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Argilla Warehouse 16

Published on Dec 10, 2018 Zeolites are rocks that are porous, meaning they have tiny holes inside of them. The framework, or structure, of zeolites is made up of aluminum, silicon, and oxygen atoms. These atoms form tiny holes (often referred to as cages). The tiny holes can trap molecules (which are also very small). Because we cannot see the cages of a zeolite, in this activity, you will be making models of a zeolite. Scientists often use models to help them understand things that are too big or too small to see. They also use models to simplify complicated problems. One of the interesting aspects about zeolites is their structure. Many zeolite structures are based off of what is referred to as a sodalite cage. These cages are then stacked together to form the structure (at the molecular level) of zeolites. Another interesting aspect of zeolites is their ability to trap molecules inside the cages. You will be building two models in this activity: one that shows the structure of the sodalite cage found in some zeolites and the other is a model of how ions or molecules can get trapped in zeolites. In this activity we will: • Learn about why scientists use models. You will build your own models of zeolites; one showing the structure, and the other modeling the property of size selection. You can then build extra models. Part 1: Building a Sodalite Cage • Flexi-straws (ones that bend) – at least 72 straws are needed • Scotch or masking tape • Different colored construction paper, scissors, and a marker (optional) Part 2: Modeling Size-Trapping Behavior of Zeolites • Two paper bowls • Pointy scissors • Masking tape • Marker or pen • Blocks that are three different sizes (such as a Lego brick, traditional alphabet block, and a large brick or box) Talk to children about models. Where do we see models? Do you have any toys that might be considered models? Toy cars are an example of a model—they are smaller than a real car and simplified, but by looking at a toy car, one can get the general shape and how the car moves. Can you think of any more examples of models? Part 1: Building a Sodalite Cage Many zeolites are built of a sodalite structure. The sodalite cage is formed by silicon or aluminum atoms on the corners of the cage and oxygen atoms along the “bars” of the cage. By using flexi-straws, you will be able to make a model of the sodalite cage. Start by taking two straws. Bend the one corner, and stick the smaller side of the straw into the larger side of the bigger straw. This often requires folding the smaller side. Now you have two straws connected together with a joint in the middle. Bend the second straw’s joint, and place the small end of that straw into another straw. This can be completed three more times; then, the end of the final straw can be stuck into the first straw, making a hexagon. See the pictures below: To make a sodalite cage, you will need eight straw hexagons and six straw squares (made similarly to a hexagon, but with four sides instead of six). The tricky part is putting all of the parts together! Start by lying a square down on the table. Attach four hexagons to each of its sides using tape. Next, attach the sides of the hexagons to each other. Repeat the above two steps with another square and another four hexagons. Now you have two halves of the sodalite cage! You can pick up the two halves and touch the hexagon sides to each other. There are four square shaped holes remaining. This is the tricky part. Using the remaining four squares, put them so that one goes in each point on a half of your model. You may need an extra set of hands to help! Now, tape the two halves together! Congratulations! You have completed your zeolite model! In this model, the silicon and aluminum atoms would be where the bendy parts of the straw are. The oxygen atoms go on in the middle of the long part of the straws. If you want, you can cut out different colored circles from paper and place them where the atoms go. Part 2: Modeling Size-Trapping Behavior of Zeolites Start the activity by taking one of your bows and putting it face down on a table. Trace around your medium sized (alphabet-sized) block on the bottom of the bowl. Cut out the block shape from the bottom of the bowl. You want the block to be able to fit through the hole, so it is better to cut the hole a little bigger than smaller. Do the same thing to the other bowl. (It is okay if the holes are difficult to cut – you can ask someone for help, or just cut up the side of a bowl and then tape it back together.) Next tape the two bowls together so that their rims are touching. This is the model of the zeolite. Even though it does not look exactly like a zeolite, it has similar properties of one. The three blocks are models of molecules. Try fitting the largest block into the hole. Does it go in? Do you think a zeolite would be able to trap molecule larger than its pores (holes)? Next try putting the smallest block into hole. Does it fit? Try shaking your model with the small block inside of it. What happens? Do you think a zeolite will be able to trap a very tiny molecule that is much smaller than its pores? Lastly, try putting the medium sized block in the model. Does it fit? What happens when you shake this block? Can you make your block come out of the model? Is this easier or harder to do than making the little block come out? Do you think a zeolite would be able to trap a molecule that is close in size to its pore size? The sodalite cage is only part of the structure of sodium zeolite A (which is used in the Soap versus Detergent activity). You can make the whole unit cell by adding seven more sodalite cages and connecting them in a box shape with eight cubes. This is definitely a tough undertaking! Sodalite cages are not the only building block of zeolites. Check out: http://www.zeolites.ethz.ch/Zeolites/StdAtlas.htm (The International Zeolite Association’s Database of Structures) for many more different types of zeolites (LTA and FAU both use sodalite cages). You can also design your own—there are more zeolites to be discovered! Most molecules are not rigid blocks but are often mobile. Use different sized and flexibility substance to make molecules (try gummy worms as a model for a long, skinny molecule – once it is in the zeolite, can you get it out?) Make another model that will not accept your medium block but will accept another sized block or shape. Zeolites come in different shapes and sizes and absorb different types of molecules. Molecules are not always rigid (meaning hard). Try making a model using a flexible molecule. Gummy worms are excellent flexible molecules. Zeolites also have a maximum number of molecules that they can hold. If you have extra blocks, how many blocks can you put into the model before you cannot put any more inside? This is similar to how actual zeolites work; after a certain point, no more molecules can fit inside the zeolite unless the zeolite breaks or molecules in the zeolite leave to make room for new molecules. Models are a good way for scientists to look at unobservable phenomena—the things that cannot be seen because they are too small, too large, or too complicated. The first model showed the structure of the sodalite cage. This allows you to see what the structure would look like if you were very tiny. The second model showed the property that zeolites have about trapping the right size molecule. (Note, other factors, such as charge do play an effect, but this model was only showing how size can affect the model.) Both show properties of zeolites. 1. Milgrom, Harry. Paper Science. Walker Publishing Company, New York, 1978.

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Scientists in 2000 put forward a theory that could explain how life survived a period of prehistory in which Earth nearly became a snowball. Geological evidence at the time was growing to show that the planet went into a big freeze at least twice during the late Proterozoic era, 600-800 million years ago, with the polar icecaps a kilometre deep extending to the equator. What previously puzzled researchers was how such a cold and desolate environment could have prepared lifeforms for the evolutionary explosion that can be seen in the fossil record about fifty million years later. But a new computer model suggested that there may have been gaps just big enough in the ice coverage to provide a refuge for developing life to flourish. The cause of the big freeze - popularly known as 'Snowball Earth' - is thought to have been a combination of a dimmer sun - by about 6% - and lower levels of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. This would have lowered temperatures and allowed the polar icecaps to grow - their spread even accelerating the cooling process as more solar radiation was reflected back into space off the expanding white landscape. William Hyde from the Texas A&M University, and colleagues, tested such ideas on their coupled climate/ice-sheet computer model - with energy from the sun and carbon dioxide levels adjusted to what they could have been in the late Proterozoic era.

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Shackleton crater on the Moon’s south pole has been somewhat of an enigma, as its permanently shadowed interior has made it difficult to detect what is inside. But with new observations using the laser altimeter on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft, a team of researchers has essentially illuminated the crater’s interior with laser light, measuring its albedo, or natural reflectance. The scientists found that the crater’s floor is quite bright, an observation consistent with the presence of ice. In fact, ice may make up 22 percent of the material on the crater floor, with possibly more ice embedded within the crater walls. “We decided we would study the living daylights out of this crater,” said Maria Zuber from the Massachuesetts Institute of Technology, who lead a team to study Shackleton Crater. “From the incredible density of observations we were able to make an extremely detailed topographic map.” For laser altimeter observations, elevation maps can be created by measuring the time it takes for laser light to bounce down to the Moon’s surface and back to the instrument. The longer it takes, the lower the terrain’s elevation. Using these measurements, the group mapped the crater’s floor and the slope of its walls. The team used over 5 million measurements to create their detailed map. While the crater’s floor was relatively bright, Zuber and her colleagues observed that its walls were even brighter. The finding was at first puzzling. Scientists had thought that if ice were anywhere in a crater, it would be on the floor, where no direct sunlight penetrates. The upper walls of Shackleton crater are occasionally illuminated, which could evaporate any ice that accumulates. A theory offered by the team to explain the puzzle is that “moonquakes”– seismic shaking brought on by meteorite impacts or gravitational tides from Earth — may have caused Shackleton’s walls to slough off older, darker soil, revealing newer, brighter soil underneath. Zuber’s team’s ultra-high-resolution map provides strong evidence for ice on both the crater’s floor and walls. “There may be multiple explanations for the observed brightness throughout the crater,” said Zuber. “For example, newer material may be exposed along its walls, while ice may be mixed in with its floor.” The crater, named after the Antarctic explorer Ernest Shackleton, is nearly 20 km (more than 12 miles) wide and over 3 km (2 miles) deep — about as deep as Earth’s oceans. Zuber described the crater’s interior as “extremely rugged … It would not be easy to crawl around in there.” She added that the new topographic map will help researchers understand crater formation and study other uncharted areas of the moon. “I will never get over the thrill when I see a new terrain for the first time,” Zuber said. “It’s that sort of motivation that causes people to explore to begin with. Of course, we’re not risking our lives like the early explorers did, but there is a great personal investment in all of this for a lot of people.” Ben Bussey, staff scientist at Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory, said the new evidence for ice in Shackleton crater may indeed help determine the course for future lunar missions. “Ice in the polar regions has been sort of an enigmatic thing for some time … I think this is another piece of evidence for the possibility of ice,” Bussey says. “To truly answer the question, we’ll have to send a lunar lander, and these results will help us select where to send a lander.” And for any humans explorers, a crater like Shackleton at the lunar poles may well be the best location for a base, as the poles contain regions of near-permanent sunlight needed for power, and regions of near-permanent darkness containing ice — both of which would be essential resources for any lunar colony. The team’s research was published today in the Journal Nature. Nancy Atkinson is Universe Today's Senior Editor. She also is the host of the NASA Lunar Science Institute podcast and works with the Astronomy Cast and 365 Days of Astronomy podcasts. Nancy is also a NASA/JPL Solar System Ambassador.

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In the United States, a large number of African Americans moved from the South to the North and West during the 20th century, particularly during World Wars I and II. This large-scale relocation is called the Great Migration. In 1900 the vast majority of African Americans lived in the Southern states. From 1916 to 1970, during the Great Migration, about six million black Southerners relocated to other parts of the country. Most of the migrants moved from rural communities to large cities. In every migration, certain conditions motivate people to leave an area; these are known as push factors. Other conditions, the pull factors, attract people to the new area. In the Great Migration, the push factors included poor economic conditions in the South. After the American Civil War, slavery was ended in 1865. Lacking both money and land, many freed Southern blacks became sharecroppers, renting farmland from white landowners by paying them a portion of their crops. The sharecropping system required grueling labor and supplied very low incomes. Between 1910 and 1920, an already severe economic depression in Southern agriculture worsened. Crops were damaged by floods and insects, notably the boll weevil, and farms failed. Impoverished blacks began migrating away from the South in great numbers. Another important factor that pushed African Americans to leave the South was ongoing racial oppression. The great majority of Southern whites remained fiercely opposed to African American political, civil, and social equality. The Southern states used a variety of means to keep blacks from voting. So-called Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation in the South, preventing African Americans from using buses, schools, restaurants, theaters, and other facilities reserved for whites. The pull factors in the Great Migration included encouraging reports of good living conditions and jobs with good wages in the North and West. Starting in the late 19th century, large numbers of Europeans had moved to the United States. In the 1920s a series of laws greatly decreased this immigration. As a result, urban industries were faced with labor shortages. An even greater number of jobs became available in the cities during World War I and World War II, when defense industries required more unskilled labor. Large numbers of African Americans moved to the Northern cities to seek employment. Although the Great Migration slowed during the Great Depression, it surged again after World War II, when rates of migration were high for several decades. News of the better conditions for blacks in the North and West spread by word of mouth and by reports and advertisements in African American newspapers. The influential black newspaper the Chicago Defender, for example, became one of the leading promoters of the Great Migration. In addition to Chicago, Illinois, other cities that absorbed large numbers of black migrants included Detroit, Michigan; Cleveland, Ohio; and New York, New York. Seeking better civil and economic opportunities, many blacks were not wholly able to escape racism by migrating to the North. African Americans there were segregated into ghettos, and urban life introduced new obstacles. Newly arriving migrants even encountered social challenges from the black establishment in the North, which tended to look down on the “country” manners of the newcomers.

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Asked by: Richard H Gray, Northern Ireland Seismometers vary in design, but most modern ones use a heavy mass connected by springs to a frame. Often a magnetic field is applied, creating a force that maintains the position of the weight. The frame is firmly attached to a geologically solid footing such as bedrock. Then, in a quake, the device vibrates with it. Through a negative feedback system, the magnetic field regulates itself to keep the mass still as the frame vibrates around it. The shifting magnetic field draws an electrical current that varies accordingly. It’s this signal that the seismometer measures. The components are chosen to give a linear relationship between ground movements and seismographic measurements. To calibrate the device, outputs are measured for a known range of displacements and frequencies. Subscribe to BBC Focus magazine for fascinating new Q&As every month and follow @sciencefocusQA on Twitter for your daily dose of fun science facts.

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The abolitionist movement espoused the view that slavery was morally wrong, and that the United States should ban slavery and emancipate all enslaved people. Some states had banned slavery during the colonial period or shortly after independence, often due to advocacy by Quakers and other religious people objecting to slavery. However, slavery persisted in parts of the American mid-Atlantic and the entirety of the American South. As the expansion of the US westward created the potential for new states where slavery could be legal, the abolitionist movement took shape, mounting increasing political activism between 1820 and the outbreak of Civil War in 1860. Abolitionists included former slaves such as Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass, publishers and writers such as William Lloyd Garrison and Harriet Beecher Stowe, politicians such as Senator Charles Sumner, and feminists such as Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone, who, at times, saw the causes of women’s rights and the abolition of slavery as related. Ultimately, the goal of the abolitionist movement was partially enacted with President Abraham Lincoln’s 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, and fully achieved with the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865.

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Magma forms when rocks in the mantle melt due to changes in pressure or the addition of water. Although temperatures in the earth's mantle are much hotter than melting temperature, there is not a layer of magma or molten rock under the earth's surface at any given time because there is too much pressure for rock to melt. Rather, magma forms here and there because of certain changes. According to How Stuff Works, magma exists in solid, liquid and gaseous states simultaneously. Magma typically occurs along tectonic plate boundaries because of the way these plates interact with each other. If plates move away from each other, the pressure in the mantle changes, because suddenly there is a void for the rock to fill. This change in pressure starts melting the mantle rock into magma. Magma also forms when two plates collide. This collision forms a trench where once more pressure in the mantle changes. If it occurs in the ocean, water lowers the melting point of the rocks. In both instances magma once more forms. According to Volcano World, occasionally the magma will be contained within a magma chamber, usually beneath a volcano. This magma is released when gas from the magma exerts a great enough pressure.

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Chemicals react together when their particles collide with each other. To collide means to bump into each other or to hit each other. Some reactions are very slow and others very fast, but there are five factors that affect the rate of a reaction: - surface area The collision theory states that the more collisions between particles there are, the faster the reaction. The particles must be moving very fast and have lots of kinetic energy for collisions to occur. 'Kinetic' means 'moving'; it is easy to remember because it is about particles moving and colliding. Let's now see how the five factors above affect the number of collisions between particles. You will notice it will be all about the number of collisions. If the concentration of one or more of the reactants increases, the particles become more crowded. The diagram below shows the particles of two chemicals. The box on the right contains more red particles representing one of the chemicals about to react. This means that the concentration of the 'red' chemical is now higher, but the particles are still in the same space. This increases the probability of collisions and the rate of the reaction. When the temperature increases, the particles have more energy; as an increase in temperature means more thermal energy (heat) is present. More heat energy gives the particles more kinetic energy. More kinetic energy means more movement, so the probability of collisions increases and so does the rate of the reaction. The graph below shows the rate of the same reaction in different temperatures. Note that the blue line showing the total amount of product as the reaction at a higher temperature progresses is much steeper than the purple line. When a solid chemical is broken down into smaller pieces - or even a powder - there are more particles that can react, as the diagram below shows. We say that a chemical in a powder form has more surface area than the same mass of the same chemical in a solid block form. An increased surface area allows for more collisions and the rate of the reaction increases. Pressure (in gases) An increase in pressure speeds up a reaction. It has the same effect as an increase in concentration. The way you increase pressure on a gas is by squeezing it into a smaller volume, but the mass remains the same. This results in the same number of particles moving about in a smaller volume, which increases the number of collisions and the rate of the reaction. A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction without being used in it. Catalysts are specific to reactions, so the catalyst for one reaction would not work for another.

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On this day in 1820, President James Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise, a measure aimed at keeping the number of slave-holding and free states equal. The deal brought Missouri into the Union as a slave state while Maine entered as a free state. The legislation barred slavery in territories north of a line to be drawn at Missouri’s southern boundary, except for Missouri. By 1818, the Missouri Territory had enough settlers to qualify becoming a state. Since most had emigrated from the South, it was widely assumed that Missouri would enter the Union as a slave state. The House approved the statehood bill with a proviso, incorporated by Rep. James Tallmadge of New York, barring the importation of slaves. It also called for all children of slave parents born in the state after its admission to be freed at age 25. Story Continued Below When the Senate refused to go along, the bill died. In 1820, lawmakers developed a compromise that would allow Maine to become a state while authorizing Missouri to adopt a constitution that did not restrict slavery. Northern lawmakers objected to a provision in the state constitution that would bar free blacks. Congress approved the charter after the Missouri Legislature pledged that nothing in the state constitution should be interpreted as abridging the rights of U.S. citizens. Passage of the Missouri Compromise contributed to the “Era of Good Feelings,” over which Monroe presided. He backed the deal because he believed it would help keep the Union together, even though he did not support limiting slavery. In his second inaugural address, Monroe optimistically predicted that there was “every reason to believe that our system of government will soon attain the highest degree of perfection of which human institutions are capable.” (Four decades later, the Civil War would prove Monroe wrong.) On March 3, 1820, Thomas Jefferson, the nation’s third president, wrote to Monroe, his fellow Virginian, stating, “This Missouri question by a geographical line of division is the most portentous one I have ever contemplated. “[Maine Gov. William] King is ready to risk the Union for any chance of restoring his party to power and wriggling himself to the head of it. Nor is [New York Gov. Dewitt] Clinton without his hopes nor scrupulous as to the means of fulfilling them. I hope I shall be spared the pain of witnessing it either by the good sense of the people, or by the more certain reliance; the hand of death, on this or that side of the [River] Styx.” Congress repealed the Missouri Compromise in 1854 with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Three years later, the U.S. Supreme Court, in its infamous Dred Scott decision, in effect declared the compromise to have been unconstitutional because Congress, it said, lacked the authority to bar slavery in the nation’s western territories. SOURCE: “This Day in Presidential History,” by Paul Brandus (2018)

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Math Mammoth Introduction to Fractions contains fraction-related material suitable for approximately grades 2-4. This material does not include division or multiplication of fractions, nor adding unlike fractions. The lessons are mostly simple, introductory lessons to various fraction topics. The topics covered are on a simple level, illustrated with pictures, and have small denominators. The presentation relies on the usage of pictures on a very concrete level. The topics covered are, one-half and fourth parts, the concept of a fraction, the concept of a mixed number, adding and subtracting like fractions, adding and subtracting mixed numbers with like fractional parts, equivalent fractions with pictures, comparing fractions, and finding fractional part of a whole using division. The lessons proceed so that the first two are suitable for second grade, and the rest are suitable for third or for fourth grade. The answers are in the back of the book. Sample Pages (PDF): Contents and Introduction Halves and Quarters Adding Fractions and Mixed Numbers 1

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Operators are special symbols that represent computations like addition and multiplication. The values the operator is applied to are called operands. ** perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation, as in the following examples: 20+32 hour-1 hour*60+minute minute/60 5**2 (5+9)*(15-7) There has been a change in the division operator between Python 2.x and Python 3.x. In Python 3.x, the result of this division is a floating point result: >>> minute = 59 >>> minute/60 0.9833333333333333 The division operator in Python 2.0 would divide two integers and truncate the result to an integer: >>> minute = 59 >>> minute/60 0 To obtain the same answer in Python 3.0 use floored ( // integer) division. >>> minute = 59 >>> minute//60 0 In Python 3.0 integer division functions much more as you would expect if you entered the expression on a calculator.

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Even though Andrew Jackson was president only from 1829 to 1837, his influence on American politics was pervasive both before and after his time in office. The years from about 1824 to 1840 have been called the “Age of Jacksonian Democracy” and the “Era of the Common Man.” By modern standards, however, the United States was far from democratic. Women could not vote and were legally under the control of their husbands; free blacks, if not completely disenfranchised, were considered second‐class citizens at best; slavery was growing in the southern states. Moreover, the period witnessed the resettlement of Native Americans west of the Mississippi River and the concentration of wealth in fewer and fewer hands. But changes did occur that broadened participation in politics, and reform movements emerged to address the inequalities in American society. Politics of the Jacksonian Era Even while states were moving toward denying free blacks the right to vote, the franchise was expanding for white men. All states admitted to the Union after 1815 adopted white male suffrage, and between 1807 and 1821, others abolished the property and tax qualifications for voting. These developments had a dramatic effect on national elections. Measuring voter turnout before the presidential election of 1824 is impossible because only electoral votes were counted, but in the 1824 presidential election, 355,000 popular votes were cast, and the number more than tripled—to more than 1.1 million—just four years later, in large part due to the end of property requirements. The method of voting also began to change. Until the 1820s, a man voted by going to his precinct's voting place and orally stating his choices. The absence of a secret, written ballot allowed intimidation; few would vote against a particular candidate when the room was crowded with his supporters. Printed ballots gave the voter a more independent voice, even though the first ballots were published by the political parties themselves. A ballot printed by the government, the so‐called Australian ballot, was not introduced until the late nineteenth century. Furthermore, many political offices became elective rather than appointive, making office holders more accountable to the public. By 1832, almost all the states (South Carolina was the sole exception) shifted the selection of members of the Electoral College from their legislature directly to the voters. In 1826, the provisions of the Maryland constitution that barred Jews from practicing law and holding public office were removed. The election of 1824. The Era of Good Feelings came to an end with the presidential election of 1824. Although Republicans dominated national politics, the party was breaking apart internally. Monroe's cabinet included no fewer than three men with presidential ambitions, each representing sectional interests. John C. Calhoun and Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford contended for the role of spokesperson for the South, while Secretary of State John Quincy Adams promoted the interests of New England. Outside the cabinet, Speaker of the House Henry Clay stood for his “American System,” and the military hero Andrew Jackson, the lone political outsider, championed western ideas. Party leaders backed Crawford. Although a paralyzing stroke removed him from an active role in the campaign, he received almost as many votes as Clay. Calhoun removed himself from the race, settling for another terra as vice president and making plans for another run at the presidency in 1828 or 1832. Jackson received 43 percent of the popular vote compared to Adams's 31 percent, and he won 99 electoral votes to Adams's 84. Because Jackson did not receive a majority in the Electoral College, the election was decided by the House of Representatives, where Speaker Clay exercised considerable political influence. With no chance of winning himself, Clay threw his support to Adams, who shared his nationalist views. Thirteen of the twenty‐one states voted for Adams, and he became president. When Adams appointed Clay his secretary of state, Jackson's supporters angrily charged that a “ corrupt bargain” had been made between the two men. Although there is no firm evidence to support the charge, it became an issue that hounded Adams during his presidency and was raised by Jackson himself during the next presidential campaign. The Adams presidency. Few candidates were as qualified as John Quincy Adams to be president, yet few presidents have had such a disappointing term. In his first annual message to Congress (1825), he laid out an extensive program of federal spending that stretched even the most liberal definition of internal improvements. Among other things, Adams called for the creation of a national university and a national observatory. But the president faced determined opposition everywhere he turned, both from Jackson's backers and Calhoun, who filled Senate committees with men who did not support the administration's policies. When Adams asked Congress for funds to send a delegate to the Congress of Panama, a meeting of the newly independent nations of Latin America, southerners argued so vociferously against the idea that the conference had ended by the time money was actually appropriated. Adams did not help his own cause. Refusing to engage in partisan politics, he did not remove opponents from appointed office when he became president and thereby alienated his own supporters. His rather idealistic position earned him little backing for a second term. Politics had an impact on one of the most important domestic issues—protective tariffs. The Tariff of 1824 imposed duties on woolen goods, cotton, iron, and other finished products to protect textile mills in New England and industries in the mid‐Atlantic states. Four years later, Congress raised tariffs to the highest level before the Civil War and increased taxes on imports of raw wool. The Jacksonians included the duties on raw material in the legislation to weaken Adams's support from the mid‐Atlantic and northern states in the upcoming election. Indeed, Jacksonians believed the bill to be so onerous to different interest groups in different parts of the country that it had no chance of passing. But the Tariff of 1828 did become law, and it was soon called the Tariff of Abominations. The election of 1828. The factionalism within the Republican ranks led to a split and the creation of two parties—Jackson's Democratic Republicans (soon shortened to “Democrats”) and Adams's National Republicans. Martin Van Buren of New York, who preferred rivalries between parties to disputes within one party, masterminded the emergence of the Democrats. The campaign itself was less about issues than the character of the two candidates. Jacksonians denounced Adams for being “an aristocrat” and for allegedly trying to influence Russian policy by providing Tsar Alexander I with an American prostitute during Adams's term as ambassador. Supporters of Adams vilified Jackson as a murderer (he had fought several duels), an adulterer (he and his wife had mistakenly married before her divorce from her first husband was final), and an illiterate backwoodsman. These attacks by the National Republicans did little to detract from Jackson's popularity. Ordinary Americans admired his leadership qualities and decisiveness; they preferred to remember Jackson the Indian fighter and hero of the Battle of New Orleans and forget about the important role Adams played in negotiating the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. Jackson also had clear political advantages. As a westerner, he had secure support from that part of the country, while the fact that he was a slave owner gave him strength in the South. Conversely, Adams was strong only in New England. Jackson was swept into office with 56 percent of the popular vote from a greatly expanded electorate.

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Every year on 21 March, we celebrate Human Rights Day. It’s an opportunity to reflect on human rights with your class and to help your learners understand it better. According to the United Nations, “human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. Human rights include the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, and many more. Everyone is entitled to these rights, without discrimination”. Mmm, quite a mouthful but very clear. So, how can you use this day to teach you learners some valuable lessons and make the day memorable? We’ve compiled a few ideas for you below to get your creative juices flowing. Enjoy! Do an anti-bullying activity Through bullying, learners’ rights to safety are harmed. Human Rights Day is a good opportunity to discuss bullying. To open the discussion, ask the learners what they think about the saying, “Sticks and stones can break my bones, but names can really hurt me”. Have a short discussion around their answers. Then, follow this short activity: - Give each learner some grey paper to make a “stone”. - Have them write on the stone a behaviour that could hurt someone or make them feel bad. Younger learners can draw a picture. - Then have them scrunch up the paper and try smooth it out again. - They can’t remove the wrinkles. - Compare this to how you cannot remove the hurt the bullying and hurtful words cause. Talk about how this effects our human rights and how to prevent these bad things from happening to others. The love web This is an activity which will show how we form bonds through love and through respect for each other’s rights. Follow these steps with your learners: - Sit in a circle. - Take a ball of wool and hold the end. Ask the person with the wool to complete the sentence “To love someone means…”. - Then have them throw the ball of wool to another learner while keeping hold of the end. The next learner then completes the sentence. - Keep doing this until everyone has caught the ball. A wonderful web of wool is formed! - Finally ask the leaners what things can end or harm a relationship. Cut off part of the web with each reply. - The result is the web is destroyed. This will help learners understand the importance of human rights and the responsible they all have to preserve them. Human rights dove This is a lovely activity to do with the younger ones. They will have great fun being creative as they all work together on one project. - Cut out a simple, but large, silhouette of a dove. - Cut out an individual feather for each learner. - Let your learners decorate their feathers however they please. - On each feather, write a human right. - Stick all the feathers on to the dove. This activity highlights how respecting each other’s human rights builds unity. Discuss basic children’s rights As we know, many children are not enjoying their essential human rights. Human Rights Day a great opportunity to open your learners’ eyes to their own privileges and the plight of so many children around the world. For your reference, this is a list of some of the basic, children human rights: - All children have the right to a name. - All children have the right to a place to live. - Children should be able to grow up with love, affection and security. - Children should not be made to work before a certain age. - Children should be beaten or abused. - All children should be cared for when sick. - Handicapped children have the right to special treatment and education. - Children should not be used as soldiers in times of war. - All children have the right to free education. - Children should not be arrested and put in jail. - All children have the right to enough food to eat. There are many more activities to do with your learners that will highlight basic human rights. Enjoy helping your learners to think about these things and to appreciate and respect each other no matter their differences.

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Though ancient cultures often saw comets as harbingers of doom, the cosmic "dirty snowballs" are now viewed as important objects that could help scientists learn more about the early evolution of the solar system. In November 2014, the European Space Agency's Philae probe was dropped from the Rosetta spacecraft, becoming the first human-made spacecraft to soft-land on the surface of a comet. Sending a probe to a comet is one thing. But if astronauts were to land on a comet, what would they experience while living there? In recent decades, NASA and other space agencies have launched several missions to study comets, so anyone visiting a comet would have at least some knowledge about the cosmic bodies. [Living On Halley's Comet Explained (Infographic)] For instance, in 1986, Europe's Giotto spacecraft flew into the coma — the large, diffuse cloud of gas and dust around a comet's core, or nucleus — of Halley's Comet to capture the first images of a comet's nucleus. In 2004, NASA's Stardust spacecraft collected dust samples from the coma of the Comet Wild 2. And in 2005, the Deep Impact collider smashed into the Comet Temple 1 to study the guts of the comet's nucleus. Photographs from comet missions have revealed that comet nuclei are quite small, ranging from less than a mile to tens of miles across. Some of them also have irregular shapes, sometimes resembling the end of a dumbbell. "The reason they are so irregular is because their gravity is so low," said Althea Moorhead, a researcher with the Meteoroid Environments Office at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. "I think it would be strange to live on a comet for that reason." On Earth and other spherical bodies, gravity is directed straight down. But if you were on a dumbbell-shaped comet, gravity might pull you down and to the side, depending on where you were standing, Moorhead told Space.com. However, that gravitational tug wouldn't be overwhelmingly strong. The gravity of Halley's Comet, for example, is about equal to the gravity of Mount Everest if you were to remove the mountain from Earth and deposit it in space — if you were to drop an object from chest level, it would take about two minutes to hit the ground. "Its gravity is so low that if you can jump 8 inches [20 centimeters] on Earth, you could jump off Halley's Comet," Moorhead said, adding that you'd want to be very careful with your physical activities. Comets, particularly the irregularly shaped ones, could offer up interesting features to explore, such as impact craters or cavities formed from the sublimation of material. But you'd likely get bored rather quickly. "For something like Halley's Comet, the total surface area is the same as the island of Lanai [in Hawaii]," Moorhead said. Lanai is about 140.5 square miles (364 square kilometers). Comets are best known for their comas, but these features exist only when the comets are relatively close to Earth. Halley's Comet, for example, has a coma for only about a year of its 76-year-long orbit around the sun. Comas form when ice on the surface of the comet's nucleus turns into gas. For Halley's Comet, this occurs when it gets within about 3 astronomical units of the sun, Moorhead said. (One astronomical unit, or AU, is the distance between Earth and the sun, or about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers).) If you were on a comet when it had a coma, the cloud would likely obscure the stars. And during the day (a full day on Halley's Comet is between 2.2 and 7.4 Earth days), your field of view would be filled with diffuse light, similar to what you'd see when standing in a deep fog, Moorhead said. When the Giotto spacecraft visited Halley's Comet in 1986, the comet was 0.9 AU from the sun and had a surface temperature of about 170 degrees Fahrenheit (77 degrees Celsius). Rosetta, on the other hand, measured a temperature for Philae's comet, 67P/C-G, of minus 94 F (minus 70 C) in July 2014, when the comet was more than 3 AU (about 279 million miles, or 450 million km) from the sun. These elongated orbits also mean that the amount of time it would take to call home to Earth would vary greatly, from a few minutes to several hours. Editor's Note: This part of Space.com's 12-part series "Living on Other Planets: What It Would Be Like" to see what an astronaut would see on other planets and moons of our solar system and beyond. Check back each Tuesday to see what humans might encounter on other cosmic bodies in the universe.

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Children learn best when they are comfortable in their environment. When children feel comfortable, they can relax in their surroundings and concentrate on the lessons being taught. There are many specific social and emotional skills that children must possess to be comfortable at school, including: - Separating easily from parents. - Sharing materials and taking turns. - Helping others. - Demonstrating empathy and caring. - Respecting people and their personal materials. - Staying focused and on task during a lesson. - Complying calmly with directions from authority figures. - Attempting to solve problems before asking others for help. Verbally communicating needs and ideas accurately. All children have a strong need to feel that they fit in and belong with their peer group. Because of its importance, children will strive to meet this need before turning their attention to other matters, such as learning. Children are expected to develop social and emotionally during the preschool and kindergarten years. At the beginning of preschool, it is expected that children may initially be fearful about being away from their parents. However, after a few days, children should be able to play peacefully alongside other children. By kindergarten, children should be capable of separating easily from their parents, sharing materials with classmates, showing empathy for others’ feelings and attempting to solve problems without first seeking a teacher’s help.

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Since this science course was first examined in 2006 graph questions have become quite common. There are different types of graph questions, and we will look at each of these different types in turn. There is nothing scary here, and you have probably covered them all in maths anyway. It’s just that the science textbooks don’t seem to do a very good job of telling us why we have them in the first place, or why there are different types. Why do we have graphs? You won’t get asked this so you don’t have to learn it off by heart – I just thought you deserved to know. There are many different reasons, but we’ll just look at two here. To see what the relationship is between two variables, e.g. between the extension of a string and the force which caused it. Now assuming that a bigger force causes a bigger extension, the question is; are the two quantities directly proportional? i.e. if the size of the force doubles then the extension should be twice as much, if the force triples the extension will be three times as much etc. Another way of saying this is that the two quantities increase at the same rate (as force is increased the extension increases at the same rate). Or finally the scientific way of saying this is to say that the two quantities are directly proportional to each other (you must learn the phrase in italics off by heart because it gets asked a lot as you will see below). To investigate this you would plot the results on a graph, and if the two quantities are directly proportional then you will find that if you draw a line through the points you will end up with a straight line through the origin (the origin is the (0,0) mark). In some graphs the slope of the line gives us some extra information (and you must know what this is). There are only three graphs which fall into this category so make sure that you know each of them. 1. The slope of a distance-time graph corresponds to the speed (or velocity) of the moving object 2. The slope of a velocity-time graph corresponds to the acceleration of the moving object 3. The slope of a voltage-current graph corresponds to the resistance of the resistor under investigation. Note that for each of these graphs you will also get a straight line going through the origin, which verifies that the two quantities are directly proportional to each other. Which brings us to our next problem – how do we calculate the slope of a line? To calculate the slope of a line Pick any two points (from the graph) and label one point (x1y1) and the second point (x2y2). Make life easy for yourself by picking (0,0) as one of the points (assuming the line goes through the origin). You must then use the formula: slope = (y2 – y1)/(x2 – x1) Note that you can also find this formula on page 18 of the new log tables Yo – Which axis is the y-axis? Remember the yo-yo? It goes up and down right? Well so does the y axis (and it begins at zero) so y-zero = yo Now that’s just freaky.

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Structure of DNA. Most DNA is found inside the nucleus of a cell, where it forms the chromosomes. Chromosomes have proteins called histones that bind to DNA. DNA has two strands that twist into the shape of a spiral ladder called a helix. DNA is made up of four building blocks called nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). The nucleotides attach to each other (A with T, and G with C) to form chemical bonds called base pairs, which connect the two DNA strands. Genes are short pieces of DNA that carry specific genetic information.

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More Science Worksheets A series of free Science Lessons for 7th Grade and 8th Grade, KS3 and Checkpoint Science in preparation for GCSE and IGCSE Science. Diffusion occurs when particles spread. They move from a region where they are in high concentration to a region where they are in low concentration until they are equally dispersed. Diffusion happens when the particles are free to move. This is true in gases and for particles dissolved in solutions. During dissolving, particles of solvent collide with particles of solute. They surround the particles of solute, gradually moving them away until the particles are evenly spread through the solvent. At the end of viewing this video, you should be able to: – describe the phenomenon of diffusion – demonstrate the process of diffusion between substances in different states of matter – name the factors that affect the rate of diffusion and explain the relationship between them – indicate examples of diffusion in the immediate surroundings – describe the process of dissolution and define the terms solvent, solute and solution – name the factors that affect the process of dissolution and describe their effect. Rotate to landscape screen format on a mobile phone or small tablet to use the Mathway widget, a free math problem solver that answers your questions with step-by-step explanations. You can use the free Mathway calculator and problem solver below to practice Algebra or other math topics. Try the given examples, or type in your own problem and check your answer with the step-by-step explanations. We welcome your feedback, comments and questions about this site or page. Please submit your feedback or enquiries via our Feedback page.

