night and early Wednesday in Baltimore. In Birmingham, Alabama, a 52-foot-tall obelisk honoring Confederate soldiers and sailors was covered by wooden panels at the mayor’s order.

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Becker muscular dystrophy is a condition in which skeletal and heart muscles slowly degrade. The causes and symptoms of BMD are similar to those of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), though the disease’s progression is typically slower. BMD is named after Peter Emil Becker, the German doctor who first described the differences between this disease and DMD in the 1950s. BMD is an inherited disease that is primarily seen in men, although women can be carriers of the genetic mutation responsible for causing the condition and pass it onto their children. Experts estimate that BMD affects between 1 in 18,000 and 1 in 30,000 boys and men. The first symptoms of the disease can appear as early as age 5, or as late as adulthood. What causes Becker muscular dystrophy? Like DMD, BMD is caused by a mutation in the DMD gene. In BMD, the genetic alteration causes the body to produce fewer or less functional dystrophin proteins. Dystrophin provides structural support and protection to muscle fibers, so an inadequate amount of it leads to muscles starting to deteriorate. Because BMD can be caused by multiple mutations of the DMD gene, the severity of the disease can vary greatly among patients. How does Becker muscular dystrophy affect the body? Muscle weakness in the legs, trunk, and pelvis are usually the first symptom of BMD. This causes difficulty in running, jumping, and walking with a normal gait. Patients with more severe symptoms may eventually require a wheelchair. Although most BMD patients experience muscle deterioration only in skeletal muscles, the condition can affect heart muscle, too — as in DMD. Although BMD generally does not affect life expectancy, its cardiac symptoms can be life-threatening if not addressed. How is Becker muscular dystrophy diagnosed? Doctors can suspect BMD if a person has muscle deformities, abnormal bone development, or a heart condition called cardiomyopathy. Laboratory and muscle tests may be requested for a definitive diagnosis of BMD. Blood tests typically measure blood levels of creatine kinase, an enzyme that is released from damaged muscles. Electromyography (EMG) measures muscles’ ability to contract when stimulated. The tests are not enough on their own to diagnose BMD. Doctors can prescribe genetic tests to look for specific mutations in the DMD gene. Doctors can also recommend a muscle biopsy to look for the presence of dystrophin protein. How is BMD treated? There is no cure for BMD. Several treatments can help reduce the severity of the symptoms and improve patients’ quality of life. Regular physical activity, physical therapy, and corticosteroids can counter muscle weakness, though corticosteroids can often have harsh side effects. Scientists are developing experimental therapies to address the genetic causes of the disease and to offer long-term relief of symptoms. These approaches include stop codon read through and gene therapy. Muscular Dystrophy News is strictly a news and information website about the disease. It does not provide medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. This content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website.

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Limb girdle muscular dystrophy Limb girdle muscular dystrophy describes a large group of conditions, which mainly affect the shoulder and pelvic girdle muscles. The hip and thigh muscles also weaken and waste over time, causing increasing disability. Symptoms and complications associated with the condition vary between the different types. In some people, the heart and breathing muscles are also affected, leading to life-threatening health problems. Limb girdle muscular dystrophy can be diagnosed at any age. Its impact can vary widely between individuals even within the same family. Some people with milder forms of the condition will never become seriously affected. Others may struggle to lift their arms above their heads or may lose the ability to walk. The muscles of the legs may deteriorate faster than those of the upper body. This means that people may have frequent falls, and may have difficulty walking longer distances, climbing stairs and getting up from the floor. People whose heart and chest muscles are weakened by the condition can experience dangerous complications. It is important these symptoms are closely monitored by specialist clinicians. About 25 percent of people with limb girdle muscular dystrophy do not receive a precise genetic diagnosis. Without this knowledge, it is hard to predict how their condition might progress. Precise diagnosis also helps suggest the best possible care and management of symptoms. Muscular Dystrophy UK is funding two research projects to identify the genes and mutations that cause limb girdle muscular dystrophy and to better understand how the condition progresses. About 1,400 people in the UK are affected by a form of limb girdle muscular dystrophy. Watch our information video below on what healthcare and support you are entitled to: Find out more about limb girdle muscular dystrophy in our condition factsheets. Five physiotherapists are among the amazing runners ta Duchenne treatment Exondys 51 gets second rejection A new MDUK grant will look at a self-management intervention Mitochondrial Disease Awareness Week 2018 is the 16-22 September

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Veterans Oral Histories Project Colleen Bernard, Urbana High School, Frederick County, firstname.lastname@example.org The Urbana High School (UHS) Veterans Club is participating in the National Oral Histories Project. Through an Act of Congress the National Oral Histories program was created, very similar to the slave narratives project in the early 1900’s. Every day the nation loses 1,000 to 1,500 World War II (WWII) era veterans, and with them dies a very important part of American history. In response, Congress created a civic project to promote the recordation of these Americans’ stories before they are lost forever. The students at Urbana High School have made contact with veterans from the community and have recorded two interviews so far. The students edit the interviews and burn three copies – one for the veteran, one for the school, and one for the county to be cataloged in the Maryland Room and added to the Library of Congress database. Best Practice 1: Meet a recognized need in the community Due to the numbers of veterans we lose everyday, we determined that not only was there a real need, but a pressing need to record these oral histories. As each day passes, we lose another piece of our history, so it was imperative that we act quickly to begin this ongoing project. The veterans themselves and their families were helped directly through this project by providing the veterans with an opportunity to tell their stories. This helped to validate their service and also provided a keepsake for them and their families. The students from UHS that conducted the interviews were able to experience first hand the preservation of American history, and the stories that together create that history. Finally, the community will benefit by the preservation of this generation’s history. Without this project, a very valuable piece of our history would die with these men and women. Now their stories can live on to teach others about the past in hopes of a better future. Best Practice 2: Achieve curricular objectives through service-learning This project connects to various school curriculum including: media – film recordation and editing, journalism – preparing interview questions and conducting an interview, history – researching history prior to an interview for preparation and using primary sources to understand history. Best Practice 3: Reflect throughout the service-learning experience After each interview, we debriefed as a team and we discussed ways to improve our questioning and any technical issues that arose. We also discussed how to continue the project into the next school year and whether or not our goal of one to two interviews per month was feasible. Finally, we discussed where to conduct the interviews. Our first two interviews were conducted in the veterans’ homes and we found that this worked well. It allowed the veterans to be very comfortable when telling their stories and also allowed for us to see any memorabilia that they had from their service, and film that as well. Best Practice 4: Develop student responsibility The students involved in this project attended a training conducted by the Veterans Oral History Project in Frederick County. After the training, the students brainstormed questions they could ask and practiced some interviewing techniques. Prior to each interview the students met with the veteran that they would be interviewing. The purpose of this pre-interview was twofold: 1 – provide an opportunity for the students to meet with their veteran and become familiar with each other, 2 – complete paperwork, releases and confirm basic biographical information. The students conducted all filming, interviewing, and editing. Best Practice 5: Establish community partnerships We worked with the following community partners: § Korean War Veterans Chapter 142 – many of their members were WWII vets as well § The Frederick County Veterans Oral Histories Project – Maryland Room C. Burr Arts Library Best Practice 6: Plan ahead for service-learning The students met once a month on club day, as well as two times per month after school, to plan the project. They conducted research, went through training, and made veteran contacts prior to staring the interviews. Best Practice 7: Equip students with knowledge and skills needed for service Through this project the students gained extensive knowledge about filming, editing, interviewing and most importantly American history. Students learned interview and research techniques, and developed an understanding for the technical aspects of the interviews – lighting, sound, film, and editing.

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This is the most common type of skin cancer and it is estimated that over 50,000 people in England and Wales are diagnosed with this every year. The appearance of a BCC varies from just a small nodule to a much larger ulcerated area if left untreated for a long period of time. BCCs grow very slowly and hardly ever spread to other parts of the body. However, if left untreated, they can damage the surrounding parts of the body and are generally easiest to treat when they are smaller. When near the eye, these lesions themselves or the treatment required, can damage delicate tissues around the eye, as well as the eye itself. Pictures 1, 2 and 3 show basal cell carcinoma on the eyelid The commonest cause is too much exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun or from sun beds. Basal cell carcinomas can occur anywhere on your body, but are most common on areas that are exposed to the sun, such as your face, head, neck and ears. It is also possible for a basal cell carcinoma to develop where burns, scars or ulcers have damaged the skin. Basal cell carcinomas are not infectious. Basal cell carcinomas mainly affect fair skinned adults and are more common in men than women. Those with the highest risk of developing a basal cell carcinoma are: Most basal cell carcinomas are painless. People often first become aware of them as a scab that bleeds occasionally and does not heal completely. Some basal cell carcinomas are very superficial and look like a scaly red flat mark: others have a pearl-like rim surrounding a central crater. If left for years, the latter type can eventually erode the skin causing an ulcer – hence the name “rodent ulcer”. Other basal cell carcinomas are quite lumpy, with one or more shiny nodules crossed by small but easily seen blood vessels. Seldom, if ever, do they spread to other parts of the body. Generally the preferred method of treatment when the BCC is around the eye is surgical removal of the tumour, and reconstruction of the defect. The reconstruction operation is normally done by an oculoplastic surgeon (an eye plastic surgeon). The tumour removal is often done by a Mohs surgeon (see Mohs information) to ensure clear margins and to spare as much tissue as possible in this sensitive area. Sometimes other treatments may be needed and your doctor will discuss this with you if necessary. Once you have had treatment for your BCC, it is unlikely you will get any further problems from this particular lesion. However, once you have had a BCC, you are at more risk of developing another and you will need to check your skin regularly as it is easiest to deal with these lesions when they are small. Another lesion could develop many years later. It is therefore very important that you monitor your skin and especially the area where the operation took place, and notify any suspicious lumps that do not disappear to your GP. Sunscreens should not be used as an alternative to clothing and shade, rather they offer additional protection. No sunscreen will provide 100% protection. Where can I get more information? Macmillan Cancer Support 89 Albert Embankment If you have any questions about cancer, need support or just someone to talk to, call free, Monday to Friday 9am-8pm – 0808 808 0000. www.macmillan.org.uk

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- Reading and writing processes in children and adults. - Academic preparedness and developmental education (remediation) in community colleges. - Adult education and workplace literacy. Perin, D. & Lauterbach, M. (revise and resubmit). Consistency of written summarization in community college developmental education students. Perin, D., De La Paz, S., Piantedosi, K.W. & Peercy, M.M. (under review). L2 writing skills in English-dominant educational settings: A critical research synthesis Perin, D. (2013). Literacy skills among academically underprepared students in higher education. Community College Review, 41(2), 118-136. doi: 10.1177/0091552113484057 Perin, D., Bork, R. H., Peverly, S. T., & Mason, L. H. (2013). A contextualized curricular supplement for developmental reading and writing. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 43(2), 8-38. Perin, D. (2011). Facilitating student learning through contextualization: A review of the evidence. Community College Review, 39 (3), 268-295. doi: 10.1177/0091552111416227. Reprinted in Armstrong, S.L., Stahl, N.A. & Boylan, H.R. (Eds.). Teaching developmental reading (2nd ed., pp 409-437). Boston, MA: Bedford/ St. Martin’s Professional Resources. Marri, A.R., Perin, D., Crocco, M.S., Riccio, J.F., Rivet, A. & Chase, B.J. (2011). Content-driven literacy: One approach to urban secondary teacher education. The New Educator, 7(4), 325-351. doi: 10.1080/1547688X.2011.619948 Perin, D., Crocco, M., Marri, A., Riccio, J., Rivet, A. and Chase, B. (2009). Integrating literacy in content classrooms. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 13 (2), 97-105. Reynolds, G.A. & Perin, D. (2009). A comparison of text-structure and self-regulation strategies for composing from sources by middle-school students. Reading Psychology, 30, 265-300. Goldstein, M.T. & Perin, D. (2008). Predicting performance in a community college content-area course from academic skill level. Community College Review, 36 (2), 89-115. Rogevich, M. & Perin, D. (2008). Effects on science summarization of a reading comprehension intervention for adolescents with behavioral and attentional disorders. Exceptional Children, 74 (2), 135-154. Perin, D. & Greenberg, D. (2007). Research-based reading instruction in an adult basic education program. Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal, 1 (3), 123-132. Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99 (3), 445-476. Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007). What we know, what we still need to know: Teaching adolescents to write. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 313-335. Perin, D., Flugman, B. & Spiegel, S. (2006). Last Chance Gulch: Youth participation in urban adult basic education programs. Adult Basic Education, 16 (3), 171-188. Perin, D. (2006). Academic progress of community college nursing aspirants: An institutional research profile. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 30, 657-670. Perin, D. (2006). Can community colleges protect both access and standards? The problem of remediation. Teachers College Record, 108 (3), 339-373. Perin, D. (2004). Remediation beyond developmental education: The use of learning assistance centers to increase academic preparedness in community colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 28 (7), 559-582. Perin, D., Keselman, A. & Monopoli, M. (2003). The academic writing of community college remedial students: Text and learner variables. Higher Education, 45 (1), 19-42. Perin, D. (2002). The location of developmental education in community colleges: A discussion of the merits of mainstreaming vs. centralization. Community College Review, 30, 27-44. Perin, D. (2002). Repetition and the informational writing of developmental students. Journal of Developmental Education, 26 (1), 2-4, 6, 8, 18. Greenberg, D., Ehri, L. & Perin, D. (2002). Do adult literacy students make the same word-reading and spelling errors as children matched for word-reading age? Scientific Studies in Reading, 6 (3), 221-244. Perin, D. (2001). Academic-occupational integration as a reform strategy for the community college: Classroom perspectives. Teachers College Record, 103 (2), 303-335. Selected book chapters Perin, D. (2014). Teaching secondary students to read and write in science In M.C. Hougen (Ed.). Fundamentals of literacy instruction and assessment, 6–12 (pp 165-178). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. Perin, D. (2013). Best practices in teaching writing for college and career readiness. In Graham, S., MacArthur, C. & Fitzgerald, J. (Eds.). Best practices in writing (2nd ed.) (pp. 48-70). New York: Guilford Press. Perin, D. (2012). Teaching academically underprepared students. In J. Levin and S. Kater (Eds.). Understanding community colleges (pp. 87-103). Part of Routledge/Taylor Francis “Core Concepts in Higher Education” series. New York, NY: Routledge. Perin, D. & Charron, K. (2006). “Lights just click on every day.” Academic preparedness and remediation in community colleges. In T.R. Bailey and V.S. Morest (Eds.). Defending the community college equity agenda (pp 155-194). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. - American Educational Research Association - American Psychological Association - International Reading Association - International Dyslexia Association - Society for the Scientific Study of Reading Selected Recent Presentations - Reading Forum: Contextualization of reading skills. Professional development, Saginaw Valley State University. January 23, 2015. - Developmental reading and writing skills: Directions for research and instruction. Student Success Symposium. Texas State University, San Marcos. January 5, 2015 - Relation of reading skill and source text to written summarization of low-achieving postsecondary students. Society for the Scientific Study of Reading. Santa Fe, NM, July 2014. Authors: Perin, D. & Lauterbach, M. - Intensive training of educational psychology. (Professional development for educational psychology faculty in teacher training institutes, sponsored by Asia Development Bank). Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 16-21 June 2014 - Contextualizing reading comprehension strategies in the college classroom: STEM GPS, The Science Infusion Program and BCC Faculty Development. Bergen Community College, Paramus, NJ, April 17, 2014. - Writing interventions for students with learning disabilities. Everyone Reading Annual Conference, New York, March 19, 2014 - Understanding L2 writing skills (poster). American Educational Research Association annual meeting, Division C, Philadelphia, PA, April 04, 2014. Authors: Perin, D., De La Paz, S., Worland, K., & Peercy, M.M. - Adult literacy instruction: State of evidence on effective approaches (roundtable). American Educational Research Association annual meeting, Adult Literacy and Education SIG, Philadelphia, PA, April 05, 2014. - Written summarization of low skilled postsecondary adults, Writing Research Across Borders Conference, Paris, France, February 19, 2014 - Understanding how children learn to write (keynote), and Writing instruction for primary and secondary students (session). Breaking Through Dyslexia, Dyslexia Trust of Kolkata. Conference on Dyslexia & Specific Learning Disability. December, 17-19, 2013, Kolkata, India. - Contextualizing English instruction in science content: Approaches to implementation. Presentation to STEM GPS and Bergen Community College Faculty Development, November 12, 2013. - LINCS Writing Study Circle (with Dianna Baycich): online professional development for adult basic education instructors, Literacy Information and Communication System https://community.lincs.ed.gov/, 3 cycles 3 different regions, 2014 and 2015. - Automated Pyramid scoring of summaries using distributional semantics. Proceedings of the 2013 Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Short Paper; poster). August 4-9, 2013. Sofia, Bulgaria. Authors: Passonneau, R.J., Chen, E., Guo, W., Perin, D. - Best practices and new ideas in teaching developmental reading and writing. Presentation to developmental educators, SUNY Orange County Community College, Middletown, NY, April 12, 2013. - Remedial/ developmental education. Presentation to Workshop in Pedagogical Research Design, City University of New York, January 14, 2013 2006-2009. Postsecondary Content-Area Reading-Writing Intervention: Development and Determination of Potential Efficacy. In 2005-2007. Enhancing Teacher Preparation for Adolescent Literacy through Interdisciplinary Learning Communities.Carnegie Corporation of New York CUNY Graduate School, Center for Advanced Study in Education; all Principal Investigator or Project Director unless otherwise indicated. 2002 Evaluator, Youth in Adult Basic Education Project. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education. Principal Investigators: Bert Flugman and Seymour Speigel. 1994-1997 Self-Directed Workplace Literacy Distance Learning for Developmental Disabilities Workers. U.S. Department of Education, National Workplace Literacy Program. 1994 Training in Fundamentals of Supervision and Leadership for OMH Power Plant and Maintenance Workers. SUNY Maritime College 1993-1994 Multi-Site Power Plant Communication Skills Project. SUNY Maritime College 1993-1995 Workforce Training Projects for Developmental Aides and Custodians: English as a Second Language, Basic Skills and Medical Terminology and Computation Skills Training. New York State Governor's Office of Employee Relations 1992-1993 Communication Skills Enhancement for Power Plant Employees. SUNY Maritime College 1992-1994 Workplace Literacy for Psychiatric Health Care Workers. U.S. Department of Education, National Workplace Literacy Program 1990-1991 Workplace Literacy Instruction for College Preparation of Health Care Workers. U.S. Department of Education, National Workplace Literacy Program HBSK 4072: Theory and Techniques of Assessment and Intervention in Reading Provides an overview of theories and research pertaining to reading acquisition and assessment and intervention techniques for reading across the lifespan. Content is organized according to four major themes: the psychology of reading development, language structures, assessment, and intervention. Materials fee: $25. HBSK 5098: Diagnosis of Reading and Writing Disabilities Prerequisites: HBSK 4072. Presents theory and research pertaining to reading and writing disabilities. Students obtain experience in administering, scoring, and interpreting a battery of measures and learn to formulate a diagnosis based on standardized, norm-referenced tests. The course takes a lifespan perspective in its examination of reading and writing disabilities. Materials fee: $50. HBSK 5099: Writing interventions theory and practice This is a literacy course that applies research on cognitive, linguistic, affective, social, and cultural processes underlying writing performance to the development of writing interventions. Writing is discussed within a larger context of reading comprehension and subject-matter knowledge. Students learn to evaluate and design content-area writing interventions for both typically-developing and special-needs populations of differing ages and in various educational settings. Materials fee: $30. HBSK 5272: Supervised fieldwork in remedial reading and school difficulties: Supervised field placement in reading Students conduct projects in a variety of field sites, including K-12 schools, community colleges, and adult education programs, under faculty supervision. The field experience provides an opportunity to understand both practical and theoretical aspects of pressing questions concerning literacy acquisition across the lifespan. HBSK 5580: Seminar in consultation and evaluation in reading The purpose of this seminar is to consider the implications of recent research in literacy assessment and intervention for the consultation, evaluation and professional development roles of Reading and Learning Specialists and Coaches. Materials Fee: $50. HBSK 6576: Research in applied educational psychology: Acquisition of reading and writing ability Permission required. Prerequisite: familiarity with statistical procedures and research design. Students participate in ongoing research or other special projects under the direction of a faculty member. HBSK 6903: Research-independent study in reading Permission required. Advanced students work with professor on research projects related to literacy skills across the lifespan. Documents & Papers Download: Dolores Perin CV [PDF] Centers and Projects