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Place value manipulatives is certainly a mouthful to say. But don't let the formal-sounding name throw you off; these are important tools for first graders that can make a big difference in helping them understand this important math concept. Many manipulatives that help children learn place value are small objects that can be easily counted and then grouped together in sets or bundles of tens or hundreds. There are also objects, such as poker chips, that can be used as "conceptual counters"--whites are ones, blues are tens, and reds are hundreds, for example. Finally, there are tools that can help organize counters, such as place value mats or tens frames. Counters for Larger Numbers: Try these counters and grouping ideas for exploring place value. To use place value counters, start by counting out the ones. The rule in Tensville is that there can never be 10 of one group in the same place. Start by counting the ones, then when you reach 10, move these over into the next area (tens). When there are ten groups of 10s, move these over into 100s. Place Value Chart: The place value chart is a simple backdrop for counting that is very helpful for helping kids see the difference between tens and ones. When children get more than 9 ones on the ONES side, they physically move ten ones over to the TENS side and regroup them by putting them into a cup or bundling them up with a rubber band. The mat helps them connect this regrouping action to the vocabulary of tens and ones, and introduces them to the columns that are implied in our number system. Base Ten Blocks : The quintessential place value manipulative, it is made expressly for representing ones, tens, hundreds and thousands, and all the pieces relate visually to each other--a tens piece is the same size as 10 ones lined up next to each other, and so on. The best thing is to buy a set, but if you are pressed for cash or have a lot of kids, the printed versions will do in a pinch. If you do, I would suggest having at least one physical set that kids can play with sometimes, since the 3D printed version is not as intuitive as the hands-on version. Tens Frame: The tens frame is another visual tool for counting out small objects. Because it is organized into 10 boxes, it is easy to see the relationship between 10 and another number. Numbers larger than 10 can be created by putting more than one 10s frame side by side. You can use paper tens frames, or to make it more fun, buy inexpensive ice cube trays that have ten sections. See this video for some ideas on using tens frames. Poker Chips : Yes, I know, don't get all excited. Poker chips can be a legitimate learning tool! As children become good at counting with sticks, beans, or other manipulatives that visually demonstrate tens and other groupings, transition into using counters that suggest their value by their color. One easy way is to use poker chips-- they come in different colors, and are all the same size and shape. White chips are ones, blue chips are tens, and red chips are hundreds. Count the chips using the same kind of place value chart you have been using, to help reinforce the idea that the different colored chips are worth different amounts. This is an important step toward learning that the numbers themselves are worth different amounts when moved to different (invisible) columns, or places, within the number. Bear Counters : Bear counters come in three different sizes, and kids really like using these as place value manipulatives. They can be used in the same way as the poker chips above to indicate a difference in the amounts counted, but with the added benefit of visually showing that some are bigger than others. For example, the smallest bears could represent ones, the medium bear show tens, and the biggest bears could be hundreds. Place value manipulatives are a great way to help kids get a sense of how our number system works. Take a look at the examples of different manipulatives and the videos that show how to count with them. Then be sure to visit the Place Value Activities for ways to use place value manipulatives. Also be sure to check out Place Value Skills Page for ideas on how to help kids understand this concept. Finally, round off their learning with some of these great Place Value Games.

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A few million years ago, a handoff took place along the coast of northwestern Mexico. The strip of land that forms Baja Mexico was passed from one of the plates that make up Earth’s crust to another. The handoff created a gap between Baja and the present-day Mexican coast. The gap filled with water, forming the Gulf of California. Baja originally belonged to the North American Plate, which includes most of Mexico and the United States. But about five million years ago, an underwater formation known as the Eastern Pacific Rise began cutting into the edge of the plate. The rise is a place where plates are moving apart, and molten rock is pushing up to form new crust. As the rise pushed up along the Mexican coast, Baja California split off and joined the Pacific Plate. Today, the Eastern Pacific Rise continues all the way under the Gulf of California, which is also known as the Sea of Cortez. The floor of the Gulf is crisscrossed by a network of fault lines and other volcanic structures. And molten rock beneath the sea floor heats pockets of water. Some of the water pushes up into the Gulf through hydrothermal vents -- jets of superheated water that contain a lot of dissolved minerals. The vents are home to teeming ecosystems of worms, fish, shellfish, and other creatures. Baja Mexico is still moving, as the Pacific Plate slides to the northwest. Millions of years in the future, it may break away from the North American mainland -- forming a giant island in the eastern Pacific.

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Learning ratios and proportions in KS2 Ratio and proportion are now an important part of the KS2 maths curriculum. This may seem daunting to those of you who are nervous about maths, but it's not scary...honest! In fact, once you get the hang of it, ratio and proportion can even be fun! Let's get into it. Ratios are simply a way to compare numbers or quantities. They tell us how much there is of one thing compared to another. We use the : symbol to separate the numbers being compared. Look at the example below; Let's compare the number of apples to the number of pears. There are 9 pieces of fruit; 6 apples and 3 pears. For every two apples, there is one pear. This means the ratio is 2:1. But what happens if we have bigger numbers...? Toby’s class appears to have a lot more pencils than books...but what is the ratio of boys to girls? There are 36 pencils and books altogether, 27 pencils and 9 books. We can write this as 27:9. To make it easier to understand, we might want to simplify the ratio in the same way that we might simplify a fraction. 27 and 9 are both in the 9 x table. This is the highest common factor. Therefore, 27 ÷ 9 = 3 and 9 ÷ 9 = 1. The simplified ratio is 3:1 (or 3 boys for every girl). Proportion tells us how many of one thing there is out of the whole number. Let's take another look at the examples above, the proportions look like this; The proportion of apples is 6 out of 9. The proportion of pears is 3 out of 9. The proportion of boys is 27 out of 36. The proportion of pears is 9 out of 36. Proportion can also be represented as a decimal, fraction or percentage, as shown below; |The proportion of apples is 6 out of 9|| 6 ÷ 9 = |6/9 or 2/3||66%| |The proportion of pears is 3 out of 9|| 3 ÷ 9 = |3/9 or 1/3|| |The proportion of boys is 27 out of 36|| 27 ÷ 36 = |27/36 or 3/4|| |The proportion of pears is 9 out of 36||9 ÷ 36 = |9/36 or 1/4|| Solving ratio and proportion questions Often, you'll be given information and will have to use your knowledge of ratio, proportion, percentages, decimals or fractions to work out the missing facts. It’s important, therefore, that you have a secure understanding of how these skills work together. Here are some sample SAT-style questions and answers to give you an idea of what you might be asked in an exam; Charlie and Jade have some sweets. Altogether, they have 14 sweets, and Charlie has 2 more than Jade. How many sweets do Charlie and Jade have each? Answer: Charlie has 8, Jade has 6 What proportion of the sweets does Charlie have? Answer: 8 out of 14 Raisins cost 60p for 100 grams. What is the cost of 350 grams of raisins? Answer: 60p x 3 = £1.80 + 30p – ½ of 60 = £2.10 Two letters have a total weight of 120 grams One letter weighs twice as much as the other. Write the weight of the heavier letter. Answer: 120 divided by 3 x 2 = 80g Worksheets and Practice Learning ratios and proportions in KS2 can be really good fun and once mastered, can be useful for all sorts of comparisons. We at EdPlace are here to help and support you with your learning. We have plenty of great worksheets to teach you about using ratios and proportions. We’ve listed a few of the most relevant here, but please do browse through our website or search for ‘ratio’ or ‘proportion’ in order to find many, many more resources. Year 6 – Ratio questions 1 Year 6 - Using proportion to adapt recipes Year 6 – Unequal sharing using multiples Year 6 – Unequal sharing using fractions Year 6 – Similar shape problems Year 6 – Solving scale drawing problems Year 6 - Ratio and proportion: reading a pie chart 2 Year 6 – A ratio of 1:2 some simple questions Year 6 – A ratio of 2:3 some simple questions If you enjoy learning ratios and proportions and want to give yourself a challenge, why not try some of the games on the BBC website or do some puzzles and problems set by the NRich team from the University of Cambridge? AUTHOR, MS ALISON – MATHS TEACHER.

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You will get to learn what planes areand how they relate to lines and points. After completing this tutorial, you will be able to complete the following: What is the definition of a plane? How do we represent and name planes? ~ A plane is a flat object that extends infinitely along its edges, but has no thickness. We typically represent planes with a parallelogram and name them with capital letters. What are some examples of physical objects that can be modeled by planes? What do we call these objects? ~ Answers may vary. The surface of walls, floors, windows, and tabletops can be thought of as parts of a plane. We call such objects planar figures or planar surfaces. What are some ways to form a plane? ~ The Animation describes four ways to form a plane: 1. Any three non-collinear points determine a plane. 2. A line and a point outside this line determine a plane. 3. Two parallel lines determine a plane. 4. Two intersecting lines determine a plane. Notice that 2-4 are all special examples of 1. Can you think of an explanation for why a stool or table with three legs will never wobble, while a stool or table with more than three legs might wobble? ~ Answers may vary. The points at the ends of the legs of a three-legged stool or table determine exactly one plane. For this reason, when a three-legged stool or table is placed on a planar surface, such as the floor, it will always sit flat. When a table or stool has more than three legs, the points at the ends of any three of the legs will determine a single plane, but different combinations of legs may determine different planes. When placed on a planar surface, such as the floor, a table or stool with more than three legs will wobble as different combinations of its legs determine different planes. |Approximate Time||2 Minutes| |Pre-requisite Concepts||Students should be able to define a 2-dimensional shape, collinear points, and coincident lines.| |Type of Tutorial||Animation| |Key Vocabulary||2-dimensional shape, collinear points, coincident lines|

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Extends students’ understanding of the 14th Amendment, the Constitution, and the history of civil rights in the United States. Students apply knowledge about “equal protection of the laws” to a variety of fact situations and controversies. In this lesson, students explore the cause-and-effect relationships between historical events and the development of constitutional principles that protect the rights of all people in America today. In its first constitutional challenge to the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the U.S. Supreme Court decided to hear a case brought by a Chinese immigrant, not an American citizen. This case summary provides teachers with everything they need to teach about Brown v. Board of Education (1954). It contains background information in the form of summaries and important vocabulary at three different reading levels, as well a review of relevant legal concepts, diagram of how the case moved through the court system, and summary of the decision. This resource also includes nine classroom-ready activities that teach about the case using interactive methods. This research and deliberation activity encourages students to look at the issue of same-sex marriage from different points of view. In this lesson, students develop a working understanding of due process by discussing relevant Constitutional clauses. They are presented with the Gideon v. Wainwright case and decide whether Clarence Gideon had the right to an attorney, relying on their previous discussion of due process. The lesson ends with a discussion of the importance of the right to due process in criminal proceedings, as well as a discussion of other situations in which the right to due process applies This lesson uses the Civil Conversation strategy to have students take a closer reading of Section 1 of the Amendment The goal of this activity is to introduce 8th grade students to the Fourteenth Amendment of the U. S. Constitution (equal protection under the law). Students participate in activities and discussions about the relationship of a democratic society to its legal institutions, and the issues of fairness and equality under the law and legal system. They learn how constitutional amendments such as the Fourteenth Amendment influence lawsuits, and they will apply concepts within the Bill of Rights to jury trials. Students conduct research to compare the U.S. jury trial system to trial systems in other countries. Students learn why laws need to be interpreted by discussing laws/constitutional provisions. They present their findings to the class. This lesson presents the idea of Due Process. Students learn about Due Process with a scenario that sets out a number of issues that have to do with the due process of law. In this lesson, students learn about responsibility and apply the concept to segments of the U.S. Constitution. In this lesson, students will learn about the relationship between constitutional rights and fair and unbiased jury selection. Students will focus on the process for selecting members of a jury. In addition, they will learn vocabulary relevant to understanding court proceedings, which they will apply in making juror selections. Throughout the main activities and lesson extensions, students will investigate the relationship between constitutional rights and fair and unbiased jury selection.

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Four suggested lessons for Key Stage 3 Citizenship provide a structure for learning that explores four recycling related themes. Each lesson uses a video along with downloadable classroom activities. Access all of our lessons plans and teaching resources, for free, on the WRAP Resource Library. How to use the teaching resources Each lesson includes guidance on delivery, differentation and extension or homework ideas. Lessons use videos and a range of printable online materials. Each lesson plan is built around one or more core activities, which are highlighted in bold. You can easily adapt the ideas contained in each lesson to fit lesson time available and the requirements of your students. Simply select the activities you wish to use, and then use the delivery ideas for each one to structure your own lesson plan. Lesson 1: What does recycling mean to me? This lesson explores students' current knowledge and understanding, and gathers their attitudes towards and beliefs about the importance of recycling and how that impacts on their recycling behaviour. Lesson 2: The consequences of recycling This lesson explores the consequences of students' decisions to recycle or bin their rubbish. Some local and global environmental impacts of how we use resources, and how our actions and choices can change our effect on the world for the better, are considered. Lesson 3: Who else can help to recycle more? This lesson helps students to explore and understand how the roles and responsibilities of governments and businesses fit with those of individuals. It uses role-play to help students to explore the role different groups play in encouraging and sustaining recycling. Lesson 4: Legislation, responsibility and civic duty This lesson challenges students to act by developing a recycling action plan based on actions they can take in their own lives to recycle more at home and at school.

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Our math series continues today with a post on Numbers & Operations in Base 10. The past two days we have discussed Counting & Cardinality and Operations & Algebraic Thinking. We are making a lot of progress on our way to learn more about the Math Standards included in the Common Core. (Tomorrow’s post will be about Numbers & Operations with Fractions.) What are Numbers & Operations in Base 10? There are two parts to this standard. The first is a basic understanding of the place value of numerals in any given number. We refer to this as base 10 because each number has 10 times more value than the digit to the right. For example, in the number 24, the 4 is also known as 4 ones while the 2 has 10 times the value consisting of 20 ones. I hope this makes sense! Understanding numbers in Base 10 also consists of skip counting and comparing two or three digit numbers using greater than, less than, and equals to while looking at the number in the tens or hundreds place. The second part of this standard- “Operations in Base 10” has the objective that students will be able to add, subtract, multiply, and divide while understanding the place value of each digit and how that affects the answer (hence the word “Operations” in base 10) When should I start teaching my child Numbers & Operations in Base 10? I would start as soon as they can count to 10. I think the most common way I have seen this modeled in a classroom setting is with straws during calendar time. A teacher will put a straw in a bucket for every day they are in school. Once there are 10 straws, they get bundled together with a rubber band and placed in a separate 10s bucket. What resources are available to help my child learn Numbers & Operations in Base 10? There are actually lots of resources to teach this concept to your kids. I have to admit I am pleasantly surprised- I was expecting this to be a shorter post due to lack of resources but I am wrong! For the android customers there are some great apps that include Base 10 Number Grid for Kids and Base 10 Number Blocks. For the iTunes users there are several as well like Common Core Numbers and Operations in Base 10, Place Value MAB, Montessori Place Value, and Math Bugs (this one looks really cute!) Here is a list of Numbers & Operations in Base 10 literature that I came up with! Here is a list of teacher resources and manipulatives that can help you teach your child place value. We have done a couple activities in the past that can be tweaked to include the math standard Numbers and Operations in Base 10. Addition Towers with Unifix Cubes: At the time we were just working on very simple addition. To turn this activity into more of an educational place value experience, don’t make the towers with both addends. Take the loose unifix blocks and group them into “ten towers” while finding the sum. DIY Montessori Number Beads: So this would need lots of tweaking. Choose one color for your beads. Make 10 bead sticks with pipe cleaners with 10 beads on each stick. Or you could spend a gazillion dollars and buy some awesome golden beads from a Montessori store. OK so they aren’t a gazillion dollars but when you can make something similar for free paying ANYTHING just doesn’t make sense. Here are some activities and idea for Numbers & Operations in Base 10 from around the web! Boy Mama Teacher Mama shared a fun Ten Frames game to do with your kiddos. She has a set you can purchase or you can download some seasonal ten frames. I am putting this activity on my list of things to do with my Boo! Naturally Educational posted an activity using coins to skip count. Love the idea to use money! I will be writing another Numbers & Operations post soon- but instead of being Base 10 stuff it will be all about fractions. Alright- blog post is done which means the laundry must begin! Yay for me?

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Early Stage 1 whole numbers - Use ordinal names for positional value of objects - Match ordinal names to images in a line - Describe the place of an item using ordinal names Activities to support the strategies Students at this stage need to have an understanding of number word sequence to 10 and beyond before they can understand ordinals. Students also need to be able to count forwards and backwards between 1-10. Some activities that support this stage of learning include: Activity 1 – ice-cream scoop counting Provide students with images of an ice-cream cone and three different scoops of ice-cream. Allow time for the students to colour in the cone and the ice-cream scoops. Make sure students use a different colour for each scoop of ice-cream. Student then build their ice-cream by pasting the cone on a sheet of paper and then pasting on each scoop of ice-cream. Discussion questions should follow: - What flavour scoop did you add on first? - What flavour was second? - Can you point to the scoop you put on third? Alternatively you could bring in cones and different flavoured ice-cream to the classroom and perform a demonstration for the class. Activity 2 – teddy line-up Students explore placing teddies in a line according to colour to match position. The teacher provides the verbal instructions for students to follow: - There are four teddies in the line. The blue teddy is first, the yellow teddy is second, the green teddy is third and the red teddy is fourth. - Which teddy is in between the blue and the yellow teddy? - Which teddy is second from the front? Alternatively, students can place a number of teddies in a line and the teacher or another student can ask the questions: - Which teddy is second in line? Which teddy is last? - Students can write sentences to describe the ordinal position of one or more teddies. Australian curriculum reference: ACMNA001 Establish understanding of the language and processes of counting by naming numbers in sequences, initially to and from 20, moving from any starting point; ACMMG010 Describe position and movement NSW syllabus reference: Mae-4NA Whole Numbers: read and use the ordinal names to at least 'tenth'; Mae-16MG Position: describe the position of an object in relation to another object using everyday language, such as 'between', 'next to', 'behind' or 'inside', e.g. 'The book is inside the box'

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Nearly 50 years since man first walked on the moon, the human race is once more pushing forward with attempts to land on the Earths satellite. This year alone, China has landed a robotic spacecraft on the far side of the moon, while India is close to landing a lunar vehicle, and Israel continues its mission to touch down on the surface, despite the crash of its recent venture. NASA meanwhile has announced it wants to send astronauts to the moons south pole by 2024. But while these missions seek to further our knowledge of the moon, we are still working to answer a fundamental question about it: how did it end up where it is? On July 21, 1969, the Apollo 11 crew installed the first set of mirrors to reflect lasers targeted at the moon from Earth. The subsequent experiments carried out using these arrays have helped scientists to work out the distance between the Earth and moon for the past 50 years. We now know that the moons orbit has been getting larger by 3.8cm per year it is moving away from the Earth. This distance, and the use of moon rocks to date the moons formation to to 4.51 billion years ago, are the basis for the giant impact hypothesis (the theory that the moon formed from debris after a collision early in Earths history). But if we assume that lunar recession has always been 3.8cm/year, we have to go back 13 billion years to find a time when the Earth and moon were close together (for the moon to form). This is much too long ago but the mismatch is not surprising, and it might be explained by the worlds ancient continents and tides. Tides and recession The distance to the moon can be linked to the history of Earths continental configurations. The loss of tidal energy (due to friction between the moving ocean and the seabed) slows the planets spin, which forces the moon to move away from it the moon recedes. The tides are largely controlled by the shape and size of the Earths ocean basins. When the Earths tectonic plates move around, the ocean geometry changes, and so does the tide. This affects the moons retreat, so it appears smaller in the sky. This means that if we know how Earths tectonic plates have changed position, we can work out where the moon was in relation to our planet at a given point in time. We know that the strength of the tide (and so the recession rate) also depends on the distance between Earth and the moon. So we can assume that the tides were stronger when the moon was young and closer to the planet. As the moon rapidly receded early in its history, the tides will have become weaker and the recession slower. The detailed mathematics that describe this evolution were first developed by George Darwin, son of the great Charles Darwin, in 1880. But his formula produces the opposite problem when we input our modern figures. It predicts that Earth and the moon were close together only 1.5 billion years ago. Darwins formula can only be reconciled with modern estimates of the moons age and distance if its typical recent recession rate is reduced to about one centimetre per year. The implication is that todays tides must be abnormally large, causing the 3.8cm recession rate. The reason for these large tides is that the present-day North Atlantic Ocean is just the right width and depth to be in resonance with the tide, so the natural period of oscillation is close to that of the tide, allowing them to get very large. This is much like a child on a swing who moves higher if pushed with the right timing. But go back in time a few million years is enough and the North Atlantic is sufficiently different in shape that this resonance disappears, and so the moons recession rate will have been slower. As plate tectonics moved the continents around, and as the slowing of Earths rotation changed the length of days and the period of tides, the planet would have slipped in and out of similar strong-tide states. But we dont know the details of the tides over long periods of time and, as a result, we cannot say where the moon was in the distant past. One promising approach to resolve this is to try to detect Milankovitch cycles from physical and chemical changes in ancient sediments. These cycles come about because of variations in the shape and orientation of Earths orbit, and variations in the orientation of Earths axis. These produced climate cycles, such as the ice ages of the last few million years. Most Milankovitch cycles dont change their periods over Earths history but some are affected by the rate of Earths spin and the distance to the moon. If we can detect and quantify those particular periods, we can use them to estimate day-length and Earth-moon distance at the time the sediments were deposited. So far, this has only been attempted for a single point in the distant past. Sediments from China suggest that 1.4 billion years ago the Earth-moon distance was 341,000km (its current distance is 384,000km). Now we are aiming to repeat these calculations for sediments in hundreds of locations laid down at different time periods. This will provide a robust and near-continuous record of lunar recession over the past few billion years, and give us a better appreciation of how tides changed in the past. Together, these interrelated studies will produce a consistent picture of how the Earth-moon system has evolved through time.

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Holly Kemble / Women’s Museum of California First Wave Feminism occurred in the late 19th to early 20th centuries with the mission of legally changing the rights of women. During this time there were a variety of laws that kept women silent both professionally and at home. First Wave feminists saw that this was a problem and made it their aim to grant women legal rights in the United States. With legal equality in mind, pioneering feminists such as Alice Paul, Margaret Sanger, and Frances Willard tackled issues like women’s suffrage, contraception, and domestic abuse. What was profound about the work that these women and others did during First Wave Feminism, was that it was instrumental to other causes that did not pertain to women. The Women’s Suffrage Movement first banned together with the Abolitionist Movement to secure the rights of all peoples, the use of contraceptives was produced as a means to control poverty rates, and the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union used their influence to fight for labor laws and prison reform. With these aspects in mind, it is fair to say that First Wave Feminism was not just about implementing laws to improve the lives of women, First Wave Feminism was also about bringing awareness to other marginalized groups. First Wave Feminism is said to have gotten its footing at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women’s rights convention that discussed, “the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of woman.” The Seneca Falls Convention was highly popularized and served as the home for the signing of the Declaration of Sentiments, which was an ode to the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Sentiments declared, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men and women are created equal and endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The Declaration of Sentiments, along with a list of accompanying resolutions, served as the founding documents for the Women’s Suffrage Movement. The Women’s Suffrage Movement is a movement derivative of the Abolitionist Movement who sought racial equality from the mid to late 1800’s. During the Abolitionist Movement, leaders in the movement, such as Frederick Douglass, realized that the best way to gain racial equity was to unite with women who had a similar goal of gaining gender equity. Understanding that both groups would vote for the other should one group gain suffrage, the two formed a close partnership that sought that suffrage of all peoples. Although the Women’s Suffrage Movement and the Abolitionist Movement worked together for some time, the Women’s Suffrage Movement decided to cut their ties with the Abolitionist Movement after the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments. The 14th and 15th Amendments, which granted citizenship and voting rights to African Americans, served as the basis for the founding of The National American Woman’s Suffrage Association. The National American Woman’s Suffrage Association, also referred to as NAWSA, was helmed by Susan B. Anthony who believe that women’s suffrage and the suffrage of African Americans should no longer be an interconnected issue. Under Anthony’s leadership, NAWSA became a group of middle to upper-class white women who used racist nationalist arguments as the principles for women’s suffrage. The general argument of NAWSA was that if black, uneducated, migrant men could vote, why couldn’t women? While NAWSA had high membership and a strong public approval rating, in 1910 the group fractured resulting in the creation of the National Woman’s Party. The National Woman’s Party, unlike NAWSA, was an organization that sought women’s suffrage on a federal level. Led by Alice Paul, the National Woman’s Party refrained from nationalist arguments in favor of highly publicized militaristic protests. The NWP is known for chaining themselves to the White House fence, denouncing the patriarchy, and going on hunger strikes. Although the NWP was radical for its time, the organization’s practices garnered enough attention to replace anti-suffrage senators in the 1918 Congressional elections. With these senators gone, the 19th Amendment was ratified and women were granted the right to vote on August 18, 1920. From the mid-1800’s until the early 1900’s, women were fighting for not only their suffrage but for the right to their own bodies due in large part to the accomplishments of Margaret Sanger. Margaret Sanger was the innovative figure for women’s reproductive rights who rallied behind the idea or family planning and coined the term “birth control.” As a labor and delivery nurse in New York city, Sanger often treated women who suffered from pregnancy complications and botched abortions. Many of these women asked Sanger to help them prevent further pregnancies, but Sanger was unable to share her knowledge due to the Cornstock Law, which made it illegal for medical professionals to share contraceptive information on the grounds obscenity. Growing up in an impoverished family of 13, Sanger saw just how financially draining multiple children could be for poor families. Realizing that limiting birth control was a systemic problem that hurt women and kept poor families poor, Sanger pursued her passion of helping women take control of the size of their families. Sanger did this by writing columns for The New York Call, where she would share information on women’s reproductive health. Although Sanger’s columns did not teach women how to prevent contraception, they did discuss women’s health, which was deemed obscene, and therefore illegal. After her columns were shut down for obscenity, Sanger started The Woman Rebel magazine in 1914, which urged women to use contraceptives. Due to the impudence of her writings, Sanger was arrested and awaited prosecution under the Cornstock Law. Before her trial, however, Sanger printed and distributed 100,000 copies of her pamphlet Family Limitations, which finally told women how to prevent conception. While many women and men were pleased to find a solution to stop childbirth, many saw Family Limitations as an inappropriate form of bawdiness and scrutinized her writings as such. Although Sanger had no regrets about releasing her pamphlet, she self-exiled herself to England where she shared her contraceptive information to those abroad. When Sanger and her family finally returned to the U.S. for her trial, her youngest daughter fell ill and passed away from pneumonia at the age of five. Realizing the support that Sanger had both at home and abroad, the prosecution decided not to make a martyr out of Sanger and dropped the charges. Following Sanger’s public trial, Sanger opened up the first birth control clinic in 1916. Although Sanger had over 500 registered clients, she was arrested again and sentenced to 30 days in prison. After her release, Sanger continued to garner more and more support for birth control and women’s reproductive rights. With more people accepting contraception in the United States, Sanger founded and presided as president of the American Birth Control League, which would later be known as the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. After her retirement at age 80, Sanger encouraged philanthropists to donate to biologist Gregory Pincus who used these donations to develop the contraceptive commonly known as “the pill.” Although Sanger remains a controversial figure to this day, her efforts show how increasing women’s rights can often times help other suffering communities. As seen with the Women’s Suffrage Movement and Margaret Sanger’s quest to normalize birth control, First Wave Feminism was the beginning of women mobilizing themselves in order to promote legal change for women. Although both of these efforts amassed great support, by far, the most prolific group during First Wave Feminism was the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union or the WCTU. The WCTU was an organization made up of women who protested against the sale and consumption of alcohol in order to stop domestic abuse. In the late 19th century, domestic abuse was a major concern for women as alcoholism became a national problem. Drinking rates increased heavily in the mid 19th century with the average American drinking about 7.1 gallons of alcohol per year compared to the 5.8 gallons they were drinking in the late 18th century. The rise in alcohol consumption in the United States, unfortunately, gave rise to the severity and frequency of domestic abuse. Not only this, but women during this time were also concerned about their family’s finances as their husbands would often be laid off for drunkenness, or would squander their limited income on liquor. Due to these pressing problems, women began mobilizing in nonviolent protests demanding that drinking be stopped. In December 1873, women who had never protested before joined forces to participate in pray-ins at their local saloons and after three months, women had driven liquor out of 250 communities. With the success of these pray-ins, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union was founded in 1874 as a group of women who could come together to stop domestic abuse. The main priority of the WCTU was, “protection of the home,” which the movement thought could be done through prohibition. As the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union quickly grew to 150,000 due-paying members, members of the movement wanted to use the power of the WCTU to argue for other social issues. In 1879 Frances Willard took authority of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and turned the WCTU into the most influential women’s rights group in the United States. Under Willard’s leadership, the WCTU became the largest organization endorsing women’s suffrage. In 1896, the WCTU expanded their mission to help marginalized groups when they devoted 25 of their 39 departments to non-temperance issues like labor laws, prison reform, and women’s suffrage. Willard led the WCTU under the veil of her own personal motto, “do everything,” which encouraged women to see that reform is interconnected and therefore the WCTU should, “do everything,” in their power to fight for the rights of all marginalized social groups. In an attempt to keep promoting the issues that the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union was concerned about, the WCTU was one of the first organizations to keep a professional lobbyist in Washington D.C. After much lobbying by the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, in 1901 every state in the nation had some kind of program that taught children in public schools about the dangers of alcohol. While this was a promising accomplishment for the movement, the WCTU lost their momentum after the death of Frances Willard in 1898. Soon the prohibition movement was taken over by the male led anti-saloon league which garnered enough support for the passage of the 18th amendment. Although the passage of the 18th Amendment, which prohibited alcohol, led to organized crime, corruption of justice, and excessive consumption of alcohol, prohibition should also be remembered as one of the first times that women joined forces to make the legal change in the United States. First Wave Feminism was a profound time for women in the United States. From the late 19th to the early 20th centuries, first wave feminists mobilized their power to create legal change for women and other marginalized groups. With Women uniting for the suffrage movement, fighting for their rights to contraception, and organizing the largest women’s organization to end drinking, women in this era used their efforts to support the abolitionist movement, seek to end poverty rates and stop domestic abuse. First Wave Feminism was the first step of the feminist movement where regular women noticed problems in their local communities and used lobbying and nonviolent protests to pave the way for change. Although some moments during First Wave Feminism remain controversial, First Wave Feminism should be remembered as the beginning of women organizing themselves, speaking in public, and lobbying for special interest groups.

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Python filter() function is used to filter the elements of an iterable based on a function. This function returns filter object that is an iterator. Python filter() function syntax is: function will be called on iterable elements and if it returns True then they will be part of the returned iterator. We can also pass the function as None, in that case, standard truth testing rules will be followed to determine if the iterable elements are True or False. You can get more details about them in Python bool example. Python filter() example Let’s define a function to check if the input number is even or not. It will return True if the number is even, else False. We will also define a utility function to print elements of the iterator. Copydef is_even(x): if x % 2 == 0: return True else: return False def print_filter_items(my_filter): for item in my_filter: print(item, end=' ') print() Copyl1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] fl = filter(is_even, l1) print(type(fl)) print_filter_items(fl) t = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) fl = filter(is_even, t) print_filter_items(fl) Copy<class 'filter'> 2 4 2 4 Python filter() example with None function Copyt = (True, False, 1, 0, 0.0, 0.5, '', 'A', None) fl = filter(None, t) print_filter_items(fl) CopyTrue 1 0.5 A Notice that zero, empty string, False and None are filtered out because their boolean value is False. Reference: Official Documentation

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Common Lisp the Language, 2nd Edition A predicate is a function that tests for some condition involving its arguments and returns nil if the condition is false, or some non-nil value if the condition is true. One may think of a predicate as producing a Boolean value, where nil stands for false and anything else stands for true. Conditional control structures such as cond, if, when, and unless test such Boolean values. We say that a predicate is true when it returns a non-nil value, and is false when it returns nil; that is, it is true or false according to whether the condition being tested is true or false. By convention, the names of predicates usually end in the letter p (which stands for ``predicate''). Common Lisp uses a uniform convention in hyphenating names of predicates. If the name of the predicate is formed by adding a p to an existing name, such as the name of a data type, a hyphen is placed before the final p if and only if there is a hyphen in the existing name. For example, number begets numberp but standard-char begets standard-char-p. On the other hand, if the name of a predicate is formed by adding a prefixing qualifier to the front of an existing predicate name, the two names are joined with a hyphen and the presence or absence of a hyphen before the final p is not changed. For example, the predicate string-lessp has no hyphen before the p because it is the string version of lessp (a MacLisp function that has been renamed < in Common Lisp). The name string-less-p would incorrectly imply that it is a predicate that tests for a kind of object called a string-less, and the name stringlessp would connote a predicate that tests whether something has no strings (is ``stringless'')! The control structures that test Boolean values only test for whether or not the value is nil, which is considered to be false. Any other value is considered to be true. Often a predicate will return nil if it ``fails'' and some useful value if it ``succeeds''; such a function can be used not only as a test but also for the useful value provided in case of success. An example is member. If no better non-nil value is available for the purpose of indicating success, by convention the symbol t is used as the ``standard'' true value.

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Part-Whole Concept , the Comparison Concept and the Change Concept . A classic example of a question involving the Excess Value Concept is the "Chicken & Rabbit Legs" question. In these types of questions, both variables have a set of common values attached to them while one of the variables has an extra set of values attached to it. The idea is to isolate this extra set of excess value so that it could be subtracted from the total value of the two variables, thereby allowing us to divide the remaining unknown units equally to solve for its value. To illustrate this concept, consider the following problem. A farmer has 36 animals on his farm. They are either chickens or rabbits. Altogether, the chickens and rabbits have 100 legs. How many chickens are there? Step 1: First, let's assume all the animals on the farm are chickens. Each animal would have 2 legs. Draw a box to represent 1 animal with 2 legs. Step 2: Draw an arrow to the right to show that this box is repeated 36 times (label "36" at the end of the arrow). Step 3: Since all the animals have only 2 legs. 36 animals X 2 legs = 72 legs Thus, they have a total of 72 legs (if they are all chickens). Step 4: Since there are 100 legs in reality, the extra legs must belong to the rabbits(rabbits have 4 legs instead of 2). So, let's draw another long box to the right to represent the extra legs. 100 legs - 72 legs = 28 legs Hence, there are 28 "extra legs". Step 5: Since the legs belong to the rabbits, each rabbit should get 2 extra legs each. 28 extra legs / 2 legs per rabbit = 14 rabbits 36 animals - 14 rabbits = 22 chickens Therefore, there are 22 chickens.

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In his theory of multiple intelligences, psychologist and Harvard professor Howard Gardner defines eight intelligences in which students excel and apply to learning: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist. Providing interpersonal activities to bring forth the students' various intelligences provides opportunities for them to express, demonstrate and rely on their strengths. Differentiating activities and projects to encompass multiple intelligences supplies individual children with a modality to showcase and share their intelligence. Acting and role-playing activities benefit children through self-expression, which uses interpersonal and intrapersonal skills and other intelligences such as logical, linguistic and bodily-kinesthetic, based on the task. Students can convey vocabulary comprehension through writing and performing vocabulary raps or pantomiming a vocabulary word for the class to guess. Activities that develop skills while reviewing concepts, such as reading aloud with intonation, presenting a personal essay, story or project to the class, conducting an interview or creating a video-taped commercial to advertise a product or service allow students to take center stage and express personality, intelligence and talent while learning. Teachers may pair or group students exhibiting interpersonal intelligence with those who are less vocal or need direction, because those with stronger interpersonal skills tend to take leadership roles and assist or direct others in formulating opinions or taking stances. Learners of various ages can create a courtroom drama with a judge, lawyers and witnesses to judge the decisions of characters from a story or time in history, use role-playing to exemplify positive versus negative peer pressure, or prepare a debate to create discussions on controversial topics. Allowing students to formulate and share opinions through interpersonal classroom activities helps them analyze and evaluate knowledge using other intelligences such as intrapersonal, logical and linguistic. Group activities that integrate leadership abilities, such as student council, school improvement advisory boards or school clean-up projects benefit students through the experience of working with others toward a common goal. Students with stronger interpersonal skills benefit from acting as teachers' helpers and peer tutors within the classroom or with younger children for activities such as reading fluency, partner reading and reviewing basic facts. Team sports, the school newspaper, yearbook committee, a school news broadcast, chorus, band and orchestra offer opportunities for interpersonal skills to further develop. Showcasing leadership abilities enhances musical, logical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, depending on the role and activity performed by the child. Cooperative Learning Activities Interpersonal activities such as science experiments, nature walks and creating or discussing observations within a group or whole class setting integrate the naturalist and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences. Survey-based math projects, literature circles that require assigning responsibilities and presenting information, research-based inquiry projects, center activities and learning games that require working together and sharing input allow students to strategize and communicate, promoting logical, linguistic and intrapersonal intelligences. - Stretch Photography/Blend Images/Getty Images

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You have to choose the word that is different from three or four words. - Read all the words carefully. - Find a connection before you choose the word which is different. - If you don’t understand a word in the group, it may be connected to the other words. Don’t choose a word because you don’t understand it. Find a connection first. - Sometimes you have to explain why it is different. Check the instructions. - If you don’t know the word which is different, guess. You may be right! - Check your answers carefully when you finish. Are these question types easy for you? Tell us which is the odd word out in the exercise and why.