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the Late Roman military standard By Robert Vermaat Sarmatians, Alans, Parthians and Persians: The draco Standard was originally developed by the cavalry peoples of the steppes, such as the Sarmatians and the Alans, but also by the Parthians and the Sassanid Persians. It may have been used primarily to determine the wind-direction for the horse archers. Arrian described it as a long sleeve, 'made by sewing pieces of dyed material together'. This sleeve/tube hung limp when the rider was at rest, but on the move it flew like a serpent and whistled in the wind. The hollow head, in the form of a toothed dragon, was formed from metal and the wind passing through it would extend the cloth tube tail attached to the neck of the head. The draco was also used by the Dacians (or their allies) and no less than 20 of these are shown on Trajan's Column. Other sources mention Parthian and Sassanid Persian dracos. Not all such standards had dragon heads. The one below on the left from Trajan's Column shows the tubular tail with streamers attached. The head looks more like a dog (with ears) than a dragon. The one beside it has a much more serpentine head, and has scalloped rings attached to the tail. Other standards had no heads at all, just the fabric tube, while some had heads looking like wolves or even fishes. These had protruding ears and fins. The images below show part of the Arch of Galerius with several dracos. A draco from Trajan's Column. Another draco from Trajan's Column. Several dracos on the Arch of Galerius (311AD), carried by infantry as well as cavalry. 4-5th-c. Coptic wall painting from Kharga Oasis, Egypt, showing Sassanid dracos. Persian dracos main have been made of fabric only. From the Historia Augusta we learn that when Aurelianus had reconquered Palmyra (272 AD), amongst the treasure were 'Persian dragon-flags' (Persici dracones), which to me sounds like the standards we're discussing here. What these draco may have looked like we can see below; on the extreme right is a 5th c. AD Coptic wall painting, showing the occupying Sassanid Persian forces carrying two dracos. The Draco was adopted first into the Roman cavalry during the 2nd century AD, possibly with the introduction of Sarmatian cavalry into the Roman army. Arrian, who was writing c. 137 AD, described it as a Scythian (he most probably meant Sarmatian) invention which was adopted by Roman cavalry. The Romans first began to use the draco in cavalry games, the so-called 'Hippica Gymnasia'. These were described by Arrian as glamorised versions of training exercises, performed in decorated armour. It is possible that the draco was introduced just because it was 'outlandish', foreign and glamourous. Points in the game were scored for strikes on the tail piece of the dracos carried by a team acting as 'targets', from dummy javelins thrown by another team of riders. Arrian recommended that the standard be colorful, adding to to the spectacle of cavalry parades. One should be given to each unit to maintain order in both displays and battle. The Roman cavalry adopted the draco probably during or after the Dacian wars, in which the equipment of the Roman cavalry was altere to withstand the charged of the lance-armed cavalry. These equipment changes included the adoption of the fully-armed cavalry (alae cataphractiorum) and the long lance. It would be logical to assume that this was the time when also the draco standard was introduced. The choice for the dragon/serpent as model is not so easy to explain, because the steppe cultures used other animal's heads and continued to do so. However, it has been assumed that it was because of the Thracian dominance in Roman cavalry that the latter adopted the serpent shape. These Thracian horsemen had a deity which resembled a 'flying' serpent with scales, teeth and an upstanding crest, which may well have been a draco or It is not documented when exactly the draco was adopted as a normal standard for all troop types. However, sources mention the draco being used with the infantry. The Historia Augusta mentions that the mother of Severus (193-211 AD) dreamt of a puple snake before his birth, something very alike what we later hear of the Imperial standard. But since this source was probably compiled later, we can't be sure this has any bearing on a dating. We are on more solid ground with the entry of the reign of Gallienus (253-268 AD), when legionary troops are said to have paraded with a dracon amongst the standards of the legions and the troops of Aurelianus (270-5 AD) also had draconarii amongst the standard-bearers. This may lead us to conclude that the infantry began using dracos during the late 3rd c. On the Arch of Galerius, which was built before 311 AD to commemorate Galerius' war against Persia in 290 AD, several dracos can be seen to his left and right, carried by infantry as well as cavalry (see the image above, 2nd from We have no good idea about the general appearance of the draco. Some draco heads may have looked like a draco, but some seem to look more like wolves or dogs, or even of an ass (..). ||Also, we can't be sure of the lenght of the windsock, or the actual length of the pole on which it was However, the coins of the Emperor Trajan Decius (AD 249-251) give us some idea as to tall the latter was. If not a representation of a boar-headed trumpet (carnycus), it does not seem to have been taller than a man. In my opinion though, the Emperor would rather be shown with an standard. The draco head was most probably constructed by first carving a wooden original, then beating a copper alloy sheet around it. This draco head was made of two halves, the bottom jaw being riveted against the top half. Adding a windsock may be a problem, because we have no clear idea how long it would be. However, trial and error will get you there, with of course different lengths and materials possible. I'd go for silk, which may be expensive, but it is light and gets the best result. Possibly, added hoops might keep the tail 'inflated', which can also be used to attach strips of cloth to create the 'streaming' effect of the flying beast described by Arrian (Ars. Tact. 35.3-4). The images below show a 2nd-3rd C. funeral stele from Chester, probably showing a The funeral stele from Chester. Reconstruction of the stele from Chester. Reconstruction drawing by Gerry Embleton, showing a Sarmatian in Roman service, based on the Chester stele as well as the 'dog' draco from Trajans Column. Anoter view of the Niederbieber The Niederbieber draco The Roman draco developed into a real dragon, without ears but with scales and a crest. The only fully preserved draco was found in the Limes fortress of Niederbieber in Germany, which dates to the 3rd century. This copper alloy object was discovered near the SW edge of the vicus (civilian settlement) outside the fort. It can best be described as a scaled monster's head, measuring 30x12x12 cm, and with some probability is the head of a cohort's draco. It is formed by the joining of two embossed sheets, the gilded upper one overlapping the lower tinned one, both attached by 5 rivets on each side. At the base of the neck the sheets form a circular flange, riveted together by 2 more rivets. Overlapping scales cover the head and neck, while a series of ridges covers the upper jaw from the nostrils to the eyes, which face sideways. The open mouth shows triangular teeth, but no fangs or canines. A crenellated crest is attached to the top of the head. Two holes of similar size are pierced through both the throat and the skull behind the crest. No doubt a staff or the shaft of a spear would pass through here. Two axial slits, 2 cm long, pierce the botom of the lower jaw, probably to attach a lost mechanism that would have produced the hissing effect. The Draco found in Niederbieber, Reconstruction drawing by Eiden. The head is about 30 cm long, 12cm high (with comb 17 cm), and 12 cm wide. The Niederbieber draco. Another shot of these reconstructions in the Mainz museum. draco in the Late Roman army The late 4th c. author Vegetius also mentions the draco as a common standard. He seems to have been confused about the difference between the old standards and the new dragons though, as he wrote that apparently standard- and draco-bearers differ, but also that the standardbearers 'are now named dragonbearers, that both are present in a camp, but also that each cohort has a draco. if correct it would mean the first overall standard for the cohort (where before none had existed between the legionary aquila and the signa of the centuries). the draco may have foreshadowed the later common practise in the 3rd century to permanently detach cohortes from their parent legions. By 357 AD, the Emperors Constantius and Julian (who was crowned by a draconarius) had personal dracos sewn from a purple material. Ammianus Marcellinus writes of flags as well as draco being purple and mentions them making a hissing sound in the wind. The Emperor's personal draco standards made them identifyable in the heat of battle and may therefore have been mainly a tactital instrument rather than a personal adornment. Julian's draco at the battle of Argentorate (357) was important in his attempt to regain control of the battle. The early 5th/c. author Zosimus also mentions Julian being extremely cross when one was lost to the enemy during the Persian By the fifth century, as may be deduced from inscriptions from Perge and Prusias/Üskübü, Turkey, as well as a poem by Prudentius, there was a rank called magister draconum. This officer was the superior of the draconarii in a unit, ranking immediately below the tribune. However, we don't know if he directed the draconarii in battle, or may just have been the head of the standard bearers' club or scholae. The magister draconum probably replaced the optio signiferorum, whose function unfortunately is equally vague. Other ranks are less clear: from Cagliari/Sardinia we know an optio draconarius, while the bearcus draconarius seems to have been an unusually Prudentius also tells us that Late Roman draconarii wore golden torcs as reward for their valor in battle. However, we learn from Ammianus that the torc may have been a badge of office, so possibly standard bearers were selected from those who had earlier received such torcs, marking them for an Roman or 'Byzantine' draconarius Around the mid-6th century, the historian Johannes Lydos mentioned the draconarius (drakonarioi-drakontophoroi) in a list of ranks and functions. Justinian also mentioned a corps of 10 draconarii in his edict of 534, issued to Belisarius in North Africa. The military manual called the Strategikon of the emperor Maurikios (582-602 AD) shows that draconarii were probably still around in the early 7th. century. However, it is not clear whether the draconarius mentioned there was already anachronistic or if he still had a proper military function - there was a scholae draconariorum, a non-military office staff of 10 clercs attached to a civilian praefectus praetorio. After the 6th century, the draconarius disappeared from the Byzantine army. Reconstruction drawing by Angus McBride, showing a Parthian 'fish'. Reconstruction drawing by Peter Conolly, showing the Hippica Gymnasia described by Arrian. Reconstruction drawing by Angus McBride, after the Villa Maria catacomb fresco. Reconstruction drawing by Richard Hook, in use in the Caucasus and Georgia, while in the West the Franks under Charlemagne may have adopted them again. This may show continuity, or else Charlemagne's attempts to eminate the Roman Army. We have a miniature from the late 9th-c. Psalterium Aureum (MS St. Gall. Stift-Bib. 22, fol. 140, illustrating Psalm 59), which shows a draco in a formation of heavy cavalry. We also see it used at the battle of Hastings in 1066 AD, where it is carried by Harold Godwinson's retainer at the moment of his death. The next image is from a 14th-century manuscript of L'Histoire de Merlin by Robert de Boron, now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. It shows King Arthur in combat, brandishing what can only be a Medieval representation of a Late Roman draco. This is not supposed to reflect 14th-c. battle standards, but rather a fanciful idea of The last image shows the flag of modern Wales, in Welsh called Y Draig Goch (The Red Dragon). This red dragon, as the tale goes, would go back to the myth of the red and white dragons fighting on Vortigern's fort at Dinas Emrys in Gwynedd, Wales. These dragons, though, are thought by some to represent the draco of the Late Roman army. The Dragon of Wessex, like the Red Dragon of Wales, may indeed represent some form of continuity. However, it could also show Francish influence in England and Wales during the early Middle Ages, as well as an antiquity-related Romanticism which has nothing to do with reality Fectio's reconstruction of what such a fabric draco may have looked like. The reconstruction from Marcus Junkelmann. A draco for the Carnuntum Archaeological Park. Another shot of the Carnuntum draco. A draco from Joe Piela. The reconstruction by Michael Simkins. Another shot of the reconstruction by Michael A reconstruction by Cezary Wysczinski. The Britannia draco. Close-up of the Votadini draco. The Foederati draco, reconstructed by Toni Feldon. The Timetrotter draco, also by Toni The Time Team draco, made by Tim Blades. The Comitatus draco, also by Stefan The Fectio draco. The Fectio draco, made by Stefan Jeroen with the Fectio draco. Another draco by Stefan Jaroschinski. Special thanks to Sander van Dorst for providing the Greek quotes below: Scriptores Historiae Augustae, |tunc illatae illae vestes, quas in Templo Solis videmus, consertae gemmis, tunc Persici dracones et tiarae, tunc genus purpurae, quod postea nec ulla genus detulit nec Romanus orbis vidit. ||Then were brought in those garments, encrusted with jewels, which we now see in the Temple of the Sun, then, too, the Persian dragon-flags and head-dresses, and a species of purple such as of nation ever afterward offered or the Roman world beheld. Arrianus, Tactica 35: |... Sèmeios de diakerimenoi epelaunousin, ou tois Rhoomaikos monon alla kai tois Skythikois, tou poikilooteran te kai hama phoberooteran gignesthai tèn elasi. Ta Skythika de sèmeia estin epi kontoon en mèkei xymmetrooi drakontes apaiooroumenoi. Poiountai de xyrraptoi ek rhakoon bebammenoon, tas te kephalas kai to sooma pan este epi tas ouras eikasmenoi ophesin, hoos phoberootata hoion te eikasthènai. Kai ta sophismata tauta atremountoon men toon hippoon ouden pleon è rhakè an idois pepoikilmena es to katoo apokremamena, elaunomenoon de empneomena exonkountai, hooste hoos malista tois thèriois epeoikenai, kai ti kai episyrizein pros tèn agan kinèsin hypo tèi pnoèi biaiai dierchomenèi. ||'... They attack separated by standards, not only the Roman but the Scythian ones as well, so the charge becomes more colourful and fearsome at the same time. The Scythian standards are snakes of equal length held up on top of spearshafts. They are made of coloured pieces of cloth sewn together, the heads and their entire body up to the tail resembling serpents, so in order that they appear thus more frightening. And when the horses are not trembling from them the multicoloured bodies can be seen hanging down, however when charging they fill with air through the wind so they are most like the beasts and even hiss when a strong wind flows through much movement.' Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Severus |..mater eius pridie quam pareret somniavit se purpureum dracunculum parere, ||The night before he was born his mother dreamed that she brought forth a purple snake, .. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Gallieni ii 8.6: altrinsecus quingenae, vexilla centena praeter ea, quae collegiorum erant, dracones et signa templorum omniumque legionum ibant. ||On each side of him were borne five hundred gilded spears and one hundred banners, besides those which belonged to the corporations, and the flags of auxiliaries and the statues from the sanctuaries and the standards of all the legions. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, |Templum sane Solis, quod apud Palmyram aquiliferi legionis tertiae cum vexilliferis et draconario et cornicinibus atque liticinibus diripuerunt, ad eam formam volo, quae fuit, reddi. ||Now as to the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, which has been pillaged by the eagle-bearers of the Third Legion, along with the standard-bearers, the dragonbearer, and the buglers and trumpeters, I wish there is restored to the condition in which it formerly Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris 1.20: |... Quid ipsi draconarii atque signiferi, qui sinistra manu hastas gubernant, in proelio facient, quorum et capita nuda constant et pectora? ... ||... What are the dragonbearers and standardbearers, which hold spears in their left hand, to do in battle, whose heads and breasts are naked ? ...' ibidem 2.7: |... Signiferi qui signa portant, quos nunc draconarios ||'... Standardbearers who carry the standards, whom they now call dragonbearers. ibidem 1.23: |... Porta autem, quae appelatur praetoria, aut orientem spectare debet aut illum locum, qui ad hostes respicit, aut, si iter agitur, illam partem debet adtendere, ad quam est profecturus exercitus, intra quam primae centuriae, hoc est cohortes, papiliones tendunt et dracones et signa constitutum. ... ||'... The gate though, which is called the commander's, must either face east or to that spot, which faces towards the enemies, or, if a march is conducted, must be directed to that part, towards which the army is to march out, at the inside of which the first centuries, that is cohorts, set up tents and dragons and standards are pitched. ...' ibidem, 2.13: etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis feruntur ad proelium ... ||'Dragons, one each for the individual cohorts, are carried into battle Ammianus Marcellinus, 20.4.18: primis auspiciis non congruere aptari muliebri mundo, equi phalerae quaerebantur, uti coronatus speciem saltem obscuram superioris praetenderet potestatis sed cum id quoque turpe esse adseveraret, Maurus nomine quidam, postea comes, qui rem male gessit apud Succorum angustias, Petulantium tunc hastatus, abstractum sibi torquem, quo ut draconarius utebatur, capiti Iuliani inposuit confidenter, qui trusus ad necessitatem extremam iamque periculum praesens vitare non posse advertens, si reniti perseverasset, quinos omnibus aureos argentique singula pondo, promisit. ||'But since he insisted that at the time of his first auspices it was not fitting for him to wear a woman's adornment, they looked about for a horse's trapping, so that being crowned with it he might display at least some obscure token of a loftier station. But when he declared that this also was shameful, a man called Maurus, afterwards a count and defeated at the pass of Succi, but then a standard-bearer of the Petulantes, took off the neck-chain which he wore as carrier of the dragon and boldly placed it on Julian's head. He, driven to the extremity of compulsion, and perceiving that he could not avoid imminent danger if he persisted in his resistance, promised each man five gold pieces and a pound of silver.' |... nihil tutum ex praesentibus ratus in consilia cogebatur extrema et sensim cum principiorum verticibus secretius conlocutus isdemque magnitudine promissae mercedis accensis, cultu purpureo a draconum et vexillorum insignibus ad tempus abstracto ad culmen imperiale surrexit. ||'... So Silvanus, seeing no safety under present conditions, was driven to extreme measures, and having gradually spoken more boldly with the chief officers, he aroused them by the greatness of the reward he promised; then as a temporary expedient he tore the purple decorations from the dragon standards and vexilla of the cohorts and the companies, and so mounted to the imperial dignity' ibidem, 16.10.7: subtegminibus texti circumdedere dracones hastarum aureis gemmatisque summitatibus inligati, hiatu vasto perflabiles et ideo velut ira perciti sibilantes caudarumque volumina relinquentes in ||'... the dragons, sewn from purple covers and placed on the gilded and jewel-studded tips of spears, letting wind through an enormous opening and in that way hissing as if they had been aroused in anger and the bodies of their tails flowing in the wind.' |Quo agnito per purpureum signum draconis, summitati hastae longioris aptatum velut senectutis pendentis exuvias, stetit unius turmae tribunus et pallore timoreque perculsus ad aciem ||'On recognising him by the purple ensign of a dragon, fitted to the top of a very long lance and spreading out like the slough of a serpent, the tribune of one of the squadrons stopped, and pale and struck with fear rode back to renew the Historia Nova 3.19: advancing with a large army from a town in Assyria, surprised the reconnoitring party in advance of the army, killed one of the three tribunes and some of his men, and put the remainder to flight, carrying off a military ensign which was in the form of a dragon, such as the Romans usually carry in war. The emperor on learning this was much displeased, and in his anger attacked the forces of Surenas, compelled all to fly that could escape, retook the ensign which the enemy had carried off, and coming immediately to the city where Surenas had surprised the party, stormed, took, and burnt it. As the commander of the party, preferring his own safety to the valour and honour of a Roman, had left his standard in the enemy's hands, he deprived him of his girdle, regarding him as a mean and worthless person, together with all who had accompanied him in his flight Lydos, De Magistratibus, 1.46: draconariorum hominibus decem annonae xi capita xs solidi xcvii. ita: primo annonae ii pro annona solidos v, capitus is pro capitu solidos iiii, fiunt solidi xvi. reliquis hominibus novem ad annonam i pro annona solidos v et ad capitum i pro capitu solidos iiii, fiunt solidi lxxxi. the ten men in the corps of standard bearers (draconariorum): to the first, five solidi for an annona, and 1 1/2 capitus, 4 solidi for an annona, making 16 solidi; to the remaining nine men, 1 annona each, 5 solidi for an annona, and 1 capitus each, 4 solidi for each capitus, making 81 solidi.' ||'There should be drill masters, standard bearers or draconarii, trumpeters, armorers, weapon makers, bowmakers, arrow makers, and the rest according to the Later Roman Empire (AD 345-378), trans. Walter Hamilton, notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, (Penguin Classics, London, 1986). on the internet: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html. - Arrian: Tactica. Flavii Arriani Quae Exstant Omnia, edited by A. G Ross. 2 vols., (Leipzig. B. G. Teubner, 1968). - Historia Augusta, at: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html. - Mauricos: Strategikon, Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy, trans. by George T. Dennis, (Philadelphia 1984). - Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, trans. N.P. Milner, translated texts for historians vol. 16. (Liverpool 2001). - Zosimus: Historia Nova, ed. and trans by Buchanan, James J., and Davis, Harold T., (Trinity University press, San Antonio, Texas, 1967), pp. 249-58. - Bishop, M.C. and J.C.N. Roman Military Equipment, from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Batsford). - Brzezinski, R. and M. Mielczarek (2002): The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450, Osprey Men-at-Arms 373, (Wellingsborough). - Coulston, J.C.N. (1991): The 'draco' standard, in: Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 2, pp. 101-14. - Fischer, Thomas (1999): Die Römer in Deutschland, Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart. - Junkelmann, Marcus (1990-2): Die Reiter Roms, 3 vols., (Mainz). - Macdowall, Simon and Howard Gerrard (ill.) (2001): Adrianople 378 AD, Campaign 84, (Osprey, London). - Nicolle, David and (ill.) (1996): Sassanian armies, The Iranian Empire, early 3rd to mid-7th centuries AD, (Montvert, - Oelwein, Cornelia (1998): Römer in Deutschland, (HB Bildatlas 20). - Shadrake, Dan, Susanna and Richard Hook (ill.) (1997): Barbarian Warriors, Saxons, Vikings, Normans, Brassey's History of Uniforms 7, (Brassey's, London). - Speidel, M.P. (1985): The Master of the Dragon Standards and the Golden Torc: an Inscription from Prusias and Prudentius' Peristephanon, in: Transactions of the American Philological Association 115, pp - Sumner, Graham and (ill.) (1997): Roman Army, Wars of the Empire, Brassey's History of Uniforms 8, (Brassey's, London). On the internet

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'A poin in the neck'is more colloquial and might refer to a temporary or a permanent situation, while 'thorn in one's side' would be more permanent. I'd also say 'thorn'is more serious- a rival would be a thorn and an idiot a pain. Thanks a lot. The explanation is very practical; colloquial vs. non-colloquial; temporary vs. permanent; and idiot vs. rival. Come to think of it, you are right. We hear, "so-and-so is a pain in the neck or butt," often in a work place. However, we don't hear "a thorn in the flesh" very often. Below is a non-rival situation: If a bad stepdad/stepmom hates an innocent stepchild so much so that he or she would like very much to kick the child out, do you call the little one a thorn in the flesh in the eyes of the parent? (Of course the child is a victim.)

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The solar resource Solar energy is the source of all energy on earth, available to us in a number of derivatives. Plant matter for example, which relies on solar energy for nutrition, experiences natural compression and decomposition over millions of years to form the the fossil fuels we use today for electrical generation and transportation. Other examples of this can be seen in use of biomass for fuel or the harvesting of wind energy which is reliant on solar heated air for the formation of currents. We are also able to utilize the solar resource directly. Solar thermal technologies take advantage of this resource to heat a working fluid that can transfer energy to an air stream or water for domestic or commercial use. Solar Photovoltaic or PV devices exploit various materials (principally Silicon) that experience sub-atomic variations when exposed to solar energy in order to induce an electric current. Both solar PV and thermal technologies provide a useful source of energy with little to no moving parts, no pollution and very little embodied energy. In order to effectively design a solar energy system, an understanding of the available solar resource at the location of interest is required. This article aims to provide readers with an understanding of the earth's solar resource and introduces the tools required to perform a basic analysis. A brief overview of solar radiation measurement techniques and performance modeling will also be provided. The Sun All of the energy available on Earth is derived from the sun. We can model the sun's surface as blackbody. At a specific temperature, approximately 5777K for the sun, a blackbody emits energy with a unique radiation spectrum (Table 1). |Wavelength (m)||0 - 0.38||0.38 - 0.78||0.78 - Inf| |Fraction in Range||0.064||0.480||0.456| |Energy in Range (W/m2)||87||656||623| The spectrum is divided into three broad ranges classified as ultraviolet, visible and infrared which transmit radiation at varying intensities. The highest intensities are found within the visible spectrum, peaking at a wavelength close to 0.5um. Averaged over the entire surface, the power density of the sun is found to be approximately 63 x 10 W/m2. Earth Bound Radiation The sun emits radiation in all directions, however only a portion of this energy is intercepted by the Earth. The intercepted radiation for any body in space is defined as follows: Ho = (Rsun2 / D2) Hsun Where Ho is the intercepted power density Hsun is the power density of the sun D is the distance between the sun and body of interest For Earth, the distance to the sun is about 1.495 x 1011m. This provides an Earth intercepted value of around 1353 W/m2. Terrestrial radiation, that is radiation hitting the Earth's surface, varies widely with geographical location, local atmospheric conditions, time of day and time of year. Some regions are more suspect to variability in terrestrial radiation than others, depending on the amount of weather fluctuations experienced. For example, desert regions tend to demonstrate consistent weather patterns thereby providing relatively consistent values of terrestrial radiation. As the radiation passes through the atmosphere the following mechanism determine the amount of radiation that will reach the Earth's surface: Absorption – Certain molecules in the atmosphere posses high photon absorption properties. For example, water vapour (H2O) and CO2 absorb far infrared radiation and ozone (O3) absorbs ultraviolet radiation. Energy that is absorbed here is unavailable for use by solar panels. Reflection – In addition to absorption, radiation can also be reflected off of particles in the atmosphere. Radiation that is reflected a number of times before eventually reaching the Earth's surface is known as diffuse radiation. A portion of the incoming radiation may also be lost completely by reflection back into space. No Interaction – About 70% of the incoming radiation will pass through the atmosphere undisturbed. This is known as beam or direct radiation. The losses due to atmospheric effects do not cause any major dips in the radiation spectrum. Rather, the impact is an overall reduction in the intensity of the entire spectrum. Depending on the time of the day, the sun's apparent position in the sky changes and as a result the length of atmosphere that the radiation must travel through also changes. When the sun is directly overhead, this length is referred to as the air mass (AM). Moving away from this overhead position, the travel distance required to hit the collecting surface increases. Figure 3 is simple schematic showing this effect. A simple calculation can be performed to quickly determine the air mass: AM = 1 / cos In order to account for the curvature of the atmosphere the following formula can be applied: AM = 1 / [cos + 0.50572 (96.07995 – ) - 1.6364] The air mass effect can also be visually understood by noting that the sun appears white (high intensity) when it is directly overhead and much redder (low intensity) during the morning and evening hours. If the air mass is known, then the resulting radiation intensity can be calculated as follows: ID = 1.353 [(1 - 0.14h) 0.7(AM^0.678) + 0.14h] *where h is the height above sea level The variability in the radiation received at the Earth's surface requires the identification of a standard to allow for fair testing and comparison of solar energy systems. This is has been defined as AM1.5 and is representative of the total radiation hitting the Earth's surface, which is found to be approximately 1000W/m2 (beam + diffuse). This value is often used to perform preliminary calculations for predicting how a system will perform. The AM1.5 spectrum is shown in Figure 4. Accounting for the losses discussed above, the amount of energy reaching the Earth's surface every hour is still greater than the amount of energy used by the world's population in an entire year. Herein lies the motivation to design and implement solar thermal and solar PV systems. Additional Information Weather data will often include a measure known as the clearness indexW. This value is the ratio of received radiation on a horizontal plane to extra-terrestrial radiation based on ground and satellite measurements. For theoretical calculations a number of sky models have been developed. The most basic model assumes that diffuse component of radiation is constant regardless of orientation. This means that all of the diffuse radiation is derived only from atmospheric scattering and equally from all directions. The Isotropic Sky model applies the same assumption but also includes diffuse radiation resulting from ground reflected radiation. Two main phenomena, circumsolar radiation and horizon brightening, are ignored by the preceding models. Circumsolar radiation refers to the greater concentration of diffuse radiation existing in the sky immediately around the location of the sun relative to the remainder of the sky; Horizon brightening refers to the greater concentration of diffuse radiation existing on the horizon relative to the remainder of sky. These two components are accounted for in the Anistropic Sky model, however are generally not required for system performance analysis. Describing the Sun's Location In order to calculate the air mass, the sun's position in the sky needs to be defined. In addition, the apparent position of the sun in the sky will significantly impact the amount of radiation intercepted by our collecting surface. This section will define a number of key terms and outline how to calculate the radiation that is intercepted by a given collector; followed by an example in order to further clarify the methodology. |Solar Noon||Time when the sun is directly overhead position of interest. Each hour away from this position corresponds to a 15o deviation (hour angle).| |Zenith Angle (θz)||The angle between the vertical and the line to the sun. This is also the angle of incidence on a horizontal surface for beam radiation. Additionally, the Solar Altitude angle is defined as the compliment of the zenith angle.| |Solar Azimuth Angle (γs)||The deviation angle from due South for the projection of the sun's position on the horizontal plane (-180o for Each, +180o for West)| |Surface Azimuth Angle (γ)||The deviation angle from due South for the surface's normal vector projected onto the horizontal plane (-180o for Each, +180o for West)| |Declination Angle (δ)|| The angular position of the sun (at solar noon) with respect to the plane of the equator. The angle varies seasonally due to the Earth's tilt and can be calculated for a given day using: δ = 23.45 sin[ 360 (284 + n) / 365 ] |Slope (β)||Angle between the collecting surface and the horizontal plane. In order to maximize the solar yield over the entire year, this angle should be set equal to the latitude. Steeper angles can be utilized to optimize for winter months. Likewise, shallow angles are used to optimize solar yield during the summer months.| |Irradiance||The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area of surface (W/m2)||-| |Irradiation||The incident energy per unit area on a surface (integration of irradiance over a specific time J/m2|| |Insolation||Irradiation applied specifically to solar energy||-| Calculating the Position of the Sun and Angle of Incidence This section will outline the methodology and equations required to calculate the sun’s position and the angle of incidence for a known surface at a given time and location. Initial Calculations and known values: Angle of Declination (δ) = 23.45 sin[ 360 (284 + n) / 365 ] Hour Angle (ω)= (Number of Hours from Solar Noon) x 15o Surface Azimuth (γ) = Orientation of surface measured from due South Slope (β): Slope of surface Latitude(Φ) of Location Using these variables the consine of the angle of incidence of beam radiation on the surface is: cosθ = sinδ sinΦ cosβ – sinδ cosΦ sinβ cosγ + cosδ cosΦ cosβ cosω + cosδ sinΦ sinβ cosγ cosω + cosδ sinβ sinγ sinω *For surfaces facing directly south/north the equation is simplified since the surface azimuth (γ) = 0o The zenith angle (θz) can be found setting the slope (β) equal to zero in this equation. With the zenith angle found, the solar azimuth angle (γs) can be calculated as follows: γs = sign(ω) |cos-1 [ (cosθz sinΦ – sinδ) / (sin θz cosΦ) ] | Example Calculation Kingston, Ontario is located at 44.1oN, 76.3oW, roughly 100m above sea level. For a 4m2 collecting surface orientated directly south and tilted 45o, find the incident beam radiation at 10:30 (solar time) on February 13th. For the given scenario, Angle of Declination (δ) = 23.45 sin[ 360 (284 + n) / 365 ] = - 13.95o Hour Angle (ω) = (-2.5)(15) = - 22.5o Surface Azimuth (γ) = 0o Slope (β) = 45o Latitude(Φ) = 44.1o cosθ = sinδ sinΦ cosβ – sinδ cosΦ sinβ cosγ + cosδ cosΦ cosβ cosω + cosδ sinΦ sinβ cosγ cosω + cosδ sinβ sinγ sinω We get angle of incidence, θ = 25.8o The air mass is AM = 1 / cos (-22.5) = 1.08 The incoming beam radiation is then calculated: ID = 1.353 [ (1 - 0.14h) 0.7(AM^0.678) + 0.14h] ID = 0.935 kW/m2 (IG = 1.03 kW/m2) Finally, for θ = 25.8o, the beam radiation intercepted by the surface is (935 W/m2) (cos25.8o) (4m2) = 3367 W Therefore, for the given location, time and collector orientation the total intercepted radiation is 3367 W. The actual energy utilized however will depend on various collector parameters and system conditions. Shading Considerations Shading can be caused by nearby obstructions such as buildings, overhangs or other collectors in an array. This can have a drastic impact on system performance, particularly for solar PV panels and it is therefore important to consider when and for how long shading will occur and determine if it is avoidable through design measures. Obstructions can have irregular geometries and be located anywhere in relation to collector surface. By calculating their relative azimuth and altitude angles, a shading profile can be established by overlaying this information onto a solar chart (a solar chart is a graph used to plot the sun's position throughout the year for a given latitude). Figure 5 provides an example of theoretical solar chart and shading profile, where the darkened areas represent when shading will occur. For example, we can read off the chart that the collector will be shaded on October and February 21st between 9:30am and 11:30am and between 2:00pm and 4:30pm. Measuring Solar Resource In addition to providing important meteorological data, measuring solar radiation provides valuable data sets that can be used for modeling and feasibility studies. In field testing of panels also requires accurate monitoring of radiation values. There are three main types of measurement devices: - Measures beam radiation by targeting a small portion of the sky around the sun - Typically induce a temperature fluctuation onto an enclosed target - Requires tracking of the sun - Measures beam + diffuse radiation (or diffuse only) using a semi-spherical chamber - Device typically operates by utilizing thermopile circuit across selective surfaces - Number of models available offering varying degrees of accuracy - PV detectors - Spectrally responsive detector - Calibration constants available to account for remaining spectrum, however these are unreliable due to variations in actual spectral distribution - Relatively Inexpensive A more comprehensive review of solar radiation measurement devices and techniques can be found here. For all radiation measurement devices, a number of factors determines the overall quality and accuracy of retrieved data: - Glass Layer - For devices that require an external glass layer, the uniformity of the thickness in this layer is extremely important to avoid refractive effects. The glass should have very low reflective properties. - Moisture Content - Any moisture within the measurement zone can skew the incoming radiation via reflection and refraction. In addition to proper sealing a number of devices use a replaceable solid desiccant to ensure dry conditions inside the device. - Temperature Sensitivity - The response of the circuitry used to output data can vary with temperature fluctuations induced by exposure to radiation and ambient temperature changes. It is difficult to thermally isolate these circuits, however a number of devices use multiple junctions or temperature compensation factors to minimize this effect. - The semi-spherical chamber used in pyranometers does not maintain a perfect vacuum. As a result, if the device is used to measure radiation on a tilt angle, the heated air inside the chamber can form convective currents which can induce further issues associated with temperature sensitivity and radiation interference. - All measurement device degrade over time. It is recommended that calibration constants for be re-evaluated every few years to ensure accurate readings. In addition to ground-based measurements, data can also be inferred from satellite observations of the atmosphere. NASA provides monthly radiation data sets for a number of locations across the globe using meteorological data and satellite observations. This data provides a convenient source for performing preliminary feasibility studies, however should only be used if ground-based data is not available. Table 3 highlights the uncertainties associated with measured radiation data. |NASA Data Set||7 - 12%| |Ground-Measured||6 - 12%| |Ground-Measured by High Quality Research Sites||3 - 6%| Simulating Performance Modelling provides a tangible way of predicting performance for a variety of system configurations and environmental conditions. To verify a models validity, a number of well defined scenarios are simulated and compared to experimental data. If the simulated results are adequately close to the experimental results, the model is validated to a specific degree of accuracy based on the data differential. Alternatively, newly developed models are often validated against existing models which have already been validated. A number of simulation tools are available to model various system configurations. The most basic simulation program must provide inputs for radiation data, collector characteristics and collector orientation; and perform monthly,daily or yearly calculations similar to what has been demonstrated in the example provided earlier. Beyond these inputs, a number of simulation tools provide additional inputs to better define the system being modeled. Inverter characteristics, battery information, pump characteristics, wiring information, piping information, system energy demand, energy prices, and wind conditions are some examples of inputs that would provide greater flexibility and detail. Some tools are also streamlined to specifically simulate a small range of system types and provide easy to use outputs. RETScreen is a free renewable energy technology analysis tool (solar, wind, biomass, hydro, etc.) developed by CanmetEnergy of Natural Resources Canada in collaboration with a number of other government and multi-lateral organizations. The program works as a plug-in for Microsoft Excel 2000 or higher and includes a built in monthly radiation database from NASA. Simulations can performed for a variety of PV panel types (a-Si, c-Si, etc.) and allows the user to select one of three system types: On-Grid, Off-Grid or Water Pumping model. Figure 6 shows the data processing schematic for each type. In addition to calculating energy production and emissions reduction, RETScreen also accepts inputs for electricity, system component, labor and maintenance costs. Utilizing these inputs and user defined inflation and interest rates and leveraged percentage, the simulation provides an analysis to determine the its financial viability. While RETScreen is a useful tool for system analysis it is subject to a number of limitation listed below. Inherent to Program: - Currently cannot model concentrator systems - Cannot adequately customize system configuration - Cannot compare configurations - Only provides option to use monthly averaged radiation data (cannot utilize higher resolution ground-measured data) - Does not provide reliability measure (loss of load probability) - Financial analysis easy to manipulate for ideal findings Given the above limitations, RETScreen remains a valuable tools for preliminary feasibility studies. Findings, however, should be presented with a sensitivity analysis in order to provide some insight to the variability in performance and cost recovery. Once project specifications are known in greater detail, RETScreen results should be complimented with more detailed analysis tailored specifically to the proposed project in order to account for hourly radiation fluctuations, shading, etc. Additional Resources The PVCDROM is an online educational tool developed by Stuart Bowden and Christiana Honsberg who work at the Solar Power Labs at Arizona State University. The content includes solar energy fundamentals and information on photovoltaic technology. CanmetEnergy is subsidiary of Natural Resources Canada. Their website hosts information on renewable technologies, including solar PV and solar thermal technologies. The Appropedia page photovoltaics provides a technical overview of all the components in a solar PV system. The Solar Photovoltaic Open Lectures is a series of five fully annotated slide presentations created for the solar energy community to assist in the dissemination of information about solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. - Duffie J. A., Beckman W. A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, pp7, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2006 - Hu, C. and White, R.M., "Solar Cells: From Basic to Advanced Systems", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983 - Honsberg C., Bowden S., Photovoltaics DROM, Properties of Sunlight, http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/index - Duffie J. A., Beckman W. A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, pp13, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2006 - Duffie J. A., Beckman W. A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, pp14, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2006 - Duffie J. A., Beckman W. A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, pp16, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2006 - Duffie J. A., Beckman W. A., Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, pp44-49, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2006 - Stackhouse W. P., Whitlock C. H., Surface meteorology and Solar Energy – Accuracy, NASA, 2010, http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/sse.cgi?+s05#s05 - Stackhouse W. P., Whitlock C. H., NASA Derived and Validated Climate Data for RETScreen Use: Description and Access, NASA Langley Research Center, 2008, www.RETScreen.net/fichier.php/1365/NASA_Data.ppt - Natural Resources Canada, Photovoltaic Project Analysis, RETScreen International, 2010, http://www.retscreen.net/ang/course_pv.html Back to MECH820

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State of World's Children Report 2009 The State of the World’s Children 2009 presents global and country specific data on the current situation of children. The theme of the 2009 report is maternal and newborn health, a critical area of focus for Bangladesh in its effort to reach Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5. The report analyses various the factors that contribute to maternal and neonatal death and examines the best practices for reducing mortality rates. It emphasizes a number of key issues for improved maternal and newborn heath, including a supportive environment for mothers and babies, the establishment of a continuum of care through strengthened health systems, and early identification of the risks and opportunities for improved survival. Cases studies and examples from Bangladesh feature.

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Traditionally, we tend to associate technology with the younger generation, yet, older adults are surprisingly proficient with a range of modern technology. For example, 59% of Americans aged 65 and above go online and 77% of this population use cellphones. In fact, 23% of this population actively play games using cellphones, computers or gaming systems. Not only do these figures indicate significant technology use, but the numbers are also continuing to grow. In particular, tablets are an example of modern technology that many seniors can use very effectively. The term tablet refers to touchscreen-based computers that tend to be light and easily portable. The iPad is one of the more well-known examples of these, although there are many others. Because they are a type of computer, tablets have their own operating system and can run a large number of applications (apps), including many different games. Tablets may range from a screen size of around 5 inches all the way up to around 10 inches, with screen sizes from 7 to 10 inches being the most common. Most tablets will run either an Apple or an Android operating system. Many apps will be present in the stores for both types of tablets, but some will only be offered by one of the stores. Most of the apps I'm discussing here are present in both stores, and I specify the cases where this isn't true. The touch screen interface of these devices tends to be relatively easy for seniors to learn and many of them tend to pick up on what to do very easily. Larger tablets work best for seniors, especially those with poor eyesight, as these have larger font sizes and the onscreen buttons tend to be bigger. Many people try to find the best Apple or Android apps for seniors, but with so many options out there, it can be a pretty confusing task. THE APPEAL OF TABLETS For caregivers and for seniors, tablets can be appealing in a number of ways. One important aspect is that the games on tablets can keep seniors mentally active, especially as some games can be challenging. Research has indicated that cognitive activity may be one key component in helping to decrease the negative effects of aging on cognition. Another appeal is that tablet games can give seniors something to do with their spare time, keeping them entertained and engaged. With so many different types of games available for tablets, you should be able to find games that work for any senior, with a little bit of searching. This can be particularly important for caregivers who want a little bit of a break. In some cases, tablet apps can even be a way of keeping seniors socially engaged, as some games allow for multiple online players or support communication between individuals.Likewise, seniors may play the same games as one another, offering them the chance to talk to each other about the games. TEACHING AND LEARNING As you might expect, there is a bit of a learning curve with tablets. Some seniors will be able to pick up on how to use tablets and games easily. Others will need more teaching. The main thing that you may need to teach seniors is the basics of interacting with a tablet. Tablets use touch screens, which are easy to understand. However, seniors do need to learn how to touch the screen to get the desired outcome and learn the impacts that their actions have on the device. Seniors often learn to use the touch screen relatively easily, but may sometimes find specific tasks challenging. For example, one elderly woman I know can use a tablet for a number of games without any assistance, but still has trouble unlocking the tablet. Likewise, you may find that you have to teach some concepts multiple times. Some seniors may be able to figure out games intuitively, but others may need to be taught how to play specific games. This may be a matter of sitting down with them and stepping them through any new game they start. At the end of the day, this is something you'll have to figure out on a case-by-case basis. As seniors get better at using tablets, you'll find that they pick up new games more easily and need less help in general. PICKING TABLET APPS AND GAMES The range of apps and games for tablets can be daunting. For example, some of the categories include puzzle, word, casual, card and board games - and that isn't even counting the more practical apps, like audiobook players and eBook readers. This can be pretty overwhelming even if you only want to find a few suitable apps. The recommendations in this article come from talking to seniors and their families, and also from looking online, to figure out which apps are most suitable for seniors. While many seniors can play any game, the emphasis here is on apps that are relatively easy to pick up and learn - to accommidate seniors who may struggle with some elements of using a tablet. This post will present a number of different entertainment and practical apps for Android and Apple devices, and also discuss the various features that make some apps more suitable than others for the senior in your family. All apps discussed are free unless otherwise noted. While there are many other apps out there, this list can act as a good jumping point for getting seniors into tablets. Angry Birds Rio (for Apple and Android) is a puzzle game, but the simple controls and fun graphics make it a good pick for seniors. The basic aim of the game is to use a slingshot and knock down buildings and there are many other games in the Angry Birds range, and they are all pretty similar. As with many games, this app is hit or miss, some seniors will love it, others won't be interested at all. Farmville 2: Country Escape (for Apple and Android) is a farm game with an emphasis on growing crops and earning money. Farmville has attracted large audiences through Facebook and this particular app is Farmville's tablet offering. It is a game that requires strategy, reading and planning, so it might not be suitable for all seniors. However, I know a number of seniors who enjoy the game and like the way that it keeps them thinking. Additionally, this game has a social element, allowing players to join a co-op, where they can help one another and chat to one another. I've seen players get so caught up in the chat that they barely touch the rest of the game. Peggle Blast (for Apple and Android) is hard to explain, but the game basically involves using a ball to knock out pegs. Peggle looks complicated at first, but the game is easy to pick up and can be a lot of fun without being confusing. Peggle Blast is the free version of the game, and has in-app purchases. The original game and its sequel (Peggle and Peggle Nights) are both also available on Android and Apple. These versions cost to purchase, but are better in the long-run. The Sims Freeplay (for Apple and Android) is a version of the Sims franchise, although most seniors probably haven't heard of the franchise. This is a task-based game where users build families and send characters (Sims) on tasks. It requires less strategy than Farmville, but both games require waiting for tasks to finish. This is a common approach in many similar games, and makes for relaxing game play, where you set it up and come back later. BRAIN GAMES AND PUZZLES Block Puzzle (for Android) is is a puzzle game where users have to fit blocks within a shape. It is simple to understand but can get challenging as people progress through the game. While this specific app seems to be Android only, there are many similar apps in both Android and Apple stores. Clevermind ($2.99 for Apple) is specifically designed for people with Alzheimer's disease. It includes a range of functions for entertainment, including games, trivia and a journal. Additionally, the app allows for voice interaction and can be used to browse the internet in a more user-friendly manner. Jigsaw Puzzles Epic (for Apple and Android) is a good tablet choice for puzzles, although there are many similar apps out there. Jigsaw puzzles are a fantastic option for seniors, and doing them on the tablet is an easier option than taking up the living room with a puzzle. Jigsaw Puzzles Epic is a free app that comes with a large number of puzzles. Users can choose how many pieces their puzzle is (from 4 to 400) and also whether the pieces of the puzzle can rotate or not. More puzzles can be purchased from the in-game store, but the free puzzles should last most users for a long time. Word Search Puzzles (for Apple and Android) is one of many word search apps out there. It has large text and is easy to use, making it a good option for seniors. However, it does not have a setting for difficulty, so it might not work for everyone. Words With Friends (for Apple and Android) is a turn-based social game that plays like Scrabble. The social element of the game comes from the way that you play against other people, taking turns with them. The game also gives you the ability to chat to the people you are playing against, which can be good if seniors are playing against friends. The free version has ads, which can be a pain, but the social aspect of the game can be appealing to seniors. Kindle (for Apple and Android) is one example of an eBook reader, although there are many other apps with similar functions. Kindle can be a good choice, as buying books through the app (or online) is relatively simple and the prices are often reasonable. In fact, you can buy Kindle apps from the Amazon store. Most apps for eBook reading have options to make the book easier to read, such as increasing font size or altering the contrast. Using this type of app can be a great way for seniors to read and the app gives you the ability to make any book into a large print book. Audible (for Apple and Android) is one of many apps for playing audiobooks. As with Kindle, this app makes it easy to buy books, and both Kindle and Audible are tied into Amazon. The books can be a bit on the expensive side, but Audible offers a monthly plan that gives users one audiobook per month and 30% off all other audiobooks. This is a great option for seniors who have trouble reading (or don't want to). Although it's membership based ($7.99/month), Netflix is a great way for seniors to watch movies and television shows. Its competitor Hulu is also a good option ($7.99/month for Hulu Plus, free for basic Hulu), as Hulu often has more classic shows than Netflix offers. If you have network subscription, you may be able to access other apps, like HBO Go, which let you stream content from specific networks. Both of these apps are for Apple and Android devices. Big Launcher ($10.00 for Android) creates a new home screen for Android devices which much larger icons. This can enhance readability for seniors who struggle to see icons on devices, particularly on smaller devices. A demo version of the app is also available. This is one of the relatively few Apple or Android apps for seniors that has actually specifically been designed for this population, with CleverMind (above) being another one. We've talked about a number of different apps here, but we've only scratched the surface. Both Apple and Android have immense stores that are constantly updated with new apps. This means the options for Apple and Android apps for seniors are pretty much endless. LOOK AT CATEGORIES AND INTERESTS One of the first things to look at when picking apps is to explore the type of app the senior may enjoy. For example, some seniors enjoy games, while others enjoy apps that challenge them mentally. Knowing the type (or types) of app to look for can help you to narrow down what you need. This may take trial and error, and patience. Additionally, if you know the type of app, you can often use the search function within the store itself to find what you are looking for. For example, you might choose to search 'card games' or 'word search', which would give you a list of apps that fall under these terms. The approach isn't precise, as it is looking for words in the title of the app, but it works well for general categories of apps. You can also look at categories and subcategories of apps. For example, in the Google Play store (Android's app store), games is one category and some of its subcategories include: board, card, casual, puzzle and word. When deciding on apps, the star rating can also give an indication of app quality. Typically four or five star apps are worth trying while anything three stars or under is questionable. In many cases though, it may be a case of downloading apps and trying them out. I don't recommend this for paid apps, but there is a huge number of free apps in the apps stores that you can choose from. CONSIDER PHYSICAL AND MENTAL LIMITATIONS Many seniors will be limited in what apps they can enjoy because of physical or mental issues. Thinking about these limitations can help you to figure out what types of apps might be most suited for them. For example, seniors who have problems with their eyesight might benefit from audiobooks instead of eBooks. Seniors who have failing hearing can use a headset with the tablet (which makes things less annoying for you too). This makes it easier for them to hear what is going on. From the mental perspective, some seniors will struggle with games that are complex or challenging mentally, while others won't have an issue. This means that you may have to look for games that are simple to play. This is particularly true for people with dementia, as they can become frustrated easily. Yet, they can enjoy simple games. For example, one study found that bingo could increase mental functioning in participants with Alzheimer's disease. Other types of games that can work include puzzle games, simple matching games and games like the Clevermind app I discussed earlier. At present, there are few apps available that were specifically developed for seniors, but this is changing. Research is beginning to focus on developing games for seniors. Hopefully this means that more games will be available in the future. Nevertheless, many of the games designed for other age groups are still very suitable for seniors. Certainly, seniors really can enjoy games on tablets, even though their skill levels can vary dramatically. For example, an elderly woman I know plays Angry Birds, because the controls are relatively easy to use. Although she enjoys the game, she doesn't fully understand the physics or strategy behind it, so ends up repeating levels frequently. In contrast, my dad has dementia, yet he is still able to play blackjack online (quite successfully too, I might add), which continues to surprise the family. It must be because of years spent playing blackjack in real casinos - but it's a strong indication that seniors can be capable of more than we imagine. GAMES AND THEIR MODELS Many tablet games use a model called freemium. This means that the game itself is free, but some things within it may cost. A common example is items to speed up time in games like The Sims Freeplay and Farmville Country Escape. If this is likely to be an issue, it is possible to turn off in-app purchasing on your device to make sure no one accidentally spends money in games. Alternatively, you can make sure apps always ask for a password when any purchase is made. You will also find some free games support themselves through ads - which can get annoying fast. In some cases, you can pay to have the ads removed, but not all games support this. I've found that in general, paid games are often better because they aren't trying as hard to get money out of users (they already got paid when you bought the game). So, if you find a paid game with good reviews that looks promising, don't write it off just because it costs. FINDING A TABLET Most of the games that seniors will play on tablets aren't particularly intensive in terms of graphics or processing power. Because of this, getting a good tablet for a senior doesn't have to be an expensive investment. In fact, if you have technically minded people in your extended family, you may be able to get one as a hand-me-down. For example, I know a couple who recently upgraded to newer and faster tablets for personal use. Their previous tablets ended up being gifted to their mothers. This provided a fantastic introduction into tablets for the seniors, without costing anyone any money. Additionally, most of the apps discussed here can also be found for Android and Apple smartphones. Smartphones tend to have a much smaller screen, so aren't suitable for all seniors, but they do offer an alternative to tablets for seniors who have good eyesight. IN THE END Tablets can be a wonderful way of keeping seniors entertained, and there are so many different apps available. In this post I've focused mostly on apps that I have had experience with and have seen seniors using, but there are many more out there. If you have other ideas for apps for seniors, please let me know in the comments below. More than anything, the trick to finding the perfect apps for seniors is to engage them in the selection process. This will let you see what they are most interested in and what type of games they enjoy the most.

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Ashdod MonArt Arts Centre |Government||City (from 1968)| Ashdod (Hebrew: אַשְׁדּוֹד; Arabic: إسدود, Isdud), located in the Southern District of Israel on the Mediterranean Sea coast, is a city of over 200,000 people located approximately 43.5 miles (70 km) from Jerusalem and Beer Sheba. Ashdod is an important regional industrial center. The Port of Ashdod is Israel's largest port, and is southern Israel's only outlet to the Mediterranean. The artificial port, enclosed by breakwaters, accounts for 60 percent of the country's imported goods, while much of the country's citrus crop is exported through it. The first documented settlement in Ashdod dates to the Canaanite culture of seventeenth century B.C.E., making the city one of the most ancient in the world. During the city's history it was settled by Philistines, Israelites, Byzantines, Crusaders and Arabs. Modern Ashdod was established in 1956 on the sand hills approximately 4.5 miles (7 km) north-northwest of the ancient archeological site, on the recent ruins of the Palestinian village of Isdud. It was incorporated as a city in 1968, with a land-area of approximately 23.2 square miles (60 sq km). Being a planned city, expansion followed a main development plan, which facilitated traffic and prevented air pollution in the residential areas, despite population growth. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, Ashdod had a population of 204,400 at the end of 2006, making it the fifth largest city in Israel. Formation of modern Ashdod Though the modern city of Ashdod takes its name from the ancient site 4.5 miles away, it is actually built on the recent ruins of a Palestinian village. The modern city of Ashdod was built on the ruins of the Palestinian village of Isdud, which had been destroyed in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Just prior to the war, the Egyptian Army took over Isdud, and the city became the northern-most advancement point of the Egyptian forces. Egyptian and Israeli forces clashed in the surrounding area, with the Egyptians being halted at the Ad Halom bridge over the Lachish River. Israeli forces surrounded the city during Operation Yoav, and shelled and bombed it from the air. Fearing encirclement, Egyptian forces retreated on October 28, 1948 with a majority of the city's residents. The town's 4,000 Palestinian inhabitants became refugees in such places as the West Bank, Gaza and neighboring countries as the Jewish state was formed. The planned city In 1953, surveyors and designers arrived at the desolate dunes near the mouth of Lachish River to choose a site to build a new power station in the south of the country (eventually "Eshkol A"). Its workers lived in the regional settlements Rehovot and Gedera. On May 1, 1956, then finance minister Levi Eshkol approved the establishment of the city of Ashdod. The first settlers, 22 families of Jewish immigrants from Morocco arrived in November 1956, and a group of immigrants from Egypt joined them. In July 1957, the government granted a 24,000 dunam (24 km²) concession, approximately 32 km from Tel Aviv, to the Ashdod Company Ltd., for building the modern city of Ashdod. The building of the Eshkol A power station in Ashdod was completed in 1958 and included three units: two units of 50 MW, and one unit of 45 MW (with the ability of sea water desalination). The first local council was appointed in October 1959. Dov Gur was appointed on behalf of the Israeli Ministry of Interior as the first local council head. The building of the Port of Ashdod began in April 1961. The port was inaugurated in November 1963, and was utilized for the first time in November 1965 with the coming of the Swedish ship Wiengelgad. The Magistrates' Court in the city was inaugurated in 1963. In 1964 the Ponevezher Rov, Rabbi Yosef Shlomo Kahaneman established the Ponevezh development, the first Hareidi neighborhood in Ashdod. In 1978 a joint Belz (Hasidic dynasty)|Belz-Ger (Hasidic dynasty)|Ger estate was established in Neighbourhood 3 (Rova Gimel). The Lev Simcha Talmud Torah in Ashdod is the largest cheder (traditional elementary school teaching the basics of Judaism and the Hebrew language) in Israel. Today, the Tolna Rebbe, Pittsburgher Rebbe, Neshchiz, and Melitzer Rebbes reside in Ashdod. The development of the city over the years followed a main development plan. The planners divided the city into 17 neighborhoods of ten to fifteen thousand people each. Wide avenues between the neighborhoods make traffic flow relatively freely inside the city. Each neighborhood has easy access to its own commercial center, urban park, and health and education infrastructure. The plan also called for a central business and administrative center, but this had to wait until the mid-1990s when the city population grew rapidly, more than doubling in ten years. Three industrial zones were placed adjacent to the port in the northern part of the city, taking into account the prevailing southern winds which take air pollution out of the city. The plan had its problems, however, including asymmetric growth of upscale and poorer neighborhoods and the long-time lack of a main business and administrative center. The city was planned for a maximum of 250,000 inhabitants, and an additional area in the south was reserved for further development. However, the southern border of the city was proclaimed a national nature reserve, Ashdod Nitzanim Sand Dune Park, which makes future city growth problematic, with the last of the 17 neighborhoods of the development plan now under construction. Ashdod, like many Israeli cities, has seen most of its growth as the result of absorption of immigrants. The first major group to move to the city were Jews of Moroccan and Egyptian descent. In the 1960s Ashdod accepted a large number of immigrants from Romania, followed by a large number from Georgia and India in the 1970s. The explosive growth of the city began in 1991, with the massive arrival of immigrants from the Soviet Union coupled with infrastructure development. More than 60,000 Jews immigrated from the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s. Recent demographic figures suggest that about 32 percent of the city's population are new immigrants, 85 percent of whom are originally from the former Soviet Union. From 1990 to 2001 the city accepted more than 100,000 new inhabitants, a 150 percent growth. During the 1990s the city also absorbed a large number of Jews of Ethiopian descent, and in more recent years the city has seen an influx of Jewish immigrants from France and Argentina. Ashdod also receives a significant amount of internal migration, especially from the Gush Dan region. Human settlement in Ashdod dates from the Paleolithic Age. Ashdod is mentioned in Ugaritic documents, the language of the ancient Canaanites. At the end of the thirteenth century B.C.E. the Sea Peoples conquered and destroyed the city. By the beginning of the twelfth century B.C.E. the Philistines, generally thought to have been one of the Sea Peoples, ruled the city. During their reign, the city prospered and was a member of union of five Philistine city states. In 950 B.C.E. Ashdod was destroyed during Pharaoh Siamun's conquest of the region. The city was not rebuilt until at least 815 B.C.E. Around 715 B.C.E., it was conquered by Sargon II, who destroyed the city and exiled its residents. Jewish inhabitants of Ashdod were resettled in Media after their failed uprising attempt against Assyrian dominance. The records indicate that 27,290 Jews were forced to settle in Ecbatana (Hamadan) and Susa in South West Persia. Asdûdu led the revolt of Philistines, Judeans, Edomites, and Moabites against Assyria after expulsion of king Akhimeti, whom Sargon had installed instead of his brother Azuri. The city of Gath (Gimtu) belonged to the kingdom of Ashdod at that time. An Assyrian general, Tartan, gained control of Ashdod in 711, ("In the year that Tartan came unto Ashdod, when Sargon the king of Assyria sent him, and fought against Ashdod, and took it" : Isaiah 20:1) and forced the "usurper" Yamani to flee. Mitinti was king at the time of Sennacherib, and Akhimilki in the reign of Esarhaddon. Psammetichus of Egypt is reported to have besieged the great city Azotus for 29 years (Herodotus, ii. 157); the biblical references to the remnant of Ashdod (Jeremiah 25:20; cf. Zephaniah 2:4) are interpreted as an allusion to this event. The city absorbed another blow in 605 B.C.E., when Nebuchadnezzar conquered it. In 539 B.C.E. the city was rebuilt by the Persians, but was conquered in the wars of Alexander of Macedon (Nehemiah 13:23). According to the Book of Nehemiah, the Ashdodites seem to represent the whole nation of the Philistines in the sixth century B.C.E., the "speech of Ashdod" (which the younger generation of the Jews are described as adopting) would simply be the general Philistine dialect. The German archaeologist and historian Hugo Winckler explained the use of that name by the fact that Ashdod was the nearest of the Philistine cities to Jerusalem. The city prospered as Izotus under the Hellenistic rule, until the Hasmonean Revolt. During the rebellion Judas Maccabeus arrived at its gates, but did not conquer it. He left it for his brother Jonathan, who conquered it in 147 B.C.E. and destroyed the Temple of Dagon. According to Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews 13 (15), volume 4), Alexander Jannæus possessed it. Pompey restored its independence by reconstructing its city walls, though it belonged to the dominion of Herod and Salome (Antiquities of the Jews 17(18), volume 9), and Vespasian had to later take it by force. Despite its location four miles from the coast, both Ptolemy and Josephus described it as a maritime city. This curious description may refer to Ashdod's control of a separate shore-edge harbor, called Azotus Paraliyus, or Ashdod-Sea (Antiquities of the Jews 13(15) volume 4). The city's prominence continued until the seventh century, when a citadel was built in Azotus Paraliyus as a stronghold against the Byzantine navy. To the west of the wooded height on which the city stands, traces of the ancient harbor—now known as Minet el-Ḳal'a—can still be seen. The Fatimids established a shore fortress and a village on the Tell of Ashdod. The location of the village on Via Maris enhanced the city's importance during the Ottoman rule. In 1596 C.E., the population of Ashdod numbered about 413. At the beginning of the twentieth century the village was known as Esdūd, with a population of about five thousand, specializing in agriculture and trade. According to the bible, during the 10th century B.C.E. Ashdod became, along with all the kingdom of Philistia a patronage area of the Kingdom of Israel under the control of King David. Judah's claim upon Ashdod is mentioned in the Book of Joshua (Joshua 15:46). In the Book of Samuel Ashdod is mentioned (I Samuel 6:17) among the principal Philistine cities. After capturing the Ark of the Covenant from the Israelites, the Philistines took it to Ashdod, where it was placed in the temple of Dagon. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils; a plague of mice was sent over the land (1 Samuel 6:5). In the Book of Isaiah an Assyrian general named Tartan, sent by Sargon, gained control of Ashdod in 711. (Isaiah 20:1) The capture of the city by King Uzziah shortly after 815 B.C.E. is mentioned within the text of the Book of Chronicles (2 Chronicles 26:6) and in the Book of Zechariah (Zechariah 9:6), speaking of the false Jews. Present day statistics The Ashdod City Council has twenty-five elected members, one of whom is the mayor. The mayor serves a five-year term and appoints six deputies. Within the city council there are various factions representing different population groups, both secular and religious. The headquarters of the Ashdod Municipality and the mayor's office are at city hall. The municipal building is located in the main culture and business area. Ashdod is one of the most important industrial centers in Israel. All industrial activities in the city are located in northern areas such as the port area, the northern industrial zone, and around the Lachish River. The Port of Ashdod is the largest port in the country, handling about sixty percent of Israel's port cargo. Various shipping companies offices are also located in the port area which also is home to the Eshkol A power station and coal terminal. The Northern industrial zone includes various industry including an oil refinery, which is one of only two in the country. The heavy industry zone located south of the Lachish River was once the main industrial center in Ashdod. Recently, however, leisure facilities have moved into the area. There is still some industry here, however, such as a Teva Pharmaceutical Industries plant, construction components producer Ashtrom, and Solbar, a soybean oil producer. Ashdod is also home to Elta, a part of Israel Aircraft Industries where radar equipment, electronic warfare systems, and ELINT are developed. Ashdod is located on the historic Via Maris, one of the most important trade routes in the Middle East during ancient times. Israel's Highway 4 was developed following this route along the southern sea shore it serves as the main connection to the north, towards the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, and to the south, towards Ashkelon. The other main road in the area is Highway 41 which served the city from the start of its modern history. This road runs from west to east towards Gedera and it is the main transport link to the Port of Ashdod and the industrial zones, and connects to Highway 4 with an interchange. The passenger railroad connection to Ashdod opened in 1992 following the renovation of the historical railway to Egypt. Ashdod railway station is on Israel Railways' Binyamina/Netanya - Tel Aviv - Ashkelon line and it is located near Ad Halom Junction. There is also heavy freight traffic in the area. Port of Ashdod has its own railway branch line as well as a special terminal for potash brought from the Sodom area and exported abroad. The Port of Ashdod has a passenger pier. The traffic at this gateway is constantly growing, especially due to cruise ship activities. The other sea gateway is the newly opened Blue Marina. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, Ashdod had a population of about 204,400 at the end of 2006, making it the fifth largest city in Israel. The annual population growth rate is 2.6 percent and the ratio of women to men is 1,046 to 1,000. The population of Ashdod is significantly younger than the Israeli average because of the large number of young couples living in the city. Over 95 percent of the city's population is Jewish, over 30 percent of whom are religiously observant. Despite this, the city is generally secular, although most of the non-Jewish population is a result of mixed marriages. The large Haredi community of the city live mainly in Neighborhood 7 (Rova Za'in) which is specially dedicated for their needs with Talmud Torah, Cheder, Mikvah and other religious institutions. Ashdod is home to a wide range of synagogues, catering to the religious diversity of its population. The city is home to the world's largest Karaite community, about five thousand strong. There is also a Scandinavian Seamen Protestant church, established by Norwegian Righteous Among the Nations pastor Per Faye-Hansen. The ACADMA conservatory, a professional educational institute for music and performance studies is based in Ashdod. Operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, the institute was established in 1966 and serves as a home for 600 young musicians in different fields. The conservatory is a vivacious and vigorous center of the music and the culture life in the city, and it is involved in the community life and educates a second generation of musicians made in Ashdod. The Ashdod Museum of Art - Monart Centre is a newly opened performing arts center located in the center of the city. The museum has 12 galleries and two halls, and a pyramidal space where cultural events are held. Ashdod's Football (soccer) team, FC Ashdod represents the city in Ligat ha'Al, Israel's Premier League. The club is known for its successful soccer school. The city's top basketball team is Maccabi Ashdod. The men squad plays in Liga Leumit, Israel's second tier league, and the women squad plays in top division. Ashdod plays host to many national and international sporting tournaments, including the annual Ashdod International Chess Festival. The city has a cricket team, a rarity in Israel. It is run and organized by citizens of Indian descent. Like many coastal settlements in Israel, Ashdod's beaches is a venue for water sport, such as windsurfing, yachting, and scuba diving operating in the Marina area. - ↑ Table 3 – Population of Localities Numbering Above 2,000 Residents. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (December 31, 2009). Retrieved June 28, 2010. - ↑ M. Dotan. Ashdod - Seven levels of excavations. (Israel: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, Ashdod branch, 1990. ULI Sysno. 005093624) (in Hebrew) - ↑ O. Kolani, B.Raanan, M.Brosh, and S.Pipano. Events calendar in Israel and Ashdod. (Israel: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, Ashdod branch, 1990. ULI Sysno. 005093624) (in Hebrew) - ↑ International Middle East Media Center. April 14, 2006. From Isdud to Ashdod: One man's immigrant dream; another's refugee nightmare Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Israel in Figures, Population Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ City Population. The districts of Israel and all Israeli cities of more than 20,000 inhabitants Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Jewish Virtual Library. Latest Population Figures for Israel Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Ashdod Municipality. Absorption and immigration Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Massoume Price. 2001. A brief history of Iranian Jews Iran Chamber Society. Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Hugo Wilckner. 1898. Geschichte Israels., 224 (in German) - ↑ PalestineRemembered.com. Isdud, District of Gaza Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Last Days Reporter. 7 Stages of the beginning of Judaism Retrieved December 4, 2007. - ↑ Or Barnea. April 4, 2006. Israel Prize awarded to Dvora Omer Ynet. Retrieved December 4, 2007. - Carta Jerusalem. Battle Sites in the Land of Israel. Carta Israel: 2003. ISBN 9652204943 - Cogan, Mordechai. Judah under Assyrian Hegemony: A Reexamination of Imperialism and Religion. Journal of Biblical Literature 112(3) (1993): 403-414 10.2307/3267741 - Frenkel, B. The Philistines. Israel: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, Ashdod branch, 1990. ULI Sysno. 005093624 (in Hebrew) - Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. in English at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved January 18, 2008. - Kaplan. J. Yamani stronghold in Ashdod-Sea. Israel: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, Ashdod branch, 1990. ULI Sysno.005093624. (in Hebrew) - Tadmor, H. Philistia under Assyrian Rule. The Biblical Archaeologist 29(3)(1966): 86-102 10.2307/3211004 - Shapira, S. Battle of Ashdod (147 B.C.E.) Israel: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, Ashdod branch, 1990. ULI Sysno. 005093624 (in Hebrew) - Piphano, S. Ashdod Sea in Byzantic period Israel: Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, Ashdod branch, 1990. ULI Sysno. 005093624 (in Hebrew) - Harris, J.C., "The plague of Ashdod" Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63(3)(2006): 244–245 16520427 10.1001/archpsyc.63.3.244 - Wilckner, Hugo. 1898. Geschichte Israels. (in German) - Yaniv, R. Ashdod. From repatriants settlement to the City. Israel: SPNI Ashdod branch. 1990. ULI Sysno. 005093624 (in Hebrew) All links retrieved December 3, 2012. |Cities||Arad · Ashdod · Ashkelon · Beersheba · Dimona · Eilat · Kiryat Gat · Kiryat Malakhi · Netivot · Ofakim · Rahat · Sderot| |Local councils||Ar'arat an-Naqab · Hura · Kuseife · Lakiya · Lehavim · Meitar · Mitzpe Ramon · Omer · Shaqib al-Salam · Tel as-Sabi · Yeruham| |Regional councils||Abu Basma · Be'er Tuvia · Bnei Shimon · Central Arava · Eshkol · Hevel Eilot · Hof Ashkelon · Lakhish · Merhavim · Ramat Negev · Sdot Negev (Azata) · Sha'ar HaNegev · Shafir · Tamar · Yoav| New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. 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The extinct Longdan tiger (Panthera zdanskyi) was a jaguar-sized tiger that lived in what is now northwestern China more than 2 million years ago. Shown here, an artist's reconstruction of the tiger. Credit: Velizar Simeonovski et al, PLoS ONE The oldest extinct species of tiger known yet has been discovered in China, scientists say. Although the skull of the more than 2-million-year-old fossil is smaller than most modern tigers, it appears very similar in shape, researchers added. The tiger (Panthera tigris) is one of the largest living cats, a giant predator native to Asia reaching up to 13 feet (4 meters) in length, including its tail, and weighing up to 660 pounds (300 kilograms). The beast's origins are under intense debate, with suggestions it arose in north-central China, southern China or northern Siberia. Now scientists have discovered a new skull and jaw from an extinct jaguar-sized tiger in northwestern China dating back 2.16 million to 2.55 million years, predating other known tiger fossils by up to a half-million years. This represents the oldest complete skull hitherto found of a pantherine cat — the lineage that includes tigers and all other living big cats. "The discovery of the identity of this fossil is vitally important for providing a greater understanding of the fossil history of big cats and the relationships between them," said researcher Andrew Kitchener, principal curator of vertebrate biology at National Museums Scotland in Edinburgh. The scientific name for this newfound species is Panthera zdanskyi, after the late Austrian paleontologist Otto Zdansky, who revealed much about ancient Chinese fossil carnivores. It was unearthed in 2004 on the eastern slope of Longdan, a village in Gansu, China, giving it the informal name of the Longdan tiger. The cat was only recently analyzed and described online Oct. 10 in the journal PLoS ONE. [Gallery: 9 Subspecies of Tigers] The skull of this extinct cat had robust, well-developed upper canine fangs and a relatively long nose, details typical of tigers. Although the size of the skull is comparable with that of the smallest females of living tiger subspecies, its overall shape suggests it belonged to a male. Indeed, despite about 2 million years of separation, the skull of the Longdan tiger appears surprisingly similar to that of modern tigers. "It seems likely that this tiger's diet would have been similar to that of today's and would have included ungulates such as deer and pigs,"Kitchener told LiveScience. The researchers suggest this extinct cat was a sister species to the modern tiger. Their analysis argues that the tiger lineage developed features of its skull and upper teeth early on, while its lower jaw and teeth evolved at a different rate. A similar pattern of "mosaic evolution" is seen in the cheetah lineage, they noted. The evolutionary trend of increasing size in the tiger lineage is likely coupled its prey evolving larger body sizes, the researchers added. "It will be interesting to see whether further fossil big cats are discovered in China and elsewhere, which expand our knowledge of the distribution of this species and fill in more gaps in the tiger's fossil history," Kitchenersaid. "Confirming a more precise dating of Panthera zdanskyi would also be invaluable for understanding its position in the tiger's evolutionary timescale."