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After completing these sheets 3 times per week for the entirety of the school year (along with other appropriate comprehension lessons), students should master the required comprehension skills for the appropriate grade level. Also, by practicing comprehension with this type of activity, this will give the children important additional writing and reading practice. To increase effectiveness, other comprehension assignments should be given as well. Students will need a variety of appropriate lessons. Students are to complete this packet at least 3 times per week after reading a book. Details in answers should be graded according to age and grade level. Kindergarteners should answer with at least one complete sentence per answer. First graders should answer with at least 2 complete sentences per answer. Second graders should answer with 2 complete sentences as well, but should have more descriptive details. 3rd graders should have descriptive details as well as 3-4 complete sentences per answer. 4th graders should have 4 to 5 complete sentences per answer and each sentence must be fully detailed. 5th graders should do the same as 4th graders, but their wording and descriptions should be more elaborate. Beyond 5th grade, you will need something more advanced. For the discussion section, it is important to be sure that students are recognizing and using examples from the story and recognizing similarities as well as differences between the story and real life. Note: Your students may need a separate piece of lined paper for answering the questions. 1.What is the title of the book you read? 2.What are the names of the characters? 3.What do the main characters look like? (remember details) 4.What happens in the beginning of the story? (remember details) 5.What happens in the middle of the story? (remember details) 6.What happens in the end of the story? 7.What is the main idea of the story? 8.What lesson did you learn from this story? 9.Are there any parts of the story you did not understand? If so, write the word/s and/or sentence/s you did not understand and explain how you figured out the meaning. If there are any words, see question # 11 as well. 10.Discuss the story with a friend or family member. Ideas for discussion: a.What event/s that happened in real life remind you of this story? b.What did you like about this story? c.What did you dislike about this story? d.What's another good way this story could have ended? e.What's a sad way the story could have ended? f.How did the story make you feel? (sad, happy, excited, angry, relieved...) g.Did the author make you want to keep reading the book until it was finished? h.Describe your favorite scene in the story and explain why it's your favorite. 11. List any words you need to look up in the thesaurus and dictionary. (Words you didn't understand.)

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Did you know that typically, only 5% to 10% of instructional time is devoted to vocabulary instruction, yet students, especially struggling students and English learners (ELs), need between 12 and 14 exposures to words and their meanings to fully learn them (Durkin, 1978/79; Roser & Juel, 1982; Scott, Jamieson, Noel, & Asslin, 2003)? Teaching the meanings of important words before learning new content activates students' background knowledge and prepares them for learning and comprehending. In other words, teaching vocabulary provides the “Velcro” for new information to “stick to.” Vocabulary instruction must be explicit. Explicit vocabulary instruction includes an easy-to-understand definition presented directly to students along with multiple examples and nonexamples of the target word, brief discussion opportunities, and checks for understanding. Vocabulary instruction must include multiple practice opportunities for using words within and across subjects. That is, instruction must be extended over time with opportunities for students to hear, speak, read, and write words in various contexts. This builds students’ breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary should be taught schoolwide and across all subject areas. Each subject has a unique set of vocabulary terms, and students need to know their meanings and how to use them in various contexts. Instructional time is precious, and teachers are not able to address every unknown word students might encounter, so careful word selection is key. When deciding which words to target for explicit instruction, consider words that are ELs may require even more careful word selection and extensive vocabulary instruction because they may be learning conversational language and academic language at the same time. Colorín Colorado provides additional information about selecting vocabulary words to teach ELs. The five activities described below are effective ways to teach vocabulary for all students, but especially for struggling students, students with learning disabilities, and ELs. Teachers use a simple graphic organizer to preteach the meanings of important words in about 5 minutes per word. During this routine, teachers introduce target words with definitions, visual cues, and examples. Students engage in immediate practice using the words through collaborative student turn-and-talk activities. One way to have students extend their knowledge of important words is through a Frayer model. This graphic organizer builds vocabulary and conceptual knowledge across content areas. The strategy requires students (not the teacher) to define a vocabulary word and then list its characteristics, examples, and nonexamples. Frayer models can be completed in collaborative groups using textbooks and other subject-matter materials while the teacher circulates around the classroom and assists students. Online module, examples, and templates from the IRIS Center Semantic maps visually display and connect a word or phrase and a set of related words or concepts. Implementing semantic map activities in your classroom will help students, especially struggling students and students with learning disabilities, recall the meanings of words and understand how multiple words or concepts “fit together.” Teachers will find that using a semantic map, combined with explicit instruction and practice opportunities, is an effective way of expanding students’ vocabulary and supporting their content knowledge. Multiple opportunities to practice using new words is an important part of vocabulary instruction. In previous TCLD research studies, brief review activities were built into novel unit lesson plans to help students practice (and remember) the meanings of important words. Each of these activities takes 5 to 10 minutes and is easy to prepare. Each activity is described in more detail beginning on page 33 of the TCLD booklet Reading Instruction for Middle School Students: Developing Lessons for Improving Comprehension Explicit instruction of words is important, but it is impossible to teach all the unfamiliar words students will encounter. One way to help students develop strategies for approaching unfamiliar vocabulary is to teach morphemes (prefixes, roots, and suffixes). Students can be taught the following morphemic analysis routine to help them engage in independent word study. Learn more about the morphemic analysis routine by reviewing this online learning module from the Texas Adolescent Literacy Academies. Have questions? Feel free to drop us a line!

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The basic idea of a black hole is simple. Imagine tossing a ball into the air. It goes up to a certain height, and then back down. If you toss the ball faster, the ball rises higher, but it still eventually falls. Now suppose you could toss the ball as fast as you like. Could you toss the ball so fast it doesn’t fall back down? The answer is yes. For any mass, there is a speed that is large enough to escape its gravitational pull. That minimum escape speed is known as the escape velocity. For the Earth (ignoring air resistance) the escape velocity is about 11 kilometers per second, or about 34 times the speed of sound. Typically smaller masses have smaller escape velocities and larger masses larger ones. For example Pluto has an escape velocity a bit larger than 1 km/s, while the Sun’s escape velocity is more than 600 km/s. But there is another way to get a higher escape velocity, and that is to have a more dense mass. If you packed the same amount of mass into a smaller volume, then the gravity on its surface is larger, and it takes a greater speed to get away. For example if the Earth had the same mass, but half its actual radius, then its escape velocity would be about 16 km/s. Suppose then that you could take the mass of a star or planet and pack it into as small of a volume as you like. What would happen? The smaller the volume you packed your mass into, the larger the escape velocity. If you kept packing it into a smaller and smaller volume, you would reach a point where the escape velocity is equal to the speed of light. Pack it into an even smaller size, and you’d have to travel faster than light to escape. Not even light would be fast enough to escape your mass. You would have made a black hole. The speed of light is 300,000 km/s, which is huge for an escape velocity. That means your mass would need to be packed into a very small volume. To make the Earth into a black hole you would have to squeeze it down to the size of a marble. Even a black hole with the mass of the Sun would have a diameter of less than 6 kilometers (about 3.5 miles). Of course this simple idea uses Newton’s idea of gravity. To describe a real black hole we need to use Einstein’s theory, specifically the idea that gravity is a curvature of space. If you do the math in Einstein’s gravity, you find that a real (non-rotating) black hole is exactly the size predicted by Newton’s gravity. But since gravity is a curvature of space and time, things are a little bit different. Gravity is a curvature of space and time. Far away from a black hole, spacetime is only curved slightly, and objects are attracted only slightly, just like regular masses. As you get closer to the black hole, spacetime is curved more strongly. Even closer and you reach a point where space and time are curved so strongly they trap anything inside it. The surface of this trap is known as the event horizon of the black hole, and that event horizon is located exactly where the escape velocity is the speed of light. What this means is that from far away a black hole pulls on you just like any large mass would. Just like any mass, the closer you get the more strongly it will pull you, and the harder it will be to escape its gravity. But if you get to close, if you cross the boundary known as the event horizon, you will find yourself trapped. There is no way for you to escape. Space and time are curved so tightly that not even light can escape. Cross the event horizon and you can never leave. Essentially a black hole is a cosmic roach motel.

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This graph plotting challenge is intended to familiarise students with the equation of a straight line. There are five challenges each with between three and six straight lines in a pattern. In order to proceed to the next challenge the correct equation should be entered into the boxes provided. The equation of any straight line can be written in the form: y = mx + c where m is the gradient of the line and c is the y-coordinate of the point where the line crosses the y-axis (y-intercept). The gradient of the line can be found by considering to points on the line where the exact coordinates can be determined. The rise is the vertical distance between these points and the run is the hirizontal distance. The gradient is the rise divided by the run (rise over run). If the line slopes from bottom left to upper right the gradient is positive. If the line slopes from top left to bottom right the gradient is negative. For example the graph shown to the left has a gradient of 2 (for every one square across the line goes up two squares. Rise over run is 2 over 1 which is 2.) The y-intercept is 5 so the equation is: y = 2x + 5 A horizontal line with a y-intercept of three has equation: y = 3 A vertical line with an x-intercept of three has equation: x = 3 The solutions to this and other Transum puzzles, exercises and activities are available in this space when you are signed in to your Transum subscription account. If you do not yet have an account and you are a teacher or parent you can apply for one here. A Transum subscription also gives you access to the 'Class Admin' student management system and opens up ad-free access to the Transum website for you and your pupils. Do you have any comments? It is always useful to receive feedback and helps make this free resource even more useful for those learning Mathematics anywhere in the world. Click here to enter your comments. The graph plotting software used in this page was adapted from code written by Richard Ye | GitHub Development (version 0.4)

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Farm workers experience one of the highest rates of hearing loss among all occupations. This is caused in part by the many potential sources of loud noise on the farm: tractors, combines, grinders, choppers, shotguns, conveyors, grain dryers, chain saws, etc. Prolonged exposure to excessive noise can cause permanent hearing losses unless noise control measures are taken.HOW DO WE HEAR? The middle ear consists of three tiny bones, or ossicles, that are suspended in an air-filled space. They connect the eardrum to the inner ear, which is embedded in the skull. The ossicles function as a mechanical lever system that delivers sound from the ear canal to the inner ear. Noise does not affect the middle ear unless there is an impact sound or pressure so great that it dislodges or fractures the ossicles. The inner ear, or cochlea, is susceptible to damage from continued exposure to high-level noise. The cochlea (Latin term meaning snail shell) is a fluid-filled hydraulic system driven by the piston action of the last ossicle. The vibrating motion of the ossicle produces a wave motion in a membrane that runs the full length of the cochlea. If the vibrations are fast (high-frequency sound), the membrane has its greatest motion at the base of the cochlea near the vibrating ossicle. If the vibrations are slow (low-frequency sound), the maximum membrane motion occurs at the tip, or apex, of the cochlea. Situated on top of the moving membrane are thousands of small hair-like structures with nerves connected to each hair cell. When a hair cell is bent because of membrane motion, the nerve fires and the message is transmitted to the brain. Hair cells near the base transmit information about high-frequency or high-pitch sound, while those at the apex provide information about low-pitch sound. If the hair cells in a particular region of the cochlea are destroyed, the nerves will not fire and the brain will not receive any information. If part of the hair cells are destroyed, the brain may receive a distorted message that it cannot interpret. The whole cochlea is smaller than a dime and is embedded in the hardest bone in the body. When the microscopic structures are damaged, there is no way to repair them to restore reasonable hearing. Typically, hair cells are damaged or destroyed when their supporting structures are overworked. With continued exposure to high-level noise, the membrane motion is great and the cells that support the hair cells swell. Eventually, they rupture and the hair is destroyed or damaged. Only a few hair cells may be lost at a time, but with repeated exposure over days, months and years, the cumulative effect can be substantial. PROPERTIES OF SOUND OR NOISE Intensity is the loudness of a sound, or the pressure it exerts through the ear. It is measured in units called decibels (dB). |Table 1. Sound intensity levels.| |Decibel Level (dB)||Source| |140||threshold of pain: gunshot, siren at 100 feet| |135||jet take off, amplified music| |120||chain saw, jack hammer, snowmobile| |100||tractor, farm equipment, power saw| |90||OSHA limit - hearing damage if excessive exposure to noise levels above 90 dB| |85||inside acoustically insulated tractor cab| |75||average radio, vacuum cleaner| |45||rustling leaves, soft music| |15||threshold of hearing| |0||acute threshold of hearing - weakest sound| The other end of the scale is known as the threshold of pain (140 dB), or the point at which the average person experiences pain. In assessing noise, a special measure called "dBA" indicates damage to hearing. The dBA rating is provided for many pieces of agricultural equipment. The higher the dBA number, the greater the risk of damage to hearing. Frequency is the number of sound waves (high and low pressure areas) produced by a noise source passing a given point per second. Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps), also called hertz (Hz). The higher the number, the higher the frequency. The human voice has a range of about 200 to 4,000 Hz. A noise-induced hearing loss first causes the loss of the ability to hear sounds at 4,000 Hz. Then hearing loss proceeds until the ear cannot hear frequencies between 500 and 3,000 Hz, a range crucial to understanding conversation. One of the first signs of loss is the inability to understand people (especially in a crowd) or other sources of voice communication such as the television or radio. You become "hard of hearing," and sounds seem muffled. The most dangerous sounds are high in intensity (dB level) and have a high frequency. This is because a large number of sound waves are transmitted to the ears with a force greater than your ears can tolerate. Noise-induced hearing loss cannot be reversed, and a hearing aid does little good. Therefore, prevention is by far the best treatment. |Table 2. Permissible noise exposure scale1| |Duration - hours per day||Sound level (dBA)| |1/4 or less||115| |1 - Based on OSHA Noise Standard.| The average person can be exposed to a sound source producing 90 dBA for a maximum of eight hours. If the sound level is at 100 dBA, then the maximum exposure is two hours. An unprotected ear can be exposed to 115 dBA for a maximum of only 15 minutes a day. Your ears should not be directly exposed for any length of time to sounds greater than 115 dBA. For every 5 dB increase above 90 dBA, the permissible exposure time is reduced by half. For example, if you purchased a tractor with a 95 dBA rating, you would be risking a hearing loss after four hours of exposure. If the tractor had a 90 dBA rating, you could use the tractor for eight hours before reaching the same risk level. EFFECTS OF NOISE The ears provide two warning signs for overexposure to noise: temporary threshold shift (TTS) and ringing in the ears (tinnitus). After leaving a noisy area or piece of equipment, many people commonly experience both of these symptoms. The temporary hearing loss is difficult to detect unless a hearing test is performed. This temporary hearing loss was taken into consideration in the exposure limits listed in Table 2. For example, should you be exposed to a noise level of 100 dBA for two hours, the remaining 22 hours of that day's exposure should be at a noise level below 90 dBA. This allows the ear to recover from the temporary hearing loss. This recovery period varies, depending upon the individual, the severity and length of exposure. Hearing usually returns almost completely in 12 to 14 hours if there is no more noise exposure. Any amount of hearing that does not return becomes a permanent threshold shift (PTS) or permanent hearing loss. With repeated exposure, the effects are cumulative. Tinnitus is a general symptom of the auditory system not functioning properly. If you have persistent tinnitus, consult a physician. If you experience tinnitus after exposure to noise, it is a sign of overexposure. Since some people are more susceptible to noise damage than others, one person may experience more tinnitus or damage than another with exposure to the same noise. People who have damaged their ears permanently from overexposure to noise often have constant ringing in their ears. Some just learn to live with the ringing. Others cannot stand it and seek professional help. For the most part, physicians and audiologists can do very little to relieve tinnitus. The permanent damage that occurs from overexposure to noise results in a hearing loss that is most annoying and deceptive. In general, most noises damage the hair cells near the base of the cochlea, where high-frequency information is processed. High-frequency hearing loss creates several problems: The psychological effects of noise are more difficult to describe. Psychological effects such as depression and nervousness are a result of the ear's inability to adjust to sound. The eye has a very effective means of adjusting to light, but people never get "used" to noise. Instead, they usually adjust their mental attitude rather than hearing compensation. Subconscious frustrations can result when noise is endured, but the body system cannot adjust to it. The effects of noise on communications are quite obvious. Did you ever try to communicate with someone while a tractor was running or around a grain dryer without yelling? This can be a major problem in an emergency situation. Noise-induced hearing loss is a major problem because people are unaware of its warning signs and effects until it is too late. Since there is strong social pressure to have normal hearing, an individual rarely admits to having a hearing problem until the effects are very substantial. Early awareness and corrective action are essential to eliminating noise as a hearing hazard.REDUCING EXPOSURE TO AGRICULTURAL NOISE Before purchasing a new tractor, consider the use of an acoustical roll-over protective cab. Just as tractors are different, so are cabs in their ability to reduce noise levels. Sound data is available on most new tractors as part of the Nebraska Tractor Test Report. To get information on the sound levels of various tractor models, write to: Nebraska Tractor Test Data, Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, College of Agriculture, NE 68583. Ask for publication MP37. Tractor dealers should also have this information for any tractor tested in Nebraska. Reduction of noise exposure on new tractors is only a part of the total noise problem in agriculture. Additional noise engineering must be done on grain dryers, combines, pickers, elevators, chain saws, shellers, grinders, mixers, pulverizers, snow blowers, conveyors and grain roller mills, to name just a few. Noise not eliminated by engineering must be controlled by altered work schedules. Altered work schedules are a second alternative to prevent noise-related problems by reducing the amount of exposure to high sound levels on farms. When practical, arrange work schedules so that farm workers do not exceed the allowable exposure limit to a high noise source. For example, for a tractor that produces a noise level of 95 dBA, the safe exposure is four hours per day per person. Try to arrange work schedules to let farm workers exchange work activities so that no one person is exposed to the noise for more than four hours. Personal protection equipment is the final alternative for farm workers who wish to cut down on noise exposure. The two basic types of hearing protection are ear muffs and ear plugs. Ear muffs are the most effective. The attenuation (noise reduction) provided by ear muffs varies widely due to differences in size, shape, seal material, shell mass and type of suspension. Some may attenuate sound by as much as 40 dBs. To get good quality muffs, deal with a reputable firm. Examine them for comfort, construction, seal and attenuation. Manufacturers supply attenuation data for their product, so you can evaluate their effectiveness. Ear plugs are available as pre-formed inserts made of rubber, plastic or foam and handformed inserts of disposable materials such as wax or Swedish Wool. For agricultural use, wax or Swedish Wool have little value from a sanitation standpoint (they must be changed daily and must be shaped by hand before inserting) and because of their lower attenuation level. Pre-formed ear plugs may be cheaper, but due to the difference in the shape of a person's ear canal, trained personnel should fit each individual for plugs. The wearer must also know how to properly insert the ear plug. When purchasing ear plugs, follow the directions closely so that a snug, tight fit is obtained in the ear canal when the plug is inserted. Warning: Cotton should never be used for the purpose of reducing noise exposure. Cotton cannot block out high-frequency sound and will provide no protection from high sound levels. Ear protective devices will not block out all sounds. They will block out only those sounds that are dangerous to hearing. Machinery sounds different when you are wearing ear protection, but with continuous use, you can learn the new sounds and still be able to determine whether the machinery is operating properly. Operators who have suffered previous hearing losses may find that they are unable to detect certain sounds necessary to assure proper machine operation when they are using ear protection. In these cases, it may be necessary for the operator to remove the ear protection to check for these sounds. But remember to properly replace the ear protection to protect against further hearing loss.HAVE YOUR HEARING TESTED IT'S UP TO YOU Publication #: GO1962 This document is apart of a series from the University Extension, the University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211. Publication date: October 1993. David E. Baker, Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia MO 65211. Disclaimer and Reproduction Information: Information in NASD does not represent NIOSH policy. Information included in NASD appears by permission of the author and/or copyright holder. More

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To save results or sets tasks for your students you need to be logged in. Studyladder is free to join Join Now, Free What a brilliant site you have!!! I love it, especially as it saves me hours and hours of hard work. Others who haven't found your site yet don't know what they are missing! 5.NBT.2 – Explain patterns in the number of zeros of the product when multiplying a number by powers of 10, and explain patterns in the placement of the decimal point when a decimal is multiplied or divided by a power of 10. Use whole-number exponents to denote powers of 10. Samples: Multiplying by 10. Multiplying by 100. Multiplying by 10 or 100. Multiplying multiples of 10. Number and place value ACMNA123 – Select and apply efficient mental and written strategies and appropriate digital technologies to solve problems involving all four operations with whole numbers Samples: Large numbers presented in tables. Reading large numbers. Write numbers – over one million (common). ACMNA124 – Investigate everyday situations that use positive and negative whole numbers and zero. Locate and represent these numbers on a number line Samples: Negative numbers. Numbers. Problem Solving - Unitary Method. Integers on a number line. Addition and Subtraction. 6.NA.1 – Apply additive and simple multiplicative strategies flexibly to: 6.NA.1.b – Find fractions of sets, shapes, and quantities Samples: Dividing by 6. Dividing by 6. Dividing by 7. Dividing by 7. Dividing by 8. Dividing by 8. Dividing by 9. Division 9's. KS2.Y5.N.MD – Number - multiplication and division Pupils should be taught to: KS2.Y5.N.MD.4 – Multiply numbers up to 4 digits by a one- or two-digit number using a formal written method, including long multiplication for two-digit numbers Samples: 11x Multiplication facts (times tables). 12x Multiplication facts (times tables). Long Multiplications.

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Biologists, chemists and physicists continue to puzzle over how the early conditions of our planet could have created the crucial molecules that gave rise to you and me. In a new study that may only add to the controversy over life’s origins, researchers at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California have used computer modeling to show that a comet’s impact on early Earth could have formed amino acids, the molecular building blocks of proteins and an essential starting point for life. Physical chemist Nir Goldman and his colleagues ran simulations showing that a glancing, angled blow to the Earth’s surface could have produced low enough temperatures and pressures that the comet’s molecular precursors to amino acids—including carbon dioxide, ammonia and methanol—could have survived. However, many researchers believe that comet impacts aren’t likely to produce amino acids, said biophysicist André Brack of the Center of Molecular Biophysics in Orléans, France. He says that the impact would deliver so much heat that everything, including those critical precursor deposits deep in the ice of comets, would be destroyed. But in Goldman’s model, those simple molecules from the angled comet strike did make it safely to Earth, where they confronted a second hurdle: without the right chemical conditions, they couldn’t build more complex molecules. On its own, the early atmosphere didn’t provide the right conditions for spontaneous synthesis of these molecules, says Goldman. But his simulations show that the shock wave produced by a comet’s impact could have created just the right environment, one with lots of spare electrons waiting to form new bonds. Under those conditions, carbon-nitrogen bonds—the links that form the backbone of amino acids and longer proteins—could have formed. After long chains of these bonds are created, the model shows, the rapid cooling that occurs after a comet’s impact could have broken them up into smaller compounds resembling glycine, the simplest amino acid. While the study appeared in the well-regarded journal Nature Chemistry in November, some researchers remain skeptical of work that uses computer modeling to make assertions about chemical reality without conducting physical experiments. Sandra Pizzarello, a biochemist at Arizona State University in Tempe, emphasizes that “the impact [of the work] is zero” without physical experiments, and Brack calls the simulations “just a piece of fun.” But according to Goldman, the right follow-up studies are not outside the realm of possibility. He says laboratory researchers have the tools to mimic a comet impact and to recover any biological precursors formed by a man-made shock. Astrophysicist Mark Price at the University of Kent has already initiated such research, blasting ice with pellets and recreating the high pressures that Goldman’s modeled impact would have caused. Though Price still hasn’t confirmed that the crystals of organic material he found were created by the blasts alone, his results may take us one step closer to understanding the beginning of life on Earth.

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This lesson expands the concepts of unit sales and percents by teaching students how to create a pricing model for a popcorn company. - Research and develop costs of ingredients for popcorn. - Calculate serving costs for a bag of popcorn. - Determine the sales price of the popcorn and profits. Math Skills Being Utilized - Multiply digits and decimal, addition and subtraction. - Unit price calculations. - Using percentages. - Sales and markup. Ideas For Teaching - Have students bring in various popcorn packages and prices from local stores and movie theaters. - Run experiments to determine how much popcorn is actually made from raw popcorn kernels. - Design an actual fund raiser selling popcorn. Have students calculate and project the money that would be earned, then compare calculated with the actual profits.

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What is Size? As far we can tell, the most fundamental particles may not have size (in the testable three spatial dimensions to which we are used to). But we have distance between particles, and that distance is what actually gives size to macro objects. Now, there is some known distance between particles if we have some idea of where they are. And for we to know where they are we need to measure their interactions. For example: we can know where an electron is if we can make it collide with a photon, or we can know where proton is if we can make it collide with an electron, etc. We have discovered that the position of particles is not deterministic. Yet, with enough measurements we have been able to create a model of their position probability distribution with virtually no error (as far as our current measurement instruments are concerned). Of course, reaching virtually no error is archived by adjusting the theory to the reality. : By "we", I mean human kind. : If particles are - or are made of - hypothetical strings that have size on other spatial dimension which we are currently unable to test is another thing. But - you say - we know the diameter of electrons and protons... No, we don't. The way we make these particles interact is by the electromagnetic force. That is, the particle don't really collide... they repel! The way we have to estimate the diameter of particles is by the principles behind the Rutherfords Gold Foil experiment. In detail, the experiment is as follows: shoot alpha particles to a thin gold foil, and detect where the alpha particles go after it reaches the gold foil. From the experiment, it is observed that the alpha particles are scattered. The explanation is that the atom of gold has a nucleus that repels the alpha particle causing it change its direction. So, if we want to estimate the size of the nucleus we have to analyze how alpha particle behave near the nucleus. Note: the link above explains in more detail and goes on how to calculate the diameter. What is important to notice of this method of measurement is that it is based on the repulsive force caused by the charge of the particle. It is what we know as “charge radius”, and in practice is only serves as an upper bound to the size of the particle. So, even if we know the charge radius of a particle, we only know that if the particle has any size it must be smaller than that. So, as said at the beginning: as far we can tell, the most fundamental particles may not have size. But protons are made of quarks! Yes... we call "quarks" the thing that protons are made of. But we cannot measure how far apart a quark from another quark is when they are bound. In fact, there are no free quarks. Even knowing the distance between quarks, we have the problem of the size of the Quarks themselves. Quarks just happen to be the perfect description of the interactions of the particles that we claim that are made of them. Introduction to the photoelectric effect When a photon interacts with an electron, it gives it energy that displaces the electron to another orbital/electron shell/bond. If a photon doesn't have the energy required to displace the electron, then it simply doesn’t do it. That means that each material there is a given set of amounts of energies that a photon would have to have to interact with it. If the electron that is displaced belongs to a bond, it breaks the bond (which is understandable if we consider a bond a shared orbital) in which case light is serving a catalyst of the chemical reaction that ensues. Also, displacing an electron may move it to medium that allows it to move freely, guided by the local electric field. That is how light can create electric currents. We will come back to the idea that photons interact with electrons. But even if something interacts with light doesn't mean it is visible. It may be the case that you are unable to focus on it, or perhaps it is too dark (not enough light) for you to see. In fact, you want to use light of shorter wavelengths (higher frequency) to be able to focus on smaller object. Here is where the shrinking part of the question becomes relevant: as you becomes smaller your eyes become smaller, and thus its curvature increases! And with it changes its focal length, also decreasing! A shorter focal length means that you can now focus on smaller things (in particular if we consider that now the eyes are closer together). Yet, smaller eyes also mean less light entering the retina, so as you become smaller the world becomes darker. What about the eyes? Let's see how shrinking works: - As you decrease in size you lose mass. At some point you die, the reason being that your body can't no longer sustain itself. No. - As you decrease in size you increase density, and at some point you will die because chemistry stop making sense (e.g.: hemoglobin in your blood being smaller than the oxygen you breathe). - As you decrease in size you make atoms smaller. You push proton to proton and the nucleus become radioactive, the critical mass for nuclear chain reaction becomes smaller and smaller... until Boom. No. - As you decrease in size the space from orbital to other orbital decreases (the nucleus remains intact). These happen : - The energy required moving an electron from one orbital to another becomes smaller. If less energy is required, then you become sensible to lower light frequencies, which move the visible spectrum to shorter wavelengths . - Since less energy is required to move your electrons, you will burn and die because all your body will be subject to uncontrolled chemical reactions. - As you decrease in size you survive using unobtainium macguffins handwavium, or similar technology. You will be able to see thanks to the Sword of Omens or any other technology indistinguishable from magic that you may have at hand. : I’m unsure of the order in which those happen – this is all speculative, since we can’t do this kind of shrinking. : Larger wavelengths mean lower frequencies (to infra-red and radio waves). It should be noted that you need higher frequencies to be able to focus, and you will be seeing lower frequencies. So, it is all blurrier and blurrier. Good! You got the most recent version of the unobtainium macguffins! You first approach the size of an atom. Since you are a complex system and not a single particle (and you are using your unobtainium macguffin handwavium) you are not affected by decoherence. Also the atoms around you are pretty much stable, so no big deal. You continue to repel atoms. The only weird thing is that some particles would be able to tunnel through you. What do you see? Well, there is light everywhere, it is making the electrons jump from an orbital to another, and then the electrons jump back and release the photon again. This is happening everywhere because things are agitated! I mean, temperature exists and it is not absolute zero! So, everything would be bright, uniformly bright, no shape. Furthermore, repulsion happens by exchange of virtual photons, will you be able to see them? Who knows‽ Maybe you get into a bond and join a molecule. Next you approach the charge radius of protons. I don’t believe you would see anything; the effect of light pushing you is greater than any illumination. At this scale the classical idea that light spreads uniformly from the source is no longer relevant. Instead a photon interacts with you, or not. You next approach the size of your event horizon! In the past light had a chance to be reflected out of you, but now you are so small that light that would have miss you due to your size is trapped by your gravitational force. Furthermore light going out of you won’t go very far anyway (if something smaller than an atom can be considered far). You no longer see anyway. I don’t know why we bother; you are a micro black hole anyway... Finally you approach the Plank Length – The Plank Length is clever bit of calculation, but we don't really know what it means. Can something be smaller than the Plank Length? As far as we know there is no such thing. We don’t have means to measure it; in fact, we believe it can't be done. And for any practical purposes it doesn’t matter if something smaller is possible. The Plank Length is a popular idea to cite, but saying “nothing can be smaller than the Plank Length” is just flat. What we know about the Plank Length is: Writing this I came up with an interesting idea: any movement of less than a Plank Length could be considered to take no energy, and thus happens spontaneously, and instantaneously. Speed at Plank Length could be meaningless. ... You are a micro black hole anyway. Another way to shrink Let’s say that you can change the curvature of space-time in an unnatural way. That is, a way that doesn’t follow the curvatures that are described in Einstein’s equations, such that you can have a small area such that if you measure distance traversing it, it is less than you would calculate if you measure distance circumventing it. This is often referred to as “Tardis Space”. Now, I do not pretend that there is a discontinuity in the curvature of space-time. Instead the curvature must be continuous. Looking from outside at a reasonable distance to the inside of the “Tardis” it would look as if everything inside is smaller, almost fitting correctly the apparent external size, you may think it is a miniature set. As you approach the inside start to appear larger, at the moment when you are at the door you can see the inside almost at full size. Now if you turn around and look to the outside, you see that it becomes giant as you walk in, but the inside is now apparently of normal size. What I’m describing is an effect of gravitational lensing, exaggerated. Appropriate time dilation still applies. Times passes at a lower rate while you are inside. Now I understand why in some RPG videogames when you walk on the over-world you are a giant, then you step on a tiny town and when you are inside it is of normal size… and the day cycle seems to stop. It should be noted, that even with this weird curvature, what is being described is gravity. I find it hard to wrap my head around that idea that this thing pulls you in… but that is what General Relativity suggests. If that is true, then it is also true that any object entering experiences tidal forces, and thus you may not be able to survive the walk in. And we want this effect at infinitum. Yeah, black hole, right there. Note: I said the curvature for this does not follow Einstein's equations. You could get away with a curvature that doesn't extend outwards to infinity. That would be interesting.

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Even under normal circumstances, drought is a regular occurrence in agricultural regions. Several human-driven trends, from groundwater depletion to climate change, are expected to aggravate natural water shortages. While crops can't be expected to be very productive during times of drought, it might be possible to at least get them to better tolerate short periods of water scarcity without dying. Efforts to that end have largely focused on traditional breeding between commercial crops and drought-tolerant relatives. But researchers are now reporting progress with an alternative approach: genetic engineering. They have taken a signaling network that plants normally use to respond to stresses such as lack of water and have rewired it so that it responds to a molecule that's normally used to kill fungus. The signaling network that was used normally responds to a chemical made by plants called abscisic acid. Its response triggers longterm changes by regulating the activity of genes. But it also has a short-term effect: it helps plants hold on to water. It does this by affecting what are called "guard cells," which form part of the openings (called stomata) that plants use to regulate the flow of gases into and out of their leaves. When stomata are fully open, critical gases like the carbon dioxide required for photosynthesis can enter the leaves while the oxygen produced by it can exit. Unfortunately for plants, water vapor that forms in the open interior spaces of a leaf can also escape through these same stomata. Abscisic acid causes guard cells to close off the stomata. While this process will slow down photosynthesis, it also lets the plants hold on to much more water, allowing them to better tolerate a period of going without. Plants sense abscisic acid through a variety of receptors that latch on to this molecule, so the researchers picked one of these and tried to get it to latch on to something different. First they disabled a key piece of the protein that interacts with abscisic acid. Next, they targeted lots of mutations to the parts of the receptor that form a binding pocket for this molecule. Once the binding pocket was altered, they tested whether the protein stuck to any one of a panel of 15 different chemicals, all of which are already used in agriculture. While they had several promising chemical-receptor combinations, they focused on those that latched on to a chemical (called mandipropamid), which is used in agriculture to kill fungi that attack plants. An abscisic acid receptor with three mutations bound weakly to the fungicide, and the team of scientists subjected this receptor to further mutations, selecting for enhanced binding; five additional mutations (one each in five different tests) were identified this way. So the authors engineered a receptor with both the original three mutations and all five of the new ones. The resulting receptor had a very strong affinity for the fungicide, so they put it back into plants, using a small relative of mustard called Arabidopsis to do their initial tests. In seeds, abscisic acid manages stress by keeping the seeds from germinating until conditions are favorable. With the genetically modified seeds, applying the fungicide delayed their germination compared to untreated seeds. When plants carrying the receptor grew out of these seeds, the authors tested the fungicide on them. Normally, the loss of water vapor through stomata helps cool the leaves of the plant. The authors found that when the fungicide was applied, the genetically modified plants retained more heat—you could see them glow red with a thermal camera. To show that this wasn't something odd with Arabidopsis, the authors added the receptor to tomato plants and showed that they also heated up when the fungicide was applied. But the key question is how the plants responded to low-water conditions. The answer, as shown above, is "very well." The authors subjected plants to an 11-day water-free period and then returned them to regular watering. Twenty-four hours later, the genetically modified plants had bounced back. The regular ones, well... Although we know a fair bit about the abscisic acid network, its activity normally changes over time as stresses come and go and plants adjust to their environment. The authors note that it will be important to determine if extended periods of activity will have some unforeseen consequences for the plants. Still, even some downsides may end up being much better than the consequences we can foresee from extended droughts.