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Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology to aid in the design and drafting (drafting involves the production of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts sub-discipline that underlies technical endeavors) of a practical product or artistic creation. It is both a visual and symbol-based method of communication, and is a useful tool for engineers, architects, artists, and draftsmen. Current CAD software packages range from two-dimensional (2D) vector-based drafting systems to three-dimensional (3D) solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, so that a designed object can be viewed from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic, mathematical modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD, for "computer-aided design and drafting." CAD is employed in the design of tools and machinery used in the manufacture of components, and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories). CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. Some features of modern CAD systems include: CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) process. As such, it is used together with other tools, which may be integrated modules or stand-alone products. Examples are: Originally software for CAD systems was developed with computer language such as Fortran, but with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods, this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key C programming language modules with their own application programming interfaces (APIs). A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry and/or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly. Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form of prototyping called digital prototyping. In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time and material costs, digital prototypes allow for design verification and testing on screen, speeding up time-to-market and decreasing costs. As technology evolves in this way, CAD has moved beyond a documentation tool (representing designs in graphical format) into a more robust designing tool that assists in the design process. Today most CAD computers are Windows based PCs. Some CAD systems also run on one of the Unix operating systems and with Linux. Some CAD systems such as QCad or NX provide multiplatform support including Windows, Linux, UNIX, and Mac OS X. Generally, no special basic memory is required with the exception of a high end OpenGL based Graphics card. However for complex product design, machines with high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM are recommended. CAD was an application that benefited from the installation of a numeric coprocessor especially in early personal computers. The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model. CAD is an important tool used in various ways by engineers and designers. Its use depends on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. Each of the different types of CAD systems requires the operator to think differently about how he or she will use them and he or she must design their virtual components in a different manner for each. There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand drafting, since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft. 3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting. Each line has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views. 3D "dumb" solids (programs incorporating this technology include AutoCAD and Cadkey 19) are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real word objects. Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them, as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated from the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of components, set limits to their motion, or identify interference between components. 3D parametric solid modeling (programs incorporating this technology include NX, the combination of UniGraphics and IDeas, Autodesk Inventor, Alibre Design, TopSolid, T-FLEX CAD, SolidWorks, and Solid Edge) require the operator to use what is referred to as "design intent." The objects and features created are adjustable. Any future modifications will be simple, difficult, or nearly impossible, depending on how the original part was created. One must think of this as being a "perfect world" representation of the component. If a feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator needs to locate it from the center of the model, not, perhaps, from a more convenient edge or an arbitrary point, as he could when using "dumb" solids. Parametric solids require the operator to consider the consequences of his actions carefully. What may be simplest today could be worst case tomorrow. Some software packages provide the ability to edit parametric and non-parametric geometry without the need to understand or undo the design intent history of the geometry by use of direct modeling functionality. This ability may also include the additional ability to infer the correct relationships between selected geometry (for example, tangency, concentricity) which makes the editing process less time- and labor-intensive while freeing the engineer from the burden of understanding the model’s design intent history. These kinds of non-history-based systems are called Explicit Modellers. The first Explicit Modeling system was introduced at the end of the 1980s, by Hewlett-Packard and was named SolidDesigner. It was followed by many later versions. Draft views can be generated easily from the models. Assemblies usually incorporate tools to represent the motions of components, set their limits, and identify interference. The tool kits available for these systems are ever increasing; including 3D piping and injection mold designing packages. Mid-range software was integrating parametric solids more easily to the end user: Integrating more intuitive functions (SketchUp), going to the best of both worlds with 3D dumb solids with parametric characteristics (VectorWorks) or making very real-view scenes in relative few steps (Cinema4D). Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetics and ergonomic features into designs (Catia, GenerativeComponents). Freeform surface modelling is often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the machine. Starting in the late 1980s, the development of readily affordable CAD programs that could be run on personal computers began a trend of massive downsizing in drafting departments in many small to mid-size companies. As a general rule, one CAD operator could readily replace at least three to five drafters using traditional methods. Additionally, many engineers began to do their own drafting work, further eliminating the need for traditional drafting departments. This trend mirrored that of the elimination of many office jobs traditionally performed by a secretary as word processors, spreadsheets, databases, and so forth became standard software packages that "everyone" was expected to learn. Another consequence had been that since the latest advances were often quite expensive, small and even mid-size firms often could not compete against large firms who could use their computational edge for competitive purposes. Today, however, hardware and software costs have come down. Even high-end packages work on less expensive platforms and some even support multiple platforms. The costs associated with CAD implementation now are more heavily weighted to the costs of training in the use of these high level tools, the cost of integrating a CAD/CAM/CAE PLM using enterprise across multi-CAD and multi-platform environments and the costs of modifying design workflows to exploit the full advantage of CAD tools. CAD vendors have been effective in providing tools to lower these training costs. These tools have operated in three CAD arenas: All links retrieved March 16, 2017. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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Information Resources Research Guide Search for books, videos or electronic books using the Garland Library Catalog. For access to the following resources from Off campus, please enter the general Garland Library username and password. Countries and Their Cultures 2001 “Focuses on cultures and countries around the world, specifically what is and is not shared culturally by the people who live in a particular country. Entries contain descriptive summaries of the country in question, including demographic, historical, cultural, economic, religious, and political information.” “Entries describe the physical geography of every nation and dependency on Earth. Physical features, climate, and vegetation are discussed in detail using a consistent set of rubrics. Every entry features a physical relief map designed to illuminate the text of the entry. Includes a glossary of geographical and geological terms.” History of World Trade since 1450, 2006“starts at a year regarded as the beginning of the Age of Exploration and examines how the hunt for new resources and markets during that period resulted in the establishment of colonies in Africa, the Americas and Asia.” New Encyclopedia of Africa , 2nd ed., 2008 Infotrac Business Insights: Articles from business publications and Reports covering economics and demographics of various nations and well as information on companies which may have subsidiaries located around the globe. Provides full text access to economic reports from a variety of sources, company information, as well as full text of The Wall Street Journal Eastern Edition and several other business and economic journals and news publications. This is an excellent and current resource for government information from around the world. It provides political, economic and social information and is used by U.S. Diplomats and government officials. USA.Gov (www.usa.gov) Use the A-Z Links to federal agencies that deal with international business and relations. Examples: the U.S. Department of State (aka the State Department) provides a link to information about travel and business in a variety of countries including travel warnings. More links can be found through the State Dept. to the Bureau of Consular Affairs which offers travel information related to required travel documents, travel tips, inter-country adoption, etc. CIA World Factbook (www.cia.gov) World Trade Organization (www.wto.org) is a wealth of information on developing and international trade relations across the globe. The World Bank (www.worldbank.org) Learn about investment opportunities through this organization for global citizens and organizations. The United Nations (www.un.org) Read the daily briefings for current news and activities at the UN. Learn more about activities of member nations and global issues dealing with humanitarian, human rights and economic development in countries around the world. TC Library Links Subject Guide: Business Administration and Management

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The good news is the time is right for a sea change in energy policy, especially one that will create new “green” jobs. The bad news is our window of opportunity for change is quickly closing. The more we learn about climate change, the clearer it becomes that we need to take action quickly. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu has warned of the serious consequences of climate change, saying the American people need to wake up. Some scientists warn that we’re already dangerously close to major tipping points. There are currently dozens of plans and ideas for how we can stabilize our climate. Here are summaries of just a few. While they may have different ideas for how to reduce carbon emissions, all of them are calling for decisive action — soon. Green Groups Proposing Plans The American Solar Energy Society (ASES) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to increasing energy efficiency and the use of solar and other renewable energy technologies. ASES says the United States has the potential to generate 50 percent of its electricity from renewable energy by 2030. By 2050, ASES says the United States needs to have cut carbon emissions by 60 percent to 80 percent of current levels. Click to download the complete ASES plan. The Apollo Alliance pools resources from businesses, environmental organizations and community leaders. Its plan calls for a $500 billion investment in clean energy over the next 10 years, which the Alliance says would create 5 million green-collar jobs. Read the complete Apollo Economic Recovery Act. The Earth Policy Institute (EPI) is led by Mother Earth News contributing editor Lester R. Brown, a highly respected scientist and author. Brown’s newest book, Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization, outlines steps needed to cut global emissions 80 percent by 2020, with wind energy as the cornerstone. You can buy the book or read Plan B 3.0 online. The United States Climate Action Partnership (USCAP) is a coalition of big-name corporations and environmental organizations, including the Nature Conservancy, the Natural Resources Defense Council, General Electric, General Motors and many more. The group has proposed a framework for new climate legislation that includes cap and trade programs for greenhouse gas emissions, aiming to cut 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. Read the group's A Call for Action. Repower America is a project of the Alliance for Climate Protection, which is headed by Al Gore. Repower America has proposed a plan to power the United States entirely with clean energy within the next 10 years. The plan also includes big investments in energy efficiency and improvements to the electrical grid. Learn more about Repower America. Want more information about climate change? See A Plan for the Solar Revolution for how renewable energy can reduce carbon emissions, and The Amazing Benefits of Grass-fed Meat for more about greenhouse gases and agriculture.

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Ovarian cancer is a devastating disease with an overall high morbidity and low 5-year survival rate.1 Unfortunately, there are no known early detection strategies that have resulted in either earlier stage diagnosis or improved survival.2,3 As a consequence, many high-risk women choose to undergo prophylactic surgical removal of their ovaries and fallopian tubes to prevent future ovarian cancer. Although this procedure prevents ovarian cancer in 95% of the cases, there are significant downsides in terms of early menopause and cardiovascular disease in addition to removing the patient’s ability to have children.45.6.–7 Clearly, providing women in the high-risk population the option to undergo a minimally invasive laparoscopic imaging procedure to evaluate their ovary and fallopian tube health before deciding on prophylactic surgery would be beneficial if the imaging procedure had sufficient diagnostic sensitivity and specificity. Although ovarian cancer was long thought to originate in the epithelial surface of the ovary, no precancerous or intraepithelial lesions have been identified in the ovary. New evidence suggests that ovarian and fallopian tube cancers derive instead from cells of Müellerian origin and there is strong evidence that many cancers in the ovary in fact arise from cells originating in the fallopian tube.89.10.–11 We have previously demonstrated a rigid confocal microlaparoscope system for imaging the epithelial surface of the ovary1213.14.15.–16 and our results as well as the findings of several other groups1718.19.–20 demonstrate that the high resolution en face images obtained with confocal microendoscopes can be used for diagnosing disease. To demonstrate the potential for confocal microendoscopy applied to the fallopian tubes, we first used our previously developed rigid clinical confocal microlaparoscope to image the fimbriae of the fallopian tubes. The preliminary in vivo and ex vivo images show potential to identify pathologic changes in the fallopian tubes, but the rigidity and the diameter of the confocal microlaparoscope make it difficult to image beyond the exposed surfaces of the fimbria. In order to obtain better access to the fallopian tube itself, we modified the rigid confocal microlaparoscope to include a small diameter articulating distal tip. The new articulating confocal microlaparoscope employs a bare fiber optic imaging bundle that is capable of visualizing cellular morphology and subcellular detail such as nuclear size and shape. In the following section, we briefly review the instrumentation of the rigid confocal microlaparoscope and present preliminary ex vivo and in vivo images of human fallopian tube images obtained with that system. The new articulating tip confocal microlaparoscope is described in Sec. 3 along with ex vivo images of fallopian tubes obtained using the new system. A discussion and conclusions of the work are presented in Sec. 4. Imaging Fallopian Tubes Using the Rigid Confocal Microlaparoscope Optical Scan Unit General Description Both the rigid clinical system and the new articulating bare fiber system connect to the same optical scan unit. A detailed description of this confocal slit-scanning system can be found in previous publications.15,21 Briefly, a laser source provides an excitation wavelength of 488 nm. A cylindrical lens transforms the collimated laser beam into a line illumination profile that is scanned across the proximal end of an imaging fiber bundle by a scan mirror. Induced fluorescence from the exogenously labeled tissue is collected back through the fiber, de-scanned by the scan mirror, and imaged onto a fixed confocal slit aperture, which rejects light emitted from out-of-focus planes within the tissue. A second scan mirror and a camera lens image the signal onto a two-dimensional (2-D) CCD camera. The two scan mirrors synchronously scan the excitation line of illumination across the proximal end of the fiber bundle and map the emission light onto the CCD to produce a 2-D en face confocal image of the sample. The confocal images are read out of the camera at 30 frames per second and displayed on a monitor for the surgeon to view in the operating room. Rigid Confocal Microlaparoscope The rigid confocal microlaparoscope probe has a 5-mm diameter and 30-cm-long rigid tip on a handle that connects to the optical scan unit through a cable containing the fiber bundle and electrical wires that control the operation of the instrument. The rigid confocal microlaparoscope incorporates a 30,000 element fiber-optic imaging bundle with center-to-center spacing, which transfers the scanned line illumination profile to the distal end of the probe. The fiber bundle has an imaging diameter of , a minimum bending radius of 40 mm, and an NA of 0.35. A miniature achromatic objective lens images the distal end of the fiber bundle into the tissue. A focus mechanism in the handle of the microlaparoscope allows the user to focus from 0 to below the surface of the tissue. During a laparoscopic procedure, the rigid catheter is inserted through a trocar and routed to the ovary under guidance by a conventional wide-field laparoscope. The microlaparoscope is placed in contact with the ovary and fluorescent contrast agent is topically delivered to the tissue at the imaging site. Imaging Results Using the Rigid Confocal Microlaparoscope To evaluate whether we can identify pathologic changes in fallopian tube using confocal microendoscopy, we used the current rigid microlaparoscope to examine excised human fallopian tube samples. In addition, we were able to test the concept of in vivo fallopian tube imaging during several surgeries where the surgeon was able to manipulate the fallopian tube and position the 5-mm rigid tip of this microlaparoscope on the fimbriated end of the fallopian tube. Figure 1 shows two ex vivo images of human fallopian tube stained with acridine orange and imaged with the rigid confocal microlaparoscope. The figure includes corresponding histology images taken from the regions where the confocal images were obtained. The diagnosis in both cases was normal fallopian tube. Images taken from the rigid confocal microlaparoscope have a full field-of-view of 0.45 mm in tissue space. Figure 2 shows in vivo images taken with the rigid microlaparoscope. As stated, the rigidity and diameter of this system make it hard to image inside the fallopian tube but the surgeon was able to image the fimbriae. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) were taken from a patient whose histologic diagnosis revealed normal tissue. Figures 2(c) and 2(d) were obtained from a patient who had a visible mass attached to the fimbriated end of the fallopian tube. The mass was imaged in vivo with the rigid confocal microlaparoscope system and then diagnosed via frozen section as high grade serous carcinoma. Interestingly, the ovary associated with this fallopian tube had no evidence of cancer on pathologic examination. This particular fallopian tube tumor would have been visually detected and biopsied without the need for a high resolution imaging system. However, this case does call attention to the benefit of a high resolution imaging system to help diagnosis cases where fallopian tube pathology is less clinically evident. These imaging results suggest that the confocal microlaparoscope has sufficient resolution to differentiate cellular structures in the fallopian tube. One can certainly visualize significant differences between the two in vivo cases in Fig. 2, presumably stemming from morphological changes in the cancerous tissue. Imaging Fallopian Tubes Using the New Articulating Confocal Microlaparoscope Catheter New Articulating Confocal Microlaparoscope Catheter To enable better in vivo access to fallopian tubes, we designed and built a prototype laparoscopic imaging probe. This probe is a bare fiber bundle imaging system (i.e., no miniature objective lens), which has a thin 2.2-mm-diameter articulating distal tip. The fiber bundle has the same specifications as the one used in the rigid system. Since it is a bare fiber probe, the focal plane is static such that only the tissue in contact with the tip of the fiber bundle is imaged by the confocal instrument. The new articulating microlaparoscope catheter incorporates a dye channel to deliver exogenous contrast agent to the tissue. The smaller diameter distal tip and the ability to control the angle of the tip provide the size and flexibility needed to image inside the curved and delicate structure of the fallopian tube. The articulating microlaparoscope, shown pictorially in Fig. 3, incorporates an ergonomic lightweight handle. The distal tip articulates by flexing the handle relative to the direction of the rigid portion of the laparoscope probe. A ball and socket mechanism in the front portion of the handle serves as the pivot point. The flexible distal tip of the laparoscope is composed of 20 metal links that stack on top of each other. Four metal wires extend from a component aligned with the socket, through the ball, down a 30-cm-long rigid metal tube, through four small holes on the rims of the 20 metal links, and finally connect to the distal tip of the probe. As the surgeon changes the angle between the handle and the metal tube, the change in tension on the four internal drive wires causes articulation of the distal tip in a manner similar to that of a traditional flexible endoscope. Roughly 45 deg of angle between the handle and the rigid tube provides nearly 90 deg of distal tip articulation. The design also incorporates an articulation lock that allows the surgeon to set and maintain a specific angle at the distal tip. A single multipurpose button allows the surgeon to save still frames with a short press and deliver a predetermined amount of contrast agent with a long press. Video can be recorded via the computer-based controls on the optical scan unit. A small syringe loaded with 0.2 cc of contrast agent is inserted into a Luer Lock connector in a recessed cavity that guides the fluid down a 21 gauge hypodermic tube to the distal tip. The articulation mechanism was inspired by commercial instruments22 that are designed to overcome the limitations imposed by rigid laparoscopic instruments. The probe has a symmetrical design that allows for both left-handed and right-handed usage. The mechanical design for the new catheter was done in SolidWorks and then made using a rapid prototyping Objet350 Connex 3D printer. A photograph of the prototype device is shown in Fig. 4 and a demonstration of the articulating distal tip is provided in Fig. 5. Imaging Results Using the New Articulating Confocal Microlaparoscope The spatial resolution of this bare fiber system is lateral and axial measured in water with a full field-of-view of 0.72 mm. The imaging performance of the prototype articulating tip probe was demonstrated using excised animal tissue as well as excised human fallopian tube tissue. Figure 6 shows preliminary ex vivo fluorescent confocal images obtained from a mouse [Figs. 6(a) and 6(b)] and a rat [Figs. 6(c) and 6(d)]. The articulating bare fiber probe was placed in contact with the tissue surface after acridine orange was topically applied through the contrast agent delivery channel. Figure 7 shows ex vivo images from human fallopian tube stained with acridine orange. Figures 7(a)–7(c) were obtained when the articulating distal tip was placed in contact with the fimbriae. Figure 7(d) was taken when the articulating distal tip was inserted inside the lumen of the fallopian tube. The corresponding histological diagnosis for the fallopian tube tissue in Figs. 7(a)–7(c) was postmenopausal normal fimbria. A histologic diagnosis for the tissue shown in Fig. 7(d) was not obtained since it was difficult to correlate the image location to the tissue site while the tip was inside the lumen of the fallopian tube. The images shown in Figs. 6 and 7 are high resolution and high contrast, and clearly demonstrate the powerful imaging capabilities of this new microlaparoscope probe. During ex vivo imaging, we found that the thin articulating tip can be inserted 2 cm beyond the fimbriated end of the fallopian tube relatively easily. Although the new articulating tip probe has not yet been tested in vivo, we expect that it will provide better access to the fallopian tubes and an image quality capable of visualizing cellular detail and the microstructural features of the tissue. Discussion and Conclusions A confocal microlaparoscope with a small diameter articulating distal tip was successfully developed to image inside the fallopian tube. The instrument is intended to allow the detection of early stage ovarian cancer arising in the fallopian tube. In this pilot study, tissues were topically stained with the fluorescent contrast agent acridine orange, which readily crosses the cell membrane and intercalates with DNA in the cell nucleus and RNA in the cytosol. Our work has shown significant promise in the identification of ovarian cancer using acridine orange16 and we have an investigational new drug approval from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to test acridine orange in patients whose tissue is being surgically removed subsequent to imaging. However, there are concerns about the potential mutagenicity of acridine orange. For in vivo clinical use, we are investigating several FDA approved contrast agents including fluorescein sodium, methylene blue, and indocyanine green. The new articulating catheter can be used with any of these alternative contrast agents. The development of a safe and effective contrast agent for in vivo detection of ovarian cancer is a fundamental goal of our on-going research. The results of ex vivo and in vivo imaging of human fallopian tube using our previously developed rigid clinical confocal microlaparoscope suggest the potential of the proposed confocal imaging technique, but access to the fallopian tube is limited by the geometry of the 5-mm-diameter rigid device. The new lightweight ergonomic confocal microlaparoscope with its articulating distal tip, will enable access to the distal end of the fallopian tube during laparoscopic surgery. The ability to image inside of the fallopian tubes up to a few centimeters past the fimbria is a significant advantage of this new instrument. Although the lateral resolution of the articulating tip probe is less than the lateral resolution of the rigid clinical microlaparoscope probe, the performance is sufficient to resolve subcellular structures, such as cell nuclei, and the important microstructural features relevant to ovarian cancer detection. In addition, the overall sensitivity of the bare-fiber articulating design is quite similar to that of the miniature objective–based rigid system. The bare-fiber system collects less light because it has a smaller NA but the bare-fiber system has a higher throughput because it eliminates the miniature objective, which has 15 optical surfaces. Overall, the images obtained with this bare fiber-bundle imaging system are of comparable quality to images of ovarian tissue collected with the rigid clinical system. Ultimately, this articulating tip device may allow surgeons to image ovarian cancer arising inside the fallopian tube and to provide a means to detect the disease at an earlier stage when it is more amenable to effective treatment. In vivo clinical evaluation of the new articulating microlaparoscope system is the next step in demonstrating the potential of this instrumentation. This research work has been supported by a Better Than Ever Grant from the University of Arizona Cancer Center and a grant from the National Cancer Institute CA115780. The authors would like to thank the Center for Gamma-ray Imaging’s Rapid Prototype 3-D Printer Team for their assistance with printing the catheter, and Dr. Wenxin Zheng, Professor of Pathology, Obstetrics, and Gynecology at the University of Arizona, College of Medicine, for his collaboration on this project. Tzu-Yu Wu is a PhD candidate in the College of Optical Sciences, at the University of Arizona. Her research is focused on the development of high-resolution imaging devices that provide rapid detection of early stage cancer through a minimally invasive procedure. Her interests include optical system design, opto-mechanics, and biomedical optics. She is enthusiastic about bench to bedside translation where researchers transform ideas into clinically viable instruments and ultimately translate that research into practice. Andrew R. Rouse is a research assistant professor in the Department of Medical Imaging and College of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona. He has a long track record in the field of biomedical optics with a focus on small minimally invasive catheter–based medical imaging systems. He has experience in the design, testing, and use of miniature lens assemblies appropriate for thin in vivo catheter system. Setsuko K. Chambers is a professor of gynecologic oncology and the Bobbi Olson Endowed Chair in Ovarian Cancer Research at the University of Arizona. She received an MD from Brown University in 1980 and completed a residency in obstetrics and gynecology at Yale University in 1984. In addition to her clinical duties as section head of gynecologic oncology, she is actively involved in basic research of the molecular factors that influence ovarian cancer carcinogenesis, growth, and metastatic spread. Kenneth D. Hatch is a professor in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Arizona. He has been president of the Society of Gynecologic Oncologists, the Society of Pelvic Surgeons, and the American Society of Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology. He is a fellow of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the American College of Surgeons. His main research is on development of advanced laparoscopic surgical treatment of women with ovarian cancer. Arthur F. Gmitro is the Fenton Maynard Chair in Cancer Imaging and professor of medical imaging and optical sciences at the University of Arizona. He received his PhD in optical sciences from the University of Arizona in 1982. Before joining the UA faculty, he was an assistant professor of diagnostic radiology at Yale University from 1982 to 1987. His major areas of research include magnetic resonance imaging and biomedical optical imaging, and continues to work on development of these technologies.

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|Saying something that someone "did not do" is yet to be a report of something concrete, that is, something that a camera (if present) could record. Such a statement therefore requires that the receiver of the message guess to "fill in the blank" as to what the speaker is intending. What will likely be the "fill in" by the hearer will be some sort of a "should" message (VRP) or a "should not" message (VRP), making conflict more likely. ||Observations are concrete events that have space and time existance. For example: I can Observe someone facing out of a window. To say that he or she, "is refusing to look at me" is a labeling (VRP) of that behavior rather than a factual statement of what the person is actually doing. Similarly, to say that he or she is "not looking" at me or "will not" look at me is also labeling (VRP).

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From the Forum on Intellectual Property in the February 2009 issue of Perspectives on History The New World of Publishing and New Directions in Intellectual Property For the past 15 years or so, historians have largely been the observers as new technologies have precipitated a crisis in copyright. This crisis is best understood by putting copyright into historical perspective. The Electronic Communications Revolution and Open Access to Scholarship English copyright law developed in response to a great technological revolution—the development of the printing press, and a great cultural revolution—the growth of literacy. These revolutions led to a struggle over the control of the value that could be secured from the transmission of information, ideas, and art in print. The struggle was resolved in law from the 1660s to 1710, a time in which progressive forces that opposed monopoly and favored the dynamic use of property—what we now refer to as entrepreneurship—were stronger than conservative, static property interests in the English political system.1 Thus the Statute of Anne—the English copyright act of 1710—rejected the claims of publishers and printers to a permanent monopoly over literary productions, instead vesting rights in authors and limiting those rights to relatively short term.2 These antimonopolistic, pro-entrepreneurial forces have predominated in American society through most of our history, and consequently the American law of copyright continued on the path set by the Statute of Anne. Like other elements of American law, copyright law has accepted the “creative destruction” of existing property values in order to promote continuing economic, and especially technological, development.3 Our laws did not enable canal companies from frustrating the establishment of railroads, for example, or railroads from stopping the construction of interstate highways. We permit the free incorporation of new businesses; the law does not enable existing businesses to protect themselves against competition by preventing their incorporation or by requiring that new businesses obtain the permission of established ones to enter the field or locality. In copyright law, we do not permit copyright in ideas but only in how ideas are expressed; we limit the term during which copyright protects those expressions; and we create exceptions to the rights that copyright law secures copyright owners. Indeed, the U.S. Constitution itself specifies that the purpose of copyright is to promote knowledge in the arts and sciences.4 Copyright law and its doctrines have developed in the course of an essentially print regime, accommodating what now appear to be relatively minor technological advances like recordings and motion pictures by analogizing them to print. Most important, the law of copyright, with very few exceptions, applies the same rules to all communication of creative productions, whether scientific, artistic, academic, for purposes of entertainment, or anything else. Copyright law enables creators and those who distribute their work to profit from its value by giving them exclusive control over its distribution for a period of time. The value of copyrighted work comes from the ability to demand payment from those wishing to reproduce and circulate it, and the law is designed to sustain that right against infringement.5 However, we are now witnessing another great technological revolution affecting the distribution of information, ideas, and art. The potential impact of this revolution on the way we circulate knowledge is incalculable. It makes possible different ways of securing value from the communication of information from those embodied in the present system and in the law sustaining that system. These alternatives grow out of the new stress on interactivity, which characterizes what analysts call the Web 2.0. It posits “open access” to the information on the web. Think of “googling” for a Chinese restaurant in Washington. The names, addresses, telephone numbers, and web sites of a bunch of eateries appear on your screen. Or you can go to Mapquest and ask for Chinese restaurants near a specific address. Again a bunch of names come up. Click on these and you get menus, prices, formal reviews, reviews by John and Jane Doe. You get advertisements for similar restaurants. Reviewers mention similar restaurants, with hot links to them, and you get similar information. You can link on the chef’s name, or you can google her. You can copy the information and send it to a friend. The providers of all this information either do it out of the pleasure it brings them or, as in the case of Google, they make money from associated advertising, much as commercial broadcast television provides content freely to viewers. Unless the law interferes, something similar is going to happen with scholarship. Indeed, it is already happening.6 You will google a subject or the title of an article or book you’ve heard about. Up it comes. Along with the book or article appear comments and responses by readers, some of them expert and some not. Enterprising folks have put up links to similar articles and books. Alongside these links are advertisements for newly published books in the area, or for educational software, or computer deals, or special vacations for educators, or whatever else might be of interest to someone who had searched for the original article. You can consult the part of the book you are interested in by clicking on the relevant chapters. You can scan chapters and articles through keyword searches. The footnotes of the article or e-book are hotlinked, and if they aren’t, you can google the titles. You can forward the URL to a colleague so that she can read the same item; you can copy the text and forward it. The rewards to the authors will not be royalties on book sales, which for most academics are paltry for books and nonexistent for articles. The reward will be the promotions, salary rises, and opportunities that come with being widely known for contributions to knowledge made ever more widely available under the new regime. Besides checking with scholars in your field, the Promotion and Tenure Committee will look at the number of hits on your e-publications, the comments surrounding them, the number of times they are cited. The browsers and bundlers who make these postings accessible will secure revenue through advertising and making their search engines available to businesses. Obviously, this would be a complete revolution with tremendous implications for the role, if any, of publishers, journals, editors, the referee system, book-length publications, tenure evaluations—just about everything with which we are familiar. Open access is very attractive to producers and disseminators of knowledge. It is spreading rapidly in several of the sciences, where it is made easier by the fact that authors pay to have their articles published. Physics has long been the leader in establishing open access to research. The Directory of Open Access Journals lists 47 open-access journals in physics and 13 in astronomy.7 But other scientific disciplines are catching up. The Public Library of Science publishes seven significant open-access scientific and medical journals.8 BioMed Central, Chemistry Central, and PhysMath Central publish over 100 open-access journals in their fields.9 Many scientific journals become “open source” after six months, relying on scientists’ need for the most up-to-the-moment information to keep subscriptions up. They are agreeing to allow contributors to place their manuscripts in online archives—in many cases before they appear in print, in others as they appear in print, and in some after a brief delay. These archives are sponsored by the researchers’ home institutions or by organizations in their field.10 The hard sciences are ahead of the social sciences, and Europeans are ahead of Americans in the push towards open access. Many science funding and research institutions of Europe—virtually all the major players in France and Germany—have signed on to the 2003 Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities.11 But the movement is beginning to spread to the American social sciences and humanities disciplines. The Social Science Research Network (SSRN) is a growing online archive of social science and law papers and articles, many of them freely accessible.12 The SSRN’s Legal Research Network allows users to subscribe to scores of law-school research paper series, nearly all on an open-access basis.13 The SSRN has optimistically organized a new Humanities Research Network within its general SSRN rubric.14 A few humanities journals are cautiously beginning to follow the science journals’ example. Perspectives on History is an open-source periodical, and the American Historical Review makes its articles, but not other content, freely available, one of the few humanities journals to do so.15 Of course, people can also self-publish on their own web sites, or create a blog that may include formal papers, or post papers with the SSRN’s Humanities Research Network or on other online repositories established by one’s academic institution or professional colleagues. The Internet Revolution and Copyright Law The problem is that an open-source regime is not necessarily the best one for artistic productions and entertainment, requiring a complete rethinking of how media companies earn money. Even in the area of scholarship, it posits a business model at odds with the one that now predominates. Institutions that grew out of the print regime find this new model alien, disconcerting, and even threatening. It suggests an unknown world to institutions such as historical societies that depend on journal subscriptions, editors, and all of us who are used to being evaluated and rewarded according to our success in appearing in print. These institutions prefer the traditional regime, which is based on the ability of copyright owners to restrict access to their productions and to control their distribution. Instead of the open-access restaurant-posting analogy described above, this, current regime encourages closed, or “toll” access—what we still often find when we google an article: a citation and short snippet, followed by the offer to download upon payment of $7.95. Companies like Hein Online have grown up to bundle access to scholarly journals, and ambitious university presses are managing journal subscriptions and printing and then placing their own bundles of journals online. To avoid the irritation of having to pay every time one downloads an article, copyright owners license free access to libraries and subscribers for a fee, which reduces their own administrative costs as well. If you looked at the licenses closely, you might be surprised at the tight and confusing restrictions they place upon downloading and copying. For example, Ohio State University’s license with LexisNexis Academic obligates students and faculty to use LexisNexis’s downloading and printing commands (rather than Microsoft’s copy-and-paste commands) to download “insubstantial portions” of any file and to print them out. Except for legal and patent materials, Ohio State’s license permits users to retain downloaded material for no more than 90 days. While users can make copies from authorized printouts, the terms seem to preclude them from making electronic copies directly from the downloaded files.16 The purpose of the confusing language must be to prevent people from downloading material from LexisNexis and distributing it widely on the internet. That activity would undermine the value of LexisNexis’s service. To understand the present situation in copyright, imagine the reaction of monks and monasteries as print technology was spreading around the Western world. What was the print revolution going to do to their beautiful hand-painted, handwritten productions? What would happen to their status as repositories of knowledge? Who would care about the accomplishments of a particularly fine illustrator and penman? Now, imagine they had been able to turn to an existing body of law that secured their right to produce and circulate knowledge and prohibit duplication by mere machine. This time we do have a dense, pre-existing body of law that was designed to establish order after the previous communications revolution. It is based entirely on creating a traditional property right—a right that enables owners to restrict access to their property and to profit from it by charging for access—either by sale or by license. This system may be appropriate, and perhaps even necessary, to encourage artistic and entertainment production. But it is probably not appropriate for the encouragement of knowledge. Toll access really does limit the potential for the dissemination and production of knowledge inherent in the internet revolution. The question is, what direction will the law take? Will the law be adapted to accommodate the technological revolution? Or will the law be utilized to contain it and channel it to enable powerful media interests to make money from it in the traditional way, the one that they are most comfortable with, which may maximize profits at the expense of the great potential of the new technology? Perhaps we need an entirely new regime to govern the internet media. Or perhaps we need different rules for different kinds of creative expressions—those designed mainly to entertain or disseminate the arts as distinct from those designed to produce and disseminate knowledge. At present, copyright owners are working desperately to force the internet revolution into the channels established by traditional copyright law. They are driven by the fear that the entire structure of copyright is being undermined by the technological revolution in communications—which it is. From their perspective, they are under siege by pirates intent on stealing their property. A representative of Paramount Pictures characterizes proposals to modify copyright law to take account of the technological revolution in communications as “Because it is easy to steal, it should no longer be illegal to steal.”17 Copyright owners demand that the government protect them against the thieves. But there is another side to these demands. If media companies are successful in securing greater copyright protection, they can reap the economic benefits of the revolution. If they are not, then the creators of new technologies will reap the benefits. Thus Viacom sues Google and YouTube for failing to do enough to prevent copyright infringement online.18 Does it want Google to force infringers off the internet? Does it want Google and YouTube to help media companies collect royalties from kids who post clips on their YouTube sites? Probably not. More likely it wants Google and YouTube to pay media companies a royalty or a percentage of their receipts, much like media companies unsuccessfully sought to force Sony to do when it developed video tape-recording technology.19 Google, with its amazing technological expertise, is devising ways to prevent users from posting infringing material on YouTube. The effect would be to force the media companies to figure out a way to collect royalties from those internet users who were willing to pay them. Not surprisingly, the media companies insist that Google’s remedy is not satisfactory.20 These media giants have immense influence. Copyright owners are responding vigorously to the threat that the internet revolution presents to their ability to profit from their property in the traditional way. In a conservative age, which exalts traditional property rights and is indifferent to the dangers of monopoly, they have met with great success in all the branches of the national government, which has exclusive say over copyright. They have managed to extend the term of copyright protection to seventy years beyond the death of the creator, and the Supreme Court has rejected arguments that such an extension exceeds the limited time the Constitution envisions in order to promote creativity.21 The Digital Millennium Copyright Protection Act bars circumvention of technological protection measures; the Librarian of Congress, authorized to define fair-use exceptions, has interpreted them very narrowly.22 Congress has significantly increased the minimum statutory damages for copyright infringement.23 The Supreme Court has taken a hard line against file-sharing technologies.24 Their counter-attack is eroding the rights of users and consumers. If continued, it will significantly damage the interests of scholars as researchers and teachers, and will impose added expenses on our institutions of learning. The problem for historians is that we are largely observers. The professional associations representing scholars and librarians do their best, but those seeking legislation that helps them exploit the internet, those going to court to shape the law in their interests, are behemoths like Disney and Viacom. The law that emerges from the clash of these titans will affect us profoundly as teachers, researchers, and authors, but the interests of education and scholarship are dwarfed in the legislative struggle and not represented in court except through little-notice briefs we submit as friends of the court or insofar as our interests coincide with one of the parties. Can revolutions go backwards? Can law counteract the natural consequences of so powerful a movement as the internet revolution? We will see. And the shape of historical scholarship and teaching in the future will be determined by the result. Michael Les Benedict, who is an emeritus professor of history at Ohio State University, is the AHA’s parliamentarian. 1. Ronan Deazley, On the Origin of the Right to Copy: Charting the Movement of Copyright Law in Eighteenth-Century Britain (1695–1775) (Oxford and Portland: Hart Publishing, 2004); Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968); Mark Rose, Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). 3. “Creative Destruction” is a standard concept of economics, originating in Joseph A. Schempeter’s classic The Process of Creative Destruction in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper and Bros., 1942). 4. “The Congress shall have Power . . . To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.” U.S. Constitution, Art. I, sec. 8. 5. Note that it is the right to distribute one’s work that is exclusive, not the right to sell it. If one purchases a copy of a work, one can resell it, lend it, or give it away without the permission of the creator or those to whom she has delegated her copyright. 6. See John Willinsky, The Access Principle: The Case for Open Access to Research and Scholarship (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005). Fittingly, MIT has given open access to this book, mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/ebook.asp?ttype=2&tid=10611, accessed May 23, 2008. See also Neil Jacobs, ed., Open Access: Key Strategic, Technical and Economic Aspects (Oxford: Chandos, 2006). One can find a wealth of information and insights about open access and scholarship simply by googling “Open Access.” 7. Directory of Open Access Journals, www.doaj.org/doaj?func=subject&cpid=48, accessed May 23, 2008. See Heather Morrison, “Open Access in Physics and Chemistry, or, A Tale of Two Disciplines,” presented at McGill Library School, eprints.rclis.org/archive/00007948, accessed May 23, 2008. 8. Public Library of Science, www.plos.org. 10. The Open Archives Initiative, www.openarchives.org, which is working towards common online archival protocols, lists 883 online archives, mainly European, that have registered with it. Registered Data Providers, Open Archives Initiative, www.openarchives.org/Register/BrowseSites, accessed May 23, 2008. Anna K. Hood lists ten American and one Canadian university open-access repositories. Hood, Open Access Resources: September 2007 (Washington, D.C.: Association of Research Libraries, 2007), 118–30. The presentation by Heather Morrison cited in note 7 above is posted on E-Lis, an open-access archive for Library and Information Science, http://eprints.rclis.org, one example of an open-access disciplinary archive. 11. 2003 Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities, www.zim.mpg.de/openaccess-berlin/berlindeclaration.html. 12 Social Science Research Network, www.ssrn.com. 13 Legal Scholarship Network Research Paper Series, www.ssrn.com/lsn/index.html, accessed May 23, 2008. 14 SSRN Announces New Humanities Research Network (HRN), www.ssrn.com/update/crn/crnann/annA001.html, accessed May 23, 2008. At present the history component consists of only 23 accepted articles or research papers in ancient history taken from the SSRN’s old Classics Research Network. SSRN Abstract Databases Search Result, History, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/JELJOUR_Results.cfm?form_name=journalbrowse&journal_id=997655, accessed May 23, 2008. Most are posted on an open-access basis. 16 Terms & Conditions of Use for the LexisNexis Services, section 1, www.lexisnexis.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu, accessed May 24, 2008. 20. “Vid Site Ramps Up Copyright Patrol,” Daily Variety, October 16, 2007, p. 1; “Google Takes Steps on Video Rights,” New York Times, October 16, 2007, Sec. C, p. 7; “Google Tries System to Halt Video Pirating,” ibid., October 17, 2007, Finance Section, p. 13; “Viacom Chief Says Google’s New Copyright Protection System Isn’t Enough,” Techweb, October 18, 2007, all accessed through LexisNexis Academic, May 25, 2008. 21. Sony Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, Public Law 105-298, 112 Statutes at Large 2827 (1998). The law may be viewed at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ298.105.pdf, accessed May 25, 2008; Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003). 22. Digital Millennium Copyright Protection Act, PL 105-304, 112 Statutes at Large 2861 (1998). The law may be viewed at http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/pl105-304.pdf, accessed May 25, 2008. The rules promulgated by the Librarian of Congress in 2000, 2003, and 2006 can be found at http://www.copyright.gov/1201, accessed May 25, 2008. 23. Digital Theft Deterrence and Copyright Damages Improvement Act, P.L. 106-60, 113 Statutes at Large 1774 (1999). The law may be viewed at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=106_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ160.106.pdf, accessed May 25, 2008. 24. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios v. Grokster, 545 U.S. 913 (2005). Earlier, media companies had successfully used the courts to shut down the popular Napster music file-sharing system. A & M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 114 F. Supp. 2d 896 (N.D. Cal. 2000), aff’d in part, rev’d in part, 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001). Copyright © American Historical AssociationLast Updated: January 28, 2009 3:00 PM

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| There is nothing significant in the observation made in today's DAILY NOTES. It is curious to learn that there was another man named Jesus recorded in the New Testament other than Jesus Christ. Many may have noticed this but it struck me the other day as I was reading from the epistle of Colossians. We are told that the name Jesus is not all that uncommon among Jewish people. But whoever thinks of the name without thinking of the Son of God. But as Paul was sending greetings to brethren in Colossae he named one in chapter four, verse eleven as Jesus, who is called Justus. Double names are also commonplace. We know practically nothing about this man except he was a fellow worker with Paul and who had been a comforted to him. The Holy Spirit thought well enough of him to mention him. This speaks volumes about the spiritual character of this other Jesus.

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The Wall of Tears is a historical site 5 km west of Puerto Villamil on Isabela Island in the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador. A penal colony existed on Isabela from 1944 to 1959 and the penal colony was always marked by abuse, and considered prisoners as slaves. One of the tasks entrusted to the prisoners, so they would have to do something, it was the construction of a wall with volcanic stones, Prisoners had to carry heavy stones from several kilometers. On this tour and during the construction of the wall, many fell due to insolation and lack of food. In addition, some died because the wall collapsed in a while. Many of these prisoners were buried in makeshift graves along the way. The result of this construction is what today is known as the Wall of Tears. Image credit shadowdoc31 Isabela worked as a US military base but after the end of World War II, the forces withdrew. Thus, the Ecuadorian government decided to use the, by then, remote island to take the most dangerous prisoners in the country and found what they called a penal colony. Thus the facilities abandoned by soldiers of the United States for that "prison" were used. But the horror of the story begin 1946 when it was decided, as a punishment, that criminals pay their sentence with hard labor. The Wall of Tears never finished being constructed , it really did not have much purpose other than to hold prisoners in an activity, and it is an overwhelming formation of approximately 100 meters long, 3 meters wide and 5-6 m high, which is now a site to visit the island Isabela. Certainly the history of the penal colony of Isabela and the Wall of Tears is not the happiest history of the islands. The Wall of Tears, named for the suffering and pain of their builders, still stands , contrasting each day with the beautiful landscape that grows around it. Image credit Kathi Spencer Image credit Andy Hares Image credit Jordan Alexander Hartley Image credit jdegenhardt Image credit tophercrane Image credit Kristoff Styrbaek Image credit dr.dickr Image credit Quincin and Yves Image credit John and Amy Osaki Muro de las Lagrimas, Isabela. Image credit Kathi Spencer

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George Musser: So spooky action at a distance was Einstein’s kind of appellation for the idea of nonlocality. Non-locality is the technical term for it. So the example I often give is two coins. So you can treat some of these particles as having two possible outcomes of a measurement. And you can think about it as heads or tails of a coin. So you create two of them. You give one to your friend. Your friend goes off somewhere and you keep the other. And you both flip the coin and you come up with heads, they come up with heads. You come up with tails, they come up with tails. Heads, tails. It just goes back and forth. And yet they’re the same answer on both sides. So this non-local connection among these particles or whatever kind of object is bearing that connection seems to violate our intuition from Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. So that theory among other things said that influences in nature are limited by the speed of light. So you can’t have any kind of subspace radio or answerable like they have in science fiction. There has to be a limit to the speed at which influences the signals can propagate. So these particles which can exist on the opposite sides of the universe seem to disobey that principle. But the situation’s kind of subtle and the reason it’s subtle is that the particles are unable to send an ordinary communication. You can’t use them to radio signal or have some kind of telemetry or remote control across that gap. And the reason is quite simple. The reasons are the outcomes of those particle experiments or the flips of the coin are random. So they just come up heads or tails and heads or tails and you can’t decide is it heads or is it tails. So you’ve got no way to manipulate the coin and thereby produce an outcome at the distant location. So you can’t communicate. You can’t send a signal. So on the one hand the phenomena seems to violate relativity theory. But on the other hand it kind of pulls back from the precipice. It doesn’t actually violate it in a practical sense. You can’t send a signal faster than light. It still however poses kind of a theoretical conundrum. Why are these particles able to coordinate their behavior even though they’re so far apart. So there’s a tension with Einstein’s Theory of Relativity not perhaps an outright observed contradiction of the theory. The question of why these particles can coordinate, why these coins can land on the same side no matter where they might be is really it could be very perplexing. And Einstein was troubled by it. He thought the particles for instance were basically had a mechanism in them or some kind of like gimmick built into them like a magician would have kind of a trick coin. And he thought the particles were also like trick coins that they were preprogrammed to land on one side or the other. But in the 60s and 70s that particular explanation was ruled out. So the other possibility is that there might be some kind of signal going between them. But that seems to be ruled out because you couldn’t do the experiment kind of in synchrony. You can do it at the same time and yet the coins can still act in a coordinated way. So you’re kind of left with like what’s going on. It’s just a mystery here. There’s almost like a magical magic wand or Obi-Wan sensing the disruption of all Alderaan kind of situation going on here. It’s kind of a magical situation. So the thinking today is that it represents a violation, a kind of undermining of space, the very fabric of space. That things in the universe seem to be located far apart from one another. They have individual locations and they need to interact by mechanisms that propagate within space. And these particles violate that expectation so it seems to indicate that space itself is somehow not fundamental. It’s not a real or deep feature of reality.

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June 17, 2013 Community-based Programs May Help Prevent Childhood Obesity When it comes to confronting childhood obesity, researchers at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health conclude that community-based approaches are important. A systematic review of childhood obesity prevention programs found that community-based intervention programs that incorporate schools and focus on both diet and physical activity are more effective at preventing obesity in children. The results of the study appear online in Pediatrics. “In measuring the effectiveness of community-based programs that impact childhood obesity – more comprehensive interventions are definitely better,” said Sara Bleich, PhD, associate professor inof Health Policy and Management and lead author on the paper. “The research shows that in order to help prevent obesity among children, we must focus on both diet and exercise in the communities where children live and go to school since the environment is a key contributor to obesity risk. Focusing on the community is especially important for children since they generally have little or no control over their environment.” This shift toward a stronger community focus is echoed in a recent Institute of Medicine (IOM) report, Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention, which recommends a comprehensive approach to childhood obesity prevention that includes the community. Researchers examined nine studies that featured community-based interventions and found that, among those, the two interventions that included a school component effectively prevented obesity or overweight in children. Common characteristics found across most of the nine studies included the use of multiple intervention components (e.g., health education and family outreach), the inclusion of settings other than just the community (e.g., school, home, primary care, child care), and a focus on children at middle school age or younger. “While additional research is needed to assess the full impact of community-based interventions on the prevention of childhood obesity, our conclusions indicate that more comprehensive approaches, which attempt to modify diet and exercise in the community with engagement from the schools, weigh in everyone’s favor,” said Bleich. The project was funded under contract 290-2007-10061-l from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health media contact: Tim Parsons at 410-955-7619 or email@example.com.

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Printer friendly version New cancer detection method right around the corner - Norway and France in front 04 February 2013 Oslo, University of As the first countries in the world, Norway and France will be testing a completely new method for detecting cancer. This is done by measuring the elasticity of tumours. The method is called elastography. You may as well learn this new word right away; in a few years, elastography may be as common as X-rays. "Elastography gives oncologists yet another method for detecting tumours. Elastography may be especially suitable for determining how serious the illness is," says radiologist and clinical consultant Per Kristian Hol at the Intervention Centre at Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet. To detect cancer, determine how the cancer is developing and how dangerous it is, hospitals must often use large and expensive methods such as X-rays, MR, CT or PET. "Some of the methods use a lot of radiation. Others are very expensive to run." Every year, nearly one hundred Norwegians get cancer from X-rays. This is what radiologist Lars Borgen found in his dissertation in clinical medicine last year. The radiation from a round in a CT machine is ten times higher than the average background radiation during an entire year, according to particle physicist Erlend Bolle. For PET scans, the patient is injected with radioactive tracers. "We want the best possible diagnostics with the least possible radiation. Elastography is completely safe.", says Hol. A promising method Elastography can be combined with either MR or ultrasound. MR machines are expensive. "Ultrasound is cheap, but the result depends a lot on how good the ultrasound examination is. In the future, we envision that elastography will be performed at a regular doctor's office", says Hol. The University Hospital is now planning to test the method on patients. "We still don't know a lot about elastography, but the method looks promising. If elastography is the technique we are hoping for, this can become an important examination in the future. This would allow us to use elastography to characterize different types of tumours, such as cancer of the liver", says Anne Cathrine T. Martinsen, who is the Section Manager of diagnostic physics at the Intervention Centre and Associate Professor in the Department of Physics at the University of Oslo. Tumours do not have the same elasticity as healthy tissue. Elasticity is related to the density of blood vessels. Tumours have more blood vessels than healthy tissue. Malignant tumours usually have even more blood vessels and a greater blood flow than benign tumours. "Different tumours at different stages of the development of the cancer have different elasticity. Tumours may be less or more elastic than healthy tissue. Some tumours may spread, while others do not. In other words, we can get an entirely new map of organs and tumours by measuring elasticity." The examination is simple. The doctor places a vibrator on the location that is to be examined. The vibrator has a pulse of up to 200 oscillations per second. The pressure wave from the vibrator goes through the organ. This allows doctors to study the elasticity of the healthy and diseased parts. Researchers at the Hôpital Beaujon university hospital in Paris are already testing elastography on patients with liver fibrosis, an illness in which the liver has become stiff due to hepatitis or alcohol damage. The Intervention Centre in Oslo is now planning to test the method on Norwegian patients with liver fibrosis. The method can replace biopsy. This means that patients do not have to have a needle inserted into their liver. The trick: divide the waves! In the last four years, Professor Sverre Holm in the Department of Informatics at the University of Oslo, Norway, has collaborated closely with the French researchers. Holm has researched ultrasound for 20 years and is also Adjunct Professor in the Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. "Elastography-ultrasound is completely different from the current use of ultrasound. Traditional ultrasound sends out a signal that returns as an echo. The problem is that it is impossible to distinguish between malignant and benign tumours with regular ultrasound", says Holm to the research magazine Apollon. And this is where Apollon gets to the point: Ultrasound creates two types of waves. The most common type is pressure waves. Pressure waves go down into the tissue. The other waves are created by the radiation pressure from pressure waves and run horizontally. These waves are called shear waves. While pressure waves are mostly affected by fluids, the shear waves capture the characteristics of the other 30 per cent of the body that does not consist of water. Until today, it has not been possible to measure shear waves. "We study how the shear waves behave in the tissue, and look at viscosity (studies how liquid the fluid is), attenuation and velocity", says Holm. Shear waves are created when pressure waves are sent to specific points. From there, the special diagonal energy waves are created. The trick is to use the regular ultrasound waves to measure the diagonal energy pulse. "We must reconstruct what happens. We must discard all information from the pressure waves and only retain the information from the shear waves", says Holm. The pressure wave has a speed of 1,500 metres a second. The shear wave has a speed of one to ten metres a second. "A regular ultrasound scanner takes a hundred images a second. The speed must be increased to a thousand images a second in order to capture shear waves. To manage this speed, we must sacrifice some of the image quality", says Postdoctoral Fellow Peter Näsholm in the Department of Informatics. If the frequency changes, the speed of the waves will change. It turns out that the more dangerous a tumour is, the the higher the speed of the waves is. A large calculation capacity is required to interpret these waves. The mathematics is far from simple. Hope to replace mammography French researchers believe that in the future, elastography can replace mammography. Mammography uses X-rays to examine breasts. Any dose of radiation is unfortunate. "Elastography can be an important supplementary examination in the diagnosis of breast cancer. Large clinical trials will be carried out in the near future to see if we can replace mammography with elastography", says Professor Mickael Tanter at ESPCI, the technical university college for industrial physics and chemistry, which is behind the technology used by the French ultrasound company Supersonic Image. The Intervention Centre in Oslo is less certain than the French professor. "If elastography is to replace breast cancer screening, it must be able to see smaller tumours and to see the tumours better than it does currently. In mammography, it is difficult to detect small tumours. There is hope that elastography can also be used to see small tumours, but there is still quite a way to go", notes radiologist Per Kristian Hol. MEASURES STIFFNESS: As tumours do not have the same elasticity as health tissue, it is possible to detect tumours by measuring elasticity of soft tissue. This method is called elastography. "Wave velocity in ultrasound measurements increases the more dangerous the tumour is", explains Professor Sverre Holm (right) and Postdoctoral Fellow Peter Näsholm in the Department of Informatics at UiO. Photo: Yngve Vogt COLOURS TUMOURS: Ultrasound creates two types of waves: pressure waves and shear waves. Pressure waves go down into the tissue. Shear waves run horizontally, and are created by the radiation pressure from the pressure waves. Current ultrasound examinations measure the pressure waves. The new ultra sound examination measures the shear waves. Until now it has not been possible to measure the shear waves. Shear waves can be used to measure elasticity in soft tissue. Elasticity differs between healthy tissue and tumours. The answer is shown in colours. Photo: Supersonic Imagine

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Shelly Barnes: Let’s go fishing for health benefits, improvements These fatty acids are essential to the proper functioning of our bodies, and our bodies do not produce them, so we need to include them in our diet. There are several types of omega-3 fatty acids, but two crucial ones – EPA and DHA – are primarily found in fish. All fish contain omega-3 fatty acids, but they are especially high in fatty fish, including salmon, trout, sardines, herring, canned mackerel and canned light tuna. Updated Nov 15, 2017 at 7:00 PM

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One possible explanation for this, according to Beye, is that the two different gene varieties form proteins that combine and are able to turn on other genes that control female development. Boon for Breeding Breeding experiments had shown that a sex determination gene must exist in ants, bees, and wasps. But no one had found it until now, commented honeybee geneticist Jay Evans of the United States Department of Agriculture Bee Research Lab in Beltsville, Maryland. "It is certainly an important find for bees and for insect sex determination generally," he said. "[However,] establishing the rest of the pathway will take substantial work in bees, since it looks to be distinct from known mechanisms." The finding could also be important for bee breeding initiatives, said Beye. Breeding bees for useful traits, such as low aggression or improved immunity, requires the sequential mating of closely related animals. This can lead to fertilized eggs having both copies of the same CSD gene, creating sterile physiological males. In the most extreme cases, 50 percent of eggs produce sterile males, which are killed by workers. This fatally depletes the workforce and often means that the hive fails to make it through the winter. The discovery of the CSD gene means that breeders may be able to genetically test bee lines before mating to ensure that fertilized eggs will end up with two different types of the CSD gene. "We've known for some time that inbred queens do poorly and often produce morphological males," said Evans. "Knowing the actual [gene] will allow for smarter matings by bee breeders that avoid inbreeding costs," he said. SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES

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|Hawaii Volcanism: Impact on the Environment ||Fewer than one hundred people have been killed by eruptions in the recorded history of Hawaii, and only one death has occurred in the 20th Century. However, the lava flows are highly destructive to populated and cultivated areas. This set depicts the negative impact of lava flows on communities, vegetation, marine life, roads, and coastlines. It also illustrates the benefits of Hawaii volcanism such as the production of geothermal power, increase in land area of the islands and other benefits. More than 270,000 people have been killed directly or indirectly by volcanic activity worldwide during the past 500 years. Nearly all of the deaths have been caused by explosive eruptions of composite volcanoes along the boundaries of the Earth's tectonic plates. Hawaii's volcanoes have more fluid, less gaseous magmas and produce quieter, less hazardous eruptions. The village of Kapoho was entirely destroyed during the 1960 eruption in the lower east rift (fissure) zone of Kilauea. In the 1980s, flows from Kilauea's east rift largely destroyed Royal Gardens and Kalapana. The March-April 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa threatened Hilo, with a population of about 40,000. Advancing nearly 26 km in about 5 days, the active flows produced a bright red glow in the night sky visible from Hilo. Much to the relief of the citizens, the flows stopped about 6.5 km short of the city's outskirts. These outskirts are built in part on the pahoehoelava (smooth ropy lava) flows produced by the 1881 eruption of Mauna Loa, indicating that Hilo is well within the reach of lava flows from the volcano. Although the destructive effects of volcanism are more obvious, volcanoes also provide many benefits to mankind. They are the major contributors to the building of continents, and all oceanic islands owe their origin directly or indirectly to volcanism. Over the billions of years of Earth's existence, water has been released from its interior by volcanoes and hot springs near volcanic intrusions. Geothermal power produced by volcanism is an inexpensive alternative energy source. The Hawaiian Islands were built over millions of years by lava flows. The lava flows have provided the fertile soil in which crops such as pineapples, sugar cane, and coffee thrive, and lush tropical vegetation flourishes. The flows start to weather quickly in areas with adequate rainfall. In some cases revegetation can begin in less than one year after the eruption. The lava flows are very fertile, especially if they have been covered by ash. The fine ash particles retain water within reach of plant roots and release plant foods such as potassium. Vegetation that has been destroyed by ash falls returns in a more luxuriant form. However in the island's arid areas, it may take thousands of years to form fertile soils from erosion and breakdown of lava. Volcanic rocks provide an abundant local source of materials for landscaping, construction, and road building. The majestic mountains andbeautiful black sand beaches of Hawaii that draw thousands of tourists each year are products of volcanism. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park provides one of the few places in the world where visitors can safely view volcanic processes. The Hawaiian volcanoes are contributing to the overall understanding of volcanoes; they provide a natural laboratory for study of the eruptivephenomena. Careful research and constant observation over long periods of time are important. From these data, volcanologists are learning to interpret activity in order to advise local officials of imminent eruptions.