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On August 4, 1942, the United States and Mexico made an agreement to deliver contract Mexican labor to American farmers in order to serve as cheap replacement labor during World War II. While the Bracero Program helped fill the labor shortages, it also opened up a new era of Americans exploiting Mexican labor. The abuses associated with the Bracero Program helped lead to a number of social changes in the United States, including the Chicano Movement, the United Farm Workers, and the Immigration Act of 1965. Mexican-Americans made up an important part of the agricultural labor force in the Southwest long before World War II. While most of the land the U.S. stole during the Mexican War was not densely inhabited, Mexicans in California, Texas, and especially New Mexico found themselves all of a sudden second-class citizens in their new nation. Agricultural labor was all many could find within the white supremacist economy of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Moreover, the upheaval of the Mexican Revolution sent waves of Mexicans across the U.S. border for the first time in the 1910s. That was great for American farmers who wanted to pay their labor as little as possible. It also gave them an alternative to the white labor that tended to join the I.W.W. and demand decent pay and living conditions. But during the 1930s, as whites needed jobs, any job held by a non-white was seen as a betrayal of white supremacy. John Steinbeck may have movingly told the story of white migrants to the California fields in The Grapes of Wrath, but he almost totally leaves out the history of Mexican labor in those same fields. During the Great Depression, that labor was forcibly expelled from the Southwest. During the 1930s, over 500,000 Mexicans returned to Mexico, many by force, others by social pressures. Whites took their jobs. But during World War II, what seemed like good social policy to many whites turned into a disaster because all of a sudden white people could make a lot more money than they could in the fields. So U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and Mexican President Manuel Avila Camacho agreed to the Bracero Program. Essentially, this provided Mexican labor to American employers through short-term contracts. When the contract ended, the worker returned to Mexico. Crops are picked, America stays white. By 1945, about 125,000 Mexicans worked under Bracero contracts, not only in agriculture, but for the railroads. Originally the program was to end in 1947 and the railroad program concluded upon the return of soldiers in 1945. But southwestern farmers, who, due to their power within their relevant states and long distances from the centers of national power, managed yet again to convince the otherwise pro-labor federal government of the New Deal era to facilitate their exploitation of workers (see their exemption from complying with the Wagner Act and the Fair Labor Standards Acts for other examples). By 1956, 456,000 Mexicans labored in the fields under Bracero contracts. Under these contracts, workers effectively had no rights at all. Because they could be employed legally nowhere besides the fields, they worked in near slave conditions. Contracts were only in English and the Mexicans had no idea what they were signing. Wages were stolen, housing was substandard if even provided, food was terrible, and complaints resolved by sending workers back to Mexico. I went as a bracero four times, but I didn’t like it. We got on the train in Empalme, and went all the way to Mexicali, where we got on busses to the border. From there, they took us to El Centro. Thousands of men came every day. Once we got there, they’d send us in groups of two hundred, as naked as we came into the world, into a big room, about sixty feet square. Then men would come in in masks, with tanks on their backs, and they’d fumigate us from top to bottom. Supposedly we were flea-ridden, germ-ridden. No matter, they just did it. Then quickly, they took a pint of blood from every man. Anyone who was sick wouldn’t pass. Then they’d send us into a huge bunk house, where the contractors would come from the growers associations in counties like San Joaquin County, Yolo , Sacramento, Fresno and so on. The heads of the associations would line us up. When they saw someone they didn’t like, they’d say, “You, no.” Others, they’d say, “You, stay.” Usually, they didn’t want people who were old — just young people. Strong ones, right? And I was young, so I never had problems getting chosen. We were hired in El Centro and given our contracts, usually for 45 days. In Tracy I was with a crew from Juajuapa de Leon, in Oaxaca, and one of those boys died. Something he ate at dinner in the camp wasn’t any good. The kid got food poisoning, but what could we do? We were all worried because he’d died, and what happened to him could happen to any of us. They said they’d left soap on the plates, or something had happened with the dinner, because lots of others got diarrhea. I got diarrhea too. But this boy died. It was these sorts of conditions, the everyday exploitation of Mexican labor, that helped motivate the Chicano rights movement in the United States. In Texas, the conditions were so awful, as white owners ruled their ranches as fiefdoms, that Mexico refused to send braceros to that state until 1947. The United Farm Workers built off the treatment of Mexican and Mexican-American labor like that Garcia Perez experienced to create its movement to improve working conditions in the fields. The Bracero Program ended in 1964. Two things replaced it–the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 that provided a legal pathway for immigrants from most of the world to enter the U.S. for the first time since 1924 (although for Mexicans obviously this was a more complex legacy) and the establishment of the Border Industrialization Program in 1965. BIP was intended to keep Mexican labor south of the Rio Grande by giving incentives to American companies to cross the river and use cheap Mexican labor. While capital fled to Mexico, neither increased legal immigration nor BIP came close to filling the employment needs of Mexicans driven from their traditional lands by a complex cluster of factors. Undocumented migration to the United States grew rapidly in coming decades. This new phase of immigration continued the history of exploitation of Mexican workers by American employers. Finally, here is Cisco Houston’s version of Woody Guthrie’s “Deportee,” a song the great songwriter composed after the death of 28 braceros in a plane crash while being sent back to Mexico in 1948. This is the 37th installment of this series. Earlier installments are archived here.

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Students may need assistance when finding coordinates on the unit circle. This tutorial will guide them step by step relying on the Pythagorean Theorem to build the coordinates of any point on the unit circle. Students' familarity with the Pythagorean Theorem will lead them to discover the coordinates of any point on the unit circle when given any x-value or any angle measurement from the vertex at the origin. Before the Activity Students should have already been introduced to the unit circle and its basic characteristics. The Pythagorean Theorem should be a basic tool already mastered. During the Activity Students should work alone or in pairs to complete the activity.

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The term “Nazca Lines” refer to a series of images created in the desert of Peru about 2,000 years ago. These images,many depicting geometric shapes, are extremely large with some covering several kilometers. Although researchers know how the Nazca Lines were created--the top layer of dark rocks were removed from the desert floor, exposing the lighter soil underneath--they remain uncertain why they were created. Several theories have been suggested to account for the presence of these lines. One theory is that the Nazca Lines were used as an astronomical calendar for tracking events such as the winter solstice (the day with shortest number of daylight hours) that were important to agricultural peoples. This theory was supported by the discovery of an astronomical link between some of the images and various planets and stars. It was pointed out, for example, that on the day of the winter solstice, the Sun sets almost directly over a single long line drawn in the desert. Another theory is that the Nazca images were created as a monument alart form expressing the Nazca people’s cultural and social importance in the region. Many ancient peoples built large monuments and artworks to demonstrate their power and celebrate their achievements. The Egyptians built massive pyramids, for example, and Easter Islanders curved massive human heads out of stone. It seems reasonable, therefore, to think that the Nazca images were built for similar reasons--to impress others. A third theory focuses on the fact that there is evidence that people traveled by foot along the line. This has led to the speculation that the Nazca Lines represented sites of footraces in which individuals or groups of individuals competed for athletic victory. In this view, the Nazca images are ancient racetracks.

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The module of a number in another way is still called absolutethe value of this number. In the event that there is a real number under the sign of the module, then before revealing the module, it is necessary to find out whether it is negative or positive. - If our number is positive, then it does not change when the module is expanded, if the number is negative, then it is multiplied by -1: | x | = x, (if x is greater than or equal to zero); | x | = -x (if x is less than zero). - Accordingly, after the module is expanded, we always get a number that is greater than zero. - If the vector a = (xa, ya) was placed under the module symbol, then the length of the given vector will be the module in this case. And it is defined as follows: | a | = 2xa2 + ya2. - If the component is greater than two, then all of them are placed under the sign of the radical and are squared. - The complex number z = x + iy has a module that is found, like in a two-dimensional vector: | z | = 2x2 + y2. As you can see, no matter how manyis an expression that stands under the sign of the module (real, complex or vector), the module will always have a real value equal to the "length" of the number if it is "drawn" in the coordinate system. Well, we coped with the solution of the problem of how to open a number module.

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Characters are a crucial element in stories. It’s one of the basics your students need to learn early on in their writing journey. Whether it’s a mama sloth or a girl superhero they chose for their character, they need to know how to introduce and develop these personas in their narratives. Here’s how to teach characterization in your class: 1. Read short stories Choose stories that focus on the characters, and then ask the children to pick their favorites at the end of the session. Then, let them write their impressions on the character’s outward appearances and inner traits, as narrated in the story. You can go as far as probing the children to judge the actions and decisions of the characters, based on moral standards they know. When they’re able to get the pattern of having solid characters, let them publish their story. There are publishing kits that enable you to write your own storybook online for free. Studentreasures Publishing believes these are worth recommending to students. 2. Let them describe the characters One way to do this is to make pupils visualize their chosen character’s outward appearances. If it’s a certain person, ask them what the character’s hair or eyes look like. If it’s an animal, let them put in detail how the skin of the character feels, how long their legs are, or how tiny their bodies are, for instance. Another way of describing is to focus on the inner traits of the character, namely, their attitudes, personalities, words and actions. Ask a student if their character is kind and gentle or rude and snobbish. Encourage them to write how the persona speaks or behaves. 3. Have a ‘guest’ in the room Perhaps, every now and then, you can get a colleague to dress up and show up in one of your classes as a writing prompt for your students. For instance, a ‘detective’ could go to your room, and then let your students fill in the blanks: “This is Detective ______, who looks like ______. He works at ______ because he wants to ______.” Then, encourage the children to write 4–5 more sentences to complete the story. Teach your students the power of characterization. Let them imagine and explore different personas in different worlds.

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KS2 Maths Teaching Resources Our KS2 Maths pages contain hundreds of pages of resources for teaching number, fractions, decimals, percentages, measurement and geometry to pupils in both lower and upper KS2. All our materials have been made with a close eye on the Maths programmes of study so you can be confident that they cover the key requirements of the National Curriculum. All PowerPoint lessons are ready to teach but they are also fully editable so you can adjust and differentiate them to fit your exact teaching needs. KS2 Maths - Number. Here you'll find resources for teaching number and place value, fractions, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, Roman numerals, rounding numbers, counting forwards and backwards and decimals. KS2 Maths - Fractions, decimals and percentages. This is where you'll find resources for teaching adding, subtracting, multiplying comparing and ordering fractions, as well as materials on tenths, hundredths and problem solving. All KS2 Maths Resources provides an A to Z of all our KS2 Maths teaching resources in alphabetical order. Click View or 'more info' to find out more and see a preview of each one.

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Class inheritance is not just about reusing classes that you have already defined as a basis for defining a new class. It also adds enormous flexibility to the way in which you can program your applications, with a mechanism called polymorphism. So what is polymorphism? The word polymorphism generally means the ability to assume several different forms or shapes. In programming terms it means the ability of a single variable of a given type to be used to reference objects of different types and to automatically call the method that is specific to the type of object the variable references. This enables a single method call to behave differently, depending on the type of the object to which the call applies. This is illustrated in Figure 6-4. A few requirements must be fulfilled to get polymorphic behavior, so let's step through them. First of all, polymorphism works with derived class objects. It also depends on a new capability that is possible within a class hierarchy that you haven't met before. Up to now you have always been using a variable of a given type to reference objects of the same type. Derived classes introduce some new flexibility in this. Of course, you can store a reference to a derived class object in a variable of the derived class type, but you can also store it in a variable of any direct or indirect base class type. ...

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The Sumerians were an ancient people who lived in south-eastern Mesopotamia. The Sumerians undertook important early advances in agriculture, the division of labor, and writing. Sumerian civilization is thus widely considered to have been the first great civilization. Sumerian civilization had a great influence (both direct and indirect) on other important Mesopotamian peoples (the Akkadians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians). These civilizations in turn influenced the Persian Empire, which influenced the Greco-Macedonian Empire, which influenced the Roman Empire. Thus, the Sumerian civilization had impacts which reverberate to this day. The Sumerians dwelled mostly in a chain of city-states running along the lower length of the ancient path of the Euphrates River. This homeland is referred to by modern scholarship as Sumer or Sumeria. Sumerian culture is thought to extend back at least to the 54th century BC, in the "Ubaid" period of Mesopotamian prehistory. - The path of the Euphrates has changed considerably since ancient times. The river also has become extended at its lower end.

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A quasar (from quasi-stellar radio source) is an astronomical object that looks like a star in optical telescopes (i.e. it is a point source), but has a very high redshift. The general consensus is that this high redshift is cosmological, the result of Hubble's law and that their redshift indicates that they are typically very distant from Earth; we observe them as they were several billions of years ago. Since we can see them despite their distance, they must emit more energy than dozens of normal galaxies. Some quasars display rapid changes in luminosity, which implies that they are small (an object cannot change faster than the time it takes light to travel from one end to the other). The highest redshift quasar currently known is 6.4 (). The first quasars were discovered with radio telescopes in the late 1950s; the first spectrum of a quasar, confirming its extragalactic nature, was obtained by Schmidt in 1963. Once they were identified it was possible to find them recorded in photographic plates dating back to the 19th century. Later it was found that not all (actually only 10% or so) quasars have strong radio emission (are `radio-loud'). The name `QSO' (quasi-stellar object) is sometimes given to the radio-quiet class. Other people talk about `radio-loud' and `radio-quiet quasars'. Quasars appear to be a particular class of active galaxies, and a general consensus has emerged that in many cases it is simply the viewing angle that distinguishes them from other classes, such as (blazars and radio galaxies). The huge luminosity of quasars is believed to be a result of friction caused by gas and dust falling into the accretion disks of supermassive black holes, which can convert about half of the mass of an object into energy as compared to a few percent for nuclear fusion processes. This mechanism is also believed to explain why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it. This means that it is likely that there are quiescent quasars in or near our local galactic neighborhood, which lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.

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Compound independent events to compare probabilities in order to determine fairness in a game are used. After completing this tutorial, you will be able to complete the following: The likelihood line demonstrates the continuum of probability that an event will occur. Since probability is a ratio, the probability of any event can be plotted on a number line from 0 to 1. The event, which falls on the far left side of the likelihood line is the least likely to occur because it has a probability closest to zero. If an event falls on the far right side of the likelihood line, it has a probability of very close to one whole. Events falling in the center of the line have about a fifty percent chance of occurring. Likelihood lines are typically used in early probability instruction to provide a quick overview of how likely an event can occur. Students can generate a list of real-life events and plot them on the likelihood line. In this Activity Object, students will create a game using the outcomes of rolling two dice in such a way that one pawn is more likely to win or both are equally likely to win. Theoretical probability is calculated by dividing the number of outcomes for a specific event by the number of total events possible. For example, when flipping a penny, the penny could land on either heads or tails resulting in two possible outcomes. To determine the probability of the penny landing on heads: In this Activity Object, the term theoretical is not used directly; however, since the probability of the sum of two dice is not tested in an actual experiment, it is important for students to know that all of the probabilities discussed in this Activity Object are theoretical. At the end of the Activity Object, students are given the opportunity to play the game. The results of the game represent the experimental probability, the probability of the event actually occurring. Theoretical probability for the sum of two dice. A simple chart can be used to list the outcomes of the sum of two dice. Using this chart, you can easily see that two dice with the sum of 7 will occur most often, and two dice with a sum of either 2 or 12 will occur least often. A game is fair when all players are equally likely to win. In this Activity Object, students determine if the game they create is fair. In a fair game, the probability of each player winning must match. For example, we would determine the fairness of the game below by finding the probability of each player winning. Player 1 has one out of two chances of landing on red. The theoretical probability of landing on red when spinning ten times is 5 out of 10. Player 2 has one out of five chances of landing on red. The theoretical probability of landing on red when spinning ten times is 2 out of 10. Therefore, this game is unfair because player one and player two do not have an equally likely chance of winning the game. |Approximate Time||15 Minutes| |Pre-requisite Concepts||Students should know the concept of probability.| |Type of Tutorial||Concept Development| |Key Vocabulary||probability, more likely, equally likely|

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What You'll Find in This Section Providing a solid foundation for literacy is critical for young children who are already bilingual or are learning a second language. These resources provide guidance on how to build that foundation as well as guidance on using a child's native language as part of their literacy development. English language learners (ELLs) in early elementary school are learning to read at the same time as their other classmates. Nevertheless, they still may need some extra help making the connection between their native language and English or focusing on specific sounds and letter combinations. These articles provide explicit guidance, as well as age-appropriate tips for instruction. For English language learners (ELLs) in upper grades, reading needs may vary greatly. Some students will read fluently in their native language, while others may come in with very limited literacy skills and will require creative approaches for teachers and literacy coaches. These resources include ideas for creating a safe, comfortable setting where adolescent ELLs can begin to catch up and increase confidence over time. For additional ideas, visit our sister site about adolescent literacy, AdLit.org. Comprehension is the reason for reading, but it can be the most difficult skill to master — especially for English language learners (ELLs). ELLs at all levels of English proficiency and literacy development will benefit from improved comprehension skills. These resources, strategies, and videos offer ideas such as comprehension checks with questions at different proficiency levels and acting out scenes from a story. Giving English language learners (ELLs) the tools they need to develop close reading skills is an important step in helping them access more challenging grade-level texts (such as those aligned with the Common Core State Standards). These resources focus on using strategies such as questioning and using evidence from the text with ELLs. Being able to understand non-fiction text (also called informational text) is critical for academic success, especially as students get older. Teachers can help prepare English language learners (ELLs) to successfully work with non-fiction text in many ways — and the earlier the better. This resource section offers ideas and strategies for helping students get started. How can educators, librarians, and parents help students become life-long readers? These veteran educators use a number of strategies to bring books alive for their students. Most importantly, they provide students with constant exposure to books of all kinds throughout the year. Learn their secrets below! What does it take to help English language learners (ELLs) become successful writers? This section offers a number of ideas and resources from veteran educators and researchers for students of all ages and proficiency levels. For examples of student writing projects, see our Student Voices section.

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), an international standard-setting body. It was designed to be a reference model for describing the functions of a communication system. The OSI model provides a framework for creating and implementing networking standards and devices and describes how network applications on different computers can communicate through the network media. The OSI model has seven layers, with each layer describing a different function of data traveling through a network. Here is the graphical representation of these layers: The layers are usually numbered from the last one, meaning that the Physical layer is considered to be the first layer. It is useful to remember these layers, since there will certainly be a couple of questions on the CCNA exam regarding them. Most people learn the mnemonic „Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away“: So, what is the purpose of these layers? They are most commonly used by vendors. They enable them to implement some functionality into a networking device, which then enables easier interoperability with devices from other vendors. Here is a brief description of each of the layers of the OSI model. - Physical – defines how to move bits from one device to another. It details how cables, connectors and network interface cards are supposed to work and how to send and receive bits. - Data Link – encapsulates a packet in a frame. A frame contains a header and a trailer that enable devices to communicate. A header (most commonly) contains a source and destination MAC address. A trailer contains the Frame Check Sequence field, which is used to detect transmission errors. The data link layer has two sublayers: 1. Logical Link Control – used for flow control and error detection. 2. Media Access Control – used for hardware addressing and for controlling the access method. - Network – defines device addressing, routing, and path determination. Device (logical) addressing is used to identify a host on a network (e.g. by its IP address). - Transport – segments big chunks of data received from the upper layer protocols. Establishes and terminates connections between two computers. Used for flow control and data recovery. - Session – defines how to establish and terminate a session between the two systems. - Presentation – defines data formats. Compression and encryption are defined at this layer. - Application – this layer is the closest to the user. It enables network applications to communicate with other network applications. It is a common practice to reference a protocol by the layer number or layer name. For example, HTTPS is referred to as an application (or Layer 7) protocol. Network devices are also sometimes described according to the OSI layer on which they operate – e.g. a Layer 2 switch or a Layer 7 firewall. The following table shows which protocols reside on which layer of the OSI model: The TCP/IP model was created in the 1970s by the Defense Advance Research Project Agency (DARPA) as an open, vendor-neutral, public networking model. Just like the OSI model, it describes general guidelines for designing and implementing computer protocols. It consists of four layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, and Application: The following picture show the comparison between the TCP/IP model and OSI model: As you can see from the picture above, the TCP/IP model has fewer layers than the OSI model. The Application, Presentation, and Session layers of the OSI model are merged into a single layer in the TCP/IP model. Also, Physical and Data Link layers are called Network Access layer in the TCP/IP model. Here is a brief description of each layer: - Link – defines the protocols and hardware required to deliver data across a physical network. - Internet – defines the protocols for the logical transmission of packets over the network. - Transport – defines protocols for setting up the level of transmission service for applications. This layer is responsible for reliable transmission of data and the the error-free delivery of packets. - Application – defines protocols for node-to-node application communication and provide services to the application software running on a computer. Differences between OSI and TCP/IP model There are some other differences between these two models, besides the obvious difference in the number of layers. OSI model prescribes the steps needed to transfer data over a network and it is very specific in it, defining which protocol is used at each layer and how. The TCP/IP model is not that specific. It can be said that the OSI model prescribes and TCP/IP model describes.

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A headright is a legal grant of land to settlers. Headrights are most notable for their role in the expansion of the thirteen British colonies in North America; the Virginia Company of London gave headrights to settlers, and the Plymouth Company followed suit. The headright system was used in several colonies, including Maryland, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina. Most headrights were for 1 to 1,000 acres (4.0 km2) of land, and were given to anyone willing to cross the Atlantic Ocean and help populate the colonies. Headrights were granted to anyone who would pay for the transportation costs of a laborer or enslaved people. These land grants consisted of 50 acres (200,000 m2) for someone newly moving to the area and 100 acres (0.40 km2) for people previously living in the area. By giving the land to the landowning masters the indentured servants had little or no chance to procure their own land. This kept many colonials poor and led to anger between the poor enslaved people and wealthy landowners. |Look up headright in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| The headright system began in Jamestown, Virginia in 1618 as an attempt to solve labor shortages due to the advent of the tobacco economy, which required large plots of land with many workers. The disproportion that existed between the amount of land available and the population led to a situation with a low supply of labor, resulting in the growth of indentured servitude and of slavery. The headright system also served to attract new colonists. Colonists who had already been living in Virginia were each given[ when?] two headrights of 50 acres (200,000 m2); immigrant colonists who paid for their passage were given one headright, and individuals would subsequently receive one headright each time they paid for the passage of another individual. This last mechanism increased the division between the wealthy land-owners and the working poor. Headrights were given to heads-of-households, and because 50 acres were accumulated for each member of the household, families had an incentive to make the passage to the colonies together. After paying for the passage of an individual to make it to the colonies, one needed to obtain a patent for the land. First, the governor or local county court had to provide a certificate that certified the validity of the importation of a person. One would then select the land one desired and have an official survey made. The two basic surveying instruments used to mark plots of land were a chain known as Gunter's chain and a compass. The patent's claimant would then take the description of this land to the colony's secretary, who created the patent to be approved by the governor. Once a headright was obtained, it was treated as a commodity and could be bought, sold, or traded. It also could be saved indefinitely and used at a later date. Individuals who could afford to do so would accumulate headrights by providing funds for poor individuals to travel to Virginia. (During the 17th century, the cost of transport from England to the colonies was about six pounds per person.) This system led to the development of indentured servitude where poor individuals would become workers for a specified number of years and provide labor in order to repay the landowners who had sponsored their transportation to the colonies. The claimants to headrights could receive grants for men, women and children since anyone could become an indentured servant. Early documentation from the Virginia Company seems to suggest that a landowner could receive a headright even if the indentured servant whose trip they sponsored did not make it to Virginia alive. While the majority of headrights distributed were issued under the names of British immigrants, as time went on, indentured servants who provided the heads-of-households with land came from throughout Europe and could be used as headrights, as could enslaved people from Africa. Plantation owners benefited from the headright system when they paid for the transportation of imported enslaved people. This, along with the increase in the amount of money required to bring indentured servants to the colonies, contributed to the shift towards slavery in the colonies. Until 1699, an enslaved person was worth a headright of fifty acres. According to records, in the 1670s over 400 enslaved people were used as headrights in Virginia. This number increased in the 1680s and 1690s. Many families grew in power in the colonies by receiving large tracts of land when they imported enslaved people. For example, George Menefie purchased sixty enslaved people, and received a total of 3,000 acres in 1638. In 1699, it was decided that headrights would only be granted for English citizens and that transporting an enslaved person would no longer guarantee land. According to records, there was a large discrepancy between the number of headrights issued and the number of new residents in the colonies. This gap may be explained by high mortality rates of people during their journey to the colonies. Landowners would receive headrights for the dead and thus, the gap would widen between population growth and amount of headrights issued. Another explanation suggests that the secretary's office that issued the headrights grew more lax. There were few regulations in place to keep the headright system in check. Because of this, several headrights were claimed multiple times and people took advantage of the lack of governance. For instance, when a person was brought to the colonies, both the ship captain and the individual paying the transportation costs may have attempted to receive land patents or headrights for the same person. Another problem was that secretaries sometimes issued headrights for fictitious people. During the 1660s and 1670s, the number of headrights was about four times more than the increase in population. If this large discrepancy must be attributed to more than fictitious issuing, a final explanation suggests that people had accumulated and saved headrights. Headrights could be bought for about 50 pounds of tobacco each. The owners of the grants then claimed the land years later once the land had risen in value. Although keeping a count of the number of headrights issued may not lead to accurate estimations of population growth in the colonies, the number of patents issued acts as an indicator of the demand for land. In addition to leading to the distribution of too much land at the lax secretary's discretion, the headright system increased tensions between Native Americans and colonists. Indentured servants were granted land inland, which was near the natives. This migration produced conflict between the natives and the indentured servants. Later, Bacon's Rebellion was sparked by tensions between the natives, settlers, and indentured servants. - Baird, Robert (2001). "Understanding Headrights". Bob's Genealogy Filing Cabinet II. Retrieved February 12, 2012. Hirschfelder, Arlene B. (1999). "Rolfe, John (1585-1622)". Encyclopedia of Smoking and Tobacco. Oryx Press. p. 262. 9781573562027. Retrieved 2017-08-07. John Rolfe, a pipe-smoking Englishman from Norfolk, Virginia, has been credited with the success of Jamestown's tobacco crop. [...] In June 1614, Rolfe shipped his first cargo of Virginia tobacco, called "Orinoco," to England. - Eichholz, Alice (2004). Red Book: American State, County and Town Sources. Provo, UT: Ancestry. ISBN 978-1-59331-166-7. - Hilliard, Sam B. (October 1992). "Headright Grants and Surveying in Northeastern Georgia". American Geographical Society. 72 (4): 416–429. JSTOR 214594. - Grymes, Charles A. "Acquiring Virginia Land By Headright'". virginiaplaces.org. Retrieved February 12, 2012. - Morgan, Edmund S. (July 1972). "Headrights and Head Counts: A Review Article". The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 80 (3): 361–371. JSTOR 4247736. - Bruce, Philip Alexander . Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: an Inquiry into the Material Condition of the People, Based upon Original and Contemporaneous Records, Volume 2 (Google EBook). New York: Macmillan and Co. - Morgan, Edmund S. (1995). American Slavery, American Freedom: the Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. New York: W W Norton & Co. p. 306. ISBN 978-0-393-31288-1.

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During this lesson we're going to learn about the construction of sentences in English, according to the SVOMPT rule. SVOMPT is an anagram which stands for: The subject can either be a person, place, or a gerund which is a word + ing and it's a verb which functions as a noun, also know as a verb-noun for examples: swimming...is a water sport. The verb is a word which describes an action, for example in the sentence: We often run, the word run, is the verb. The object is the noun or pronoun which is acted upon by the subject, for example in the sentence: He likes animals, the word animals, is the object. The manner is the way to describe how something happens, for example in the sentence: I often go to play football with my friends, the words with my friends are related to the manner. The place is the location or area where something happens, for example in the sentence: They sometimes to do sport at their local gym, the words at their local gym are related to the place. The time is related to when someone does something, or when something happens, for example in the sentence: She starts work at nine o'clock in the morning, the words nine o'clock in the morning, are related to the time. Whenever there is a subject, verb, or an object in a sentence, then they have to be set in that order; first the subject, then the verb, and then the object. For example: I play tennis. I is the subject, play is the verb, and tennis is the object. Usually the manner, place, or time, are in that order within a sentence, but they can change position among themselves and also within the sentence.This gives more importance to how, where, or when something happens as opposed to the subject, verb, or object, but it can also change the meaning of a sentence. For example, you would normally say: I play tennis with my friends, at the sports center, on Saturday mornings, and this sentence follows the standard SVOMPT rule. If you want to give more importance to the manner, then you would say: I play tennis at the sports center, on Saturday mornings, with my friends. Then if you want to give more importance to the place, then you would say: I play tennis with my friends on Saturday mornings at the sports center. And if you want to give more importance to the time, then you would say: I play tennis with my friends, at the sports center, on Saturday mornings, but even though this sentence follows the standard SVOMPT rule, you can also say: I play tennis on Saturday mornings, with my friends at the sports center. You can even say: On Saturday mornings, I play tennis with my friends, at the sports center. The important thing is that when you speak, you need to emphasize the part of the sentence which you want to give more importance to. So now that you know all about the SVOMPT rule, try to find some new friends on GoSpeakEnglish and chat with them about life, the universe, and everything, but remember to put all of the words in the right order! And that's the end of this lesson! Now you can see if you've understood the video, and do the test on GoSpeakEnglish. You can also watch many other English video lessons on GoSpeakEnglish. Thanks, and I hope to see you again soon!

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Understand the implications of being a hero By the end of the lesson, the children will have read and discussed a moral dilemma and thought about the implications of being a hero. To Be a Hero Al Sh’losha D’varim Torah, Worship and Loving Deeds - Brainstorm: What is a Hero? – Children to discuss what makes a hero and what being a hero might involve. Children to think about who their heroes are and why they are their heroes. - Read and Discuss “To Be a Hero” – Read through the problem about whether to put your own life in danger to save someone else. Children to give their opinions on the matter. Discuss Jewish interpretations. Prompt by giving other examples, such as should a lifeguard dive in to save someone drowning, even if it means putting their own life at risk? - Read (and sing) Al Sh’losha D’varim – Ask children if they recognise the song and then discuss the meaning; The world stands upon three things: On Torah, Worship and Loving Deeds. Make a list on the whiteboard to define and try to explain what these three things mean. What is Torah? What is worship? What are loving deeds? What do they mean to you? - Option 1: Torah, Worship and Loving Deeds diagram – Children to use template to write/draw pictures about what each of the three things (Torah, Worship and Loving Deeds) means to them using the prompts from the whiteboard. Examples could include a poem about worship, a list of loving deeds that they would like to do every week/year, what the Torah means to them. - Option 2: Create a Storyboard – Children to design a cartoon storyboard showing a scene similar to the one in “To Be a Hero”. Children to think about the different dilemmas when faced with this problem. Annotate with Jewish and emotional interpretations. Example: Lifeguard, mugging, burglary, bullying at school. - Present Diagram / Storyboard – Children to show their diagram/storyboard to the rest of the class, explaining their choices and interpretations