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In December talks in Paris involving more than 200 countries may result in a new agreement aimed at reducing carbon emissions. In the months leading up to the conference, The Economist will be publishing guest columns by experts on the economic issues involved. In this post, several economists from the TSE, INRA, University of Toronto and University of Pennsylvania argue that more evidence-based policy making is needed in the battle against deforestation. IT IS widely agreed that worldwide deforestation is bad for the environment. It is responsible for about 10% of climate-change emissions and leads to massive reductions in biodiversity. The shrinkage of the Amazonian rainforest—the most well-known example of deforestation—reached a peak of 2.8 million hectares in 2004, an area almost the size of Belgium. How can we protect forests? One option is direct regulation: in other words the placement of restrictions on road building or the establishment of protected areas. Another option is to impose a fine or tax on forest clearing. Governments can also pay landowners to conserve their forest under a “payment for ecosystem services” (PES) contract. It might even be possible to let forest owners trade-avoided emissions on a worldwide carbon market, so that forest owners are paid by those burning fossil fuels to protect their trees. For sure, there is no shortage of policy options, but what we desperately need is more evidence on how these policies perform in practice. It is extremely difficult to measure the success of such policies. For example, after Brazil tightened regulation and introduced satellite monitoring in the mid-2000s, deforestation slowed to about half a million hectares annually. At the same time, lower prices for soybeans and cattle products reduced incentives to clear land. So what was the main factor behind the slowdown? How much forest did the government actually save? Evaluating the impact of subsidies is equally problematic. Studies of programs in Mexico, Costa Rica and Brazil suggest that PES contracts can halve deforestation rates. They also appear to be much cheaper than, say, establishing protected areas on private land. However, PES subsidies can also waste public money by paying farmers for practices that they would have adopted anyway. After all, farmers who stand to profit the least from cutting down trees are the most likely to sign up for the programme. Another challenge is identifying “leakage” effects. Some conservation policies, which may be successful locally, can trigger deforestation elsewhere. For example, a farmer may stop clearing forest on plots contracted under a PES programme while increasing deforestation on land not covered by the contract. On a larger scale, the threat of provincial government fines may induce farmers or logging firms to move operations to a neighbouring province. The gold-standard method of evaluating conservation policies is the systematic use of randomised-controlled trials (RCTs), similar to those used to test pharmaceuticals. RCTs involve randomly selecting two groups of individuals or regions and implementing a policy only for one group, keeping the second as a control. The difference between the groups provides a direct measure of success. Such trials can also be designed to measure leakage. Few forestry policies have been tested in this way. Recently Kelsey Jack, an economist at Tufts University, performed an RCT to assess tree-planting subsidies in Malawi and Zambia, but to date there are no results elsewhere. Economists predict that large-scale policies perform better and, as such, they are likely to play an important role at the upcoming COP21 climate conference in Paris. Taking a lead on the global scene, Norway has already agreed payments to Brazil and French Guiana if deforestation falls below a target rate. This is promising, at least in principle, but first we need more evidence about which policies work on the ground. We therefore urge policymakers at the COP21 conference to set up a sizeable fund for conducting large RCTs. When practically feasible, RCTs are the most reliable guide to policy effectiveness that we have. Saving the Amazon’s rainforest requires swift action, but state intervention that is not rigorously backed up by evidence may do much more harm than good.

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Last reviewed by the Faculty of Harvard Medical School on August 9, 2012 By Howard LeWine, M.D. Brigham and Women's Hospital Bacteria and other microorganisms that cause infections are remarkably resilient and can develop ways to survive drugs meant to kill or weaken them. This is called antibiotic resistance, also known as antimicrobial resistance or drug resistance. It is due largely to the increasing use of antibiotics. Today, almost all important bacterial infections in the United States and throughout the world are becoming resistant. Antibiotic resistance has been called one of the world's most pressing public health problems. The smart use of antibiotics is the key to controlling the spread of resistance. In the past, doctors routinely treated bronchitis and ear infections with antibiotics. Now it seems that many doctors say they are not needed. What's changed? During the past 50 years, doctors have been able to successfully treat bacterial infections that previously killed thousands of otherwise healthy people by prescribing antibiotics. Doctors have always been concerned that a bacterial infection could become overwhelming and fatal, if not treated. So they preferred to prescribe an antibiotic rather than wait to see if the condition got better on its own or not. Because some sore throats, bronchitis and ear infections were caused by bacteria, we thought we were helping people with these conditions get better faster. Doctors became very used to treating these and many disorders with antibiotics. Then patients started expecting them. You could often hear people say, "I need to see my doctor to get an antibiotic." The overuse of antibiotics became the norm. Looking back, no medical studies had been done to determine which conditions needed an antibiotic and which got better on their own. But based on studies that we have now, it turns out that most cases of sore throat (those not caused by strep), bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections will get better on their own. Antibiotics are only needed when the symptoms do not improve and a bacterial infection is most likely causing the problem. I always thought that green or yellow mucous meant that I definitely have a bacterial infection. Why isn't this true any more? It's not bacteria that produce the green color. When mucous or phlegm turns green, it means that white cells are actively fighting the infection. The green color comes from a protein called myeloperoxidase inside the white blood cells. Bacterial infections increase production and activity of the myeloperoxidase-containing white blood cells compared with infections caused by viruses. Sometimes inflammation without an infection due to allergies can cause sputum to have a greenish color. For certain chronic lung diseases, a change from clear to green sputum indicates the need for an antibiotic. In otherwise healthy people, a cough that produces a little green phlegm does not automatically require an antibiotic. Yellow phlegm is an even less reliable way to determine bacterial infections. Even though my illness may not be caused by a bacterial infection, what's the harm in taking an antibiotic? There are several ways antibiotics can harm you. - Any medication can cause an allergic reaction, but reactions to antibiotics are very common and can be very serious — even life threatening. - Antibiotics kill many of the "good" bacteria that live in our lower intestine. This upsets the balance and can lead to overgrowth of bacteria called Clostridium difficile. These bacteria produce a toxin that can cause severe diarrhea and sometimes a sudden and severe colitis. - Many women develop vaginal yeast infections whenever they take antibiotics. The cause is similar to what happens with C. difficile in the colon. Yeast can multiply quickly as the antibiotic kills the "normal" bacteria living in the vagina. - The overuse of antibiotics contributes to the ever-increasing resistance bacteria develop to antibiotics. Bacteria can evolve or change faster than new antibiotics can be developed and then overused. This means they find ways to survive and become less susceptible to antibiotics' effectiveness. Why should I care about antibiotic resistance? If you take dicloxacillin (a type of penicillin) to treat a Staph bacterial infection, the antibiotic might not kill all of the Staph. If a few Staph are resistant, they will survive and multiply. And the new generations of Staph will all carry the changes that make them resistant to the dicloxacillin antibiotic. Over the last 20 years, many types of bacteria have become resistant to commonly used antibiotics. So, bacterial infections often don't respond to antibiotic treatment when it is really needed. These antibiotic-resistant bacteria can jump from one person to the next. Many people can get colonized — meaning that these bacteria reside on their skin or inside their lower intestines. Only a handful of people who get colonized will actually get an infection. But if they do get sick, then this new strain of bacteria will be much harder and more expensive to treat. People don't become resistant to an antibiotic. The bacteria do. Some bacteria become resistant to many drugs and rarely some don't respond to any of the antibiotics currently approved. A person who is colonized with multi-drug resistant bacteria can pass this on to someone else who may develop a severe infection. Antibiotics have been around for over 60 years. How come antibiotic resistance has become such a problem recently? There are three main reasons why antibiotic resistance has become more prevalent: - The over use of antibiotics promotes the emergence of more strains of resistant bacteria. - Drug companies have been very successful at discovering drugs that can attack many different species of bacteria. They are called broad-spectrum antibiotics. When a doctor suspects that a person has a bacterial infection but is not sure which specific type is causing the infection, prescribing a broad-spectrum antibiotic increases the probability that the drug will be effective. However, these antibiotics will kill a lot of bacteria that live with us but don't harm us. Some of these will be resistant to the drug. The resistant ones survive and thrive. They take over and stay around even after the antibiotic is discontinued. - People with chronic diseases and impaired immune systems are living longer. Most healthy people who become colonized with a resistant bacterial strain will eventually fight it off using their immune system. But for people with chronic diseases and impaired immune systems, the resistant bacteria are more likely to hang around. I keep hearing about MRSA. What is it? Why is it so dangerous? MRSA is short for methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Originally good old penicillin killed all strains of Staph aureus. Many years ago, however, a strain of Staph became resistant to penicillin. Methicillin was developed as the "cure" for penicillin-resistant Staph. Methicillin and similar drugs originally worked against almost all Staph infections. But as more methicillin needed to be used, multiple strains of Staph became resistant to all the penicillins and other types of antibiotics as well. Staph bacteria are all around us and live on our skin. If they get under the skin and multiply, they will usually cause a small abscess. However, Staph bacteria can infect any organ in the body. If they get into the blood stream, they can affect many organs at the same time. Staph infections can potentially be very serious and even fatal — even those that can be treated with the older antibiotics. But some strains of MRSA are not only resistant to most commonly used antibiotics, but have evolved into bacteria with other threatening features. This makes them especially dangerous. Some MRSA strains are especially hardy. Normally white blood cells work in concert with an antibiotic to destroy bacteria. The hardy MRSA actually sense danger and attack the white blood cells, destroying them before the MRSA is destroyed. Also some MRSA strains have developed ways to spread more easily from one person to the next. Are there other bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics? Unfortunately, the answer is yes. And the list keeps getting longer. Despite the great progress science has made in discovering new antibiotics to treat resistant strains, some bacteria have consistently stayed ahead of the science. In addition to MRSA, other bacteria that have developed resistance include Enterococcus, which causes blood, kidney and heart valve infections, and Clostridium difficile, which causes antibiotic-induced colitis and diarrhea. How can I prevent getting MRSA and other infections with resistant bacteria? The best prevention is frequent hand washing with soap and water or an alcohol-based hand cleanser. If you or your child is active in a team sport, it is especially important to wash your workout clothes and uniforms after each use. Don't ignore small cuts or breaks in the skin. Rinse them thoroughly. If you develop increasing redness, swelling or pain around a cut, promptly seek medical advice. When visiting a person who is in the hospital or nursing home, thoroughly wash your hands before and after your visit. Strictly follow any instructions posted outside the room regarding contact precautions. You may need to wear protective gloves and a full gown during the visit. When leaving the room, leave the gloves and gown inside the room in specially marked containers. We all need to use antibiotics more appropriately. You can help your doctor by asking if you are likely to get better just as fast without taking one. If your doctor says you don't need an antibiotic ask what you can do to decrease your symptoms while your body is healing. Don't save antibiotics and start them again without specific instructions from your doctor. Don't share antibiotics with family or friends. Howard LeWine, M.D. is chief editor of Internet Publishing, Harvard Health Publications. He is a clinical instructor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital. Dr. LeWine has been a primary care internist and teacher of internal medicine since 1978.

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treats Antioxidant, Vitamin A deficiency, and Acute diarrhea TraditionWARNING: DISCLAIMER: The below uses are based on tradition, scientific theories, or limited research. They often have not been thoroughly tested in humans, and safety and effectiveness have not always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider. There may be other proposed uses that are not listed below. Anemia (red blood cell deficiency), cancer, constipation, deficiency (zinc), diabetes, fertility, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, immunomodulation, intestinal parasites, menopausal symptoms, tonsillitis, vitamin C deficiency. Adults (over 18 years old) There is no proven effective dose for carrots. However, 100 grams of grated carrots daily for 60 days has been used to improve vitamin A status in breastfeeding women in one study. Children (under 18 years old) There is no proven effective dose for carrots in children. SafetyDISCLAIMER: Many complementary techniques are practiced by healthcare professionals with formal training, in accordance with the standards of national organizations. However, this is not universally the case, and adverse effects are possible. Due to limited research, in some cases only limited safety information is available. Avoid in individuals with a known allergy or hypersensitivity to carrot. Carrot pollen contains an allergen that is similar to the birch pollen allergens. Because of this similarity, patients allergic to birch pollen may have allergic reactions to carrot as well. Several other plants also have similar allergens, including apples, stone fruits, celery, carrot, nuts, orange, lychee fruit, strawberry, persimmon, zucchini, mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), pear, potato, spices, nuts, mustard, Leguminoseae vegetables, and soybeans. Food allergy symptoms include hives, swelling, skin rashes, asthma, diarrhea, or anaphylactic reactions. Side Effects and Warnings Carrot is likely safe when taken in food amounts but, carrot products should not be used excessively in nursing bottles for small children as they are likely unsafe. Carrot food allergy symptoms include hives, swelling, skin rashes, asthma, diarrhea, or anaphylactic reactions. Compulsive carrot eating is a rare condition in which the patient craves carrots. Withdrawal symptoms include nervousness, cravings, insomnia, water brash, and irritability. Pregnancy and Breastfeeding Carrot, as an herbal medicine, in not recommended in pregnant or breastfeeding women due to a lack of scientific research. Carrot juice may alter the flavor of breast milk. Eating grated carrots may improve vitamin A and iron levels in the blood of breastfeeding mothers at risk of deficiency.

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By Jenni McIntyre We hope you enjoyed the Royal Highland Show. Thanks for taking the time to do the quiz – please find the answers below. For anyone who missed the quiz or the show, here is the online version. Parasitic gastroenteritis is arguably the primary production limiting disease of sheep in the UK. How much do you know about it? 1. Parasitic gastroenteritis is caused by: a. Fluke (trematodes) c. Roundworms (nematodes) 2. What is the main nematode worm causing parasitic gastroenteritis in lambs in the summer? a. Teladorsagia (Ostertagia) 3. In the Springtime which nematode worm can cause diarrhoea and sudden death in lambs? a. Teladorsagia (Ostertagia) 4. How can we diagnose parasitic gastroenteritis? a. History and examination c. Faecal egg count d. Rule out other causes of diarrhoea e. A combination of the above 5. How many anthelmintic classes are there available to treat parasitic gastroenteritis in sheep? 6. Worms are able to develop or acquire resistance towards anthelmintics, making them less effective. How many of the available classes of anthelmintics have had reports of resistance in Europe? 7. How can we assess the efficacy of an anthelmintic on a farm? a. Do a faecal egg count b. Do two faecal egg counts (faecal egg count reduction test) c. See if diarrhoea stops after treatment d. See if mites die after treatment 8. A faecal examination usually reports a Nematodirus egg count, a Strongyle egg count and notes any Coccidia species present. A strongyle egg count is what is used to help diagnose parasitic gastroenteritis in sheep. Strongyle eggs all look very similar. Roughly how many different species of strongyle worms are there? 9. ‘All strongyle species are equally likely to cause disease’ 10. ‘A lamb with a high egg count may not necessarily need treatment’ Strongyle egg counts can be useful in confirming a disease suspicion and examination of faeces is very helpful in deciding, for example, between anaemia due to fluke and anaemia due to Haemonchus. Every treatment given selects for resistant worms in the sheep. Worms on the pasture are ‘safe’ and are said to be ‘in refugia’ – they are not affected by the anthelmintic. However, over time the number of resistant larvae on pasture increases and the number of susceptible larvae decrease as the sheep are repeatedly treated with anthelmintic on the holding. A faecal egg count reduction test can give some indication of how well an anthelmintic is performing, but it uses a strongyle egg count with no knowledge of which species are present – highly pathogenic species may not be affected despite a reduction in egg output! It is important to gain a fuller understanding of what is happening on the farm. Some farmers are now tending towards breeding resistant or resilient lambs which are less affected by the parasites and require fewer treatments. Others are using Targeted Selective Treatment to reduce anthelmintic use and preserve susceptibility amongst the worm population on the farm so the anthelmintic remains better effective for longer. By recording treatments they are able to choose breeding replacements which are hardier and more productive, improving their flock. It is time to think about controlling parasites this year in such a way that we can still control them next year too. 1. c (Roundworms), 2. a (Teladorsagia), 3. c (Nematodirus), 4. e (A combination of the above), 5. c(5), 6. d (4), 7. b (Do two faecal egg counts), 8. d (9), 9. b (False), 10. a (True)

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In these pages I have taken a rather broad definition of "Middle East," concerned less with strict geographical boundaries and more with the culture of the countries. Thus, the four countries included here are Egypt, Iran, Jordan and Turkey. These countries have rich and varied histories that span several millennia. Today, however, they are culturally linked through Islam, the dominant religion in the region and in each of the countries included here. The photos have been set up as a series of "slide shows." On the right is a slide show devoted to the people of the Middle East. Below, several other shows pop up in a separate window. These photos are previews of the photos presented on the various country pages and offer an overview of the history, mosques and landscapes of this fascinating region. To see all of the photos for a particular country, simply click on the appropriate link above. Remnants of Ancient Cultures: The Middle East has seen the rise and fall of many ancient cultures, from the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Nabataeans, the Byzantines and the Crusaders. All have left their mark in the structures they built, many of which can be seen today. Here's a brief and (almost) chronological tour. (30 Photos) [Preview This Slide Show]

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What is Autism? Autism is a developmental, neurobiological disorder that appears in the first 3 years of life. It affects the brain’s normal development of social and communication skills, which affects a child’s ability to interact, communicate, relate, play, imagine, and learn. They also could exhibit some self stimulatory and repetitive behaviors as well. It could also be related to immunological, gastrointestinal, and metabolic problems. People with ASDs (AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS) process and handle information in their brain differently than other people. 1 in 68 children are now diagnosed with Autism and the number is still growing. 1 in 42 boys. There are more than 1 million children affected by Autism in this country today!

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What Kenya Can Teach The U.S. About Menstrual Pads | Source: NPR, May 10, 2016 | The United States is only just starting to get periods — or, at least, acknowledging that products for “that time of the month” aren’t optional for menstruating women. In 40 states, plus the District of Columbia, pads and tampons are subject to sales tax. Earlier this year, when President Obama was asked why they haven’t been exempted like other necessities, he said, “I suspect it’s because men were making the laws when those taxes were passed.” But there’s a movement to fight these taxes, and several states have eliminated them. Next up: New York, which has just passed a bill that’s awaiting Gov. Andrew Cuomo’s signature. Meanwhile, one country is way ahead of the U.S. when it comes to understanding that pads and tampons shouldn’t be taxed. Kenya repealed its value added tax on pads and tampons back in 2004 to lower the price consumers pay. And since 2011, the Kenyan government has been budgeting about $3 million per year to distribute free sanitary pads in schools in low-income communities. That’s not to say Kenya is an ideal place to get one’s period. Many Kenyan girls still don’t have access to sanitary products, so they use unhygienic materials like chicken feathers, cheap mattresses and newspapers to fashion makeshift pads, says Megan White Mukuria. Mukuria is the founder of ZanaAfrica Foundation, which delivers health education — and sanitary pads — to help girls stay in school. A girl who is embarrassed to stain her uniform (or has an infection) is one who is likely to skip class and eventually drop out, Mukuria explains. UNESCO estimates that more than two million Kenyan girls need support in order to get menstrual hygiene products. Read the complete article.

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Eadbert was ordained successor to St. Cuthbert, in the see of Lindisfarne, in the year 687. He spent eleven years as bishop of that church. Like his predecessor, Eadbert made it a practice to spend Lent and forty days prior to Christmas in solitude at a place by the sea. There he would practice fasting and abstinence and spend much time in prayer. Once, while he was on retreat, the body of St. Cuthbert was excavated to be moved and was found to be completely incorrupt. All were surprised to find that even his clothes were still as if new. The brothers quickly summoned Bishop Eadbert (who was on his retreat) to inform him. They then brought to him part of the garment of St. Cuthbert for him to inspect for himself. When Eadbert saw the condition of the clothes that had been on the holy body, he devoutly kissed the garment. He then gave the order that the body of Cuthbert be clothed in even finer garments, and put in a new coffin which was then to be placed above the sanctuary for veneration by the faithful. Bishop Eadbert said that the grave that had held the holy body of Cuthbert surely wouldn’t remain empty for long. The words he uttered were prophetic because soon Eadbert himself fell ill and died. His body was laid to rest in the empty grave of St. Cuthbert and the incorrupt body of the saint was placed atop the former grave. According to the historian Bede, many miracles occurred that bore witness to both of these great saints. Bede also wrote that while he was bishop, St. Eadbert had the church of Lindisfarne, which was dedicated to Archbishop Theodorus, covered with lead to preserve it because it was made of oak and reeds. Dear Father in heaven, we thank you for the miracle of incorruption that we have witnessed so often in the bodies of the saints. What a wonderful testimony not only to their holy lives but also to Your greatness. Thank you for these miraculous signs, Father. May they bring many to conversion. Amen. Other Saints We Remember Today St. Evodius (64), Disciple, Bishop, first to use the term “Christian” Blesseds Edward Jones and Anthony Middleton (1590), Priests, Martyrs St. John before the Latin Gate (95), Apostle

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Difference between an abacus and the computer Abacus Vs computer: Have you ever given a thought about the manner in which the computer that you sit and type at day in and day out first evolved? Would you be amazed that this hi-tech instrument which has become an indispensable machine, not only for the day to day work of the ordinary man, but also for ruling countries actually did evolve from the abacus? What is the abacus? An abacus, better known as a counting frame is an ancient calculating device which was mainly used in Asia for arithmetic purposes. whereas the original abacus consisted of beans or stones which moved in groves on sand and, tablets of wood or metal, today, the abacus is a frame constructed out of bamboo in which wooden or plastic beads move on meal strings. This was an instrument which was used centuries ago before the current numeral system was introduced and is still often used by merchants and traders in some parts of the world such as Asia, Africa, etc. What is a computer? A computer can be defined as a machine which is programmed to automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations which in turn helps run more complex actions that make the human existence much easier. It consists of a form of memory or data storage which enable it to store a large amount of data as well which aids in its many operations in many ways. The first electronic computer was created in the mid twentieth century, consuming the power of a several hundred modern computers and it was said to be the size of a large room. Today, the computer has evolved and become sophisticated enough to fit in to a palm. What is the difference between a computer and an abacus? While the abacus is defined as an ancient calculating tool, the computer is a more modern machine performing more complex functions. Yet, they both carry the same function of solving arithmetic problems and yet, this is done so in their own specific ways. It is said that it was the abacus which paved the way for the modern computer to be born and therefore it is also known as the oldest computer in he world. Yet, it is no secret that a computer performs much better than an abacus. A slight change of beads in an abacus can lead to grave errors but once you enter the correct figures and give the correct commands on a computer, it always gives the accurate results with absolutely no room for errors. An abacus can only work with mathematical equations whereas a computer operates in many languages and serves many purposes as well. Modern computers serve purposes which range from cooking a simple meal at home to operating military functions, releasing of nuclear weapons, etc. An abacus is a basic tool which operates manually while the computer is undoubtedly a more complex tool which operates on a power source such as electricity, etc. While the main differences between the abacus and the computer are due to the sophistication of technology, the abacus still remains as the first ever computer of the world. The abacus and the computer are interrelated and it is obvious that one thing led to the other and ultimately, the modern computer was born.

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- Gun culture in America is present from the time of American Revolution - American constitution allows all its citizens to own and carry a gun - US is home to roughly 35 to 50 percent of the world’s civilian-owned guns America has always taken pride in its gun culture. Guns have been a part of American culture since time immemorial. Guns were used as a means to hunt for food and make money through the fur market, protection from natives and dealing with large predators also required the use of gun. Guns played a huge part in the American Revolution against the British solider and their freedom. In 1776, when USA gained independence, Americans were allowed to own and use the firearms to keep to protect their newly independent nation from the tyrannical rule of the ‘old world’ and this right became the basis for the second amendment in American constitution. Follow NewsGram on Twitter: @newsgram1 Every law-abiding citizen in the United States is allowed to own or carry a gun. That right comes from the U.S. Bill of Rights and the Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. It says: “A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.” Ease of ownership To purchase a gun in the majority of states, a person needs to be of age, pass the FBI’s National Instant Criminal Background Check and fill out a firearms transaction record. However, background checks are not currently required for private sales, including those conducted at gun shows. Certain people are banned from owning weapons, including convicted criminals, people with mental health illnesses or non-U.S. citizens. But the system has major holes in it. Availability of ammunition is very high in U.S. Anybody can easily walk-up to a gun shop or supermarkets where ammunition is sold like chocolate boxes and buy it. Any person can buy any amount of ammunition, which will surely look scary to many. Even some banks provide their account holders with a gun on opening a particular type of account. While many believe that right to own and use a gun is important and people should be able to defend and protect themselves. But it is hard ignore the fact that many people are killed because of guns. Like in the case of 1999 Columbine High School massacre, in which 2 high school boys killed 12 students and one teacher. They injured 21 people and 3 more were injured while trying to escape the school. Other than shooting, 2 boys had also planted bombs in cafeteria where the whole thing went down. The pair committed suicide afterwards. This school shooting is considered as the America’s deadliest high school shooting. After columbine America has also seen 59 more school/university shooting which has occurred due to easy availability of guns and ammunitions. According to BBC, on an average over 35 people were killed every day because of gun violence in 2015. Out 321 million people in USA over 200 million own a legal weapon and there are 88% firearms per 100 people in America. Follow NewsGram on Facebook: NewsGram.com In 2015 alone US has witnessed- - 375 mass shooting in which 450 were killed and over 1000 people were wounded - 64 school shootings - All shooting concluded a total 13,286 people getting killed and 26,819 got injured which is more than 12,570 in 2014 The debate on guns is a daily topic in USA. But regardless of where one falls, the fact remains that U.S. gun ownership is exceptionally high and growing. According to the Small Arms Survey, the United States has an average of 116 guns per 100 people, although most of those weapons are owned by a minority of citizens. The National Rifle Association is a non- profit, pro-gun, lobbying group. Their sole purpose is protection of second amendment. NRA is widely known as the pro-gun organizations and is the public face of the pro-gun movement. They are also one of the reasons as to why America has no strict gun law. The United States is home to roughly 35 to 50 percent of the world’s civilian-owned guns, even though it holds less than 5 percent of the world’s population. -prepared by Bhaskar Raghavendran (with inputs from VOA), a reporter at NewsGram. Twitter: bhaskar_ragha

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Language is a cultural invention and tool in which the world’s separated populations suspend themselves each as a unique enterprise. Perhaps in the densely populated complex societies, the aggregation of multiple cultures in political space require stronger tools for accommodation and integration. The subjects of language, language history, linguistics, etc. are immense, but where we have the tools for our own demise, nature demands we find a common enough cultural and social code to keep everyone — and their languages — in existence There are presently about 7,000 living languages extant, but the actual number is less and we lose several annually to natural discarding (if not through cultural annihilation). It’s for that reason I’ve taken the tack that a People possessed of a language, practically by definition invented in the space, small or large, on which they have been marooned, need their land and may be “updated” to civil standards of a sort and otherwise left to evolve. That’s my proposed modern ethic. Where we witness barbarism, what we may perceive as an absence of conscience may be instead a different set of cultural rules (desperately in need of adjustment). When ISIS idiots mass rape Yazidi women, they do so with language that has pandered to them and given them permit for extraordinary cruelty. Of course, some ISIS members flee ISIS for such reasons: the behavior on exhibit goes against the grain of their humanity. Within Islam, the same may be noted of Muslims victimized by the Taliban: the Army School in Peshawar represented a Muslim community defending and raising its children, and the “Talibandits” attack, which must have seemed a virtuous undertaking to themselves, proved only to further destroy their image while encouraging more of the Ummah to shun their presentation of what Muslims should be. BackChannels produced a page pointing to linguist Daniel Everett some years back, and it might be useful for any just starting on their journey into philology. A “zeitgeist” is an expression of language in its totality and care must be taken — artists and poets may consider their responsibilities to man and God — or man and nature if that better suits — before encouraging the worship of chaos and death.