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Inclusive and Exclusive Education for Diverse Learning Needs Inclusive education refers to the education of all students, regardless of ability, in mainstream classrooms and involves the use of appropriate supports, adjustments, and resource delivery to ensure the successful inclusion of students at a whole-school level, which is supported by inclusive education policy and/or legislation. A key aspect of inclusive education is the philosophical approach underpinning the inclusion of all students in the education environment based on inclusive attitudes, beliefs, and values of all stakeholders and founded on principles of social justice and human rights. Exclusive education refers to the education of students by selective merit or exclusion and may or may not involve discrimination by educational authorities, representatives, or other stakeholders. Exclusive education involves attitudes, beliefs, and values that may be viewed as positive or negative, and the presence of exclusion may signal the presence of power within an education system. Different socioeconomic backgrounds Gifted and talented or twice-exceptional Gender (including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex) Other potential student groups encompass disadvantaged youth, including those who are homeless, in foster care or living in poverty, pregnant, in juvenile detention/facilities, or students disengaged from the education system. Armstrong et al. (2010) noted that to discuss inclusion in the context of inclusive education required discussing their potential exclusion. Exclusive education refers to the exclusion of students from mainstream education, on the basis of labelling, ability, or diagnosis and may involve placement in special educational services or selective entry schools (Ho 2017). Florian (2008) noted that previously special education was viewed as a mechanism where students were both “included in and excluded from the forms of schooling that are otherwise available to children of similar ages” (p. 203). Similarly, selective entry schools include or exclude students from schooling although entry to a selective school is on the basis of academic ability or gender (Ho 2017). Inclusive education is identified as a divisive and highly debated area of education (Slee 2011). The topic of inclusive or exclusive education evokes strong arguments and concerns from all sides about the inclusion or exclusion of students. Some of the concerns raised by key stakeholders in the field include the practical application and implementation of inclusion in classrooms, teachers’ versus parents’ rights and responsibilities, children’s rights to an education, the cost of inclusion, disruptive or violent behavior, and the overall purpose of education (Slee 2011). An Overview of Inclusive/Exclusive Education At the heart of inclusion and inclusive education are key tenets of social inclusion, social justice, and human rights (Armstrong et al. 2010). Inclusive education has its early beginnings in special education and transformed over decades at varying rates of progress across the world (Ashman 2019). Inclusive education emerged from the field of special education as a result of students [and their families] experiencing injustice in education, particularly related to issues of access and equity (Florian 2008). In many countries, special education is seen as the provision of additional support to learners whose needs extend outside of those of a majority of learners (Florian 2008). Typically, special education focused on a diagnostic-prescriptive approach in contrast to inclusive education which focused on accepting learner differences as a natural part of human diversity and development (Florian 2008). Exclusive education is associated with the exclusion of individuals or cohorts on the basis of specific attributes and resulting from direct or indirect discrimination, either of which could be oppressive or empowering, depending on the viewpoint taken. The inclusion or exclusion of students in education is a human rights issue (Degener 2016) and is interwoven with the history of the civil and disability rights movement. Advocacy through political and policy reforms for change in education have been affected by arguments about the technicality of how to implement inclusive education, what inclusive education looks like in practice, how to measure inclusive education, and ongoing debates and differences in defining the concept of inclusive education (Shyman 2015). Countries in the South (e.g., Africa, Asia, Latin America) tend to have stronger conceptualizations of inclusion and inclusive education which address challenges of poverty, gender inequality, and social and economic advances (Armstrong et al. 2010). In contrast, countries in the North tend to advance and develop inclusive policy and then expand these policies through implementation to countries in the South (Armstrong et al. 2010). Education systems are context specific and different across those contexts. Inclusive education is practiced in general and special education settings. Lack of agreement across different settings about meaning and interpretation of inclusion and inclusive education (D’Alessio and Watkins 2009). Jahnukainen (2011) further highlighted that international research on special and inclusive education primarily focused on a single country at a time with limited research on comparisons with other countries. Often, this research explored either educational policy or practices for students with disabilities. Models of Disability To a great extent, the evolution of inclusive/exclusive education can be explained through the models of disability and systemic approaches to the education of students with disability or students with diverse learning needs. These models of disability include the medical model of disability, the social model of disability, and the human rights model of disability. The medical model of disability refers to the disability as being the “problem” of the individual and a condition to be cured. Inclusion is viewed in the context of the student assimilating into the education environment and a focus on changing the student (Mackenzie et al. 2016). This model uses a deficit approach of labelling and deviance, which may contribute to the exclusion of students in educational contexts on the basis of medical diagnosis and demonstration of behavior from the norm. The social model of disability identifies societal barriers that limit participation of people with disabilities in life, for example, attitudes and beliefs and societal structures. A range of educational settings have contributed to barriers and are examples of the social model of disability where students with additional or special needs were educated in segregated settings of special institutions in the late nineteenth century and special schools and special classes in the early twentieth century (Jahnukainen 2011). Florian (2008) noted that within the field of special education, many researchers have noted its role in being a vehicle for including and excluding students in education. The human rights model of disability recognizes the rights of all people to access education and seeks to decrease the exclusion experienced by those identified as other. This is upheld by human rights legislation such as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006; Degener 2016). Human Rights to an Education The rights of students with disabilities or students who belong to minority groups are often upheld in policy and legislation. Specifically, education systems are supported by a regulatory and legal framework of policy and legislation, which may be education specific or include additional areas of jurisdiction, and establish how these systems are to be governed, managed, resourced, funded, and accessed. The main difference between policy and legislation is that policy is not legally binding in comparison to legislation, which can be enforced through legal means. Policy and legislation may be used as drivers of change and reform in promoting an inclusive or exclusive education or act as barriers to the successful implementation of either education system. Regardless of location in the global North and South, all children have a right to an education, and these rights are upheld through various international human rights instruments facilitated by the United Nations. In 1948, the United Nations introduced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and declared the rights of everyone to an education while noting parents “have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children” (Article 26). While this declaration was not legally binding, it did outline fundamental human rights and an aspiration of common standards across the world. Expand and improve early childhood care and education. Provide free and compulsory primary education for all. Provide equitable access to learning and life skills for young people and adults. Increase adult literacy by 50%. Eliminate gender disparities by 2005 and achieve gender equality by 2015. Improve the overall quality of education (UNESCO 2000, pp. 3–4). Each of these goals either supported inclusion or inclusive practices or explored ways of reducing the barriers to inclusion and emphasized inclusive educational environments for all. This commitment to Education for All continued to be affirmed in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Miles and Singal (2010) raised concerns that UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Reports failed to suitably address how children with disabilities were still experiencing exclusion, discrimination, or disadvantage in education systems. These authors further highlighted that children with disabilities became less of a focus in the MDGs in comparison to the increased focus on gender and girls. With the ending of the MDG in 2015, a new target was set with the Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the creation of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Goal 4 focused on quality education and affirmed the continued commitment by many countries to inclusive education by identifying seven target areas to achieve by 2030 (VanderDussen Toukan 2017). These target areas focus on learners who have often been excluded from education systems, particularly those experiencing poverty and from minority groups such as different ethnicities, Indigenous people, and people with disabilities or additional needs (UNESCO 2017). With the focus on sustainable change in education, Hardy and Woodcock (2015) analyzed international inclusive education policies and found that the concept and practice of inclusion in schools was challenged by neoliberal policies, principles, and practices due to a focus on “success” of and by the individual. The authors highlighted discourses of diversity, difference, and deficit in the interpretation of inclusion policies across all countries with what they identified as a diversity-deficit spectrum. Repeatedly, challenges came down to a lack of understanding of difference and diversity and how to manage such in the education environment, while all countries demonstrated a lack of uniformity in their understanding of inclusion and inclusive education in theory and in practice (Selvaraj 2015). The introduction of various international United Nations treaties, including the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD; United Nations 2006), assisted with advocacy efforts in promoting, upholding, and realizing the rights of children with disabilities to an inclusive education. Policies and legislation vary for each country and affect the degree that Education for All, and inclusive education is implemented at a local level. The argument for inclusion or exclusion of specific students has often resulted in court litigation between key stakeholders (i.e., parents/carers, teachers, schools) as each side fights for their rights and for the court to mediate in determining a suitable outcome. Key considerations in determining an outcome may include in the best interests of the child, the least restrictive environment, and reasonable adjustments as each stakeholder argues their case and justifies their reasons for the inclusion or exclusion of a student. Farrell (2000) identified three problem areas with the argument for the right to inclusion and an inclusive education based on the human rights agenda and argument alone. Farrell (2000) suggested that the first problem is not related to the right to an education but that this right might be best met in a special school rather than a mainstream school. This author suggested the second problem is concerned with working out whose rights were being represented – the child, the parents, or the other students? The third problem identified by Farrell (2000) included the rights of parents to choose an educational environment, be it a special school or a mainstream school for their child. Inclusive/Exclusive Education in Practice Inclusive education as a concept has limited consensus on an exact definition; however, common features include the right of all students to participate in a regular or mainstream school and for their learning needs to be met through the reduction or elimination of barriers, so they can experience a quality education (Hyde 2015; Slee 2018). Some of the key concepts underlying inclusive education involve defining and describing the difference between inclusion, integration, segregation, and exclusion. Clarifying the difference between these concepts is useful because it assists in developing an understanding of inclusion and inclusive practices and can facilitate a more inclusive school environment (Ainscow and Sandill 2010). Key terms and definitions from inclusion to exclusion “Involves a process of systemic reform embodying changes and modifications in content, teaching methods, approaches, structures and strategies in education to overcome barriers with a vision serving to provide all students of the relevant age range with an equitable and participatory learning experience and environment that best corresponds to their requirements and preferences” “A process of placing persons with disabilities in existing mainstream educational institutions, as long as the former can adjust to the standardized requirements of such institutions” “Occurs when the education of students with disabilities is provided in separate environments designed or used to respond to a particular or various impairments, in isolation from students without disabilities” “Occurs when students are directly or indirectly prevented from or denied access to education in any form” Policy and legislation lay the foundation and framework for establishing the human rights of everyone to an education. A quality education that includes all learners, as recommended by SDG4, is an inclusive education that is achieved through two key concepts of inclusion and equity (UNESCO 2017). In 2017, UNESCO released A Guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education as a resource for countries on how to promote “child-, disability-, and gender-sensitive” education that promoted “safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all” (UNESCO 2017, p. 3). Understanding the concepts of inclusion and equity and embedding this within a national education framework and system Policy at a national level reflected and articulated inclusion and equity and transferred into education systems at all levels of leadership while challenging non-inclusive, inequitable, and discriminatory practices Structures and systems that provide resourcing for inclusion and equity in education Practices to support all learners including appropriate training and professional development of education staff in inclusive and equitable education practices (UNESCO 2017) Importantly, this guide still acknowledged resourcing of special provisions such as special schools and units to promote inclusion and equity in education (UNESCO 2017). This statement of resourcing of special schools and units may appear to be in conflict with the inclusive education movement promoting the full inclusion of all students and further contradicting General Comment 4 on the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which stated educating students in separate environments from their peers was a form of segregation (United Nations 2006, para 11) and thus exclusion. However, the guide emphasized that countries that have special schools and units played a role in supporting mainstream schools while they work toward more inclusive practices and countries without such services would still work toward inclusion and equity in education (UNESCO 2017). Planning for Inclusion Frameworks to Promote Inclusion Principle 1. Multiple Means of Engagement Principle 2. Multiple Means of Representation Principle 3. Multiple Means of Action and Expression Meyer et al. (2016) explained that each principle is associated with a guideline that is underpinned by research into the neuroscience of why, what, and how people learn. Principle 1 focused on the “why” of learning and promoting engaged and motivated learners. Principle 2 focused on the “what” of learning and promoting resourceful and knowledgeable learners, and Principle 3 focused on the “how” of learning and promoting strategic and goal-directed learners. Each of these principles is supported by guidelines that recommend various options for how to plan teaching and learning experiences, and all principles are meant to be utilized when planning and implementing instruction (Meyer et al. 2016). Overall, UDL is focused on design and extends beyond good teaching practices to purposely design and deliver learning experiences to increase student performance (Edyburn 2010). Another way to cater to the diverse learning needs of all students is through culturally responsive reaching (CRT). This approach to educating diverse learners encompasses four main areas of awareness, learning partnerships, information processing, and community of learners and learning environment (Kieran and Anderson 2018). Some of the principles supporting CRT include educational psychology foundations and understandings of child development and how this impacts learning combined with a strong emphasis on student-teacher relationships and building a community of learners while developing learning experiences that are varied, challenging, and meaningful (Kieran and Anderson 2018). Differentiating the Curriculum When the curriculum has not been designed at the outset using frameworks such as UDL or CRT or a combination of both, the curriculum is then identified as needing retrofitting through differentiated instruction (Stanford and Reeves 2009) to enable and promote equal access to education for students of varying abilities or individual needs. Stanford and Reeves (2009) explained that differentiated instruction had been used to cater to gifted students for many years prior to its introduction into regular classrooms. Other terms associated with differentiating the curriculum include modifications, accommodations, adjustments, or reasonable adjustments. Differentiation is described by Fitzgerald (2016) as “not a single strategy or set of strategies” but an “approach that considers individual differences in every task and provides flexibility in the ways that students are permitted to undertake their learning” (p. 18). Students readiness to learning Students learning profile including preferences, strengths, and challenges (Tomlinson 2014) This combination of assessment with instruction is important because assessment provides teachers with data on how to improve and modify their instructional practice daily and help students grow as independent learners (Tomlinson 2014). Alchin (2014) identified adjustments as a deficit approach to disability and cautioned that their continued use was a reactionary approach to designing curriculum and did not promote flexibility or reflect an inclusive and proactive approach to teaching and learning. Individualized Planning Needs Individualized or personalized planning is used to assist students with disabilities or additional needs to access the curriculum and educational environment. This plan may be in the form of an Individual Education Plan and may be title under a different name, depending on the educational context and global location. The focus of the plan is the student and making reasonable accommodations, adjustments, or modifications to the curriculum to enable their access to the teaching and learning activities within the school. This plan utilizes a strength-based approach and may or may not be legally mandated in each country. Data is gathered on the student throughout the process to help make decision and to inform practices used with the student. Teaching Strategies and Behavioral Approaches Inclusive teaching strategies begin with offering students meaningful and challenging learning experiences (Brownell et al. 2012) that use a strength-based approach to the curriculum design and delivery for all learners, regardless of educational setting from the early years to higher education. One of the strategies used to promote inclusive education is response to intervention (RtI). RtI is a three-tiered level prevention model framework focused on promoting the use of evidence-based instruction by using student data to inform teacher practice (Brownell et al. 2012; Greenwood and Kelly 2017). Increase in teacher professional learning attributed to RtI. Teachers acting as change agents. Acceptance and increased confidence over time. Trusting relationships and active leadership were essential for change. Need for continued professional development. Need to clarify roles among education professionals (Greenwood and Kelly 2017). A key concern in educational settings is teacher preparedness and the appropriate use of evidence-based practices (EBP) for children and students with additional needs (Smith and Tyler 2011). Implementing EBPs may be difficult due to a lack of access to current knowledge and training by education professionals. Smith and Tyler (2011) suggested time-poor education professionals were sourcing alternative solutions such as information via the Internet; therefore, a suitable solution would be accessing free online web resources and training provided by accredited organizations and research centers. Another instructional strategy promoted in inclusive settings is the use of collaborative co-teaching between regular and special education teachers in mainstream settings. Co-teaching may include parallel teaching, station teaching, alternative teaching, one-teach-one, and team teaching (Chitiyo and Brinda 2018). Teachers reported understanding the principles of co-teaching but difficulties in its implementation. Chitiyo and Brinda (2018) recommended more training be conducted on co-teaching strategies for beginning teacher education programs. While overall access to education is improving, barriers to participation in the classroom still exist for a range of diverse learners (Matavire et al. 2013). The exclusion of students through teaching strategies and approaches such as ability streaming in classrooms has been found to promote segregation of students and discriminatory attitudes and preferences in resourcing and attention between the different ability groups (Matavire et al. 2013). In Zimbabwe, research conducted in schools on ability streaming reported negative outcomes of decreased student self-concept and increased social conflict (Matavire et al. 2013). Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support An inclusive school environment adopts behavior management strategies such as schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS) or positive behavior intervention support (PBIS). SWPBS is a three-tiered behavior support framework (Tier I, Tier II, Tier III) to promote and guide positive behavior in schools (Horner et al. 2010). Tier I is universal supports provided to all students in all settings using direct instruction procedures. Tier II is secondary prevention designed for students not responding to the first tier of support and is manualized intervention strategies. Tier III is tertiary intervention for students who have not responded to the primary or secondary supports and has individualized supports designed to meet the unique needs of each student. Horner et al. (2010) recommend the use of a functional behavior assessment in combination with the collection of other academic and social data on the student to comprehensively complete a student behavior plan at this level. The use of restrictive practices and restraint or violence against children or students with disabilities is recognized as an issue, not only in society but also within mainstream settings (Nelson 2017). Article 16 of the CRPD (United Nations 2006) highlights and advocates for the rights of people with disabilities in relation to abuse and violence perpetrated against them and for the need to monitor, regulate, and legislate the protection of their rights. Measuring inclusion has been difficult to ascertain, implement, and accurately assess due to differing agreements on what and how to measure inclusive education (Loreman et al. 2014). Initially, the Index for Inclusion was developed by Booth and Ainscow (2002, revised 2011) and used considerably throughout the world. Some of the critiques of this measure included the material being too complex and the tool requiring additional support and professional development to successfully implement in schools (Loreman et al. 2014). An input-processes-outcomes model was developed by Kyriazopoulou and Weber (2009) to measure inclusive education based on available supports, what occurs during implementation and then the end outcomes of such. Loreman et al. (2014) recommend a “broad varied methodological approach” (p. 12) by “measuring aspects of access, support, policy, curriculum, pedagogy, quality teaching and assessment of achievement” (p. 13) at a whole-school level. Instruction provided by these assistants is to be supplementary. Teachers are to develop plans for the assistants using evidence-based practices. Teacher assistants/aides need training on implementation of these plans. Teacher assistants/aides need training on behavior management strategies. Ongoing monitoring and supervision is to be provided by professionals (Giangreco 2013). Family and Professional Collaboration When working with children or students with diverse learning needs, educators need to be mindful that it is not only the child or student that they are educating and engaging with but also the family. The term “family” or “families” is used to describe a range of family compositions which may or may not include family members with genealogical linkages (Sands et al. 2000). Family system theory promotes the idea of interconnectedness between each family member and how these connections impact external settings outside of the family, such as schools (Christian 2006). Families and their members are important to partnering with schools and professionals as they play a pivotal role in the child’s success in and outside of the school. Trust and honesty Mutually agreed-upon goals Shared planning and decision-making The role of parents in the parent/professional collaboration changes according to setting. In the early years, high-quality parent-educator relationships are recommended to address and problem-solve challenging behaviors that stem from living in poverty (Kuhn et al. 2016) and to address the exclusion that occurs so early in the education system from children being expelled from preschool or kindergarten (Gilliam and Reyes 2018). In 2014, the United States Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights (2014) Report revealed that school suspension rates in the preschool years were higher for Black children than White children and resulted in the government advocating for clearly articulated guidelines on suspensions and expulsions of preschoolers and for the use of preventative measures including early childhood mental health consultations. Ingólfsdóttir et al. (2018) noted the contradictions between policy-enacted understandings of a holistic and social model of disability approach to inclusive education embracing a family-centered approach, especially in the early years, with the service delivery that was heavily characterized by a medical model understanding of disability. In developing trusting partnerships with schools, parents of children with and without disabilities identified four main themes of communicating: establishing a sense of belonging, demonstrating professional competency and commitment, and building family leadership as contributing to a strong parent/professional relationship in mainstream schools (Francis et al. 2018). In post-secondary education, parents are encouraged to transition from a caregiver to an advisory role with a key goal of promoting self-determination of the child/adult in this setting (Francis et al. 2016). Barriers to Inclusion Insufficient training and resources Teacher apprehension about teaching inclusively Inadequate pre-service teacher training Support inclusion in theory, less in practice Underfunding, concerns about allocation of funding Release time for planning (Woodcock and Woolfson 2019) Similar to inclusive education, exclusive education is underpinned by social justice and equity. Concerns about the social inclusion or exclusion of all people in society transcend the education systems and extend into communities and wider political spheres. There are two potential types of exclusive education. The first type of exclusive education is where exclusion occurs in educational settings on the basis of a recognized disability, diversity, or additional need and has a negative connotation. Razer and Friedman (2017) described this cycle of exclusion as encompassing negative experiences felt by both students and educational professionals (teachers and principals). These authors identified how exclusive education was reinforced by “frames of exclusion” and the functioning of education staff within the education environment by either feeling “helpless to change the situation” or “deny the reality of the situation and deny any negative implications of their own action” (Razer and Friedman 2017, p. 147). Other types of exclusion occur when students are denied access to education due to gatekeeping practices at schools (Lilley 2013). The second type of exclusive education is where inclusion or exclusion of a select group of students occurs in an educational setting. These groups of students may include developing the skills and talents of gifted students in schools of excellence (Al-Shabatat 2014), developing students’ skills in sports through sporting academies (Pope 2002), or the separation of students into different schooling systems through selective entry (Skipper and Douglas 2016). At a systemic level, Slee (2018) argued exclusion was costly for two reasons. The first reason was the economic cost to governments and to families where providing segregated school systems put an extra burden on government finances in funding divided school systems, when an already existing system could promote inclusive education. This led to the second reason, which had economic, social, and health cost and implications for the government and society where segregation led to exclusion, underachievement, juvenile delinquency, and a pathway to the prison system costing the government in areas of social security, criminal justice, and health. At a global level, Mukherjee (2017) identified that exclusion in the South was affected by the colonization of different countries and political and geographical tensions such as changing borders of nation-states. These changes resulted in the oppression of local and Indigenous peoples by dominant cultural and ethnic groups by denying them access to education. This author highlighted how different cultural values impact on the success of inclusive education in the region and how these values further marginalize minority groups and work against inclusive education. Mukherjee (2017) argued against viewing inclusive education from a Western and linear historicist approach of “North,” “South,” “East,” “West,” and “First World, Second World, or Third World” countries and instead promoted a contextual and cultural approach to inclusive education. The Student Voice on Inclusion/Exclusion Stiefel et al. (2017) attempted to fill the gap in research on whether students feel more included upon receiving inclusive or exclusive forms of education and state that previous quantitative research has primarily focused on academic outcomes of inclusive education. Feeling included was examined across five areas in response to students’ feeling welcome, bullying, harassment, being known, and overall inclusion of students with disabilities in the school environment. The findings from Stiefel et al.’s (2017) study revealed little difference between students with disabilities and students without disability feeling included in regular classroom settings, despite receiving different services. Students indicated they felt only slightly less included with their peers but more included with their teachers. Transitioning to Society Inclusive education can be confronting for teachers, parents, and students because it prompts and challenges people to confront stereotypes and preconceived notions about humanity and to reconsider their belief systems, attitudes, and values toward people who demonstrate difference or deviant behavior. Peter (2007) referred to the philosophy of inclusive education as “the right of all individuals to a quality education with equal opportunity – one that develops their potential and respects their human dignity” (p. 99). The next step after the education system is for students with additional or special needs to transition into society. There are a range of transition strategies and programs on offer for students with additional needs (Richardson et al. 2017) to transition into employment and the community; however, to be truly inclusive, it is advocated that inclusion starts from the beginning and with the hearts and minds of people living alongside each other every day, in the home and wider society. - Alchin G (2014) Is reasonable adjustment a deficit ideology? Spec Educ Perspect 23(1):3–6. http://aase.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/documents/SEP-Contents-Vol-23-No-13.pdf. Accessed 13 Mar 2019Google Scholar - Armstrong A, Armstrong D, Spandagou I (2010) Inclusive education: international policy and practice. SAGE, LondonGoogle Scholar - Ashman A (2019) Education for inclusion and diversity, 6th edn. Pearson Australia, MelbourneGoogle Scholar - Booth T, Ainscow M (2002) Index for inclusion: developing learning and participation in schools. Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education, BristolGoogle Scholar - Brownell MT, Smith SJ, Crockett JB, Griffin CC (2012) Inclusive instruction: evidence-based practices for teaching students with disabilities. The Guilford Press, New YorkGoogle Scholar - Christian LG (2006) Understanding families: applying family systems theory to early childhood practice. Young Child 61(1):12–20Google Scholar - D’Alessio S, Watkins A (2009) International comparison of inclusive policy and practice: are we talking about the same thing? Res Comp Int Educ 4(3):233–249. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/rcie.2009.4.3.233. Accessed 15 July 2018CrossRefGoogle Scholar - Fitzgerald P (2016) Differentiation for all literacy levels in mainstream classrooms. Lit Learn Middle Years 24(2):17–25. https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=041587236073899;res=IELHSS. Accessed 2 Feb 2019Google Scholar - Hyde M (2015) Creating inclusive schools. In: Hyde M, Carpenter L, Conway R (eds) Diversity, inclusion and engagement, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, pp 353–364Google Scholar - Kieran L, Anderson C (2018) Connecting universal design for learning with culturally responsive teaching. Educ Urban Soc 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124518785012 - Kyriazopoulou M, Weber H (eds) (2009) Development of a set of indicators – for inclusive education in Europe. European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, OdenseGoogle Scholar - Mackenzie M, Cologon K, Fenech M (2016) ‘Embracing everybody’: approaching the inclusive early childhood education of a child labelled with autism from a social relational understanding of disability. Australas J Early Childhood 41(2):4–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/183693911604100202CrossRefGoogle Scholar - Matavire M, Mpofu V, Maveneka A (2013) Streaming practices and implications in the education system: a survey of Mazowe district, Zimbabwe. J Soc Sci Policy Implic 1(1):60–70. http://ir.buse.ac.zw/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11196/613/streaming%20practice.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed 30 Mar 2019Google Scholar - Meyer A, Rose DH, Gordon D (2016) Universal design for learning: theory and practice. Cast Professional Publishing, WakefieldGoogle Scholar - Mukherjee M (2017) Global design and local histories: culturally embedded meaning-making for inclusive education. Int Educ J Comp Perspect 16(3):32–48. https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/IEJ/article/view/12169/11454. Accessed 15 Nov 2018Google Scholar - Razer M, Friedman VJ (2017) From exclusion to excellence: building restorative relationships to create inclusive schools. UNESCO International Bureau of Education/Sense PublishersGoogle Scholar - Sands DJ, Kozleski EB, French NK (2000) Inclusive education for the 21st century. Wadsworth Thomson Learning, BelmontGoogle Scholar - Slee R (2018) Defining the scope of inclusive education. Paper commissioned for the 2020 Global Education Monitoring Report, inclusion and education. http://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/MINEDU/5977/Defining%20the%20scope%20of%20inclusive%20education.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Accessed 15 Sept 2018 - Stanford B, Reeves S (2009) Making it happen: using differentiated instruction, retrofit framework, and universal design for learning. Teach Except Child Plus. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ967757.pdf. Accessed 12 Feb 2019 - Tomlinson C (2014) The differentiated classroom: responding to the needs of all learners, 2nd edn. ASCD, AlexandriaGoogle Scholar - U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights (2014) Civil rights data collection. Data snapshot: early childhood education. Author, Washington, DC. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/crdc-early-learning-snapshot.pdf. Accessed 25 Mar 2019 - United Nations (2006) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 - United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1994) The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 - United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2000) Education for All: meeting our collective commitments. Notes on the Dakar Framework for Action. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001202/120240e.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 - United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2017) A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002482/248254e.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2018 - VanderDussen Toukan E (2017) Expressions of liberal justice? Examining the aims of the UN’s sustainable development goals for education. Interchange 48(3): 293–309. https://eric.ed.gov/?redir=http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1007%2fs10780-017-9304-3. Accessed 18 Nov 2018CrossRefGoogle Scholar - United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (2016) General comment No. 4. Article 24: Inclusive education. Retrieved from https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/4&Lang=en. Accessed 10 Aug 2019

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By Kevin Rey, Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand. Around 260 million years ago, the earth was dominated by mammal like reptiles called therapsids. The largest of these therapsids were the dinocephalians, a genus composed of several herbivorous and carnivorous species. Then something enormous happened: a mass extinction event killed off between 75% and 80% of all the creatures that lived on land around the world. Many ocean creatures were also rendered extinct. The dinocephalians were wiped out. Several hypotheses have been offered about what could have provoked this mass extinction. For instance, many scientists have favoured the notion that a volcanic eruption was the trigger. It has been demonstrated that at the time of the extinction interval a gigantic volcanic eruption occurred at Emeishan in the south of China that lasted for almost two million years. It released around 300 000 km³ of lava. My colleagues and I wondered whether a change in climate might have caused or contributed to the mass extinction in South Africa. So we examined environmental change during the extinction event in what’s today the western and northern Cape of South Africa. We studied the fossil teeth of Diictodon feliceps, a small herbivorous therapsid which lived before the extinction event and survived through it (as with much else from this period, we don’t know how the species survived the catastrophe). Our findings suggest that a local event rather than a global shift in climate was to blame for the mass extinction in South Africa. Specifically, we propose that deformations in the Cape Fold Mountains meant there was less water available; species in the region were decimated. This marks the first time that data has shown a correlation between the mass extinction event and an event of aridification – the process that occurs when a region becomes increasingly dry. It’s a long-term shift in climate rather than a seasonal variation. Our findings are supported by earlier work conducted on sediment which showed a decrease in river and stream output in the basin of the Cape Fold Mountains during that time. It seems from this study that while the Emeishan eruption may have triggered the mass extinction event other more local events might have amplified it. Teeth reveal climate secrets Fossil teeth contain different atoms, like oxygen or carbon, which are represented with several “forms”, called isotopes. Examining their ratio allows scientists to interpret how the humidity and temperature were changing when the animal in question was alive. The teeth we studied showed that an aridification – a decrease in humidity as produced by water supply or rainfall – occurred at the time of the extinction. But there was no change in temperature. This suggested that global climate change didn’t lead to the mass extinction, since in the case of global climate shifts humidity and temperature changes go together. Our focus was on the stable oxygen and carbon isotope compositions in the fossil teeth. Several factors can affect the ratio between the different isotope of these elements. For instance the ratio of oxygen isotopes is correlated with the air temperature of the environment; for carbon, the isotope ratio depends on the water availability. This makes it a good proxy to estimate an environment’s aridity. Measuring the oxygen and carbon isotope composition in the teeth helped us estimate the temperature and the aridity of the environment where the animal lived. Originally published in The Conversation

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In agriculture, the use of soil testing and soil maps are important in determining the nutrients available or finding deficiencies. Soil testing can also be useful to backyard gardeners and homeowners, to allow the successful growth of plants. In this project, students will work in groups to test a local soil sample in the following areas: pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium and create a soil map to present to the class. Lesson #1- Students will become familiar with what a soil map is utilizing the USDA soil survey website. Lesson #2- Students will test a local soil sample for pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. Lesson #3- Students will utilize soil testing results to create a soil map. Lesson #4- For the final lesson, students will share their soil map with the class and look at the bigger picture of the impact of the soil type on the community. This project is brought to you by Katie Titus (CTE) with support from the CTE Online curriculum leadership team and detailed coordination provided by the Course Team Lead Laura Gallardo.

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A Basic Introduction to HTML HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is the main markup language for creating web pages and other information that can be displayed in a web browser. HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting of tags enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>), within the web page content. HTML tags most commonly come in pairs like <h1>(opening tag) and </h1>(closing tag), although some tags, known as empty elements, are unpaired, for example <img>. The first tag in a pair is the start tag, and the second tag is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags). In between these tags web designers can add text, tags, comments and other types of text-based content. [wikipedia] HTML is often called a programming language but it is not. Programming languages are ‘Turing-complete’, or ‘computable’. That is, programming languages can be used to compute something such as the square root of pi or some other such task. Typically programming languages use conditional branches and loops and operate on data structures. HTML is much easier than all of that. HTML is simply a ‘markup language’ used to define a logical structure rather than compute anything. Another common sloppy abuse of terminology is ‘alt tags’ – no such thing, but ‘alt’ is an attribute of the ‘img’ tag. Tags, and Attributes Tags specify structural elements in a document, such as headings: <h2> Tags and Attributes </h2> Tags begin with a left-angle bracket < and end with a right-angle bracket >. The first word between the angle brackets is the tag’s name. Any further words and characters are the attributes, e.g. align="right". A tag is therefore the basic ‘item’, and an attribute is some extra detail such as how to align the content. An element comprises three parts: a start tag, content, and an end tag. Most tags possess ‘closing tags’ such as </h2> which mark the place where the effect of the ‘opening’ tag should stop. Tags are case-insensitive. You can write them in small letters, big letters, or any mixture. A common convention is to write them in caps so they stand out from the rest of the document. Tags should nest properly: if you want for example to make a part of the header in italics: <h2> Tags <i>and</i> Attributes </h2> Also, HTML documents are free-format – you can use spaces and tabs anyhow you like, and break lines anywhere. White space and line breaks will not affect the document appearance in a browser except when used inside certain special tags which we’ll describe later. Some people find HTML can be hard to read. This need not be so if it’s written tidily. My own preference is to indent the text by one tab, so that the source has a left margin. Structural tags can then be placed in the margin, and it’s easy to read the source. Browsers allow a great deal of flexibility about which tags you need to put into a web page. If you are designing your pages for only one browser that may be fine, but as soon as you want to support several browsers then you might want to look into validation, which is the process of checking HTML documents against the standards. An HTML document consists of two main parts: the head, and the body. The basic document structure is <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> ... </head> <body> ... </body> </html> The head contains information about the document, such as links to pages that could be preloaded; and the body contains the document to be displayed. The main head element you need to know about is the <title> tag. Every document should have a title – it appears as a ‘label’ on the browser window, and when a user bookmarks it or looks in their history list – it’s the text they’ll see. Take care to make the title a good meaningful one. “Introduction” isn’t much help if the user can’t remember what was being introduced. <title>A Basic Introduction to HTML</title> Another useful Head tag is the <meta> tag if you want to optimise your pages for search engines. Here’s a slightly more realistic HTML document: 1:<!DOCTYPE html><html> 2:<head> 3: <title>A Simple Document</title> 4: <meta name = "Keywords" 5: content = "Hypertext"> 6:</head> 7:<body> 8:... This stuff is what the user sees ... 9:</body> 10:</html> The numbers and colons are not part of the HTML file, but serve to associate the following comments with the lines above: - Declares this to be an HTML document (version 5) - The head contains items that are about the document. - The title used in the browser title bar, bookmark lists, listings, etc. - Meta tags can be used to add information not already specified in the HTML/HTTP system. - Some search engines make use of these keywords, as well as those in the body. - Closes the head. - body contains the document’s displayable content. - Text markup commands. View this document source for examples.. - Closes the body. - Closes the HTML. HTML also supports interactive forms, “hotspots” in pictures, more versatile formatting choices and styles, and formatted lists, as well as several other improvements, such as an e-mail URL, so hyperlinks can be made to send e-mail mechanically. For example, choosing an e-mail address in a portion of hypertext opens a mail application, ready to send e-mail to that address. Now we’ll move on to body tags. This is where the action is.. The line just above was a header, i.e. a title for a new section of the document. There are 6 headers: h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, and h6. H1 is the “main” header, usually used once at the top of the document. H6 is the “smallest” header and is rarely used, though it’s often abused to make small bold text (use the FONT tag or style sheets instead). One of the original philosophies about HTML was that it should be designed for software tools to extract useful information from HTML documents. The header tags were supposed to be useful for generating a ‘table of contents’. The fundamental feature of the WWW that makes it so powerful is of course, hypertext links. The tag that creates those links is called the anchor tag (A). It has one commonly used attribute: href, which specifies the URL of the target document. <img src = "/Icons/graphics.gif"> The above example shows the simplest way to make an inline image. You can wrap it inside anchor tags and then it will be a clickable image: <a href = "../../Graphics/"> <img src = "/Icons/graphics.gif"></a> But it’s a good idea to specify the image dimensions (allows the browser to lay out the page sooner) and what to do if the browser doesn’t have image support or if the user has image loading turned off. <a href = "../../Graphics/"> <img src = "/Icons/graphics.gif" width = "108" height = "44" border = "0" hspace = "16" alt = "Graphics" align = "left" ></a> Let’s see how to emphasise some text.. Let's see how to <em>emphasise</em> some text.. em is called a logical style: you specify what you’re trying to do, rather than how to do it. Another one is strong. Another one is <strong>strong</strong>. Emphasis is usually indicated with italics. Emphasis is usually indicated with <i>italics</i>. ‘Strong’ is usually rendered as bold. 'Strong' is usually rendered as <b>bold</b>. And if you want something to appear exactly as you typed it, use pre. And if you want something to appear exactly as you typed it, use pre. Note that HTML tags are still obeyed inside pre. If you want to use angle brackets or HTML tags then either write < for < and write > for >. And the font tag lets you do more.. <font size="5" color="red"> And the font tag lets you do more.. </font> Paragraphs and Line Breaks As mentioned above – white space and line breaks are ignored by the browser except inside special tags. You have therefore to provide tags to indicate them. If you want a line break use and if you want a paragraph break (i.e. line break and then an empty line between paragraphs) use The paragraph tag has an optional closing tag </p>. There are several kinds of lists. Three important ones are An ordered list has numbered items. To make the above list: <ol> <li> Ordered. <li> Unordered. <li> Definition. </ol> To make it without numbered items: A definition list looks like this: - Ordered Lists. - The list items are ordered, e.g. by numerals. - Unordered Lists. - The list items aren’t ordered particularly. - Definition Lists. - The list items have two parts: a title DT and a description DD. A definition list is made like this: <dl> <dt> Ordered Lists. <dd> The list items are ordered, e.g. by numerals. <p> <dt> Unordered Lists. <dd> The list items aren't ordered. <p> <dt> Definition Lists. <dd> The list items have two parts: a title dt and a description dd. </dl> Tables consist of rows containing headers and data cells: |Table||table||A table like this| |Row||tr||A row like this| |Data||td||Plain, left aligned| <table border="2" cellpadding="8" bgcolor="white"> <tr><th> Name </th><th> Tag</th> <th> Typical Appearance </th></tr> <tr><th> Table </th><th> table</th> <td>A table like this </td></tr> <tr><th> Row </th><th> tr </th> <td> A row like this </td></tr> <tr><th> Head </th><th> th </th> <td> Bold, centered </td></tr> <tr><th> Data </th><th> td </th> <td> Plain, left aligned</td></tr> </table> The table tag attributes used here are - The table’s background color. You can also use this attribute in the table cells. - specifies the width in pixels for the border (0 for no border); - How much space between the border and the cell contents. With HTML you can create your own Web site. This tutorial teaches you everything about HTML. HTML is easy to learn – You will enjoy it. This HTML tutorial contains hundreds of HTML examples. With our online HTML editor, you can edit the HTML, and click on a button to view the result. The HTML Beginner Tutorial assumes that you have absolutely no previous knowledge of HTML or CSS. It should be easy to follow if you work through each page and then, to celebrate, everything that’s covered is brought together at the end, before moving on to the CSS Beginner Tutorial. The primary thing to keep in mind, the supermagic key, is that HTML is used for meaning and CSS is used for presentation. HTML is nothing more than fancy structured content and the visual formatting of that content will come later when we tackle CSS. You might find different approaches elsewhere on the web but HTML Dog focuses on best practice from the outset and getting into the frame of mind of doing things the right way from the start will lead to much better results in the end.

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Viral replication is the process by which a virus makes copies of itself. It can lead to thousands of new viral particles being released into the host's body, infecting new cells and leading to the symptoms of disease. Viruses are small and lightweight, roughly 1/10th the size of a bacterial cell. While these traits make viruses more mobile, it means they lack the basic cell structure necessary to replicate themselves. One metaphor for this is people living in a post-apocalyptic world. At first, all the people live in the forest, and they have to carry everything they need with them to survive: their shelter, clothing, food supply, weapons, and anything else they might need to fight off predators or the elements. These are like normal cells. Then one group, the viruses, stumble across a deserted village. They move from house to house, so eventually they stop carrying their shelters. They realize there is packaged food in some of the houses, and that if they carry a knife to open the packaging, they can get rid of the rest of their hunting equipment and food supplies. This group, the viruses, can no longer survive in the open elements, because their lifestyle has changed. They have lost abilities that were once central to defining them. But, they live more comfortable lives that allow them to travel, adapt, and learn new skills. The most important of these skills is developing new ways to break into houses. The group of people (normal cells) that still lives outdoors, meanwhile, devotes more time to survival. They must rebuild the same shelters over and over and spend many hours hunting and gathering food. Their population is less diverse, but can still survive outside of houses. Because most definitions of life include the ability to self-replicate, there is a long-standing debate over whether or not viruses are alive. Although many textbooks still classify them as non-living, there is growing evidence that viruses share a long evolutionary history with cells and should be considered alive . Regardless of whether or not they are alive, viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. They have their own genome, but can only reproduce inside a host cell. In order to create more viral particles, the virus must invade a host cell and take control of it without destroying it (at least for a while). Once the virus has installed itself in the nucleus, the command center of the host cell, it turns the cell into a virus factory, using the infected organism's own resources to create more disease-causing particles. Depending on the type, viruses can infect animals, plants, or bacteria (these types of viruses are often called bacteriophages, or just phages). Viral replication leads to disease symptoms, directly or indirectly. Sometimes, the daughter cells made through viral replication are stored inside the host cell until they reach a critical mass that causes the cell to burst open. This can cause damage to the infected tissue or organ. Viral activity can also stimulate the host's immune system, causing symptoms like inflammation and fever. Viruses are small and lightweight compared to plant or animal cells. At a minimum, they contain nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protein shell called a capsid. Successful viruses invade a cell without damaging it extensively, allowing the virus to use the organelles to make its own products. In order to accomplish this, the virus often has an extra envelope surrounding the capsid. This outermost membrane has specialized proteins on it that interact with receptors on host cells, allowing the virus to gain access to the cell without alerting the immune system. Some viruses can infect only one species of plant, animal, or bacteria. Others are more generalized. Influenza, for example, can spread from livestock to humans. The limitation on host cells available to a virus is known as its host range. The host range is determined by a "lock-and-key" recognition system between proteins on the outside of the virus and receptors on the host cell. This attachment process involves viral capsids bonding to receptors on the host cell. It is a evolved trait of particularly successful viruses to attach only to those cells that will allow them to replicate. Once the virus has entered the host cell, it must transfer its genetic material into the nucleus of the host. Depending on the species, the entire virus may enter the nucleus, or it may inject its genetic material through the nuclear membrane while remaining in the cytoplasm. The virus then uses the raw materials and infrastructure of the cell (such as enzymes, amino acids, and organelles) to manufacture capsid proteins and replicate the viral genome. These parts then self-assemble into new virus particles, which can exit the cell and infect more healthy host cells. Phages with dsDNA have two different strategies of reproducing. All phages use the lytic cycle, which ends with the death of the host cell as it is split open to release the new phages. Phages that only replicate in this manner are called virulent phages. By contrast, temperate phages use both the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle to reproduce. In the lysogenic cycle, the phage DNA integrates into the host cell's DNA undetected. The host cell is then classified as a prophage. When the prophage undergoes normal cell division, the viral DNA is replicated along with the bacterial DNA, creating two functional bacterial cells that are both prophages. These cells can continue to divide, rapidly creating a large number of prophages. Eventually, something triggers the viral material within the prophage to switch from lysogenic mode to lytic mode, and the host cell is destroyed. As small as viruses are, infectious agents can go even smaller. Viroids dicovered by T.O Diener are circular RNA molecules that have a low molecular weight and can infect plants. Rather than overtaking the nucleus of the cell and coding for proteins, the viroid just reproduces itself with existing enzymes. Eventually, the viroid load alters cellular regulation and affects the plant's growth. Prions are even smaller. They are the misfolded proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases like mad cow disease or Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and Creutzfeldt-Jakob syndrome. These infectious, nearly-indestructible proteins cannot self-replicate, but they can induce normal proteins in the brain to misfold into the same abnormal shape. The prions then aggregate into a chain that eventually disrupts brain function. Arshan Nasir and Gustavo Caetano-Anollés. A phylogenomic data-driven exploration of viral origins and evolution. Science Advances, September 2015 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1500527 Image from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg under Creative Commons licensing for reuse and modification. Image from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phage.jpg under Creative Commons licensing for reuse and modification. Image from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phageinjectingitsgenomeintobacterialcell.png under Creative Commons licensing for reuse and modification.

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In this activity, students can practice two very specific skills dealing with trigonometry. The first is simply being able to correctly place the names of the sides of a right triangle (opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse). Students drag the side names and then can check their answers and then randomly generate another triangle to try again. The second is one where a random triangle is generated that shows information about two sides and one angle. Students then drag parts of an equation to create a trig ratio equation. They can check their answer and then randomly generate other right angled triangle to try again. This is not meant to be something that a student uses for a long length of time but instead just some quick practice to re enforce the basic ideas from trig ratios. - MFM2P, MPM2D - determine, through investigation (e.g., using dynamic geometry software, concrete materials), the relationship between the ratio of two sides in a right triangle and the ratio of the two corresponding sides in a similar right triangle, and define the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios. - MCR3U, MCF3M, MBF3C - As review - You can also use this on any web based computer (or Chromebook) with this Web sketch

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As we are wrapping up our first unit, here is a list of the objectives that we covered so far. You are expected to be able to: - Determine the number of valence electrons in an element - Represent atoms using Lewis notation - Describe the position and electrical charge of the elementary particles in an atom (proton, electron, neutron) - Represent an atom of a given element using the simplified atomic model - Define the mole as the unit of measure of the amount of a substance - Express an amount of a substance in moles - Define isotopes as atoms of the same element whose nuclei have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different atomic masses - Explain the concept of relative atomic mass You can use this as a checklist while you are studying. All of these objectives will be covered on the test. You will get this Periodic Table on your test, but no formulas. (Note that the Periodic Table and last year’s exam formula sheet are stored in Sakai Resources > Useful Documents).

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Let's start with a simple crater, one that's less than about 8 kilometers (5 miles) wide. When fresh, these have bowl-shaped profiles with low, raised rims. Around them may be a rumpled blanket of debris, also known as ejecta, tossed out by the force of impact. A simple crater is born in the impact of a solid object — rocky, stony-iron, or icy. The object may have been orbiting the Sun for billions of years, but finally its path intersects with Mars. The impactor streaks through the thin atmosphere and slams into the surface at speeds of 2 kilometers (1 mile) per second or more. Making a crater follows four basic stages: contact, compression, excavation, and finally modification. Let's follow what happens in each stage. After contacting the surface, the impactor's momentum carries it a short distance into the ground, a bit less than the body's diameter. The impact sends shock waves into the ground and backward through the impactor, compressing both. The shock waves cause the rocky materials to flow like toothpaste. They also heat them to melting — or vaporize them. Part of the impactor shoots back out as a jet of super-hot gas. Next comes excavation. The shock waves expand violently in every direction, which is why all but nearly horizontal impacts make circular craters. In the ground, the shock waves push down, then outward, then up. This enlarges the cavity into a bowl, throwing liquid rock, fragments, and larger rocks from the newborn crater. The shock also lifts target rock layers and flips them over on themselves, making the crater's upraised rim. In the last stage, modification, broken rock inside the bowl slides down to the bottom, piling up as a kind of shattered rubble that scientists call breccia. This action also widens the rim by about 10 percent. Mixed with bits of impact-melted rock, the breccia fills the original cavity about half full. The end result is a crater roughly five times wider than it is deep. The whole show is over in about 10 seconds.

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United States Constitution And Slavery Thomas Jefferson proclaimed America’s ideals of freedom and equality among men in the Declaration of Independence. Still during that period more than 500,000 black Americans were hold as slaves by many colonists, especially Southern ones, as their economy heavily relied upon slavery. Eleven years later, on May 1787, the new Constitution was ratified in Philadelphia and a compromise had to be found to represent the interest of all states. In Southern states a large number of slaves was present, and for this reason delegates from the South wanted to grant them the right to vote in order to obtain enough members in the House of Representatives. On the other hand, counting them as persons meant they had to be granted the right to freedom that would collapse Southerner’s economy. For this reason they were counted as three-fifths of a person, yet framers purposely avoided mentioning the term “slave”, and resorted to appointing them as “all other Persons” who weren’t “free Persons”. Even though they still were counted less than a free citizen, for the first time in American history, they were acknowledged as proper human beings and not as a mere property possessed by a master. As slavery was so critical to ensure a steady flow of money into slaveholder pockets, which in turn was heavily taxed by the Government, slave trade was necessary to import fresh slaves from Africa. A new compromise was then worked out: the Congress could only ban the slave trade after 1808, as described in the so-called “slave trade clause”. Tensions between North and South kept rising, especially after the “fugitive clause” was enforced in 1850, allowing escaped slaves to be chased into the North and caught. Many free black men were illegally kidnapped to be returned to slavery, to address the diminishing number of new slaves resulting from the slave trade ban. After Civil War erupted in 1861, President Abraham on January 1, 1863 finally changed the legal status of slaves within Confederacy territories, appointing them “free men” through the Emancipation Proclamation. On December 18, 1865 the United States Constitution officially abolished slavery by adopting the Thirteenth Amendment, confirming their post-war status of free people. Although the first ideals of equality were expressed in Declaration of Independence, America needed almost a full century to fully acknowledge black people their right to freedom, establish their rights and abolish slavery.

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To be able to add and subtract, students normally pass through several phases as they build readiness for these operations with numbers. As teachers, we know oral counting does not necessarily indicate an understanding of numbers and sets, just like reciting the alphabet doesn’t necessarily mean a child can recognize letters and sounds. Read ahead for freebies in the Part-Part-Whole section. Numerical Fluency Continuum: There are 7 steps to numerical fluency. If a child gets stuck on any of these steps, it may very likely halt their progress. Hopefully children move through these by the end of 2nd grade, but many students beyond that level have a breakdown which is likely because they missed one of these stages. Can you determine which of these stages your students are in? One-to-one correspondence: The ability to count objects so each object counted is matched with one number word. Inclusion of set: Does a child realize that the last number counted names the number of objects in the set? A child counts 5 objects. When you ask how many, can they state “5.” If you mix them up after they just counted them, do they realize there are still 5? Counting on: If a child counts 5 objects and the teacher then puts 2 more objects for the child to count, do they start all over or continue counting from 5? 5 . . . 6, 7. Subitizing:Recognize an amount without physically counting (ie on dice, dot cards, fingers). More Than / Less Than / Equal To: Can a child look at two sets of objects and tell whether the second set is more, less, or equal to the first set. Can a child build a second set with one more, one less, or equal to the first set? Part / Part / Whole: Compose and decompose sets by looking at the whole and the parts that make up the whole. 7 is the “focus number” 1 and 6 are bonds of 7 Unitizing: The child is able to move from counting by ones to count by sets / groups: fives, tens, etc. This post will focus on ways to use a 100 chart to teach or review several math standards in the number sense and number operations strands (all grade levels). Each of these strategies can be completed in just a few minutes, making them perfect for your daily math meeting. Choose from counting, number recognition, number order, less/greater than, odd/even, addition, subtraction, multiplication, number patterns, skip counting, mental math, 1 more/less, 10 more/less, etc. You can use a 1-100 chart poster on the smartboard, in poster form, or as a pocket chart. The pocket chart is the most versatile. See an example here: enasco.com pocket chart Here is also a link to little colored transparent pieces that can be placed in the pockets to highlight chosen numbers: enasco.com pocket chart transparent inserts I often show students that a 100 chart is actually just a giant number line all squished together instead of spread out across the room. To do this, I print off a chart, cut it into rows, tape the rows together, then highlight each multiple of 10. Second concept is that the lower numbers are at the top, and the higher numbers are at the bottom. Counting, Number Order, and Place Value Instead of starting with a full 100 chart, start with an empty chart. Add 1 number per day in order, building toward the 100th day of school. This would be suggested for KG level. For other grade levels: Start with the numbers 1-10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100. Put the rest of the number pieces in a jar, baggy, or container. Draw one or more numbers at random each day and assist students in placing the number where it belongs. Example: If you draw out 45, let’s look at the one’s place (5) and know that it belongs in the same column as the 5. Let’s look at the ten’s place. We know it is greater than 40, but less than 50 so this helps us know which row it belongs in. As you progress, start using the currently placed numbers to help locate the new numbers. “I need to place 67. I see 57 is already on our chart and know that 67 is ten more, so I place it directly underneath.” Number Thief Game: After your chart is filled, try this game. After the children have left for the day, remove a few of the pieces. Then during your math meeting the next day, the children try to identify the missing numbers. Read how this blogger describes it: “Swiper” at petersons-pad.blogspot.com Number locating: Just practice locating numbers quickly. If asked to find 62, does the student start at 1 and look and look until they find it? Or can they go right to the 60s row? Place Value Pictures: You can’t do this on your hundred chart at meeting time, but there are dozens of picture-making worksheets available for free on TPT in which students follow coloring directions to reveal a hidden picture. Students get much better with locating numbers quickly with this type of practice. Guess My Number: This is great for reviewing various number concepts. Here are a variations of guessing games. You can use with 1-100 chart, or 100-200, etc. Teacher writes a number secretly on a piece of paper (ex: 84). The teacher gives a single clue about the number, such as: “My number is greater than 50.” Then let 2-3 students guess the number. Confirm that they at least guessed a number greater than 50. Redirect if not. If you have the little colored inserts, place one in each of the incorrect numbers so students will know what was already guessed. If you don’t have those, just write the guessed numbers somewhere where students can see. Give a new clue after every 2-3 guesses until someone guesses the number. After guessing correctly, I always show the students the number I had originally written down so they will know I was on-the-level. Here are some example clues for the secret number 84: My number is even. In my number, the one’s place is less than the ten’s place. My number is less than 90. My number is greater than 70. If you add the 2 digits together, you get 12. The one’s digit is half of the ten’s digit. Again, affirm good guesses because at first there may be several numbers that fit your clue. Yes or No: This is almost a backward version of Guess My Number. Try this one after students are well-versed with the above game. It starts out the same though. Teacher selects a number. Then students have 10 tries to guess the number. They ask you questions, which can only be answered “yes” or “no.” Keep track on a chart paper of their questions and your answers. Some sample questions students could ask: Is your number even? Is your number greater than 50? Is your number in the sixties? Is your number less than 90? Are both of the digits even? Some higher level questions could deal with multiples (Is your # a multiple of 2? Is your number divisible by 4?)

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Introduction to Python Operators Python is a high level, powerful, general purpose programming language created by Guido van Rossum in 1991. Python is initially programmed in C and thus many of the syntax followed finds its origin from C based syntax. Python is an interpreted language which makes it different from Compiled language like C and C++. In this article, we learn more about the Python Operators. It has a program code inbuilt called interpreter that runs the code, thus focusing on to the “what to do” rather than “how to do” part of the problem. Operators in python are constructs in python which instructs the interpreter to perform a certain function, however, these are traditionally not defined as a function rather they are syntactically and semantically different from functions. Operators are used to performing operations on variables and values according to their use. Python language supports the following types of operators. - Arithmetic Operators - Bitwise Operators - Membership Operators - Identity Operators - Comparison Operators - Assignment Operators - Logical Operators 1. Arithmetic Operator Arithmetic operators used to perform mathematical operations |+||Addition||a+b||Returns sum of the operands| |–||Subtraction||a-b||Returns Difference of the operands| |/||Division||a/b||Returns Quotient of the operands| |*||Multiplication||a*b||Returns product of the operands| |**||Exponentiation||a**b||returns exponent of a raised to the power b| |%||Modulus||a%b||returns remainder of the division| |//||Floor division||a//b||returns real value and ignores decimal part| Let us consider an example program for carrying out the arithmetic operations explained above Let us consider two integers Xa=2 and Xb=3 Xa = int(input('Enter First number: ')) Xb = int(input('Enter Second number: ')) add = Xa + Xb diff = Xa - Xb mul = Xa * Xb div = Xa / Xb floor_div = Xa // Xb power = Xa ** Xb modulus = Xa % Xb print('Sum of the numbers is',Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',add) print('Difference of the numbers is ',Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',diff) print('Product of the numbers is ' ,Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',mul) print('Division of the numbers is ',Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',div) print('Floor Division of the numbers is ',Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',floor_div) print('Exponent of the numbers is ',Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',power) print('Modulus of the numbers is ',Xa ,'and' ,Xb ,'is :',modulus) 2. Bitwise Operators Refers to the operators working on bit i.e. they treat the operand as a string of bit for example in bitwise operations 5 will be considered as 0101. 4.8 (2,585 ratings) The box below provides the bitwise operators in python |&||Binary AND||a&b||copies a bit to the result if it exists in both operands| ||||Binary OR||a|b||copies a bit if it exists in either operand.| |^||Binary XOR||a^b||copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not both.| |~||Binary One’s Complement||a~b||Unary operation of flipping bits| |<<||Binary Left Shift||a<<b||left operands value is moved left by the number of bits specified by the right operand.| |>>||Binary Right Shift||a>>b||left operands value is moved right by the number of bits specified by the right operand.| 3. Membership Operators Refers to the operators used in validation of membership of operand test in a sequence, such as strings, lists, or tuples. There are two types of membership operators in python |in||if (a in x):||Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the specified sequence and false otherwise.| |not in||If ( b not in x ):||Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in the specified sequence and false otherwise.| 4. Identity Operators Used to compare the memory locations of the operands, they are quite often used to determine if the operand is of a particular type, there are two types of identity operators in python. |is||x is y||returns True if the type of the value in y points to the same type in the x.| |is not||x is not y||returns True if the type of the value in y points to a different type than the value in the x| 5. Comparison Operators Also known as Relational operators, these operators are used in determining the relation between the operand on either side of the operator. |==||(a == b)||If the values of a and b are equal, then the condition becomes true.| |!=||(a != b)||If values of a and b are not equal, then condition becomes true.| |<>||(a <> b)||If values of a and b are not equal, then condition becomes true.| |>||(a > b)||If the value of a is greater than the value of b, then condition becomes true.| |<||(a < b)||If the value of a is less than the value of b, then condition becomes true.| |>=||(a >= b)||If the value of a is greater than or equal to the value of b, then condition becomes true.| |<=||(a <= b)||If the value of b is less than or equal to the value of b, then condition becomes true.| 6. Assignment Operators Refer as the name suggests is used to declare assignments to the operands, following are the types of assignment operators in python. |=||Equal to||c = a + b||assigns a value of a + b into c| |+=||Add AND||c += a||is equivalent to c = c + a| |-=||Subtract AND||c -= a||is equivalent to c = c – a| |*=||Multiply AND||c *= a||is equivalent to c = c * a| |/=||Divide AND||c /= a||is equivalent to c = c / ac /= a is equivalent to c = c / a| |%=||Modulus AND||c %= a||is equivalent to c = c % a| |**=||Exponent AND||c **= a||is equivalent to c = c ** a| |//=||Floor Division||c //= a||is equivalent to c = c // a| 7. Logical Operators These operators are used to perform similar operations as that of logical gates, there are 3 types of logical operators in python. |and||Logical AND||a and b||a condition is true if both a and b are true| |or||Logical OR||a or b||a condition is true if either a and b are true| |not||Logical NOT||not a||Complement the operand| Python Operators are a backbone of any operations and functions in the programming context. This has been a guide to Python Operators. Here we discuss the various Python Operators like Logical, Comparison, Arithmetic, etc. You may also look at the following articles to learn more:

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Square Numbers 10 to 120 To square a number you multiply it by itself. Children will learn the square numbers as they learn their times tables (they are highlighted in red in the table below), however it is important to focus a little on these special numbers and for children to recognise if a number e.g. 16 or 81 is a square number. In these worksheets the squaring of the numbers 10, 20, 30, 40...110, 120 is practised with a mixture of different question formats: You voted ‘up’

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The concept of less than one is huge in 5th grade. It shows up in fractions and decimals. I find it to be very important to give real word examples and manipulatives to solidify the concept of less than one. Before we began talking about decimals, I wanted to make sure my students had the basic understanding that numbers can be written in standard, word and expanded forms. I introduced this with the Place Value PowerPoint . Once they were comfortable with reading and writing whole numbers in their various forms, we moved into decimals. We started out with hundred beads inspired by this Math Maniac post. We practiced showing numbers like 0.64 and writing them as fractions and decimals. Then, we practiced reading decimals using my Reading Decimals PowerPoint. We moved on to expanding decimal forms. We would lay out cards and use a die to mark the decimal. The students wrote the numbers in standard and expanded form and read the decimal aloud to practice the word form. That night I threw together some expanded cards and color coded them so it would be easy to keep organized. Then the students would take the expanded form and turn it into standard form. By the end they were able to show the decimal and write it in the three forms. It was a fun couple of weeks. The kids loved using manipulatives to learn. Who says math isn’t fun? Check out these resources to help you teach about decimals in your classroom!Apr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 5 This PowerPoint reviews place value with decimals. Introduce your students to standard form, word form, and expanded form. Decimal expanded form is written with fractions so this can be new and challenging for some students. Students will identify numbers in the different forms to learn the vocabulary.Apr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 Students will use a decimal place value chart to create numbers. Go beyond decimal place value worksheets with this digital resource in Google Slides. Students will type standard and expanded form given a decimal word form, and will practice other combinations.Apr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 1 Help your students become a Math-magician (mathematician)! Students learn to read decimals using a decimal place value chart. This instructional PowerPoint emphasizes the correct way to read decimals using place value and the word 'and'. Read numbers to the tenths, hundredths, and thousandths. • Slides 2-11: Introduces place value and how the place value chart increase by x1, going to the left and decrease by x1, going to the right. • Slides 12-21: Students practice reading decimals to tenths • Slides 22-35: Introduce and practice reading decimals to hundredths • Slides 36-46: Introduce and practice reading decimals to the thousandths. • Slides 47-55: Mixed Practice • Slide 56: Printable Place Value Chart Posters...Apr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 Digital interactive lesson and practice for Dividing Decimals. Based on my Dividing Decimals Powerpoint, this interactive Google Slides resourceApr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 Vocabulary, Foldables, and Instructions for Dividing a Decimal by a Whole Number and Dividing a Whole Number by a Decimal. Updated to include a Beat the Clock game for each skill. Students answer quickly to trying to answer before the computer does. **Updates From 53 slides to 88 slides!Apr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 Teaching your 5th grade students to divide decimals? These decimal worksheets will help. This contains five worksheets to practice dividing decimals. I designed it to accompany my Dividing Decimals PowerPoint.Apr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 Dividing Decimals Task Cards Decimals in the Divisor 5.NBT.B.7 I will divide multi digit numbers with decimals in the divisor. Dividing Decimals is quite the challenge for my kiddos. I introduce the concept with my Dividing Decimals PowerPointApr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 Multiplication Task Cards Multiply Multi-Digit Numbers with Decimals This contain 30 task cards, strategy posters, task card record sheets, and an answer key. Check out myApr 22, 2018 - teacherspayteachers.com - 0 This work mat can be used for any number line activity. You can laminate it for use with white board markers or wet erase markers. Another option is to insert them into reusable dry erase pockets. An Open Number Line can be used for: *place value *two digit addition *two digit subtraction *creating a visual to solve word problems

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The two main ways in which atoms can be combined to form molecules are by electrovalent bonds and covalent bonds. Some molecules contain both electrovalent and covalent bonds, but many have just one or the other type. When you study enzymes, you will also need to know something about much weaker attractions between atoms in molecules of proteins: these are hydrogen bonds. Electrovalent chemicals are held together by an electrical attraction between positively charged cations and negatively charged anions. You can read more about ions to refresh your memory if you need to. Cations are formed when an atom of a metallic element loses one or more of its electrons. Hydrogen is the only non-metal to form a cation. Anions are formed when an atom or group of atoms gains one or more electrons. This means that cations have a positive charge and anions have a negative charge. When an electrovalent chemical is dissolved in water it will dissociate. That means that the cations and anions separate. These chemicals are called electrolytes because they will conduct electricity. You should have a look at my animations of atoms to see how they are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. Group I metals have a single outer electron which they lose to form cations with a single positive charge. Group II metals have two outer electrons and form ions with a double positive charge. The Halogens have seven outer electrons, Group VII, and can gain one electron to form anions with a single negative charge. Crystals of electrovalent compounds consist of a lattice of ions. Sodium chloride (ordinary table salt) consists of sodium and chloride ions. Each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions, and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. Have a think about that: you should realise that a crystal will contain exactly the same number of each kind of ion. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. These substances do not conduct electricity and do not dissociate into ions if they dissolve in water. The simplest covalent molecule is that formed between two atoms of hydrogen. A molecule of hydrogen consists of two atoms bonded together by a pair of electrons. This pair of electrons orbits the nuclei of both atoms so holding them together. This is the most common way in which non-metallic atoms are combined into molecules. A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. Why not memorise this definition? “….. but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. ” This means that there is just as much catalyst at the end of a reaction as there was at the beginning. The catalyst is used over and over again. Because catalysts work so rapidly and are used again and again, it is only necessary to have very small quantities of catalyst present to make a chemical reaction go faster. You might have a “catalytic converter” in the exhaust pipe of your car. If the catalyst was Platinum you might expect silly people to start stealing car exhaust pipes; but there is so little catalyst there that it would not be worthwhile for them. A little bit of catalyst goes a long way! What does the catalytic converter do? Well without it the fumes from your car would cause too much pollution and the car might fail its MOT. Perhaps you don’t think that catalysts are very important. “….. alters the rate of a chemical reaction …..” This means that catalysts make chemical reactions go faster. I am still looking for one which will make you do your homework faster, and another which will make me mark it faster. What about chemical reactions. Some of them go very slowly, your chemistry experiment might take hours, days, weeks, or ever years. Imagine if your chemistry teacher asked you to find out what gas is released from Hydrogen Peroxide: you might have to sit there watching your test tube for weeks; your chemistry teacher would keep on asking why you had not finished your work. Eventually you would have enough gas to test; so weeks later you would say “Oh, it is Oxygen Miss.” If you had put a little pinch of Manganese Dioxide into the test tube, the gas would be produced in a few minutes. So, you would be able to go long before the end of the lesson. Even better, you would still have the Manganese Dioxide catalyst which you would be able to sell back to your teacher to use with another class. How about the chemical industry. Well they will make much more money if they can make their products quickly. The manufacturers of Nitric Acid use Platinum as a catalyst. Even though this is a very expensive metal, it does not cost too much to use it because they are only using small amounts of it. “A catalyst is a substance …..” This means that it is some kind of chemical substance! It could be a pure element; e.g. Platinum, Nickel; or it could be a pure compound, e.g. Manganese Dioxide, Silica, Vanadium V Oxide, Iron III Oxide; it coulb be dissolved ions, e.g. Copper ions, Cobalt II ions; or it could be a mixture, e.g. Iron-Molybdenum, or it could be a much more complicated compound such as protein (all enzymes are proteins; you learn about them in your biology; they are special cases.) Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are slightly different in that they are easily denatured by heat. If you want to know more about enzymes, jump to the enzyme page (look at the Biology Index). Most catalysts make chemical reactions go faster. Chemists call such catalysts “positive catalysts” or “promoters”. However, sometimes we want a chemical reaction to go more slowly. So we choose a “negative catalyst”; we could call this an “inhibitor”. My wife put a negative catalyst in our central heating system. She did this to stop the iron bits from rusting. We did not have a problem with the Copper pipes (Copper does not rust), but we might have had a problem with the old Iron radiators: we wanted to stop them from rusting so we used an inhibitor. I think that we also have an inhibitor in the water cooling system of our car so that the car radiator does not rust. This is cheaper than buying a new car every year when the old one has got too rusty. My baker puts an inhibitor into the bread he makes. This slows down the chemical reactions which make bread go stale. This is important since we only go shopping once a week. We used to put Lead in our petrol; this stops the engine from “knocking”. Now we have a better car which uses lead free petrol but the engine can burn it without knocking. You might wonder how catalysts work. There are two ways in which catalysts work. You already know that when two different molecules bump into each other, they might react to make new chemicals. We usually talk about “collisions” between molecules, it would be much simpler to say that the molecules bumped into each other. How fast a chemical reaction is depends upon how frequently the molecules collide. You have probably been told about the “kinetic theory” which is all about heat and how fast molecules move around. What catalysts are doing when they make a chemical reaction go faster is to increase the chance of molecules colliding. The first method is by “adsorption”, the second method is by the formation of intermediate compounds. This occurs when a molecule sticks onto the surface of a catalyst. Make sure that you spell this word correctly; it is not the same as absorption. Here is an example: it is possible to use Platinum as a catalyst to make sulphur Trioxide from Sulphur Dioxide and Oxygen. Sulphur Trioxide is very important because it is used to make Sulphuric acid which is needed for car batteries. The molecules of the two gases (Sulphur Dioxide and Oxygen) get adsorbed (stuck onto) the surface of a Platinum catalyst. Because the two molecules are held so close together, it is more likely that they will collide and therefore react with each other. The Sulphur Trioxide easily falls off the catalyst leaving space for more Sulphur Trioxide and Oxygen. Many catalysts, including all enzymes” work by forming intermediate compounds. What happens is very simple: the chemicals involved in the reaction combine with the catalyst making an intermediate compound, but this new compound is very unstable. When the intermediate compound breaks down it releases the new compounds and the original catalyst. Well: if you have understood all this, it should be easy to memorise the definition of a catalyst given at the top of the page.

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The students will be able to: explain how a push or pull affects how an object moves, the difference of a push and pull, and the way to change how something is moving is to give it a push or a pull. We exert force to move things. Children may be unaware that this force affects the motion of the object. Force has a direction. This direction can be back and forth, straight, circular, zigzag, curved, and fast or slow. Pushing or pulling can affect how an object moves. Children need to be made aware of this before you begin instruction. 1. Demonstrate a positive learning attitude. 5. Understand and use basic concepts and skills. 6. Communicate clearly in oral, artistic, written, and nonverbal form. Literacy ‐ The teacher can select books for read alouds and browsing books that have force and motion in the story. Have children write stories with a focus on pushing and/or pulling. Mathematics--Ask children to make observations of pushes and pulls at home and then report back what they observed. The teacher collects the data, and then the class graphs their observations of pushes and/or pulls. Invitation to Learn: Ask the children, "What is a push?" and listen carefully to their answers. Ask the children, "What is a pull?" and listen carefully to their answers. After a brief discussion of pushes and pulls, tell them that pushes and pulls are a means by which they use force to move something. Depending on the children you may want to record on a whiteboard the items they mention for pushes and pulls. Engage the children in a discussion of how much force it takes to move, for example, a tennis ball, soccer ball, or a bowling bowl. Read the book, Duck in the Truck. After reading the book, lead the children in a discussion of the story. Remembering to focus on push/pull. If you have recorded on a whiteboard items that can be pushed and/or pulled, add any new items the children may now suggest. Ask the children to look around the classroom for something that they might push or pull. Depending on time, allow the children to demonstrate a push or pull. Have the children use their arms, feet, and legs to push themselves off of the floor and stand. Have them pull their stomach muscles in and stand tall as they push their arms ten times into the air as if they were raising the ceiling. Prepare two large alphaboxes for "Is It a Push or a Pull?" Chart paper or white butcher paper can be used (approximate size is 24 inches by 36 inches). Example: Example of "push: alphaboxes: Lesson and Activity Time Schedule: Activity Connected to Lesson: Perform the readers' theater Stuck in the Mud. Have the children sit on the floor or at their desks. Pass out copies of Stuck in the Mud (pdf) to each student. Divide the class into two groups to read the readers' theater. Decide which group reads the right column of text and which reads the left column. Everyone reads the words in the middle of the readers' theater. You may want to go over any words that you believe will be difficult for your children. Read the readers' theater Stuck in the Mud a few times. In the classroom, children can practice Stuck in the Mud in guided reading groups, with a parent volunteer, a reading buddy, and as a whole class. Practice it for a couple of days and then send it home for the children to read with their family. Children may also perform the readers' theater for another class, principal, and/or media aides. At home, have the children observe how their family pushes or pulls things. Then have them write or draw the examples of what they see pushed or pulled. These papers (pdf) should be returned to school for a class discussion. Also, have them search for something they would like to bring to school to show a push or a pull. Be sure to have them write their name on their object.

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You will explore the world of nuclear physics. Learn about isotopes, half-life, and radioactive decay. Use your knowledge to help the crew of a damaged nuclear submarine keep the reactor going. After completing this tutorial, you will be able to complete the following: What is a quark? ~ A quark is a particle that has both mass and an electric charge. Quarks, specifically up quarks and down quarks, make up protons and neutrons. Quarks also have a color charge. Protons are made up of two up quarks and one down quark, and neutrons are made up of two down quarks and one up quark. Explain how a strong nuclear force causes protons to attract each other. ~ The protons within the nucleus have a positive electric charge and, therefore, repel each other with a strong electrostatic force. However, the quarks that make up a proton also have mass, an electric charge, and a color charge. The interactions between the color charges of quarks cause protons to attract each other with a strong nuclear force. The strong force results from an exchange of gluons, which are elementary particles that also have a color charge. What is beta decay? ~ Beta decay is the weak interaction that takes place within the nucleus of an unstable atom. Beta decay turns protons into neutrons or neutrons into protons. Beta decay reactions also produce other particles, such as positrons, electron antineutrinos, and electron neutrinos. What is the difference between the strong and weak forces within the nucleus of an atom? ~ The strong nuclear force is responsible for creating the attraction between protons within the nucleus of an atom. The strong nuclear force must overcome the electrostatic force that causes protons to repel each other. The weak force is an interaction that turns protons into neutrons or neutrons in protons in unstable atoms through beta decay. Beta decay is called the weak interaction, because in comparison to the strong nuclear force, it is very small. |Approximate Time||2 Minutes| |Pre-requisite Concepts||Students should be able to define beta decay, Coulombs force, and elementary particle.| |Type of Tutorial||Animation| |Key Vocabulary||beta decay, Coulombs force, elementary particle|

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The Solar System is a beautiful thing to behold. Between its four terrestrial planets, four gas giants, multiple minor planets composed of ice and rock, and countless moons and smaller objects, there is simply no shortage of things to study and be captivated by. Add to that our Sun, an Asteroid Belt, the Kuiper Belt, and many comets, and you’ve got enough to keep your busy for the rest of your life. But why exactly is it that the larger bodies in the Solar System are round? Whether we are talking about moon like Titan, or the largest planet in the Solar System (Jupiter), large astronomical bodies seem to favor the shape of a sphere (though not a perfect one). The answer to this question has to do with how gravity works, not to mention how the Solar System came to be. According to the most widely-accepted model of star and planet formation – aka. Nebular Hypothesis – our Solar System began as a cloud of swirling dust and gas (i.e. a nebula). According to this theory, about 4.57 billion years ago, something happened that caused the cloud to collapse. This could have been the result of a passing star, or shock waves from a supernova, but the end result was a gravitational collapse at the center of the cloud. Due to this collapse, pockets of dust and gas began to collect into denser regions. As the denser regions pulled in more matter, conservation of momentum caused them to begin rotating while increasing pressure caused them to heat up. Most of the material ended up in a ball at the center to form the Sun while the rest of the matter flattened out into disk that circled around it – i.e. a protoplanetary disc. The planets formed by accretion from this disc, in which dust and gas gravitated together and coalesced to form ever larger bodies. Due to their higher boiling points, only metals and silicates could exist in solid form closer to the Sun, and these would eventually form the terrestrial planets of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Because metallic elements only comprised a very small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. In contrast, the giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed beyond the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid (i.e. the Frost Line). The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium. The leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the Asteroid Belt, the Kuiper Belt, and the Oort Cloud. So this is how and why the Solar System formed in the first place. Why is it that the larger objects formed as spheres instead of say, squares? The answer to this has to do with a concept known as hydrostatic equilibrium. In astrophysical terms, hydrostatic equilibrium refers to the state where there is a balance between the outward thermal pressure from inside a planet and the weight of the material pressing inward. This state occurs once an object (a star, planet, or planetoid) becomes so massive that the force of gravity they exert causes them to collapse into the most efficient shape – a sphere. Typically, objects reach this point once they exceed a diameter of 1,000 km (621 mi), though this depends on their density as well. This concept has also become an important factor in determining whether an astronomical object will be designated as a planet. This was based on the resolution adopted in 2006 by the 26th General Assembly for the International Astronomical Union. In accordance with Resolution 5A, the definition of a planet is: - A “planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. - A “dwarf planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape , (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. - All other objects, except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as “Small Solar-System Bodies”. So why are planets round? Well, part of it is because when objects get particularly massive, nature favors that they assume the most efficient shape. On the other hand, we could say that planets are round because that is how we choose to define the word “planet”. But then again, “a rose by any other name”, right? We have written many articles about the Solar planets for Universe Today. Here’s Why is the Earth Round?, Why is Everything Spherical?, How was the Solar System Formed?, and here’s Some Interesting Facts About the Planets. We’ve also recorded a series of episodes of Astronomy Cast about every planet in the Solar System. Start here, Episode 49: Mercury. - NASA: Solar System Exploration – Our Solar System - Wikipedia – Nebular Hypothesis - COSMOS – Hydrostatic Equilibrium - Wikipedia – Hydrostatic Equilibrium

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The 23 lessons in this unit take a variety of approaches to identifying similarities and differences. Picture puzzles reinforce visual discrimination. Word search activities promote single-word and short-phrase analysis. - Find at least 10 ways in which these pictures are different. - What makes these words similar: duck, chicken, turkey? Difficulty peaks with finding the similarities and differences in sentences. These step-by-step activities are sure to improve thinking and logic skills. And, because they seem more like games than work, students will have loads of fun while they learn.

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Humans are naturally inquisitive. Young children tend to ask an abundance of questions, yet the volume of questions posed by students often dwindles in middle and high school. Learners at all grade levels benefit from the opportunity to devise questions and seek answers. If students are taught how to ask questions they will learn how to learn. Students frequently hear there is no such thing as a bad question, yet some questions are better than others. How do we help students learn how to ask good questions? Explicit instruction in crafting thoughtful questions is necessary support for student inquiry. Direct instruction and on-going opportunities in the formulation of effective questions provide students with access to deeper learning and meaningful engagement in social studies. Following twenty years of experience and tinkering, the Right Question Institute developed the Question Formulation Technique, a practical and highly effective tool for use by social studies classroom teachers. Dan Rothstein and Luz Santana authored, Make Just One Change: Teach Student to Ask Their Own Questions (2011) to provide educators with a description and analysis of the protocol that can be used with students in grades PK-12. Teacher can apply the protocol to help students to generate questions that support inquiry. There are six key components of the Question Formulation Technique.The list below outlines the components: - Design a Question Focus: a stimulus is provided to serve as the starting point for student questions. - Produce Questions: student creates questions following four simple rules. - Ask as many questions as they can - Do not stop to discuss or answer questions - Write down every question exactly as stated - Change any statement into a question - Improve Questions: student categorizes questions into closed-ended and open-ended and refine questions. - Prioritize Questions: student identifies the most important questions. - Determine Next Steps: teacher and student determine how to use the priority questions. - Reflect: student identifies what they learned and how they can use what they learned. While the protocol focuses largely on what students do, as always teacher facilitation and support is critical for ensuring the success of a protocol. Teachers can support the Question Formation Technique by: - Designing rich stimuli that create a context for questions. - Supporting the question brainstorming process by creating an environment where students create questions without discussion and change statements into questions. - Ensuring that students understand the difference between closed-ended and open-ended questions. - Facilitating the prioritizing of questions. This may include helping students to identify approaches for prioritizing. - Providing adequate time for students to reflect on their learning and how they can use it. The skill of asking questions opens doors to new ideas and essential learning. Good questions generate more questions; intentional instruction in formulating good questions leads to more engaging educational experiences for learners of all ages. Visit the Right Question Institute for free resources and more information, including QFT in Action, a short video that depicts the steps of the Question Formulation Technique. For more information contact Maine DOE Social Studies Specialist Kristie Littlefield at firstname.lastname@example.org.

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A complete lesson on introducing 3-figure bearings. A quick set of questions to remind pupils of supplementary angles. - A quick puzzle to get pupils thinking about compass points. - Slides to introduce compass points, the compass and 3-figure bearings. - Examples and questions for pupils to try on finding bearings fro m diagrams. - A set of worksheets with a progression in difficulty, from correctly measuring bearings and scale drawings to using angle rules to find bearings. Includes some challenging questions involving three points, that should promote discussion about different approaches to obtaining an answer. A prompt to discuss how the bearings of A from B and B from A are connected. Printable worksheets and answers included. Please review if you buy as any feedback is appreciated!