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As gyms across the country fill up today with people eager to fulfill New Year’s resolutions, a new study may change Americans’ views on those extra pounds they’re so eager to lose. Researchers at the Center for Disease Control and Prevention found people who are merely overweight—with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 to 29.9—actually have lower mortality rates than those of normal weight, defined as having a BMI of 18.5 to 24.9. The study also confirmed the severely obese, with a BMI of more than 35, have a shorter life span than people of normal weight. But those who are mildly obese, with a BMI of 30-34.9, die at comparable rates to people of normal weight. Previous studies also found this so-called “obesity paradox,” but this is the most comprehensive analysis done so far. The study, published online Tuesday in The Journal of the American Medical Association, compiled 97 studies analyzing almost 3 million people from the United States and eight other countries. A total of 270,000 people died during the studies. On average, overweight people were 6 percent less likely to die during the studies than those of normal BMI, while extremely obese people were 29 percent more likely to die. The paper did not make any recommendations or explain why the overweight people had a higher rate of survival. “Our goal is really to summarize existing information and not conclude what people should do, other than follow good health practices, no matter what their weight,” study lead author Katherine M. Flegal told the Los Angeles Times. Some argue the results are inconclusive because BMI is not an accurate measure of body fat or heath risk, as having more muscle mass may increase a person’s BMI. Others argue that being thin, especially in old age, is a sign of having a serious illness, which also skews the numbers. But in an accompanying editorial, obesity researcher Steven B. Heymsfield of Pennington Biomedical Research Center explains how carrying a few extra pounds might be helpful. While packing on too much fat can lead to health complications such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart attacks, having a little extra fatty tissue may provide extra energy reserves during serious illnesses and extra cushion to protect bones during falls. Heymsfield also suggests that people who are overweight are often treated more aggressively by their doctors for blood pressure or cholesterol problems than people of normal weight, leading to earlier detection of health problems. And so, the best news for those of us who may have overeaten this holiday season: “Not all patients classified as being overweight or having [mild] obesity...can be assumed to require weight loss treatment,” Heymsfield wrote. “Establishing BMI is only the first step toward a more comprehensive risk evaluation.”

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Yoga postures or asanas are one of the most important systems of physical culture ever invented. They reflect an amazing understanding of how the body works and, particularly, how to release tension at a deep level from the tissues, organs and joints. Asana keep the body in the best possible health. They provide specific positions and movements designed to strengthen and stretch the musculature to effectively move the body away from small pains and illnesses back to perfect and normal balance. They keep the spinal column subtle in order to create the optimal flow of energy through the nerves that enervate the organ and glandular systems. Asanas are a part of a sacred science that comprehends all aspects of consciousness. They are not only significant in them-selves, but are a preparation for pranayama and meditation. They reflect not only a profound knowledge of the body but also of prana, mind and spirit, of which the body is only an external image or manifestation.

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In my first post on this topic, I argued that teachers are better positioned than, say, doctors or judges, to learn specifics about the individuals they serve. This strategy – called “individuating” – has proven to be effective in reducing implicit biases (related to race, gender, ethnicity, etc.). This post offers additional thoughts on how we might support teachers' orientation to get to know their students. Second, I discuss additional strategies that have been proven to be effective in mitigating the effects of implicit biases. A couple of weeks ago, a colleague asked a great question during the Shanker Institute’s Good Schools Seminar on "Creating Safe and Supportive Schools." His question was motivated by a presentation on implicit bias by Kirwan Institute director Sharon Davies. The question was: Wouldn’t you expect more conscious, systematic decision-making (and fewer automatic, snap judgments) from teachers who, after all, see their students everyday and get to know them well? (See here, minute 50:55.) As I related in the previous post, individuating (or learning about the particulars of a person, his/her interests, skills, family, etc.) can be a very effective "de-biasing" tool.* So, how might we leverage and support teachers' natural inclination to get to know students well? How might a potential de-biasing intervention build on this feature of teachers' work? The reason I ask this question is that cognitive biases come in all sizes and shapes – stereotypes are just one source. For example, we tend to remember and pay more attention to information that confirms our preexisting beliefs – a.k.a. "confirmation bias." We also tend to give more weigh to information that is presented to us earlier rather than later – a.k.a. "primacy effect." Very important too is the "fundamental attribution error": the belief that, while our own actions can be explained by circumstances (i.e., I yelled at a colleague because I had a stressful day), others' behaviors are explained by their personalities and dispositions (i.e., he yelled at a colleague because he is a bully). The list goes on and on - for an overview of heuristics and biases see Thinking and Deciding and Thinking, Fast and Slow). My point is that tools and strategies that can guide and scaffold the way we gather and weigh information are essential if we hope to arrive at decisions that are more objective and less biased -- think of structured analytic techniques as "reins for the (often unruly) mind." A teacher might be in a better place to get to know his/her students but this process is still very complex; all kinds of biases such as those mentioned above could get in the way. For example, the primacy effect suggests that something a student does on the first day of class may have more influence on the teacher than subsequent student behavior. But if the teacher has a good way of documenting behavior throughout the year, then he/she might be less prone to more vividly remembering (thus, of disproportionately considering) what the student did or didn't do that first day. So, the question becomes: What kinds of tools might help teachers collect, record, and evaluate information about their students in a way that is more systematic and less prone to error or bias? This is not a trivial question and I don't have all the answers, but let me just offer a couple of thoughts. I was curious about ClassDojo, an app designed to help teachers collect and share data on student behavior. It made me wonder if teachers could use this or similar tools to collect information about students’ particular strengths, talents, and interests. I personally like apps because they can facilitate processes that can be labor intensive such as data gathering, aggregating and sharing data or even tasks that require additional knowledge such as data analysis. But let's face it; low-tech approaches could be just as effective. For example, Getting To Know My Child is a (paper and pencil) mechanism that enables parents to share information with their child's kindergarten teacher, including questions about the child's background, health, abilities, preferences and so forth. Individuating is an important strategy because it sets the stage for a second, more complex but even more powerful type of intervention: Assigning competence to low status students, a strategy that takes advantage of the power of the teacher as an evaluator. "Assigning competence is a public statement that specifically recognizes the intellectual contribution a student has made to the group task" - more here. Students tend to believe and respect the evaluations that teachers make of them. Thus, if the teacher publicly commends a low status student for being strong on a particular (and real) ability, that student will tend to believe the evaluation. At the same time, the other students in the classroom are likely to accept the evaluation as valid. Once this happens, the expectations for the student’s competence – as well as his/her relative status in the classroom – can rise dramatically, which is likely to result in increased activity and influence of the low status student as well as increased success in future classroom tasks. In Designing Groupwork (3rd edition, in press), Cohen and Lotan specified that an effective assignment of competence has three critical features: 1) evaluations must be public, 2) evaluations must be specific, referring to particular intellectual abilities and skills and 3) the abilities/skills of the low status student must be made relevant to the rest of his/her classmates. Thus, learning about students' particular strengths and skills (as well as detecting when these abilities are being demonstrated) is a very important feature of effective status treatments.** What additional strategies might help mitigate implicit biases? Experimental psychologist Patricia Devine has argued that biases are like “habits"; with effort and practice, they can be broken. According to Devine three conditions need to be met for individuals to successfully counteract their biases: - Acknowledgement that we all harbor unconscious biases and motivation to change. - Attention to when stereotypical responses or assumptions are activated. - Time to practice strategies designed to break automatic associations. - Stereotype replacement: recognizing when one is responding to a situation or person in a stereotypical fashion, and actively substituting the biased response with an unbiased one. - Counter-stereotypic imagining: detecting one's stereotypical responses and visualizing examples of people who are famous or known personally who prove the stereotype to be inaccurate. - Individuating: gathering specific information about a person, so that the particulars of that person replace generic notions based on group membership. - Perspective taking: adopting the perspective of a member of a stigmatized group. This strategy can be useful in assessing the emotional impact on individuals who are often being stereotyped in negative ways. - Increasing opportunity for positive contact: actively seeking out situations that expose us to positive examples of stereotyped groups. I am a big believer in changing contexts (not individuals) and making it easier for people to "do the right thing" or, in our case, engage in structured thinking and ditch the tendency respond to other people and situations automatically. So, in addition to training and practicing strategies that can help break the habit, what features of the local context may support structured decision-making? Accountability: "Holding individuals accountable for their decisions has helped to reduce bias in hiring and promotion decisions," argue Correll and Benard (see also here, here, here and here). "When managers know they will be required to justify their actions (particularly to an impartial authority), they tend to engage in more complex thought processes and fewer snap judgments (here and here)." A study by Foschi (1996) found that participants were less likely to hold women to a higher standard than men when they were required to explain their responses to a partner in a subsequent task. "Requiring those responsible for making decisions to explain those decisions to a disinterested third party helps preempt the introduction of bias into decision making." Transparency: When criteria are objective and explicit, it is easier to ensure that that everybody is held to the same standard. Researchers Uhlmann and Cohen (2005) found that listing job requirements immediately prior to selecting a candidate constrained opportunities to use subjective criteria during candidate selection. Subjective criteria allow bias to be hidden because the standards by which decisions are made are unclear. Time: Allowing sufficient time to make decisions is another important contextual element. In a field study, Ayres et al. (2004) found that African-American cab drivers received lower tips than white drivers. The authors concluded that decisions made quickly, when one is preoccupied with other things, can result in unconscious discrimination.**** Diversity & Messaging: As mentioned earlier, intergroup contact is one of the best researched means of reducing both explicit (here and here) and implicit bias (here and here). Exposure to a male pre-K teacher, to a black school principal, or to a female mathematician can help challenge and expand our assumptions (conscious or unconscious) about who is good and bad at certain tasks – and even the nature of those jobs and the skills required to do them well. This is important because it helps us break free of the strong cultural associations that often place needless limitations on the aspirations and achievements of women and minorities. Because of its importance, I will address the role of diversity and messaging as "institutional-level de-biasing strategies" in my next post. - Esther Quintero * I am not suggesting that teachers, because they are teachers are immune to implicit biases - in fact there is research suggesting that they are not (see Kirwan Institute's recent review, pp. 30-35). ** There are other important preconditions that must be met for status treatments to work. For example, multiple-ability tasks are a "necessary condition for teachers to be able to convince their students that there are different ways to be "smart." Students who do not excel at paper-pencil tasks often do excel when academic content is presented in different ways. Tasks that require multiple abilities give teachers the opportunity to give credit to such students for their academic and intellectual accomplishments." More here. *** See also, Rudman et al 2001; Legault et al 2011; Mann & Kawakami 2012; Plant & Devine 2001; Valian 1999; Wilson & Brekke 1994. While the motivation to be non-prejudiced may lead to reduced discrimination (Plant, Devine & Peruche 2010), thinking of oneself as non-prejudiced may increase discrimination - e.g., instructing people to assert that they are objective decision-makers prior to a hiring decision increases gender discrimination (Uhlmann & Cohen 2007). **** For more on the importance of time see Beattie, 2013; Bertrand, Chugh, & Mullainathan, 2005; Richards-Yellen, 2013.

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Family: Scolopacidae, Sandpipers view all from this family Description ADULT Looks pale buffy orange overall, darkest on back and wings. In summer plumage, close inspection reveals intricate dark marbling on back and upper wings and subtle barring on underparts. Bill is mostly pink with a dark tip. Legs are dark and relatively long. In winter, plumage looks paler overall and less colorful, with much less intense barring on underparts; pink on bill is more extensive. JUVENILE Similar to winter adult. Dimensions Length: 18" (46 cm) Habitat Fairly common, breeding in wet grassland and marshes, mostly in the northern Great Plains. Winters on coasts, mainly south of our region, but reasonable numbers remain on Gulf coast (mainly Texas) and Atlantic coast (mainly Florida to North Carolina); favors mudflats, estuaries, and sandy beaches. Common during migration along suitable areas of coastline. Observation Tips Easiest to see in spring and fall on coasts. Range Southeast, California, Texas, Northwest, Florida, Alaska, Plains, Eastern Canada, Rocky Mountains, Great Lakes, Southwest, Mid-Atlantic, New England, Western Canada Voice Utters a loud ker-Wik in flight. Discussion Large and subtly patterned shorebird. Bill is extremely long and nearly straight (distal half is slightly upturned), allowing easy separation from similarly-sized Long-billed Curlew, which has downcurved bill; bill is used to probe mud and soft sand for invertebrates. In flight, wings are mainly uniformly orange-buff above and below but with dark carpal patch on upper wings. Typically tolerant of observers. Outside breeding season, often roosts at high tide with flocks of other, similarly-sized shorebirds. Sexes are similar.

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Funny, he does look Jewish: Like so many other aspects of his life and work, Rembrandt’s connection to the Jews has been sentimentalized, overestimated, misappropriated, criticized, dissected—and debunked. In recent years, the image of the artist as a philo-Semite who painted and socialized with his Jewish neighbors has become a topic of intense scholarly debate. Yet the notion that there’s something crypto-Jewish about Rembrandt continues to enthrall. But maybe the Jews in the Rembrandt’s art are hidden in plain sight, clearly visible in depictions of his favorite Jewish protagonist of all. That’s the thesis of “Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus,” a provocative exhibit at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. In the catalog, curator Lloyd DeWitt suggests that the model for a series of seven heads of Christ—studies DeWitt believes Rembrandt used for several major religious paintings—was a Jew. While DeWitt is not the first to identify a Jewish Jesus in Rembrandt’s work or in this particular series of paintings, the show is the first to unite all seven since 1656 and the most ambitious effort to view them in the larger context of the artist’s religious work. In addition to being the largest-ever gathering of paintings of Rembrandt’s Jesus, the show is also the largest gathering of Rembrandt’s Jews. That is, if you agree with DeWitt’s thesis about the ethnicity of the figure in these studies, a theory for which he has no documentary proof…At that particular place and time in the artist’s career, DeWitt reasons, Rembrandt is likely to have searched out a sitter with same physiognomy as his savior—namely, a Jew—in his quest to make the most naturalistic, humble Jesus to date in the history of art… Read more in Tablet: Head of Christ, attributed to Rembrandt and his studio, ca. 1648-56. Courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art.

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Boulder County is getting some new residents, but the new arrivals won't impact the city's infamous housing crunch. Over the next six weeks, scientists will release more than 1,000 stingless, parasitic wasps to help curb the emerald ash borer problem in the city. It was first detected in 2013 and, so far, hasn't spread to other Colorado cities. Because 15 percent of trees in Colorado's forests are ash, scientists are taking a very proactive approach at treating the problem. John Kaltenbach, a biological control specialist with the Colorado Department of Agriculture, said the wasps were shipped from a facility in Michigan. The tiny pin-sized insects are well known in Asia, where they help to keep the emerald ash borer population at bay. "We call them non-stinging wasps," he said. "It ends up killing the emerald ash borer eggs." The insects will lay their eggs inside the emerald ash borers' eggs. It has a parasitic effect and ends up curbing the emerald ash borer population. "The hope is that the wasp will lay their eggs and they will eventually have their own reproducing population that they can spread on their own," said Kaltenbach. The strategy is part of a multi-pronged approach to eliminating the emerald ash borer in Boulder. The non-native insect attacks some types of ash trees, and it's caused widespread problems across the United States.

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Genealogical research has a passionate following outside of the academic world, a fact that is reflected in the often impressive genealogy collections of public libraries. Now Villanova faculty members are planning to add genealogical research projects to their undergraduate history syllabi. Welcome to the digital new world of genealogy: like in so many other areas of research, the time of dusty old books and reels of microfilm has passed and online databases have taken their place. Ancestry.com and HeritageQuest are two of the major genealogical research tools currently on the market. Both are available on trial basis until March 15 to Villanova faculty and students. Discover a wealth of genealogical materials such as U.S. census data (1790-1930), church records, county census data, immigration ship lists, passport applications, Freedman’s Bank records, Revolutionary War pension applications, even international data from the UK, Canada and Germany. I strongly encourage you to evaluate both resources and send me feedback about their usefulness in the classroom. For more detailed information about the contents of ancestry library edition and HeritageQuest Online, please consult the comparison chart provided by Proquest. Contact me directly (firstname.lastname@example.org) or post your comments online. The Historical Periodicals Collection of the American Antiquarian Society (AAS) is currently available on trial basis. Described as “the most comprehensive collection of American periodicals published between 1691 and 1877,” the collection includes more than 7,600 magazines and journals with more than seven million digitized pages. The digitization of series 5 which extends coverage up to 1877 has just been completed. Series 1: 1691-1820 Series 2: 1821-1837 Series 3: 1838-1852 Series 4: 1853-1865 Series 5: 1866-1877 Series 1-5: 1691-1877 Don’t miss the twelve collection overview essays which can be found on the lower right hand corner of the results screen via the Reference Shelf link. The essays discuss the research value of the AAS periodicals collection. Included are titles such as Doing Women’s History at the American Antiquarian Society and An Overview of the American Antiquarian Society Periodicals Collection. The essay on the periodical literature in the Revolutionary War Era includes detailed descriptions of selected periodicals. The Publications link at the top of the search screen brings up a complete title list with publication start and end dates. Search results can be limited by types of publication, document and image. The collection is available on the familiar EBSCO platform. The trial will run until April 2. Give the AAS Historical Periodicals Collection a try and let me know what you think. Your feedback is important. Feel free to contact me with any questions or comments that you may have.

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I thought that any look at the air in relation to folklore had to include creatures that fly, and as I’ve already covered dragons pretty extensively in other posts I wanted to look at birds, which it seems to me are a good subject for study in any context, but here are three examples that struck me: In folklore the wren is often characterised as female (“Jenny Wren”), wife to the robin. In Latin it is called regulus, or “little king”. Harming or killing a wren is said to bring misfortune – in Scotland, killing one was meant to make your cows give bloody milk, and in France if you robbed a wrens’ nest your house could burn down, or your fingers rot off as your punishment. However, for one day in the year – usually St Stephen’s Day (26th December) – there was once a custom called Hunting the Wren, found in Ireland, Wales, the Isle of Man and some parts of England, which saw groups of boys (the Wren Boys of Christmas) use poles and cudgels to catch and kill one of the birds. The unfortunate creature was then laid on a tiny bier, and with it the boys would visit every house in the village, and be given ale in exchange for a feather plucked from the bird’s breast. It would then be solemnly laid in a specially dug grave. There are many different explanations of this ritual, some connected to Christianity – that the wren’s fluting song betrayed Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane, or even St Stephen himself as he tried to escape his jailers. But it is likely that this most sacred of birds, haunter of hedgerows and dark places, has been ritually sacrificed since pre-Christian times, so it might bring people good fortune for the coming year. The screech of a barn owl is an eerie sound, and it’s perhaps no wonder that traditionally it is said to presage death – likewise, if you see one during the day, or one knocks against your window, it is an ominous sign. Again, there’s a Christian connection – the apocryphal story of Jesus begging a baker’s wife for bread. When she was about to bake him a good-sized loaf, her daughter snatched most of it away, deeming it too large for a mere beggar – but the dough swelled up suddenly, and in her surprise the daughter turned into an owl. Like the wren, the robin is held sacred – it was once said to have had a white breast, turned red by Christ’s blood from the cross (various versions account for how this happened – that the robin was taking water in its beak to relieve Christ’s suffering, or that it was trying to pluck a thorn from the crown of thorns; another story is that it was singed while carrying water to souls in Purgatory). To injure a robin, or steal its eggs, therefore brings misfortune, as it would for a wren – but as is often the case, there are counter-traditions that hold that the robin is a bird of ill omen, and there are accounts of people throwing away Christmas cards with pictures of robins on them for this very reason. The link with death is more general that just the crucifixion, too – if they came across a dead body, robins were supposed to cover its face with leaves and twigs, out of charity and respect.

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Small is beautiful, as the old saying goes, and nowhere is that more true than in media files. Compressed images are considerably easier to transmit and store than uncompressed ones are, and now Google is using neural networks to beat JPEG at the compression game. Google began by taking a random sample of 6 million 1280×720 images on the web. It then broke those down into nonoverlapping 32×32 tiles and zeroed in on 100 of those with the worst compression ratios. The goal there, essentially, was to focus on improving performance on the "hardest-to-compress" data, because it's bound to be easier to succeed on the rest. The researchers then used the TensorFlow machine-learning system Google open-sourced last year to train a set of experimental neural network architectures. They used one million steps to train them and then collected a series of technical metrics to find which training models produced the best-compressed results. In the end, their models outdid the JPEG compression standard's performance on average. The next challenge, the researchers said, will be to beat compression methods derived from video compression codecs on large images, becuase "they employ tricks such as reusing patches that were already decoded." WebP, which was derived from the VP8 video codec, is an example of such a method. The researchers did note, however, that it's not always easy to define a winner when it comes to compression performance, because technical metrics don't always agree with human perception. A paper describing the Google team's work was published last week.

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Analyzing data gathered from 1970 to 2010 at two orchards in Japan, a research team said there was clear evidence that climate change was having an effect on apple taste and texture. (Agencies) "All such changes may have resulted from earlier blooming and higher temperatures" during the growth season, they wrote in the journal Nature Scientific Reports. About 60 million tonnes of apples are produced every year, making it the world's third most popular fruit. Previous studies had shown that global warming was causing apple trees to flower later, and that harvests were also affected by changes in rainfall and air temperature. The orchards used in the study produce the Fuji and Tsugaru apples, the two most popular kinds in the world. The farms are located in Japan's Nagano and Aomori prefectures, which had seen a mean air temperature rise of 0.31 and 0.34 degrees Celsius (0.5 and 0.6 degrees Fahrenheit), respectively, per decade. The orchards were chosen because there had been no changes in cultivars or management practices for extended periods, thus ruling out non-climate factors like technological improvements in the apple change. The data collected over the years included measures of acid and sugar concentration, fruit firmness and watercore -- a disease that causes water-soaked areas in the flesh of an apple. The analysis showed a decrease in acidity, firmness and watercore, but a rise in sugar concentration over time. "We think that a sweeter apple is a positive thing and a loss of firmness is a negative thing," study co-author Toshihiko Sugiura of the National Institute of Fruit Tree Science in Fujimoto said. "We think most people like sweet and firm apple fruits, although everyone has his own taste. A soft apple is called 'Boke' in Japanese which means a dull or senile fruit." The study said that the results "suggest that the taste and textural attributes of apples in the market are undergoing change from a long-term perspective, even though consumers might not perceive these subtle changes." The research claims to be the first to measure changes in the taste and texture of food as a result of climate change. Analyzing data gathered from 1970 to 2010 at two orchards in Japan, a research team said there was clear evidence that climate change was having an effect on apple taste and texture.

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“This is the mental drive and determination that allows you to succeed or master one’s self” – Yannick Theodore. According to my definition, will power is the determination to succeed. The determination to achieve what was once thought unachievable. To leap the walls of limitation, and produce something no one else can. To master one’s self and life choices. If you google “will power” online you are sure to find a large number of sites, providing various different definitions, for those two simple words. According to the oxford dictionary online: determination, strength of will, strength of character, firmness of purpose, fixity of purpose,resolution, resolve, resoluteness, purposefulness, single-mindedness, drive, commitment,dedication, doggedness, tenacity, tenaciousness, staying power, backbone, spine; self-control, self-restraint, self-discipline, self-mastery; German Sitzfleisch • informal stickability North American • informal stick-to-it-iveness • rare perseveration Other definitions include: : the ability to control yourself : strong determination that allows you to do something difficult (such as to lose weight or quit smoking)” Taken from the Marriam Webster dictionary. In other words, will power is the mental driving force that helps you get out of bed on a morning, will power is what motivates you, stimulates you and causes you to feel that deep desire to win, and dominate. Where can we say this drive originates from? Is it something that is taught? Can you sit down in a classroom and learn how to have some will power to achieve? Unfortunately you cannot! If that were the case, I most certainly would graciously spend the required amount to get that concept drilled into my lifestyle. I believe will power is an innate mentality, man possess in order to assist them to move forward in life. The question is, Is it only man who possess such innate abilities? Do, women have as much will power as men? or do they even have any will power at all? for that matter. Do women possess that strength of will to achieve under any circumstance as men? Some feminists believe strongly that power in society is unequally balanced towards men. This unequal balance is what ignites their desire to achieve more than what’s expected. Is this a sign that women may have more will power than men? In order to obtain equality to men, it takes a lot of scheming and determination, which women have showcased over hundreds of years. Is it enough to say though, that women possess more will power than men? Men over the years have showcased lots of will power as well, leading endeavors to establish and maintain a civilized society. Building a civilization from the ground up, with no laws, regulations, bills, or expected ways of behavior, is not an easy task. This takes alot of WILL POWER. If you compare building a society to attaining equality, you will slowly realize the answer to the afore-mentioned question. Can you imagine, men much like me and you, built a scoiety from the ground up, with nothing but our bare hands, a vision of a better more modern future and will power to achieve it! What a task! You think if we had asked a woman to assist us we would achieved such task? My guess is half of you guys would refrain from answering, out of a respect for women (I call that fear) and the other half would give an astounding NO, never in their life right! I agree this one time. Think about it. Man posses so much will to live better, eat better, work better, that he has created the most amazing system of living unimaginable in all the known galaxies! This system is so incredible, that in this century, the 21st century, it is now possible for everyone to own their own business, in any field imaginable to you! Right now you can just sit there, close your eyes, imagine the business you want to start, jump on your laptop and search the web, and out there, is the answer, guaranteed, no questions about it. All as a result of one’s will power to create a better world. Now its even possible to speed to work even quicker in one of your new corvettes and get there before the morning briefing meeting, where as you would have had to gallop to work on a morning. All as a result of one’s will power to achieve and attain new heights. Everything is possible now as a result of one man’s will power to live better, yet still you hear about men and women living in poverty, or family houses seized by bankrupted families, as a result of lack of will power. Thats the problem with society today, the lack of will power! Things just aren’t the same as before. Now women wake up and don’t even want to go to work anymore. They don’t feel like it they complain. Don’t feel like it, did she not just hear herself, ” You did not feel like going to work!” What she needs to feel like doing is getting her butt up and getting ready for work. In the old days, work was a breath pattern. The same way you wake up and yawn and stretch, is the same way you would wake up and promptly get ready to go to work. No lie. Thats how its was. Now women can just not feel like going to work and just not go! Oh how things have changed! The will to work has been sucked out of the women of the society today. Some guys even worst, actually consider just sitting around on the block whole day, hustling in various ways as a suitable means of attaining mass wealth. Yeah, it’s true, the amount of will power some men have now is minimal to average. Its even more appalling to know some don’t just consider it, some finally choose to do it! Yeah I know bad decision most of you are saying, but hey I have traveled around the globe and I have come across many individuals who choose this career pattern. Do people not will themselves to get a better job anymore? Guess not, the society we live in today, it’s acceptable to work as anything now, just as long as no laws are being violated. How amazing is that! What is to become of the future. If no one has the will power to do anything anymore. Inventing ceased and we were forced to live a stagnant life. Think about it! This has me realize that will power is vital to mental and physical development. Without the will to better yourself, life has a way of slipping through your fingers. To those of you who were ever searching for an answer, assisting you in staying focused and following through with your new years resolution, the answer is will power. The determination to fulfill your resolution will get you through. “If You can WILL it, you can achieve it!” – Yannick Theodore