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Salts are ionic compounds which, when dissolved in water, break up completely into ions. They arise by the reaction of acids with bases, and they always contain either a metal cation or a cation derived from ammonium (NH4+). Examples of salts include NaCl, NH4F, MgCO3, and Fe2(HPO4)3. Salts are named by listing the names of their component ions, cation first, then anion. This involves three distinct steps. Start by making a vertical slice through the formula just after the metal or ammonium: Determine the ions and their charges on each half. This is definitely the tricky part. Seven rules here are helpful: Rule 1: Group 1 metals (Li Fr) are all 1+ Rule 2: Group 2 metals (Be Ra) are all 2+ Rule 3: Aluminum is 3+; Ammonium is 1+ Rule 4: All other metals require a Roman numeral Rule 5: Group 7 nonmetals (F I) are all 1 Rule 6: Group 6 nonmetals (O Te) AS ANIONS are usually 2 Rule 7: The overall charge must be 0 Then name those ions: |Fe2(HPO4)3||Fe3+|HPO42||iron(III) hydrogen phosphate| Those ions, by the way, are called the principal species in solution for the salt. Figuring out the principal species in solution just this way gets to be REALLY important when you study equilibrium. You'll need to know those charges too, so you might as well learn them now and get it over with. A few more tips may be helpful: There's no way around memorizing element names. Just do it. Rule 7 is far more valuable than most beginners realize. Can't remember or figure out the charge on the cation? Figure it out for the anion and make it all add up to 0. Stuck because you have a transition metal, such as Fe or Mn, and can't remember the charge on the anion? Look around for other examples of the anion being used. For example, say you have to name FeSO4 and you can't remember the charge on SO4. If you find "Na2SO4" somewhere else on the exam, quiz, or in the book, you're home free. With this information you'll know that SO4 must be 2, and therefore the charge on Fe must be 2+. If you know your strong acids, then you know "H2SO4." H here is H+, and the overall charge is 0. So SO4 must be 2. Similarly, HClO3 gives ClO3, and HClO4 gives ClO4. This works with weak acids, too, if you can remember them, such as H2CO3 and H3PO4. Learn lots of acid names, because they help here. X-ic acids give X-ate anions (sulfuric/sulfate, nitric/nitrate) X-ous acids give X-ite anions (nitrous/nitrite) The key to remember is that the system is designed to be unambiguous. We must be able to get one and only one formula from a name, and that name should be a standard one rather than some cutesy name like nutrasweet. In summary, memorize the more common element names and symbols, memorize the seven rules, have a periodic table handy, learn lots of acid names and formulas, and practice, practice, practice! YOU CAN DO IT!

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I begin today by reminding students about the concept of an inverse. For example, we have already discussed inverses as when you take the composition of a function and its inverse your result will be x. Today, we will discuss the inverse of a number and how the result gives the identity of 1. Students begin their work today with a Bell Work Question. After students have reflected on the question, I have several students share what they think. I then put up numbers for students to find the multiplicative inverse. At first students may give the opposite. We discuss how this is the additive inverse. I will ask "why is it the additive inverse?" Here I explain that 0 is the additive identity. If you take a number add the identity to the number you get that number back. So, for multiplication we need to think of a number when we multiply it with the original number we get the multiplicative identity. I'll ask, "What is the multiplicative identity?" Once the class realizes that "1" is the multiplicative identity, we find the inverses and move to remember what the multiplicative identity was for matrix multiplication. I explain that today we will find the multiplicative inverse of a matrix. Finding the inverse of a matrix will help use solve problems involving matrices. Now that students understand we are developing a method for finding the inverse of a matrix, I provide students with our book's brief introduction to the determinant. Our text goes into the detail of how it comes from solving a system of equations, but at this point I will omit that information. Next, I plan to give students several matrices with the Determinant already calculated. I ask students to look for a pattern and discuss how the Determinant is calculated. As students work I will circulate to determine who has a productive contribution to make to a class discussion. Once most groups have discovered a pattern, I will ask a student (or two) to explain how to find a determinant for a 2X2 matrix. I want to make sure my students understand the process, as explained, so I will put 3 problems on the board for students calculate the Determinant. After students have found the Determinant we share the process and the answer on the board. I next put up the full book definition (p. 2) of a determinant for a 2X2 matrix. I explain that in class we will focus on the 2X2 matrices, but the textbook explains how to find the Determinant for other square matrices. I let students know that we will see several uses for determinants, the first is finding the multiplicative inverse. I give students a rule for finding the inverse of matrix by using the Determinant. We discuss what the rule is stating especially what is being stated in the matrix of the rule. I am aware and pay attention to the fact that understanding how the signs change on the major diagonal and how the terms switch on the minor diagonal is sometimes confusing, even when looking at the notation. Next, I ask students to find the inverse of a matrix. To verify the inverse, we will use graphing calculators. This can be done in 2 different ways. The first is to put the original matrix into the calculator and use the inverse key. The other is to multiply the original matrix with the inverse matrix that was found. I prefer the second method since students see how multiplying the original equation with its inverse results in the identity matrix. I now post a statement that is found in some books and ask the students to think about how this can be the case. If the Determinant is 0, then the matrix does not have an inverse. I let students discuss this hypothesis in their groups and we then share out the comments. I ask them to think of a 2X2 matrix that will not have an inverse. Oftentimes, an immediate response is the zero matrix. I am ready for this and I will say, "Okay, let's create another 2X2 matrix that does not have an inverse." It will take students several minutes to complete this problem. I'll observe as they work and make a decision as to a good point to stop and have students share their results. As class ends, I plan to ask students to write an explanation to a classmate about how to find the determinant of a 2x2 matrix. I will ask my students to turn this task in as they leave class. I also give students practice problems on determinants and inverses. These problems are only 2X2 matrices. I will show students tomorrow how to find the determinant using their calculator so we can use determinants to solve problems.

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Click on the image at right to get the lesson app with instructor notes. Or you can install right from here by clicking the logo below: Students are introduced to the Pythagorean Theorem using an interactive demonstration of the proof of the theorem. Students explore the reasoning behind the proof, learn relevant parts of a right triangle, and then use the formula a2 + b2 = c2 to write lengths of hypotenuses of triangles given on the coordinate plane. Students end the module by determining integer c (hypotenuse) values given a and b values. In the second module, students are introduced to the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem, which tells us that if a triangle has side lengths which satisfy a2 + b2 = c2, then it is a right triangle. Students are given triangles with various side lengths and use what they know about the converse to determine if the triangles are right triangles. Students then are briefly introduced to the extension of the Pythagorean theorem to 3 dimensions. Finally, students practice solving a variety of common word problems which require the application of the formula a2 + b2 = c2 from the Pythagorean theorem. The final exercise introduces students to Pythagorean triples and asks them to write any three integers which are Pythagorean triples. Module 2 Video This video shows a proof of the Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem—taken from Euclid’s Elements (Proposition 48 of Book I). Pause the video after CD is drawn and elicit from students that it can be labeled with a since it is equal in length to BC. Pause the video again after DA is drawn and elicit from students that this side can be labeled as a2 + b2 and has the same length as AB.

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Teaching Tip: Lesson Objectives Lesson objectives are one of the most vital parts of an effective lesson plan. Objectives provide a guide that allows the teacher to make sure that all the information taught is necessary to the main goals of the lesson. They also help teachers measure what the students have learned and achieved. Here are some guidelines to follow when writing lesson objectives. - Write from the students' perspective rather than from your own perspective. Use phrases like: "The learner wil... or "The student will..." - Be specific so the students achievement can be measured e.g. "The student will be able to understand and explain the different processes of the water cycle..." - Explain how the objective will be achieved e.g. "The students will be able to understand and explain the different processes of the water cycle through reading a PowerPoint presentation." - Use simple action words to avoid overly complicated objectives such as "create," "highlight," understand," and "use..."

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In the U.S., the Seven Years' War is often called the French and Indian War. It had profound effects on Native Americans, particularly those in the Ohio River and the Mississippi River regions. Many of these tribes actively participated in the war and chose sides. After the war, the Ohio Valley tribes lost a powerful ally in France, and therefore their ability to counteract English colonial intrusions into their territories. French and Indian War By the middle of the 18th century, France and Great Britain were at odds over competing territorial claims in North America. In particular, the dispute arose over French claims to the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys in the face of incursions by English settlers. Because there were few French or British troops on the frontier, native allies were critically important and actively recruited by both sides. The war began in 1754, when Virginia militia under the command of a young George Washington were defeated in a campaign to remove French forces from Fort Duquesne (modern-day Pittsburgh, Pa.). By 1756 the British-French conflict had spread to Europe, and in the seven years that followed also involved most European powers. In North America the French had a number of native allies during the war. These included those tribes that lived near missions and had converted to Catholicism such as many Potawatomis and Ottawas. Several of the prominent Ohio River tribes also allied with the French, most notably the Delaware and Shawnee, who had broken away from the powerful English ally the Iroquois. A turning point in the war occurred in 1758, when the Ohio Valley tribes signed a peace treaty with the English, which caused the French to abandon Fort Duquesne. By the time the war ended in 1763, the losing French had ceded their claims in New France to either Britain or Spain, including eastern Canada, the Great Lakes region and Louisiana, which stretched across the Mississippi and further westward. The Seven Years' War essentially began the process of opening up the American frontier for British and later American settlers. The powerful French no longer stood in their way, and no longer served as a counter-balance used by the tribes to curtail English settlement. The tide of settlers sweeping west across the Appalachians proved devastating for tribes already weakened by warfare and dispossession. They were also being stressed by other, Eastern tribes being pushed west into their territories. Inter-tribal warfare erupted in the Ohio River Valley and soon spread to the Mississippi region. In response to their treatment by the victorious British, a loose alliance of Ohio Valley and Great Lakes tribes formed under the leadership of an Ottawa chief named Pontiac. They soon began to attack British forts west of the Appalachians. As this conflict got underway, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, creating an Indian boundary at the divide of the Appalachians and prohibiting colonists from settling lands further west. The proclamation pushed disgruntled and land-hungry American colonials closer toward seeking independence from Britain. It also formed a pattern that continued under the United States: the creation of reservation lands for Native Americans that were continually encroached upon by European-American settlers. - US Department of State Office of the Historian: French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War, 1754–63 - National History Education Clearinghouse TeachingHistory.org: Which Native American Tribes Allied Themselves with the French? - University of Maryland Baltimore County Center for History Education: Pontiac's War - University of North Carolina School of Education: The Proclamation Line of 1763 - University of Ottawa: Treaty of Paris (1763)

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Or download our app "Guided Lessons by Education.com" on your device's app store. Get ready to learn all about adverbs! With this worksheet, students will practice identifying verbs and the adverbs that describe them. They will read a set of sentences and identify the verbs and adverbs. Understanding grammar and the different parts of speech is an important skill for reading and writing comprehension and helps children understand sentence structure. This resource pairs well with the second-grade language arts curriculum. No standards associated with this content. Which set of standards are you looking for?

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Abolitionist Frederick Douglass' move to Rochester, New York, in 1847 was a major step in his finding his own intellectual path. Along with much of the rest of western New York, Rochester became fertile ground for an antislavery movement that dissented from that led by William Lloyd Garrison, with whom Douglass had previously been aligned. Unlike the Garrisonians, who believed the Union established by the United States Constitution must be dissolved in order to abolish slavery, many Rochester activists began to see both the Constitution and the political process as invaluable instruments for achieving that goal. During the 1840s and 1850s, many abolitionists had become frustrated by the failure of Garrison's method of moral persuasion. They turned instead to politics to fight slavery.

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In this lesson you can get to know some basic definitions in Excel. There are basic definitions which you must know using Excel: - Workbook - the basic document in Excel, typically consists of 3 worksheets. Workbook is a file, it can be saved with a name on your disc - Worksheet - part of workbook which consists of cells organized into columns and rows - Cell - part of the worksheet, which is located at the intersection of column and row - Active Cell - cell selected by the click of a mouse, surrounded by a frame - Address of the cell – this is the name of cell. Address consists of a column and row names, such as the A4 (the address of the cell that is at the intersection of column A and row 4). Each cell has its own address, which is a unique address within the same worksheet - Range - a group of cells. Range in Excel can be: cells in one column, for example, B3: B8, cells in one line, for example, A3: G3, cells with several columns and rows, eg C1: H9 - Format - the appearance of the data, the way they are presented in a cell or range of cells. Format consists of for example style (Bold, italic, ...), border, background, text alignment, etc - Formulas and functions - all formulas that calculate the value based on the data from cells You must know this definitions to fully understand this tutorial.

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The two most powerful city-states in ancient Greece, Athens and Sparta, went to war with each other from 431 to 405 B.C. The Peloponnesian War marked a significant power shift in ancient Greece, favoring Sparta, and also ushered in a period of regional decline that signaled the end of what is considered the Golden Age of Ancient Greece. The Cause of the Peloponnesian War The formation of the Delian League, or Athenian League, in 478 B.C. united several Greek city-states in a military alliance under Athens, ostensibly to guard against revenge attacks from the Persian Empire. In reality, the league also granted increased power and prestige to Athens. The Spartans, meanwhile, were part of the Peloponnesian League (550 BC- 366 B.C.) of city-states. It was only a matter of time before the two powerful leagues collided. The Great Peloponnesian War, also called the First Peloponnesian War, was the first major scuffle between them. It became a 15-year conflict between Athens and Sparta and their allies. Peace was decreed by the signing of the Thirty Years Treaty in 445 B.C., effective until 437 B.C., when the Peloponnesian War began. A civil war in the obscure country of Epidamnus led to the involvement of Sparta’s ally, Corinth. When Sparta was brought in to be part of conflict negotiations, Corinth’s longtime enemy Corcyra targeted Epidamnus and seized it in a naval battle. Corinth retreated to rebuild its fleet and plan retaliation. The War Begins In 433 B.C. the tension continued to build and Corcyra officially sought Athens’ support by arguing that conflict with Sparta was inevitable and Athens required an alliance with Corcyra to defend itself. The Athenian government debated the suggestion, but its leader Pericles suggested a defensive alliance with Corcya, sending a small number of ships to protect it against Corinthian forces. All forces met at the Battle of Sybota, in which Corinth, with no support from Sparta, attacked and then retreated at the sight of Athenian ships. Athens, convinced it was about to enter war with Corinth, strengthened its military hold on its various territories in the region to prepare. Sparta was hesitant to enter the war directly, but was eventually convinced by Corinth to do so, though this was not a popular decision among Sparta’s other allies. A year passed before Sparta took aggressive action. During that time, Sparta sent three delegations to Athens to avoid war, offering proposals that could be viewed as a betrayal of Corinth. These efforts conflicted with Pericles’ agenda and the Athenians rejected peace. Athens vs. Sparta The first 10 years of the conflict are known as “Archidamian War,” after Spartan King Archidamus. The Spartan slogan for that period was “Freedom for the Greeks,” and its stated aim was to liberate the states under Athenian rule by destroying its defenses and dismantling its structure. As Spartan forces surrounded Athens in a siege, decimating the countryside and farmland, Pericles declined to engage against them near the city’s walls, instead leading naval campaigns elsewhere. He returned to Athens in 430 B.C. as a plague ravaged the city, killing nearly two-thirds of the population. Pericles, following a political uprising that led to his censure, succumbed to the plague in 429 B.C., fracturing the Athenian leadership. Despite this major setback for the Athenians, the Spartans saw only mixed success in their war efforts, and some major losses in western Greece and at sea. The Peace of Nicias In 423 B.C., both sides signed a treaty known as the Peace of Nicias, named for the Athenian general who engineered it. Meant to last 50 years, it barely survived eight, undermined by conflict and rebellion brought on by various allies. Second Phase of War War reignited decisively around 415 B.C. when Athens received a call to help allies in Sicily against invaders from Syracuse, where an Athenian official defected to Sparta, convincing them that Athens was planning to conquer Italy. Sparta sided with Syracuse and defeated the Athenians in a major sea battle. Who Won the Peloponnesian War? Athens did not crumble as expected, winning a string of naval victories against Sparta, which sought monetary and weapons support from the Persian Empire. Under the Spartan general Lysander, the war raged for another decade. By in 405 B.C. Lysander decimated the Athenian fleet in battle and then held Athens under siege, forcing it to surrender to Sparta in 404 B.C. Impact of the Peloponnesian War The Peloponnesian War marked the end of the Golden Age of Greece, a change in styles of warfare, and the fall of Athens, once the strongest city-state in Greece. The balance in power in Greece was shifted when Athens was absorbed into the Spartan Empire. It continued to exist under a series of tyrants and then a democracy. Athens lost its dominance in the region to Sparta until both were conquered less than a century later and made part of the kingdom of Macedon. The Peloponnesian War by Nigel Bagnall, published by St Martins Press, 2004. The Peloponnesian War by Donald Kagan, published by Viking Penguin, 2003. Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times by Thomas R. Martin, published by Yale University Press, 1996.

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A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves generated by either large, subduction zone earthquakes which deform the ocean floor or by landslides within or falling into the ocean. When the waves enter shallow depths near a coastline, they may rise to several feet or, in rare cases, tens of feet. If you are on a beach or in low coastal areas it is imperative you are aware that a tsunami could arrive within minutes after a severe earthquake. A tsunami’s danger period can continue for many hours after a major earthquake. Tsunamis can occur during any season of the year and at any time, day or night. The California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services, Earthquake, Tsunami and Volcano Program is continuously researching, learning, and collaborating with science, industry, and academic experts to develop and confirm the latest, best available knowledge base to help make California’s residents and visitors safer in the event of tsunamic activity. By mapping potential inundation and evacuation areas, providing assistance in response and evacuation planning, implementing outreach, education and warning signage at the coast, as well as determining ways to improve preparedness and resilience of California’s ports and harbors, our staff strives to ensure everyone on the coast remains safe before, during and after the next tsunami. A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves generated by either large earthquakes which deform the ocean floor, or landslides within or falling into the ocean. Any disturbance in the ocean that causes the displacement of large amounts of water could result in a tsunami. Not all earthquakes generate a tsunami. To generate tsunamis, earthquakes must occur underneath or near the ocean, be of a large magnitude, and create vertical movement of the sea floor. Generally, earthquakes on strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas, do not by themselves generate tsunamis. In some instances, large strike-slip fault earthquakes may trigger landslides which could cause a local tsunami. Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes generated on a subduction zone, an area where one tectonic plate is forced under another plate. In subduction zones one plate is forced down and an adjacent plate is forced up causing an earthquake. The movement of the plates displaces water on the ocean floor vertically, resulting in a wave which then propagates horizontally through and across the entire ocean. Eventually, water rushes landward and may flood the shoreline resulting in inundation of dry land. While tsunamis can occur in any oceanic region in the world, more large earthquakes take place on the Pacific Ocean basin than anywhere else. After an event on the ocean floor (earthquake, landslide) displaces water, a wave is formed which travels out from where the event occurred. Some of the water travels across the ocean basin. Scientists refer to this event as a “distant source tsunami”. Distant source tsunamis usually provide more time than near source tsunamis for warning and preparation. During distance source tsunamis, you may receive official instructions from your local government officials through the media. Near source tsunamis are caused when a subduction zone (such as Cascadia) is immediately offshore from your location. They can be more dangerous as they are closer to shore and can reach your shoreline within minutes of the originating earthquake. They may also be larger than a wave coming from across the ocean when they do strike, as their energy has not had time nor distance to dissipate. Near source tsunamis provide little to no time for warning, evacuation, first responder preparation and dangerous circumstances for response. For near source tsunamis, do not wait for official warnings to evacuate. Strong shaking and other natural warning signs are your indicators that a tsunami could be on the way. Unlike for earthquakes, natural warnings may occur prior to a tsunami. In such cases, however, the warning indication may occur only a few minutes prior to tsunami impact. Knowing what to watch for, how to react and where to go in the event of a tsunami is the most effective way to know how to protect yourself and your family. The bottom line is… 1. When at the coast know where safe, high ground is located.2. When you are near the shore and feel a strong ground shaking that lasts a long time, drop, cover and hold on until the shaking stops, then move to higher ground. 3. If you see the water recede out to sea, abnormally far from shore, move to higher ground.4. If you hear a load ocean roar, move to higher ground.5. If you observe any of these natural warning signs, a tsunami may arrive in minutes and last for eight hours or longer.6. Never return to the shore until you are given the “all clear” from a reliable source. Knowing this information will allow you to react more quickly and safely when a tsunami is expected. Please visit our partner websites for more information. Most emergency management agencies responsible for areas along the California coast went through a vigorous process to identify tsunami hazard zones and then placed signs in specific areas to delineate the perimeter of the inundation zone, evacuation routes and appropriate action to be taken by individuals when an earthquake occurs. In California, the signs shown below were approved by the California Department of Transportation for use in tsunami inundation areas. If you see a Tsunami Hazard Zone sign, you are in an area that could, potentially, be inundated by a tsunami. Upon seeing this sign, identify possible locations to which you will travel when the water starts moving. The Tsunami Evacuation Route sign is used with arrows to direct individuals toward a safe area. When evacuating after an earthquake, follow the arrows until reaching an evacuation site. These signs can be found on state highways as well as local streets and roads. The signs indicating you are in a tsunami hazard zone and should go to high ground or inland in the event of an earthquake are generally located near the immediate coastline, in parking lots, at parks and beaches. When seeing this sign, be prepared by taking note of the location to which you will go after an earthquake. In most cases, safe, high ground is reachable by foot. The Entering/Leaving Tsunami Hazard Zone sign is used to delineate the boundary of defined inundation areas on State highways, local street and roads. You are considered safe, and out of the tsunami hazard zone, if moving inland away from the coast, from these signs. Signs designating an Evacuation Site may be used to direct road users (including pedestrians and bicyclists) to safe areas. Such a sign is further confirmation that you’ve reached safe, high ground. California Tsunami Inundation Maps by County (CGS) Frequently Asked Questions About Tsunamis (NOAA) Latest Tsunami Event Information (USGS) SAFRR Tsunami Debris Transport Simulation for San Diego Bay (USGS) SAFRR Tsunami Ocean Height Simulation in Ports of LA/LB (USGS) Tsunami SAFRR Scenario Report (USGS) Tsunami Terminology (NOAA) Emergency Management Guide for Business and Industry (FEMA) Emergency Preparedness Checklist for Small Businesses (FedEx/ARC) Emergency Preparedness Resources for Business (FEMA) USGS Educational Resources for Teachers (USGS) Why Talk About Tsunamis? (Disaster Center) California County Emergency Management Office websites Community Exposure to Tsunamis in California (USGS) National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NOAA) Planning and Preparedness (CalOES) Preparedness and the Tsunami Resilient Community (NOAA) Tsunami Geology (Geology.com) Tsunami Preparedness (ARC) Tsunami Ready.gov (FEMA) Culturally Relevant Curriculum About Tsunami Generation and Preparedness (CIDRAP) Tsunami Student Activities, Workshops and Curriculum (CGS) Tsunami Teacher Resources and Information for Kids (NOAA) The Business and Industry Council for Emergency Planning and Preparedness (BICEPP) Ready.gov Business (FEMA) U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) U.S. Department of Homeland Security American Red Cross (ARC) California Department of Transportation (CalTrans) California Geological Survey (CGS) California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (CalOES) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Tsunami Warning Center, Alert & Warning notification (NTWC) Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (NOAA) Redwood Coast Tsunami Work Group United States Geologic Survey (USGS) Western States Seismic Policy Council (WSSPC)

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This is the first lesson in a series of lesson on addition. It will begin with this lesson teaching addition vocabulary and moving forward with lessons on part-part-whole, counting on, Commutative Property, etc. Students will use these terms while studying and learning addition. There are multiple strategies I want my students to use to add numbers, such as drawing pictures or using their fingers (1.OA.A.1). No matter which strategy is used, our students need the same common vocabulary to know what the different parts of the problem are called and to describe what they are doing to complete a task. Another important concept is for my students to develop an understanding of the equals sign and how and why we use it. This lesson incorporates labeling the different parts of an addition equation and a discussing the meanings of the different parts, including the equals sign (1.OA.D.7). They need to have discussions about math and learn to listen to their classmates' ideas. The core standards for first grade require students to use new vocabulary in real-life settings. What could be a better way than to have discussions with their classmates about math! First graders can become more math proficient by using vocabulary that clearly expresses their thoughts and actions (MP6). In addition, students need to learn the vocabulary to be able to describe and communicate their reasoning they use to create the models they will be building (MP3 and MP6). I will write 2+1=3 on the board and ask: Students what do you know about what I wrote on the chalkboard? This is an open-ended discussion, and I want to find out: I will be using the Addition Key Words Slideshow to introduce addition vocabulary to my students. The slideshow provides visuals for them to look at while we discuss the meaning of the different terms. I will use the slideshow to discuss and share the following information: I will load the slideshow on my Smart Board and have them assist me in completing each problem. I have several ways to conduct group discussions. For today's discussion I will be using my pick sticks. Pick sticks are Popsicle sticks that have their names written on them. I prep these at the beginning of the year and use them for different activities. Today, I can use them by picking a stick from a cup to ask questions and continue until everyone has an opportunity to participate. Students will use the Addition Vocabulary Worksheet for practice. Print and copy for each student. I will be walking around the room and assisting my struggling students with this activity. I have some students who struggle with decoding, and I know I will have to support them with reading the problems in the worksheet. If I have numerous students who need help, I will gather them together at our group table and help them. Students will have to label the parts of the addition sentences: addends/parts, sums/wholes, and signs (plus/minus, equals). The most important piece I believe will be to label the plus and equals sign correctly. These are commonly confused by our little ones and an important skill necessary for addition (1.OA.D.7). Students must be able to form an addition sentence correctly with the plus and equals sign in the correct spot. Check out the picture of my student's completed work. My students learned several new vocabulary words today, and I want to assess what stuck and see what I will need to revisit in upcoming lessons. Students would you please turn to your neighbor and tell your neighbor 3 things that you learned today. I will walk around and listen to these conversations and take notes on my clipboards of anything extraordinary.

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You will explore position-time graphs and velocity-time graphs and observe changes when they manipulate variables. After completing this tutorial, you will be able to complete the following: The terms velocity and speed are sometimes used interchangeably in our common vernacular, but this is not accurate in physics. Velocity is a vector quantity, which means that it is described by both a magnitude (a numerical value) and a direction. Velocity is the rate of change in position and is defined by both speed and direction. Velocity is typically measured in the SI (metric) system in meters per second (m/s) or ms-1. Its scalar quantity counterpart is speed (represented only by a numerical value). When using speed as a measure, one might say that a jet was traveling 245 m/s. When using velocity as a measure, one might say that the jet was traveling 245 m/s northwest. This Activity Object uses data tables, position-time graphs, and velocity-time graphs to help learners understand velocity. The graphs used are two quadrant graphs. To interpret the graphs produced in this Activity Object, we accept the starting line on the road as the reference point and thus it has a value of zero on the position-time graph. When the vehicle is at the line, the beginning point on the graph is zero. When the vehicle is to the left of the starting point, the initial position value on the graph will be negative. When the vehicle is to the right of the starting point, the initial position value on the graph will be positive. The change in the initial position value indicates that the vehicle does not always start moving from the same point. An object that moves with a constant velocity will be a horizontal line on a velocity-time graph and a sloping line on a position-time graph. When the velocity increases, the distance covered will increase so that the slope of the position-time graph will also increase. Similarly, when the velocity decreases, the slope of the position-time graph will decrease. |Approximate Time||30 Minutes| |Pre-requisite Concepts||Students should be familiar with displacement, distance, distance-time graph, speed, speed-time graph, vector quantity, and velocity.| |Type of Tutorial||Concept Development| |Key Vocabulary||data table, displacement, distance|

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As seen below, airflow over a wing generates lift because after the flow splits in two at the front of the wing, the shape of the wing causes the air over the top to travel faster in order to meet up with the air under the wing, as the curvature gives it a greater distance to travel. Even if the wing is symmetrical, angling it to the airflow means that the air does not split at the front of the wing, but on the underside, producing the same effect as an asymmetric ('cambered') wing. In general, the major variation of CL occurs when angle of attack a is changed. As seen below, at a certain angle for a given plane, CL is zero. As a increases, so does CL, up to a point when CL is highest. After this, the wing is at too high an angle for the air to flow smoothly from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. It begins to 'separate' or stall, producing a wake of low-pressure air behind the wing. As pressure behind the wing is low, this pulls back on the wing, acting as drag, without producing any extra lift. Separation can occur unevenly on the wing, leading to unwanted rolling or yawing moments. So, increasing angle of attack beyond the stall angle is not only pointless, but dangerous. Now return to the lift equation: LIFT L = 1/2rV2 S CL Hold r and S constant for a minute, and assume that, for level flight, L must equal weight W. We are left with V and CL. Bunching the rest together: V2 CL = CONSTANT CL = CONSTANT/V2 So, if we change one of these two variables, the other must also have a new value in order for the equation still to work. Decreasing V, we must increase CL. However, we have already learned that CL can only go so high before the wing stalls. So, V can only go so low, before you are flying along at the stall angle, and when you try to decrease speed further and increase a to get more lift, you will find that you don't get any more lift, and you will stall. This speed is called the stalling speed and is the slowest speed at which the plane can fly level. The maximum lift depends very much on the shape of the wing. Many airplanes use special methods to change the shape of the wings during flight. Two examples are shown below: The Tornado has a variable sweep (swing wing) design. At low speeds, the wings have a low sweep angle (they are almost at right angles to the airflow). This gives high lift, but produces more drag than the opposite setting, used at high speeds, whereby the wings are swept back sharply, producing lower lift and drag coefficients (as speed is high enough to use lower lift coefficients). The YF-22 uses flaps to increase lift. These hinged devices at the leading and trailing edges increase the effective camber (curvature) of the wings, producing greater maximum lift coefficients, again at the expense of drag. Both of these are examples of the Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW), the concept of in-flight adjustments to wing shape making airplanes more versatile. In TFX, both the F-22 and the Eurofighter have a leading and trailing edge flap MAW configuration. Both types of flap increase the stalling angle and maximum CL, but trailing edge flaps also increase the lift at all angles of attack (see below). The flight control system automatically takes care of flap adjustments, selecting the best settings at all speeds and altitudes. You can see the positions of the MAW by selecting the control display on one of the cockpit MFDs. The F-117A has no high lift devices of any kind, and is thus forced to take off and land at high speeds, and often fly at very high angles of attack. Luckily, the sharp sweep of the F-117A's wings, and the shape of the plane's body give higher lift than other planes would have without flaps. From the manual

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We know that alternating voltages and alternating currents in a general power system are sinusoidal. But it is quite tricky to handle the instantaneous values of the alternating voltages and currents in our practical calculations. It is why a conventional method of representing sinusoidal waves comes into the picture. In this method, we represent the sinusoidal voltage and current waves with the help of vectors. Hence we call it the vector representation of alternating quantities. Concept of Vector A vector is a physical quantity that has a specific value and a particular direction of action. We represent a vector with an arrow-headed straight line. The length of the straight line represents the absolute value of the quantity. We draw a vector with an angular inclination in respect of a reference axis. The angular inclination represents the direction of action of the vector with respect to the reference axis. Vector Representation of Alternating Current and Alternating Voltage A vector representing an alternating quantity rotates counterclockwise with the RPS equal to the frequency of the alternating quantity. The length of the vector represents the RMS value of the alternating quantity. But it is impossible to draw a rotating vector practically. Therefore we draw a static straight line at a certain angle with respect to the horizontal axis. The angle represents the phase of the alternating quantity. Vector Diagram of Sinusoidal Waves We will consider an alternating current and an alternating voltage as follows. The frequency of both of the alternating quantities is the same. Therefore theoretically, the vectors representing these two quantities rotate counterclockwise with the same angular speed. There is a phase difference between these two alternating quantities. Here, the current lags the voltage by an angle α. Therefore we first draw the voltage vector along the x-axis or the horizontal axis of the vector diagram. The physical length on a certain scale should represent the RMS value of that voltage. We have drawn the voltage vector along the x-axis because we have taken this vector as our reference. Then we will draw the current vector from the starting end of the voltage vector. Since the current lags the voltage by an angle α, we draw it with an alignment of α. This is how we can represent alternating currents and voltages through a vector diagram. If there were more than two alternating quantities to be represented, the same technique could be applied. Here we should remember that we cannot represent two alternating quantities of different frequencies in the same vector diagram. This is because theoretically, the vectors rotate in two different angular speeds. Therefore the angle between them cannot be a constant rather it changes continuously. In other words, the phase difference between these two quantities changes continuously. This is the reason it is next to impossible to predict the actual phase difference between these two alternating quantities. Addition of Two Alternating Sinusoidal Quantities We can add two similar sinusoidal quantities. The sum of two sinusoidal waves gives another similar wave with the same frequency but with a different amplitude and phase. The algebraic sum of the magnitude of two waves at every instant gives the magnitude of the resultant wave at that instant. The vector sum of the two original vectors gives the RMS value or the physical length of the resultant vector. The angle with the x-axis formed by the resultant vector is the phase of the resultant alternating quantity.