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'Learning communities' are emerging to meet the professional-development needs of teachers. Teachers in Klein, Texas, are swapping online resources and technology tips through collaborative learning communities. Educators in Overland Park, Kan., are embedding technology into the district’s academic-curriculum revisions. And schools in Chicago are being encouraged to fill a new position—instructional technology specialist—that is specifically designed to help teachers with the technical aspects of integrating technology into learning. These efforts are examples of how school districts are upgrading their professional development to keep teachers, and their students, on the cusp of the latest educational technology. “Historically and traditionally, the teacher had all the information,” says Ann McMullan, the executive director for educational technology in the 38,600-student Klein Independent School Distirct. “Now we live in a world where information abounds everywhere, and it requires a different skill set.” The change has shifted the role of the teacher from “the deliverer of content” to “the facilitator of learning,” says McMullan. And that change requires teachers to become students once again, often seeking help from other teachers, and even their own students, to implement technology effectively in the classroom. To gear up for a new one-to-one middle school campus where each student will receive a laptop, opening in the Klein district this fall, teachers are being encouraged to form online professional-development communities with colleagues that they can use to seek technology advice, share online resources, and exchange tips. This learning-community model has already been put in place in one of the district’s smaller schools—a 150-student dropout-prevention program—with positive results. “It has become a natural part of the day for teachers,” McMullan says of the learning communities. They have helped schools gather support for new technology initiatives and ensured that all teachers have the resources to become technology-savvy, she adds. Lynn N. Nolan, the senior director of education leadership at the Washington-based International Society for Technology in Education, agrees that collaborative-learning communities are a key component of incorporating technology into the classroom. “It’s important for teachers to be a part of a community,” she says. “Not so long ago, teachers would go into their classrooms, close the door, teach independently, and go home without talking to another adult. In this increasingly digital world, we have so many opportunities to connect.” Having professional learning communities in place at schools can also encourage younger teachers, who may be more comfortable with using technology, to help their veteran colleagues integrate new tools into the classroom to enhance learning and better engage students. 1. Encourage teachers to familiarize themselves with the Internet by signing up for e-newsletters, reading blogs, or building a Web site. The more comfortable they become with the Internet, the more likely they will be to incorporate it into their lessons. 2. Suggest that teachers establish learning communities with their colleagues to share resources and tips. Pooling online resources will save teachers time and give them a foothold when they begin searching for information. 3. Have an on-site staff member available to help teachers with new technology. Teachers are more likely to use the techniques they’ve learned during professional-development classes if they have a mentor to encourage them. 4. Provide strong leadership and a clear vision of what the role of technology should be in the classroom. Without a goal in mind, technology often becomes an obstacle rather than a helpful tool. 5. Embed technology into the curriculum, rather than using it as an add-on to pre-existing lesson plans. Technology should be used when it fits with the lesson, not just for its own sake. 6. Assure teachers not to be intimidated by students, or younger teachers, who may know more about technology than they do. Instead, encourage them to treat this knowledge as a learning opportunity for the whole class or faculty. But learning how to use the technology is only the beginning, Nolan cautions. The real focus shouldn’t be on how the technology works, but how it can be harnessed to help students learn. Robert Gravina, the chief technology officer for California’s 33,000-student Poway Unified School District, explains: “We’ve moved past teaching our teachers how to use e-mail. How to integrate technology into [their] lessons so it’s effective and engaging—that’s really the skill that teachers need to learn now.” For instance, Lynne Harvey, a 4th grade teacher at the 740-student Monterey Ridge Elementary School in the Poway district, uses live Web cameras in her classroom near San Diego to observe a peregrine falcon’s nest on the windowsill of an office building in Cleveland. For the past six years, Harvey has led online chats with other schools about the project, connected with researchers from across the country through an Internet forum, and helped her students create podcasts detailing their research on the birds. Transforming the role of technology from a mere addition to a lesson plan to an integral part of the curriculum is a shift Bob Moore, the executive director of information technology services for Kansas’ 20,000-student Blue Valley school district in Overland Park, emphasizes. As he explains in an e-mail interview: “We embed technology integration into curriculum training. So, for example, when we revise the math curriculum, we include technology as part of that revision, and when teachers are trained to implement the new curriculum, the technology integration is just part of it. By including technology use as part of the curriculum plan, … technology integration becomes natural, rather than an add-on.” Stacey A. Campo, an instructional technology specialist for the Poway Unified schools, teaches after-school training sessions for teachers and organizes skill-based technology workshops throughout the year, on topics such as searching the Internet and creating audio files. Her main focus is training educators to be comfortable with the Web. “Teachers need to have a Web presence,” she says. “They should have the skill set to have a voice on the Internet.” To familiarize teachers with the Internet, Campo suggests that each educator build a Web site, start a blog, or create a podcast. Once teachers can navigate their way around the Web, they have the potential to use their skills for collaborative efforts between classrooms, schools, and countries, Campo believes. But perhaps what is most important to ensuring the success of technology in education is the support of administrators, she says. “If our administrators don’t know what to look for, don’t know what to implement, don’t have a vision,” she says, “then they won’t be able to provide the resources for our teachers to implement it.” Sharnell S. Jackson, the chief e-learning officer for the 421,000-student Chicago public schools, shares Campo’s view. The systemic change needed to integrate technology effectively into education requires strong leadership, she says. “What really matters is that principals have a vision for technology,” Jackson says. “When they have a vision, that’s when it can happen.” In addition to support from administrators, having ongoing support from instructional technology specialists at each school can boost teachers’ technology use. Jackson recently approved such school-based technology positions for her district and is encouraging schools to provide the service to teachers. “A classroom teacher can’t handle supporting instructional technology,” she says. “[The position has] become a necessity.” Vol. 01, Issue Fall 2007, Pages 22-23 - Middle School Band Teacher - The International Educator, Hong Kong - Scale Your Impact. Lead a Portfolio of Cleveland Schools. Apply today! - Cleveland Metropolitan School District, Cleveland, OH - K-12 Head of School - TIE, Switzerland - Superintendent, South San Francisco Unified School District - South San Francisco Unified School District, South San Francisco, CA - Superintendent, City Schools of Decatur - City Schools of Decatur, Decatur, GA

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A note on Ludwig von Mises, "SOCIALISM: An Economic and Sociological analysis" Yale University Press, New Haven; 1962 translated by J. Kahane LCCN: 51009080; ISBN: 0913966620 (1981 edition) Prices are the cornerstone of the market and the scale by which all agents measure value. This is admittedly a presumption Mises has made before embarking on his analysis of "Socialism". Yet it is not an altogether preposterous assumption. Mises claims that without the assistance of prices one is at sea in the market; it becomes impossible to effect any rational thought process because such processes presuppose the tools necessary for calculation. Any rational economic process must have some method with which to rank the various means and ends at our disposal, without such an ordering a rational economic system (one which permits agents to make informed, rational decisions) is inconceivable. In the price system Mises finds a highly evolved process which distills the various signals received from all agents in the market and determines the value society ascribes to a particular commodity. With the assistance of the price system, all actors in the market can make decisions that promote the general good and assist in the satisfaction of the desires of all. Guided by their own self-interest, producers and consumers can make decisions that reconcile their subjective values with those of all other individuals. Prices provide us with an invaluable table of costs that accurately reflects the desires of all other individuals. Without prices no agent has accurate and succinct data on which to base her decisions, consequently such a system cannot sustain rational behaviour. Mises' fundamental critique of Socialism is that with the abolition of private property and the disappearance of the price system, it will become impossible to calculate. Unless we are free to bid for products, based on the value we believe they have, the market is unable to arrive at a price for the product. An alternative system, short of one that has direct access to the minds and hearts of all individuals, will not provide us with information that accurately reflects the desires of society. This is not of course a claim that goods will be cheaper or more expensive under Socialism, non-monetary costs will substitute to make up for under-priced commodities. Yet a system that relies on long lines and overflowing warehouses as the only signals on which to revise production decisions is wholly inefficient since it does not provide the appropriate incentives for producers to change behaviour. Mises argues that Socialism is exactly such a system. Since no one under a Socialist state will have access to prices it is entirely reasonable to suppose that inaccurate decisions will be made due to lack of appropriate measures of value. This not only destroys the much vaunted "rationality" of Socialism, it also suggests that a Socialist economy may be unable to perform as well as a Capitalist market system. If we are aware that redistribution of the present wealth of society will not in itself be sufficient to ensure for each individual the standard of living the Socialists promise, it is difficult to see how an economy that is more prone to "persist in error" (see Reuven Brenner, Labyrinths of Prosperity) can create enough wealth to enhance our individual positions so dramatically. Mises assures us that the Socialist system is hardly an "improvement" on the Capitalist structure and as such will produce an inferior result. Once "the fundamental question whether the socialist order of society promises a higher productivity than Capitalism" has been answered in this manner, little remains of the material rationale for socialism. The Socialist is then forced to evoke other forms of reasoning to support his agenda. One of these is an appeal to an acquisitive urge that is present among most of us, and which is sparked when we are presented with the opportunity to "take from the rich what is rightly ours". Proponents of such actions, quite apart from the fact that they lack any respect or understanding of rights, assume that they can redistribute in such a manner without affecting the total value of the economy's product. Such a position fails to comprehend the subtle relationship between production, distribution and consumption. Yet this is not surprising when we realize that these claims are forwarded by authoritarians who presume to free us from all cares by replacing the capitalist's "monopoly" over these three functions with their own. It is clear that any tampering with either of these processes will radically change the end result of an economic process. Yet any process that fails to acknowledge the nature of the human agent in the economic sphere and fails to create an incentive structure that forces us to weigh the benefits of consumption and saving can hardly be called economic (pg. 458). After demonstrating the impotency of the socialist scheme in the economic sphere, Mises has to retaliate to the alleged "materialism" of the bourgeoisie. At this point however, it is rather futile to argue about the merits of poverty and Mises rests his case after drawing various parallels between socialism and a particular interpretation of Christianity. There are more problems in the discourse on Socialism than would otherwise be imagined. One of the points Mises highlights is the apparent ease with which Socialists (and particularly Marx) use words in different ways, imposing on them a variety of contexts and connotations, till the very logic of the argument has been lost in what Mises calls "word-play". This happens, Mises argues, in Marx's writing where the terms rebellion and society are used at different times to mean different things. It is not clear whether this is done intentionally, to obscure the argument or whether it is accidental. In either case, it is clear that such verbal acrobatics simply make it even more difficult to conduct this discourse since one is never completely certain of the arguments advanced by others. These issues become crucial in Friedrich von Hayek's work, where the very word "Law" is imbibed with a halo that the legislature attempts to acquire by cloaking legislative decisions in an exterior of legality. A similar conception of language is at work in Hayek's The mirage of Social Justice, where he claims that the term "justice" is abused when employed in referring to an outcome that is not generated by an authority, but which is the outcome of an impersonal process. Oddly, Mises does not seem to have stressed this mode of thought, and claims that "on this (the relative justice of the outcome produced by these two orders) point science can give no judgement" pg. 273, also pg 436. Yet, this has to be reconciled with Mises' insight that "one is not permitted to ask whether a particular price is justified or not" pg. 435. The issue becomes a little clearer when we notice the value Mises has ascribed to the term "science", and why he would wish to keep away from issues that could "only be evaluated subjectively" (pg. 436), or those that appear to require the application of a particular value structure. Perhaps what comes out most clearly in this book, is that the structures described in Socialist literature cannot be accepted as they are. As such these visions of Socialist societies are Utopias (ou + topos, no place), in the sense that they prophecy circumstances that Economic analysis tells us cannot be sustained with the institutions under consideration. These visions are imaginary places because their structure fails to take into account the nature of the human animal and the way in which we make decisions. We cannot reconcile Socialist Utopia with our Economic and Sociological knowledge of the nature of human action. This review was originally written as an assignment for Israel Kirzner's class The Foundations of Capitalism during the fall of 1995 at NYU.

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Communities developing resources and competencies for using their languages Foundational understanding for language development work of all kinds Publications, fonts and computer tools for language development, translation and research SIL offers training in disciplines relevant to sustainable language development. 7,105 languages are spoken or signed. CLICK for map of world languages & regional websites. SIL's dedication to language development past and present This report presents the findings of a sociolinguistic survey (Rapid Appraisal) of the Ngamambo speech community in the North West Province of Cameroon. Research was conducted in 2002 for the purpose of assessing the need for literacy and development of Ngamambo and closely related speech varieties. This survey includes 120-item wordlists from the Ngamambo, Moghamo, and Meta speech varieties.

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Technology for Learning: Is It Helpful or Harmful? Active engagement in the learning process Easy access to information Increased possibilities for creative thinking and learning Ability to collaborate with others more efficiently Can have a more nebulous quality, making it less concrete and finite Can be overwhelming having to sift through many options to find quality information and programs Can cause too much distraction when not used intentionally The Bottom Line Technology can be customized to fit any person’s needs. Do you prefer to read an article on paper, but use an app to study vocabulary words? No problem. Do you like to brainstorm with pencil and paper, but type up a rough draft on Google Docs? Perfect. The capabilities of technology are almost limitless when it comes to the learning process; one simply has to discover the purposeful combination that best suits his or her learning style. KID TESTED, TO APPROVED APPS Learn more about “Kid Tested, TO Approved” apps that can help your child manage school and life here.

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in Wisconsin History Alfred Bridgman's English-Menominee word list from the 1870s Menominee vocabulary, 1874-1879 The compiler of this vocabulary, Alfred Fearing Bridgman (1857-1924), was the son of Menominee Indian agent Joseph Clark Bridgman. The Bridgman family arrived in Keshena in Oct. 1874 and departed in April 1879. In 1880 John W. Powell, Director of the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of Ethnology, distributed 150 pages of forms with his Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages, asking readers to gather American Indian language vocabularies. Alfred Bridgman used a copy of Powell's forms to collect the roughly 50 pages of terms listed here. Albert Bridgman's brother Frank also kept a Menominee word list which is available elsewhere at Turning Points in Wisconsin History. We have omitted pages that contained no handwritten Menominee terms. This is one of several works on American Indian languages to be found at Turning Points in Wisconsin History. Readers should note that this is a historical document rather than a modern one, and that it was produced by a white observer rather than a native speaker; students wishing to study the language should rely on materials produced by the tribal language office. Early Native Peoples| Explorers, Traders, and Settlers Colonialism Transforms Indian Life Americanization and the Bennett Law Indians in the 20th Century |Creator:||Bridgman, Alfred F.| |Pub Data:||Unpublished manuscript (call no. US Mss 5F) in the Archives at the Wisconsin Historical Society.| |Citation:||Bridgman, Alfred F. Menominee vocabulary, 1874-1879 (US Mss 5F at the Wisconsin Historical Society). Online facsimile at: http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/search.asp?id=1767; Visited on: 10/31/2014|

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Terrible as this may be to hear – given that it has pushed the Blue Whale to the brink of extinction, and kills an estimated 16,000 whales per year – the practice of whale hunting shows no sign of abating in places such as Iceland, Japan, Norway, and the Faroe Islands. Japanese whalers claim that their activities are carried out for “scientific research” purposes – despite the fact that not one peer-reviewed paper has ever been published as a result of their expeditions. In 2014, the International Court of Justice in The Hague ruled that Japan had to stop hunting whales in Antarctic waters. Defying all common sense, however – and in the face of growing international condemnation – Japan has continued to press ahead with its whaling activities. Additionally, traditional whale hunts in the Faroe Islands occur every year despite protests, and although only around five percent of Icelandic people still consume whale meat, national hunts continue. Just when it seemed like the world had completely forgotten all common sense when it comes to whale hunting … we have some refreshing news! Chris Hemsworth recently spoke out against the practice, calling it “completely unnecessary” in an interview with BBC Television in the UK. It is wonderful to hear a famous face tell it like it is! Hemsworth’s latest movie, In The Heart of the Sea, may deal with the story of a ship that was attacked by a sperm whale, but these days, whales have much more reason to be afraid of us than we are of them. Not only are they still hunted in waters across the world, but they are also under threat because of the mountains of plastic trash that we humans throw into the oceans every single day. An estimated 270,000 tons of plastic debris are currently held within the oceans and have even led to the creation of “plastic islands” – one of the most well-known being the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. A large number of tragic stories about whales who starved to death after ingesting plastic have come to light in recent years. With this in mind, it is clear that whales don’t need the added threat of hunting to add to their many woes! It is wonderful to see someone in the public eye like Hemsworth speaking out against the horrors of whaling. Not only is this practice entirely unnecessary, but it is also wildly underreported or discussed in mainstream media. Whales play a critical role in balancing our global ecosystem. Join Hemsworth in defense of whales and share this post to help raise awareness! Together, we can make a huge difference for the sake of whales – and also for our own sake as well.

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ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER ADD ADHD The first evidence for the brain being under stimulated was introduced with the use of more advanced electroencephalograms (EEG or brainwave studies) by Joel Lubar from the University of Tennessee. He demonstrated that when ADD children and teenagers performed a concentration task there was an increased amount of slow brain wave activity in their frontal lobes, instead of the usual increase in fast brain wave activity that was seen in the majority of the control group. In 1990, published PET data that supported the notion of brain underactivity in the prefrontal cortex, especially in response to an intellectual challenge. Data from my own work with SPECT brain imaging drew the same conclusions. At rest most ADD people have normal activity in their brain. When they perform a concentration task, however, they experience decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex, rather than the expected increased activity that is seen in a normal control group. Tied to the decreased prefrontal cortex findings are the studies that indicate that ADD is has a large genetic contribution, involving dopamine availability in the brain. A significant amount of dopamine is produced in the basal ganglia (large, structures deep within the brain). Stimulant medications work by enhancing dopamine availability in this part of the brain. Studies have demonstrated that the basal ganglia is smaller in people with ADD. The basal ganglia have a significant number of nerve tracks that go through the limbic system to the prefrontal cortex. It appears that when there is not enough dopamine available in the basal ganglia then there is not enough ‚fuel’ to drive the frontal lobes when they need to activate with concentration. Beside the genetic contribution to ADD, maternal alcohol or drug use, birth trauma, jaundice, brain infections and head trauma (sometimes even minor ones, especially to the left prefrontal cortex) can play a causative role. Subtypes of ADD It is essential to note that ADD is a developmental disorder diagnosed through clinical history over a prolonged period of time. Brain imaging is not necessary to make the diagnosis of ADD, although it may be helpful in certain complicated cases. Based on my brain imaging experience I have seen 7 clinical subtypes of ADD: - ADD ADHD Combined - Inattentive ADD ADHD - Overfocused ADD - Temporal Lobe ADD - Limbic ADD - Ring of Fire ADD - Trauma Induced ADD AD/HD, Combined Type AD/HD, combined type with both symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. SPECT Brain imaging typically shows decreased activity in the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex during a concentration task. This subtype of ADD typically responds best to psychostimulant medication. AD/HD, Primarily Inattentive ADD Subtype AD/HD, primarily inattentive ADD subtype with symptoms of inattention and also chronic boredom, decreased motivation, internal preoccupation and low energy. Brain SPECT imaging typically shows decreased activity in the basal ganglia and dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex during a concentration task. This subtype of Inattentive ADD also typically responds best to psychostimulant medication. Overfocused ADD, with symptoms of trouble shifting attention, cognitive inflexibility, difficulty with transitions, excessive worrying, and oppositional and argumentative behavior. There are often also symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. Brain SPECT imaging typically shows increased activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus and decreased prefrontal cortex activity. This subtype of Overfocused ADD typically responds best to medications that enhance both serotonin and dopamine availability in the brain, such as venlafaxine or a combination of an SSRI (such as fluoxetine or sertraline) and a psychostimulant. Temporal lobe ADD Temporal lobe ADD, with symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity and mood instability, aggression, mild paranoia, anxiety with little provocation, atypical headaches or abdominal pain, visual or auditory illusions, and learning problems (especially reading and auditory processing). Brain SPECT imaging typically shows decreased or increased activity in the temporal lobes with decreased prefrontal cortex activity. Aggression tends to be more common with left temporal lobe abnormalities. This subtype of Temporal ADD typically responds best to anticonvulsant medications (such as gabapentin, divalproate, or carbamazepine and a psychostimulant. Limbic ADD, with symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity and negativity, depression, sleep problems, low energy, low self-esteem, social isolation, decreased motivation and irritability. Brain SPECT imaging typically shows increased central limbic system activity and decreased prefrontal cortex activity. This Limbic ADD subtype typically responds best to stimulating antidepressants such as buprion or imipramine, or venlafaxine if obsessive symptoms are present. Ring of Fire ADD Ring of Fire ADD ‚Äì many of the children and teenagers who present with symptoms of ADD have the “ring of fire” pattern on SPECT. They often do not respond to psychostimulant medication and in many cases are made worse by them. They tend to improve with either anticonvulsant medications, like Depakote or Neurontin, or the new, novel antipsychotic medications such as Risperdal or Zyprexa. The symptoms of this pattern tend to be severe oppositional behavior, distractibility, irritability and temper problems and mood swings. We think it may represent an early bipolar pattern. Trauma Induced ADD Trauma Induced ADD, especially to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The symptoms come on or intensify in the year after a head injury or brain trauma. The ADD symptoms may respond to psychostimulant medication. If irritability results secondary to psychostimulant medication the addition of a low dose anticonvulsant may be helpful.

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The article linked in the question refers to the hot gas surrounding the galaxy, in what is known as the circumgalactic medium (CGM). The CGM, in turn, draws in gas that has undergone gravitational collapse and shock-heating during the process of structure formation. Older version of answer concerning the gas within the galaxy: The hottest regions of the galaxy are most likely heated by supernovae. A classic paper that describes how the three thermal phases of the interstellar medium ("cold," "warm", and "hot") are maintained, and invoking a connection between the hot phase and supernovae, is McKee and Ostriker 1977. See also this page for some helpful visuals. The high-velocity gas ejected in a supernova explosion collides with the gas in the surrounding interstellar medium, shocks, and heats up to millions of Kelvin. Finally, some of the supernova-heated gas can flow back out of the galaxy and into the CGM, causing it to harbor metals which could only be produced by stellar evolution.

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Pterocystidae Cavalier-Smith and von der Heyden, 2007 Diagnosis: Periplast ancestrally with two contrasting types of siliceous scales: tangential basal plate scales (margin not hollow and inrolled but sometimes thickened) oval, sometimes slightly (rarely markedly) narrower at one end, sometimes slightly indented on one side (rarely slightly on both) but never distinctly bilobed; outer bipartite radial scales typically consisting of leaf-like blade with an axial rib, usually extended apically as a projecting needle-like point (blunt or pointed, but unbranched), and lateral wings; radial scale base may be rounded or truncated and may be in the same plane as the blade or somewhat bent away from it (Pterocystis) or markedly extended as a distinct shelf or basal disc (sometimes called basal wing: Mikrjukov, 2002) orthogonal to the main blade (Raineriophrys); species with a pronounced basal wing may have lateral wings that are greatly reduced or absent; if silica scales rarely secondarily missing (Chlamydaster) cell has a distinct mucous coat; funnel-shaped scales absent. Type genus: Pterocystis. Pterocystis (eight exclusively and two primarily freshwater spp.). Raineriophrys (eight freshwater spp.), Chlamydaster (two spp.; fresh and brackish water), The distinction between Raineriophrys and Pterocystis is not sharp; molecular and ultrastructural investigation of all other Raineriophrys is needed to check whether Raineriophrys is monophyletic and deserves generic distinction.

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ChristianAnswers.Net WebBible Encyclopedia This title was assumed by the Roman emperors after Julius Caesar. The Jews paid tribute to Caesar (Matt. 22:17), and all Roman citizens had the right of appeal to him (Acts 25:11). The Caesars referred to in the New Testament are Augustus (Luke 2:1), Tiberius (Luke 3:1; 20:22), Claudius (Acts 11:28), and Nero (Acts 25:8; Phil. 4:22).

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Common jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) The common jujube is either a deciduous tree growing to a height of 12 meters (40 feet) or a large shrub, depending upon where it grows and how much water is available for growth. Its branches are usually spiny with shiny-green, oval leaves with three veins at the base and finely toothed. Its reddish-brown to yellowish-green fruit is oblong to ovoid, 3 centimeters (1 inch) or less in diameter, smooth, and sweet in flavor, but with a rather dry pulp around a comparatively large stone. When mature, the fruit turns brown to purplish-black and wrinkles looking like a small date. Its small flowers are green or yellowish-green. Where to Find: The jujube is found in forested areas of temperate regions and in desert scrub and waste areas worldwide. It requires hot summers and plenty of water for proper fruit production. It is common in many of the tropical and subtropical areas of the Old World. In Africa, it is found mainly bordering the Mediterranean. In Asia, it is especially common in the drier parts of India and China. The jujube is also found throughout the East Indies. It can be found bordering some desert areas. Edible Parts: The fruit is edible. The pulp, crushed in water, makes a refreshing beverage. If time permits, you can dry the ripe fruit in the sun like dates. Its fruit is high in vitamins A and C. Asian cultures believe fruit can be used to alleviate stress and traditionally for antifungal, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, sedative, antifertility/contraception, and wound healing properties. Other Uses: In Bhutan, the leaves are used as a potpourri and to keep bugs and insects out of the house. In Korea, the wood is used to make the body of a reeded wind instrument.

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Elizabeth H. BlackburnArticle Free Pass Elizabeth H. Blackburn, in full Elizabeth Helen Blackburn (born Nov. 26, 1948, Hobart, Tasmania, Austl.), Australian-born American molecular biologist and biochemist who was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, along with American molecular biologist Carol W. Greider and American biochemist and geneticist Jack W. Szostak, for her discoveries elucidating the genetic composition and function of telomeres (segments of DNA occurring at the ends of chromosomes) and for her contribution to the discovery of an enzyme called telomerase. In the early 1970s Blackburn earned a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in biochemistry from the University of Melbourne. She then enrolled as a graduate student in molecular biology at the University of Cambridge in England, where she worked in the laboratory of British biochemist Frederick Sanger. At Cambridge Blackburn studied the nucleic acid composition of bacteriophage ϕX174 and became familiar with techniques of DNA sequencing. She received a Ph.D. in molecular biology in 1975, and that same year she began her postdoctoral research in the laboratory of American cell biologist and geneticist Joseph Gall, at Yale University in New Haven, Conn. Gall’s research was concerned primarily with the structure and replication of chromosomes, and Blackburn followed his lead, investigating the chromosomes of a protozoan called Tetrahymena. She sequenced the DNA of the organism’s telomeres and thereby discovered that telomeres are composed of short repeating segments of DNA. In 1978 Blackburn became an assistant professor of molecular biology at the University of California, Berkeley, and continued her investigations of the telomeres of Tetrahymena. She became increasingly interested in the function and maintenance of the repeated segments of DNA that make up the ends of chromosomes. In 1980 Blackburn met Szostak, who was also studying telomeres and who was intrigued by Blackburn’s research. The two began a collaborative effort to understand telomere function, using both yeast and Tetrahymena as model organisms for their investigations. In 1984 Blackburn and Greider, who was then a graduate student in Blackburn’s laboratory, discovered telomerase. Their subsequent studies revealed that telomerase plays a fundamental role in maintaining chromosomes because it can add DNA to telomeres, which shorten following cell division and are the primary determinants of cell life span. Blackburn remained at Berkeley until 1990, when she became a professor in the department of biochemistry and biophysics and in the department of microbiology and immunology at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). In 1993 she earned the additional title of chair of the department of microbiology and immunology at UCSF. Blackburn’s later research involved further investigation of the genetic composition and cellular functions of telomeres and telomerase, as well as studies on the interactions of these cellular components and their roles in cancer and aging. Throughout her career Blackburn published a number of scientific papers and received a variety of honorary degrees and awards, including the Gairdner Foundation International Award (1998; shared with Greider), the Lewis S. Rosenstiel Award for Distinguished Work in Basic Medical Science (1999; shared with Greider), and the Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award (2006; shared with Greider and Szostak). Blackburn also was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London (1992) and a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences (1993). Do you know anything more about this topic that you’d like to share?

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In biological systems, the normal processes of oxidation (plus a minor contribution from ionising radiation) produce highly reactive free radicals. These can readily react with and damage other molecules. In some cases, the body uses free radicals to destroy foreign or unwanted objects, such as in an infection. However, in the wrong place, the body’s own cells may become damaged. Should the damage occur to DNA, the result could be cancer. Antioxidants decrease the damage done to cells by reducing oxidants before they can damage the cell. Virtually all studies of mammals have concluded that a restricted calorie diet extends the life span of mammals by as much as 100 per cent. This remarkable finding suggests that food is actually more damaging than smoking. As food produces free radicals (oxidants) when metabolised, antioxidant-rich diets are thought to stave off the effects of aging significantly better than diets lacking in antioxidants. The reduced levels of free radicals, resulting from a reduction in their production by metabolism, is thought to be a major cause of the success of caloric restriction in increasing life span. selenium and carotenoids, (such as beta-carotene, lycopene, and lutein). This new book brings together the latest research in this dynamic field. Author: Harold V. Panglossi ISBN: 9781594549991 Pages: 206 pages Format: PDF Size: 22.57 Mb

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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Honolulu District Public Affairs FORT SHAFTER — Seven December 1941 was the opening scene of World War II, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, or USACE, was there. At 7:55 a.m., two waves of Japanese warplanes from a naval task force about 250 miles north of Hawaii appeared over Oahu. Some headed for Pearl Harbor and Hickam Field; others hit Schofield Barracks, Wheeler Field and Bellows Field. The USACE in Hawaii consisted of Soldier-engineers in the Army’s Hawaiian Department, and the Corps’ Honolulu Engineer District, then part of the South Pacific Division. Col. Albert K.B. Lyman, a native Hawaiian who later attained the rank of general officer, was the Army’s Hawaiian Department engineer with offices at Fort Shafter. He commanded the 34th Eng. Combat Regiment, the 804th Eng. Aviation Battalion, plus the 3rd Eng. Cbt. Bn. of the 25th Infantry Division. All of Lyman’s engineers were at Schofield Barracks. These military engineers were enlarging and modernizing facilities at Fort Shafter and Schofield Barracks, building anti-aircraft gun sites and bombproofing coastal fortifications. On the civil side, Lt. Col. Theodore Wyman, the Honolulu District engineer, had offices at the Alexander Young Building in Honolulu, employing 10 officers and 400 civilians. Many District team members were at work that morning; there had been a rapid increase in defense projects after France fell in 1940. No District team members or engineers were killed, but there were close calls. Paul J. Lynch, the area engineer in charge of construction at Bellows Field, watched with horror as Japanese planes strafed the field, destroying most of the P-40 Warhawk fighter planes. Lynch directed dispersal of his equipment, and because of his efforts, none were lost. 1st Lt. Harvey R. Fraser found his men in the street shooting at attacking planes. Fraser told the supply sergeant to give weapons to anyone who asked and to tell them to shoot at the Japanese planes. He almost had to pay for the weapons, because no one had issued receipts! All Hawaiian Dept. engineer units served in the war; 34th Eng. landed on Kwajalein, 804th Eng. went to Saipan, 3rd and 64th Eng. fought in the Solomons, New Guinea and the Philippines.

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A growing number of savvy businesses and governments recognise that diligent recycling coupled with buying and using products coming out the other end of the recycling loop can save money and helps the environment. By Isaac Rudik at Compliance Solutions Canada – A Nimonik Affiliate For most people, thoughts of recycling start and stop with wheeling a bin full of crumpled cans, empty bottles and disgusting old pizza cartons to the curb. Once the city truck collects the contents, recycling is pretty much out of sight and out of mind until the next pick-up. Few wonder or give any notice to what happens to the discards after the truck rumbles around the corner. Yet a growing number of savvy businesses, government agencies and other organisations are starting to pay attention. They recognise that diligent recycling of industrial wastes coupled with buying and using products coming out the other end of the recycling loop saves serious money as well as seriously helps the environment. Indeed, it’s amazing how a little recycling can have a major impact: - One recycled can saves enough energy to power a TV set for three hours, about how long the average household watches the tube every day. - One recycled plastic bottle saves enough energy to light a 60-watt bulb for three hours – maybe a lamp in the room where the TV is on for those three hours. - One recycled glass bottle saves enough energy to run a computer 25 minutes. - Roughly 70% less energy is required to recycle paper compared to making it new. Crucially for anybody concerned about holding down costs, recycling can be a real money saver. If anyone knows how to control expenses, it’s Wal-Mart. By instituting a rigorous recycling programme, Wal-Mart is eliminating the need for the equivalent of 22,000 garbage trucks. Continue reading here.

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