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Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and tidal action parallel to the mainland coast. They occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen, they are subject to change during storms and other action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers, excepting the tidal inlets that separate the islands, the longest and widest being Padre Island of Texas; the length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea-level trends, basement controls. The amount of vegetation on the barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island. Chains of barrier islands can be found along 13-15% of the world's coastlines, they display different settings, suggesting that they can form and be maintained in a variety of environmental settings. Numerous theories have been given to explain their formation. Lower shorefaceThe shoreface is the part of the barrier where the ocean meets the shore of the island; the barrier island body itself separates the shoreface from the backshore and lagoon/tidal flat area. Characteristics common to the lower shoreface are fine sands with mud and silt. Further out into the ocean the sediment becomes finer; the effect from the waves at this point is weak because of the depth. Bioturbation is common and many fossils can be found here. Middle shorefaceThe; the middle shoreface is influenced by wave action because of its depth. Closer to shore the grain size will be medium size sands with shell pieces common. Since wave action is heavier, bioturbation is not likely. Upper shorefaceThe upper shore face is affected by wave action; this results in development of herringbone sedimentary structures because of the constant differing flow of waves. Grain size is larger sands. ForeshoreThe foreshore is the area on land between low tide. Like the upper shoreface, it is affected by wave action. Cross bedding and lamination are present and coarser sands are present because of the high energy present by the crashing of the waves; the sand is very well sorted. BackshoreThe backshore is always above the highest water level point; the berm is found here which marks the boundary between the foreshore and backshore. Wind is the important factor here, not water. During strong storms high waves and wind can erode sediment from the backshore. DunesThe dunes are typical of a barrier island, located at the top of the backshore. Dunes are made by the wind. See Coastal Dunes for more information; the dunes will display characteristics of typical aeolian wind blown dunes. The difference here is that dunes on a barrier island contain coastal vegetation roots and marine bioturbation. Lagoon and tidal flatsThe lagoon and tidal flat area is located behind the backshore area. Here the water is still and this allows for fine silts and mud to settle out. Lagoons can become host to an anaerobic environment. This will allow high amounts of organic rich mud to form. Vegetation is common. Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Australia and directly east of Brisbane, is sheltered from the Pacific Ocean by a chain of large barrier islands. Running north to south they are Bribie Island, Moreton Island, North Stradbroke Island and South Stradbroke Island. North Stradbroke Island is the second largest sand island in the world and Moreton Island is the third largest. Fraser Island, another barrier island lying 200 km north of Moreton Bay on the same coastline, is the largest sand island in the world, they are seen most prominently on the United States' East Coast and Gulf Coast, where every state, stretching from Maine to Florida and Florida to Texas on each coast has at least part of a barrier island, stretching to more than twenty-five for Florida. However, this chain is international, it ends in Mexico. No barrier islands are found on the Pacific coast of the United States due to the rocky shore and short continental shelf, but barrier peninsulas can be found. Barrier islands can be seen on Alaska's Arctic coast. Barrier Islands can be found in Maritime Canada, other places along the coast. A good example is found at Miramichi Bay, New Brunswick, where Portage Island as well as Fox Island and Hay Island protect the inner bay from storms in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Mexico's Gulf Coast has numerous barrier islands and barrier Peninsulas. Barrier islands are more prevalent in the north of both of New Zealand's main islands. Notable barrier islands in New Zealand include Matakana Island, which guards the entrance to Tauranga Harbour, Rabbit Island, at the southern end of Tasman Bay. See Nelson Harbour's Boulder Bank, below. Barrier islands can be observed in the Baltic Sea and are a distinct feature of the Wadden Islands, which stretch from the Netherlands to Denmark; the Lido di Venezia is a notable barrier island which has for centuries protected the city of Venice in Italy. Barrier Islands can be observed except Antarctica. Migration and overwashWater levels may be higher than the island during storm events. This situation can lead to overwash, which brings sand from the front of the island to the top and/or landward side of the island. This process leads to the migration of the barrier island. Critical width conceptBarrier islands are formed to h Rodanthe, North Carolina Rodanthe is an unincorporated community and census-designated place located in Dare County, North Carolina, United States, on Hatteras Island, part of North Carolina's Outer Banks. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 261. Rodanthe, along with Waves and Salvo, are part of the settlement of Chicamacomico. Rodanthe includes the original Chicamacomico Life-Saving Station, decommissioned in 1954, but now a museum. Rodanthe is served by North Carolina Highway 12; the Chicamacomico area is bordered to the north by Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge and to the south by Cape Hatteras National Seashore, a situation which limits potential growth. The town is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and Pamlico Sound to the west. Rodanthe is the easternmost point of North Carolina, it is famous for its observation of "Old Christmas" on January 6 Christmas, December 25, by the Julian Calendar, a custom held over from the original settlers who still used the "Old Style" calendar. A mythical beast, "Old Buck"—possibly related to Belsnikel or Krampus who are companions of Saint Nicholas in Christmas festivities—is said to appear at the celebration. The residents of Rodanthe are governed by the Dare County Board of Commissioners. Rodanthe is part of District 4, along with Avon, Frisco, Hatteras and Salvo; the Chicamacomico Life Saving Station and Oregon Inlet Station are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Many of Rodanthe's restaurants and markets are seasonal, closing during the winter months and reopening the following spring. Many of these are family-owned, rather than chain franchises. Provisions can still be purchased on the Outer Banks during the winter months, but a short drive south to the town of Avon or north to Nags Head is required. There are only two motels within the larger settlement of Chicamacomico. There are, three inns or bed and breakfasts on the island of Hatteras There are numerous rental houses and small, as well as numerous campgrounds ranging from deluxe to rustic. Several smaller campgrounds cater to water sports enthusiasts. Local water sports include fishing, swimming, sailboarding and Wreck diving, among others. In 2002, Nicholas Sparks published the book Nights in Rodanthe, adapted into a movie. George C. Wolfe directed the film adaptation, filmed in the town of Rodanthe and filmed in eastern North Carolina – including Cape Hatteras and Wilmington; the movie was released on September 26, 2008. Several Rodanthe landmarks such as the Rodanthe Pier were used during filming. During film production, one of the rental houses, "Serendipity", the northeastern-most house in Rodanthe, was transformed into the fictional "Inn at Rodanthe"; this house was damaged and condemned after a nor'easter storm in November 2009. The house was saved from demolition by a private businessman, Ben Huss, a bail bondsman, from Newton, North Carolina, moved less than one mile south North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east. North Carolina is the 28th-most extensive and the 9th-most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties; the capital is Raleigh, which along with Durham and Chapel Hill is home to the largest research park in the United States. The most populous municipality is Charlotte, the second-largest banking center in the United States after New York City; the state has a wide range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell, the highest point in North America east of the Mississippi River. The climate of the coastal plains is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate. Woodland-culture Native Americans were in the area around 1000 BCE. During this time, important buildings were constructed as flat-topped buildings. By 1550, many groups of American Indians lived in present-day North Carolina, including Chowanoke, Pamlico, Coree, Cape Fear Indians, Waxhaw and Catawba. Juan Pardo explored the area in 1566–1567, establishing Fort San Juan in 1567 at the site of the Native American community of Joara, a Mississippian culture regional chiefdom in the western interior, near the present-day city of Morganton; the fort lasted only 18 months. A expedition by Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe followed in 1584, at the direction of Sir Walter Raleigh. In June 1718, the pirate Blackbeard ran his flagship, the Queen Anne's Revenge, aground at Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina, in present-day Carteret County. After the grounding her crew and supplies were transferred to smaller ships. In November, after appealing to the governor of North Carolina, who promised safe-haven and a pardon, Blackbeard was killed in an ambush by troops from Virginia. In 1996 Intersal, Inc. a private firm, discovered the remains of a vessel to be the Queen Anne's Revenge, added to the US National Register of Historic Places. North Carolina became one of the English Thirteen Colonies and with the territory of South Carolina was known as the Province of North-Carolina; the northern and southern parts of the original province separated in 1729. Settled by small farmers, sometimes having a few slaves, who were oriented toward subsistence agriculture, the colony lacked cities or towns. Pirates menaced the coastal settlements. Growth was strong in the middle of the 18th century, as the economy attracted Scots-Irish, Quaker and German immigrants. A majority of the colonists supported the American Revolution, a smaller number of Loyalists than in some other colonies such as Georgia, South Carolina, New York. During colonial times, Edenton served as the state capital beginning in 1722, New Bern was selected as the capital in 1766. Construction of Tryon Palace, which served as the residence and offices of the provincial governor William Tryon, began in 1767 and was completed in 1771. In 1788 Raleigh was chosen as the site of the new capital, as its central location protected it from coastal attacks. Established in 1792 as both county seat and state capital, the city was named after Sir Walter Raleigh, sponsor of Roanoke, the "lost colony" on Roanoke Island; the population of the colony more than quadrupled from 52,000 in 1740 to 270,000 in 1780 from high immigration from Virginia and Pennsylvania plus immigrants from abroad. North Carolina made the smallest per-capita contribution to the war of any state, as only 7,800 men joined the Continental Army under General George Washington. There was some military action in 1780–81. Many Carolinian frontiersmen had moved west over the mountains, into the Washington District, but in 1789, following the Revolution, the state was persuaded to relinquish its claim to the western lands, it ceded them to the national government so that the Northwest Territory could be organized and managed nationally. After 1800, cotton and tobacco became important export crops. The eastern half of the state the Tidewater region, developed a slave society based on a plantation system and slave labor. Many free people of color migrated to the frontier along with their European-American neighbors, where the social system was looser. By 1810, nearly 3 percent of the free population consisted of free people of color, who numbered more than 10,000; the western areas were dominated by white families Scots-Irish, who operated small subsistence farms. In the early national period, the state became a center of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy, with a strong Whig presence in the West. After Nat Turner's slave uprising in 1831, North Carolina and other southern states reduced the rights of free blacks. In 1835 the legislature withdrew their right to vote. On May 20, 1861, North Carolina was the last of the Confederate states to declare secession from the Union, 13 days after the Tennessee legislature voted for secession; some 125,000 North Carolinians served in the military. Dare County, North Carolina Dare County is the easternmost county in the U. S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 33,920, its county seat is Manteo. The county is named after Virginia Dare, the first child born in the Americas to English parents, born in what is now Dare County. Dare County is included in the Kill Devil Hills, NC Micropolitan Statistical Area, included in the Virginia Beach-Norfolk, VA-NC Combined Statistical Area. At one time, the now-abandoned town of Buffalo City was the largest community in the county; because it includes much of Pamlico Sound, Dare County is the largest county in North Carolina by total area, although if one were to consider land area only, it drops down to 68th in size among the state's 100 counties. This is because, according to the Census Bureau's 2010 statistics, only 24.54% of its area is land, the lowest percentage of all counties in the state. Robeson County is the largest county in North Carolina by land area only. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,563 square miles, of which 383 square miles is land and 1,179 square miles is water. It is the largest county in North Carolina by area. Dare County contains Roanoke Island. Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge Cape Hatteras National Seashore Fort Raleigh National Historic Site Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge Wright Brothers National Memorial As of the census of 2010, there were 33,920 people, 12,690 households, 8,450 families residing in the county; the population density was 78 people per square mile. There were 26,671 housing units at an average density of 70 per square mile; the racial makeup of the county was 92.3% White, 2.5% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 2.4% from other races, 1.8% from two or more races. 6.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 12,690 households out of which 27.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.00% were married couples living together, 8.10% had a female householder with no husband present, 33.40% were non-families. 25.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.90% had someone living alone, 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.79. In the county, the population was spread out with 21.40% under the age of 18, 6.30% from 18 to 24, 30.80% from 25 to 44, 27.70% from 45 to 64, 13.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 101.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.20 males. The median income for a household in the county was $42,411, the median income for a family was $49,302. Males had a median income of $31,240 versus $24,318 for females; the per capita income for the county was $23,614. About 5.50% of families and 8.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.90% of those under age 18 and 5.30% of those age 65 or over. As of 2010, the largest self-reported ancestry groups in Dare County were: Duck Kill Devil Hills Kitty Hawk Manteo Nags Head Southern Shores Atlantic Township Croatan Township East Lake Township Hatteras Township Kinnekeet Township Nags Head Township Dare at present is a Republican county. No Democratic presidential nominee has carried Dare County since Jimmy Carter did so in 1976. Before the 1970s it was a typical “Solid South” Democratic county that did not vote Republican between 1900 and 1952 – a period during which the South’s black population was completely disenfranchised. In the 2016 Republican primary, Donald Trump received 2,650 votes in Dare County followed by Ted Cruz who came in second with 1,156 votes. In the 2016 Democratic Primary, Bernie Sanders received 2,307 votes whereas Hillary Clinton only won 2,003 votes. In the general election Donald Trump received 11,460 votes whereas Hillary Clinton received 7,222 votes and Libertarian Candidate Gary Johnson received 674 votes. In this regards Dare County has the distinction of being one of many counties in the state of North Carolina which Donald Trump won in both the primary election and the general election, which Hillary Clinton lost in both the primary election and the general election. Dare County is governed by the Dare County Board of Commissioners. Dare County is a part of the Albemarle Commission regional council of governments. Dare County is home to two popular lighthouses: The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse and the Bodie Island Lighthouse. There is a beacon atop the Wright Brothers Memorial. A third lighthouse was built by the Town of Manteo and dedicated on September 25, 2004; the Roanoke Marshes Lighthouse is an exterior recreation of the 1877 screwpile lighthouse of the same name and is located on the Manteo waterfront. It serves as exhibit space for the N. C. Maritime Museum on Roanoke Island. US 64 US 158 US 264 NC 12 NC 345 NC 400 Dare County Regional Airport, a general aviation airport, is located in Dare County. Public education is run by Dare County Schools: Manteo High School Manteo Middle School Manteo Elementary School First Flight High School First Flight Middle School First Flight Elementary School Kitty Hawk Elementary School Dare County Alternative School Cape Hatteras Secondary School Cape Hatteras Elementary School Nags Head Elementary School National Register of Historic Places listings in Dare County, North Carolina Nags Head, North Carolina Nags Head is a town in Dare County, North Carolina, United States. It is sand dunes of Jockey's Ridge; the population was 2,757 at the 2010 census. Early maps of the area show Nags Head as a promontory of land characterized by high sand dunes visible from miles at sea; the origin of the town's name is obscure but it is to have been named after any one of the Nag's Heads on the English coast. A folkloric explanation claims that mules or horses would have lights hung on their heads by nefarious wreckers in order to trick ships into running aground and loot the ships of their valuables; the town's emblem depicts one such equine accomplice from the tale. Around 1830, Nags Head so remains today. Jockey's Ridge is the last vestige of the sand dunes seen by the first explorers, as the area is now developed; the town incorporated in 1961. Nags Head is located at 35°55′55″N 75°36′54″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 6.6 square miles, of which 6.6 square miles is land and 0.1 square miles, or 1.15%, is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,757 people, 1,223 households, 741 families residing in the town. The population density was 413.2 people per square mile. There were 4,884 housing units at an average density of 634.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94.6% White, 1.6% African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 1.4% from other races, 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.44% of the population. There were 1,223 households out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.2% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 39.4% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.8% had someone living alone, 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.65. In the town, the population was spread out with 19.2% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.4 males. The median income for a household in the town was $53,095, the median income for a family was $61,302. Males had a median income of $33,289 versus $30,139 for females; the per capita income for the town was $30,157. About 4.4% of families and 6.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.9% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over. Located in Nags Head is the largest sand dune on the East Coast, Jockey's Ridge; the sand dune has migrated over the years from the energy of coastal winds and has buried a miniature golf course along the way. Jockey's Ridge has been popular with hang-gliders since the advent of the sport, as well as kite flyers; the park's visitor center includes an informative museum with exhibits on sand and local fauna. The diversity of wildlife may change with seasonal migrations and includes bird species, mice, occasional deer and rabbits. One of the most exciting features of the Ridge is its capriciousness. Annual visitors find that ephemeral pools can spring up, the sand can shift, making for a fresh experience every time. From the top of the Ridge, the ocean as well as the sound can be seen. Jockey's Ridge has a sound beach on the Roanoke Sound side; the Nags Head Woods Ecological Preserve is 1,092 acres and lies North of Jockey's Ridge and east of Roanoke Sound. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1974; as in any other beach town, the ocean and shoreline are the major attractions, providing beaches for swimming, a variety of water sports. A series of historic cottages overlook the beach in sections. There are three piers popular for fishing: Nags Head Pier, Jennette's Pier, Outer Banks Pier; the town features miniature golf courses and small amusement centers with go-karts and bumper cars for family entertainment. Other attractions include various National Register of Historic Places in or near Nags Head, such as the following: Official website Webcams: Nags Head - East and Nags Head - West from outerbanks.net Avon, North Carolina Avon is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Dare County in the U. S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2010 census, it had a permanent population of 776. Avon is located on the North Carolina Outer Banks at latitude 35°21'7" North, longitude 75°30'39" West; the village is north of Buxton on Hatteras Island. The United States Postal Service has assigned Avon the ZIP Code 27915. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the Avon CDP has a total area of 2.41 square miles, of which 2.36 square miles is land and 0.05 square miles, or 2.27%, is water. Avon is bordered to the west by Pamlico Sound. Named "Kinnakeet", the village was renamed "Avon" by the U. S. Postal Service when a post office was established there in 1883; the U. S. Life-Saving Service constructed the Little Kinnakeet Life Saving Station in 1874, remaining active, under the Coast Guard from 1915, until decommissioned in 1954; the building is now part of the Cape Hatteras National Seashore. The residents of Avon are governed by the Dare County Board of Commissioners. Avon is part of District 4, along with Buxton, Hatteras, Rodanthe and Salvo. Little Kinnakeet Lifesaving Station: Home to Unsung Heroes, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa. The term refers to descendants of enslaved black people who are from the United States. Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of West/Central African and European descent, some have Native American ancestry. According to U. S. Census Bureau data, African immigrants do not self-identify as African American; the overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities. Immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not self-identify with the term. African-American history starts in the 16th century, with peoples from West Africa forcibly taken as slaves to Spanish America, in the 17th century with West African slaves taken to English colonies in North America. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, the last four million black slaves were only liberated after the Civil War in 1865. Due to notions of white supremacy, they were treated as second-class citizens; the Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, only white men of property could vote. These circumstances were changed by Reconstruction, development of the black community, participation in the great military conflicts of the United States, the elimination of racial segregation, the civil rights movement which sought political and social freedom. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States; the first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526. The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville and Miguel Rodríguez, a white Segovian conquistador in 1565 in St. Augustine, is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in what is now the continental United States. The ill-fated colony was immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic and the colony was abandoned; the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence. The first recorded Africans in British North America were "20 and odd negroes" who came to Jamestown, Virginia via Cape Comfort in August 1619 as indentured servants; as English settlers died from harsh conditions and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. An indentured servant would work for several years without wages; the status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery. Servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Unlike slaves, they were freed after their term of service expired or was bought out, their children did not inherit their status, on their release from contract they received "a year's provision of corn, double apparel, tools necessary", a small cash payment called "freedom dues". Africans could raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom. They raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when they sentenced John Punch, a Negro, to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn for running away. In the Spanish Florida some Spanish married or had unions with Pensacola, Creek or African women, both slave and free, their descendants created a mixed-race population of mestizos and mulattos; the Spanish encouraged slaves from the southern British colonies to come to Florida as a refuge, promising freedom in exchange for conversion to Catholicism. King Charles II of Spain issued a royal proclamation freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted conversion and baptism. Most went to the area around St. Augustine, but escaped slaves reached Pensacola. St. Augustine had mustered an all-black militia unit defending Spain as early as 1683. One of the Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black "slaves", John Casor, resulting from the court ruling of a civil case; the popular conception of a race-based slave system did not develop until the 18th century. The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven black slaves into New Amsterdam. All the colony's slaves, were freed upon its surrender to the British. Massachusetts was the first British colony to recognize slavery in 1641. In 1662, Virginia passed a law that children of enslaved women took the status of the mother, rather than that of the father, as under English common law; this principle was called partus sequitur ventrum. By an act of 1699, the colony ordered all free blacks deported defining as slaves all people of African descent who remained in the c

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Japanese immigrants began their journey to the United States in search of peace and prosperity, leaving an unstable homeland for a life of hard work and the chance to provide a better future for their children. However, before the first generation of immigrants could enjoy the fruits of their labor, they had to overcome hostile neighbors, harsh working conditions, and repeated legislative attacks on their very presence in the country. Acceptance came only after the immigrants and their children were forced to endure one of the 20th century's worst crimes against civil liberties, and from that crucible fought to claim their place in the life of the nation. An Open Door In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy sailed gunships into Tokyo harbor, forcing a reclusive nation to open itself up to trade with the U.S., and incidentally providing the people of Japan with an unprecedented glimpse of an alien culture. Since 1639, Japan had maintained an official policy of isolation from Europe and most of its colonies, and emigration was strictly controlled. However, in the years that followed Perry's arrival, Japan underwent a tremendous social transformation, and for many Japanese the U.S. increasingly became a model not only of modern military might, but also of a desirable way of life. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan's rapid urbanization and industrialization brought about great social disruption and agricultural decline. As farmers were forced to leave their land, and workers were left jobless by foreign competition, they looked more and more for a better life outside the islands of their homeland. As Japanese wages plummeted, and word of a booming U.S. economy spread, the lure of the United States became difficult to resist. Some of the earliest Japanese immigration to lands that would later become part of the United States was illegal. In 1868, the Hawaiian consul general secretly hired and transported 148 contract laborers to Hawaii. Beginning in the 1880s, however, legal barriers to emigration began to drop, and major emigration soon followed. The Japanese government showed significant interest in the process, often selecting emigrants from a pool of applicants, favoring ambitious young men with good connections. Many prospective emigrants enlisted the support of prominent citizens to underwrite their expensive journey to the U.S. At first, most emigrants planned to return home eventually, and saw their sojourn as a quick path to wealth Between 1886 and 1911, more than 400,000 men and women left Japan for the U.S. and U.S.-controlled lands, and significant emigration continued for at least a decade beyond that. The two most popular destinations were the archipelago of Hawaii and America's Pacific coast. In both places, the immigrants would discover a new and radically different way of life, but the two destinations each responded to, and were shaped by, the newcomers in a unique and distinctive way.

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Microscopic life forms are everywhere on Earth. These small forms of life are usually single-celled organisms: protozoa and bacteria. Though both protozoa and bacteria are single-celled organisms, bacteria do not have some of the internal structures (organelles) found in protozoa, such as nuclei and vacuoles, that mimic the organs of multicellular organisms. With about 35,000 species, protozoa are remarkably diverse in form and activity. There are nearly as many kinds of protozoa as there are plants and animals in the visible world. Three main groupings of protozoa are based largely on how they move. Ciliates move by beating action of very small hair-like projections on the surface of their body. Flagellates have one or more long whip-like projections, called flagella. The beating motion of the flagella moves protozoa through water, much like the action of a fish's tail. Amoebae (Sarcodina) are flattened protozoa that move by bulging outward along their edges.1 Many protozoa are permanently attached to surfaces. Sporozoa are parasitic protozoa which generally obtain nutrients by absorbing organic molecules from the host organism. They often have very complicated life cycles. Unlike other single-celled organisms such as algae and fungi, protozoa do not have rigid cell walls. The shapes of protozoa are maintained, instead, by an interior protein skeleton called the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that provide structural rigidity but also flexibility. The flexible cell surface allows protozoa to engulf and digest bacteria and smaller eukaryotic microorganisms. Like algae, protozoa reproduce by transverse (ciliates) or longitudinal (flagellates) division, although in some protozoa sexual reproduction also occurs. During this division process, called binary fission, the organism divides into two equal-sized daughter cells.6 Protozoa graze on other life forms by ingesting and killing bacteria or smaller eukaryotes. Others, such as the protozoa that cause malaria, live by parasitizing larger animals. Most protozoa are free-living (they have no hosts). Parasitic protozoa live in or upon animal or human in cell (cytozoic) or in tissue (histozoic) and may cause diseases. Examples of infections caused by protozoa are malaria and sleeping thickness. Pathogenic protozoa have several common features. For example, many protozoa have both a dormant (immotile) cyst stage that permits survival when enviromental conditions are hostile, and a motile, actively feeding and reproducing, vegetative (trophozoite) stage.4 Some protozoa cause disease only under certain conditions and in this case they are called opportunistic pathogens, as is the case with Herpetomonas, parasites of insects. A case of infection with this parasite was reported in a homosexual immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive man.13 Protozoa in the environment have been implicated as both potential hosts harboring pathogens and as agents enhancing pathogen survival and pathogenicity. Presence of the shiga toxin-encoding prophage in Escherichia coli is reported to enhance their survival in the food vacuoles of grazing Tetrahymena pyriformis. The passage of Salmonella enterica through and excretion from a soilborne Tetrahymena species is reported to convey increased survival of the organism.15 Following is the list of important parasitic protozoa: - Intestinal flagellates - Histomonas species are the most important parasitic protozoan diseases in poultry; turkeys, grouse and partridge develop severe disease and have mortality rate that can exceed 75%. - Trichomonas species cause necrotic ulcers in pigeons, turkeys and chickens; they also occur as oral parasites on various hosts and tend to multiply in presence of pus-forming inflammation.11 Trichomonas vaginalis is the most important sexually transmitted protist, causes vaginitis in women and urethritis in men. It causes vaginitis when the protist adheres to the host epithelium and changes from a flagellated to an ameboid form. Nonpathogenic species occur in cecum of various domestic and wild animals without causing disease. - Giardia infections cause chronic diarrheal disease in a wide number of hosts that does not respond to treatment with antibiotics. In dogs, diarrhea may begin 5 days after exposure to infection. The feces of infected dogs and cats are more than usually malodorous. Giardia infection in humans may be mild or may cause severe inflammatory disease (enteritis).11 - Opalina species inhabit intestines of frogs and toads. They are symbionts and do not harm the host. They are pretty large (1 mm) and can be seen with the naked eye. - Leishmania are heteroxenous, meaning that they are able to colonize two hosts. They live in the phagocytes of the reticulo-endothelial system of mammals and in the intestinal tract of sandflies as well as some tick species. Canine leishmaniasis is a serious problem, and it is estimated that 2.5 million dogs are infected in the Mediterranean basin only.7 - Trypanosoma species are major parasites of animals in Africa and Americas; T. cruzi causes Chaga's disease in humans. - Monocystis is a parasite of earthworms. - Sarcocystis calchasi - induces central nervous signs, causative agent of pigeon protozoal encephalitis. - Sarcocystis neurona -causes equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) and EPM-like illness in several other mammals, including domestic dogs and cats. - Eimeria are intracellular parasites of host's alimentary canal; cause heavy losses to the poultry industry. - Isospora are widespread parasites similar to Eimeria. They infect intestines (dogs), lungs, liver and spleen (birds).8 - Plasmodium species infect erythrocites of humans causing malaria. Among four species of Plasmodium that infect humans, P. falciparum is the most virulent species of malaria transmitted by female mosquitoes. - Nosema species are highly destructive parasites of insects, including honey bees and bumble bees, causing bee sickness disease that destroys entires colonies. - Babesia species are primarily of veterinary importance but human cases are also reported from North America and Europe. Signs of babesiosis, a tick-borne disease, vary in severity from silent infection to acute circulatory shock with anemia. - Toxoplasma species are obligate intracellular parasites that are considered of the world's most successful pathogens. The parasite employs efficient propagation within both its primary (cats) and intermediate hosts, extensive mechanisms to evade and disarm host immunity, and an ability to form chronic lifelong infections (toxoplasmosis). - Cryptosporidium species are parasites of medical and veterinary importance that cause gastroenteritis in a variety of vertebrate hosts. Cryptosporidiosis characteristically results in watery diarrhea that may sometimes be profuse and prolonged. Diarrhea and abdominal pain are generally the symptoms which cause patients to seek medical attention, leading to a laboratory diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis. Other clinical features include nausea, vomiting, and low-grade fever.9 - Entamoeba species occur as commensal organisms in animal tissues and organs, while some are pathogenc. E. histolytica, E. invadence, E. rananrum and E. anatis cause lethal infection in human, reptiles, amphibians and birds respectively. Four species cause non-lethal mild dysentery. - Ciliata are the most complex single-celled eukaryotes, with some genomes containing more than 20,000 genes. Despite this diversity, ciliates have one common and unique feature: they possess two types of nuclei, each with its own specific function. - Balantidium coli inhabits the large intestine of pigs, monkeys and humans. The organism has also been reported in chimpanzees, new world monkeys, domestic and wild hawks and wild rats. Within the tissues, the B. coli propagates, produces ulcers and forms abscesses that may extend to the muscular layer. Invasion of the colonic tissue leads to necrosis of the epithelium. In the acute form of the disease patients frequently have bloody stools, associated with stomach pain, weight loss and dehydration.10 - Nyctotherus symbiont species have been isolated from amphibians, fishes, invertebrates, cockroaches, and reptiles (particularly tortoises and herbivorous lizards). - Suctoria are complex protozoans having two phases in their life cycle: stalked and free-swimming. Instead of mouths, they have tentacles (hollow tubes to suck their nutrients iniside the cell). They are common symbionts in copepods. A small number of Suctoria have been found in insects. Most of them are harmless, but some may cause disease, especially when they colonize respiratory passages.12 - Amoebozoa are protozoa that use that use pseudopodia as organelles of motility, are unicell, rarely bicell or multicell. Within this group, there are several groups that can cause diseases among vertebrates: - Entamoeba species. Humans are primary hosts of E. histiolytica, the third most common cause of parasite-induced deaths among humans. - Entamoeba invadens is an important parasite of reptiles, causing death in snakes. - Free-living amebae such as Balamythia and Acanthamoeba, free-living amebae that are found everywhere in the environment such as soil and freshwaters but are also found in a wide range of environments including dust particles in the air, bottled water, chlorinated pools, water taps and sink drains, flowerpots, aquariums, sewage, and brackish and marine waters; they cause skin, respiratory system, eye and nervous system infections. Acanthamoeba may enter the body via a break in the skin or inhalation of wind-blown cysts. - Explore the world of Protozoa. O. Roger Anderson & Marvin Druger, editors. - Invertebrates: protozoa to echinodermata. Ashok Verma - Microbiology: Diversity, Disease, and the Environment. Abigail A. Salyers & Dixie D. Whitt. - Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology. Richard A. Harvey, Pamela C. Champe, Bruce D. Fisher - Killer germs: microbes and diseases that threaten humanity. Barry E. Zimmerman, David J. Zimmerman - Handbook of water and wastewater microbiology. N. J. Horan - A Historical Overview of the Classification, Evolution, and Dispersion of Leishmania Parasites and Sandflies. Mohammad Akhoundi,1,* Katrin Kuhls,2 Arnaud Cannet,3 Jan Votýpka,4,5 Pierre Marty,1,3 Pascal Delaunay,1,3 and Denis Sereno6,7 PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Mar; 10(3): e0004349. - Nutrition and Feeding Strategies in Protozoa. Brenda Nisbet - Cryptosporidium Pathogenicity and Virulence. Maha Bouzid,a,* Paul R. Hunter,corresponding authora,* Rachel M. Chalmers,b,* and Kevin M. Tylera Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013 Jan; 26(1): 115–134. - Necrotizing lung infection caused by the protozoan Balantidium coli. Sat Sharma, MD FCCP1 and Godfrey Harding, MD FRCPC2 Can J Infect Disv.14(3); May-Jun 2003 - Georgis' Parasitology for Veterinarians. Dwight D. Bowman - Insect Pathology. Yoshinori Tanada, Harry K. Kaya - Isolation of a Protozoan Parasite Genetically Related to the Insect Trypanosomatid Herpetomonas samuelpessoai from a Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Positive Patient. J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Nov; 46(11): 3845–3847. - Foundations of Wildlife Diseases. Richard G. Botzler, Richard N. Brown - Bradley J. Hernlem, Subbarao V. Ravva, Chester Z. Sarreal Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2014; 4: 57.

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They or There and Where or Were For this homonyms worksheet, students complete 10 sentences with either "they" or "there". Students then complete 10 sentences with "where" or "were". 3 Views 1 Download - Folder Types - Activities & Projects - Graphics & Images - Handouts & References - Lab Resources - Learning Games - Lesson Plans - Primary Sources - Printables & Templates - Professional Documents - PD Courses - Study Guides - Performance Tasks - Graphic Organizers - Writing Prompts - Constructed Response Items - AP Test Preps - Lesson Planet Articles - Interactive Whiteboards - Home Letters - Unknown Types - All Resource Types - Show All See similar resources: Where The Forest Meets The SeaLesson Planet Join a father and his son as they explore an isolated location off the coast of Australia in the children's book Where the Forest Meets the Sea by Jeannie Baker. Engage young learners in reading this fun story with this series of... K - 2nd English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable Their There They’reLesson Planet There's a great way for your learners to practice their homophones, and they won't even realize they're studying! A baseball-themed worksheet prompts your class to fill in there, they're, or their in the appropriate spaces. 3rd - 5th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable The Important Apostrophe: Their, They’re, and ThereLesson Planet They're going to be there with their family. Class members practice using and identifying the correct use of they're, there, and their with a skills practice worksheet. The top half of the worksheet gives brief background information on... 2nd - 4th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed It's A Good Thing There Are InsectsLesson Planet Students complete pre reading, writing, and post reading activities for the book It's A Good Thing There Are Insects. In this guided reading lesson plan, students complete writing, go over vocabulary, answer short answer questions, have... 1st - 2nd English Language Arts ESL Preposition of Place- Where is the Ball?Lesson Planet For this ESL prepositions of place worksheet, students fill in 8 blanks with prepositions of place as they look at pictures showing the placement of a ball in relation to a box. They answer the question, "Where is the ball?" 3rd - 4th English Language Arts ESL Prepositions- Where is the Ball? Fill in the Blank WorksheetLesson Planet In this ESL prepositions fill-in-the-blank activity, students examine 7 small pictures showing the placement of a soccer ball as it relates to a box. They answer the question, "Where is the ball?" on each blank line. 3rd - 6th English Language Arts

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Before Lincoln became president, there was already much sectional tension between the North and the South, mostly over slavery. While slavery was illegal in most Northern states, it was still the basis of the South’s economy. The main issue was over slavery in the new territories gained through compromises and the Mexican war. At first, the Missouri Compromise temporarily solved the problem, by making it so that in every territory slavery would be illegal, and in return the North would enforce a stricter slave fugitive law. However, this was overthrown by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, ruining the temporary peace. These acts made it so that slavery in the areas would be decided by popular sovereignty, which meant that the people living there voted on it. The North was outraged and began to fight for abolition. When the South’s candidate John Bell lost to Lincoln, several states seceded, because he threatened their slavery-based economy. By the time Buchanan’s term ended and Lincoln took office, there were already seven states that had seceded. Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War led to Union victory. First, he ensured that the Border States, the states that were still on the edge, joined the Union by proclaiming that it was not a war to end slavery, but a war to save the Union. If he would not have gained these states, it is very likely that the Confederacy could have won the war. He also proclaimed war in such a way that he would gain support, not lose it. He sent supplies to Fort Sumter, only to provide for them, not to reinforce them. However, South Carolina troops attacked the fort, allowing Lincoln to declare war on the South and gained support from troops to regain control of military forts. Lincoln also extended his powers, because of the Supreme Court case which ruled that the president had more power during a time of war. He created the draft, forcing much needed soldiers into drafting. He also used that to declare the Emancipation Proclamation, in which he set all Southern slaves free. This was justified by the fact that the South viewed slaves as property and the government had the right to take away property during times of war. Lincoln’s careful leadership and planning led to victory of the Civil War and preserved the Union. Lincoln’s leadership was also vital after the Civil War. He passed the Homestead Act, which gave settlers land in the West. This was one of the most important acts in American history, because it boosted the economy as an influx of people moved to the west. This also led to industrialization, as new railroads and factories arose in the west. He also encouraged industrialization through his protective tariff. During the war he placed a higher protective tariff, which boosted the North’s economy. He supported internal improvements, such as the building of railroads and new technology. Lincoln’s Reconstruction plan would have helped the South. He allowed for easy re-admittance into the Union. All they had to do was receive sworn statements from ten percent of the population, promising to follow new laws against slavery. If he would not have been assassinated, Lincoln would have helped the South a great deal, so his death was actually bad for them. Lincoln was one of the best presidents in American history. His unique qualities of honesty, fairness, and empathy allowed him to lead the country during a time of crisis. His actions during the Civil War saved the Union from completely dividing. He also ensured that slavery was completely abolished through the thirteenth and fourteenth amendments. Cite this page Abraham Lincoln: Sectional President as Preserver of the Union. (2016, Dec 31). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/abraham-lincoln-sectional-president-as-preserver-of-the-union-essay

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Since the angular spacing of interference peaks in the two slit case depends on the wavelength of the incident wave, the two slit system can be used as a crude device to distinguish between the wavelengths of different components of a non-sinusoidal wave impingent on the slits. However, if more slits are added, maintaining a uniform spacing between slits, we obtain a more sophisticated device for distinguishing beam components. This is called a diffraction grating. Figures 2.17-2.19 show the amplitude and intensity of the diffraction pattern for gratings with 2, 4, and 16 slits respectively. Notice how the interference peaks remain in the same place but increase in sharpness as the number of slits increases. The width of the peaks is actually related to the overall width of the grating, , where is the number of slits. Thinking of this width as the dimension of large single slit, the single slit equation, , tells us the angular width of the peaks. Whereas the angular width of the interference peaks is governed by the single slit equation, their angular positions are governed by the two slit equation. Let us assume for simplicity that so that we can make the small angle approximation to the two slit equation, , and ask the following question: How different do two wavelengths have to be in order that the interference peaks from the two waves not overlap? In order for the peaks to be distinguishable, they should be separated in by an angle , which is greater than the angular width of each peak, : Substituting in the above expressions for and and solving for , we get , where is the number of slits in the diffraction grating. Thus, the fractional difference between wavelengths which can be distinuished by a diffraction grating depends solely on the interference order and the number of slits in the grating:

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SUNSPOTS ARE DARK, roughly circular features on the solar photosphere. They appear dark because they are cooler than surrounding parts of the photosphere— 7,000 degrees F (4,000 degrees C) as compared to 11,000 degrees F (6,000 degrees C). Most sunspots are about 20,000 mi (32,000 km) across, wider than the Earth's diameter, with a dark central umbra and a lighter penumbra. Sunspots form in pairs with opposing magnetic polarities lying in an east-west orientation. Spots in the sun's northern hemisphere have the opposite polarity of spots in the south. For instance, if spot pairs in the northern solar hemisphere have their north-seeking spot to the east, pairs in the southern solar hemisphere will have their north-seeking spot to the west. Sunspots follow recognizable cycles, in which they form at progressively lower latitudes. Sunspots in any given cycle show a polarity pattern opposite of the sunspots in the previous cycle. However, when one cycle is giving way to the next, it is possible to find spot pairs characteristic of the old cycle still forming near the solar equator while spot pairs characteristic of the new cycle begin forming near the poles. The primary cycle of rising and falling sunspot activity lasts 11 years, but astronomers have detected larger cycles of peaks and valleys in sunspot activity. Roughly every 70 years, there is a period known as the Maunder minimum in which the sun produces almost no sunspots. Sunspots are effectively magnetic “storms” and are believed to be formed because the sun's extremely powerful magnetic field becomes twisted because various latitudes rotate at different speeds. Lines of force in the solar magnetic field form bundles of tubes beneath the surface, but where they are kinked by rotational forces, sections are forced to the surface, forming pairs of sunspots. Because sunspots produce large quantities of charged particles that spew out into the solar system, they have effects on and around the Earth. Satellites have had their electronics burned out by the sudden influx of charged particles. Because the atmosphere expands as it is heated by these charged particles, low-orbiting satellites can be slowed enough to be lost. Charged particles also change the altitude and intensity of the Kennelly-Heavyside layer in the ionosphere, interfering with radio transmissions in the AM broadcast and citizen's band (CB) frequencies, and can even damage ground-based electronics. The first recorded incident occurred in 1859, when sunspot activity shut down telegraph communications in FRANCE. Sunspots are also responsible for the auroras, the northern and southern lights. During periods of high sunspot activities, the residents of such northern cities as SAINT PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, and Anchorage, ALASKA, are treated to curtains of colored light that shimmer and dance across the nighttime sky.

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These women didn’t stand on ceremony; they accepted the risks of activism and fought for worlds where others might have freedoms that they themselves would never enjoy. During the civil-rights movement, African Americans led the fight to free this country from the vestiges of slavery and Jim Crow. Though they all too often were — and remain — invisible to the public, African-American women played significant roles at all levels of the movement. Some led causes and organizations, such as Dorothy Height, the president of the Delta Sigma Theta Sorority and the National Council of Negro Women. Others did not have titles or official roles, including Georgia Gilmore, one of the cooks who organized to raise money to support the Montgomery bus boycott. These women didn’t stand on ceremony; they simply did the work that needed to be done, without expectation of personal gain. Often unnamed or underappreciated, African-American women helped to construct the cultural architecture for change. African-American women leaders and activists addressed the most important and volatile issues of the times — segregation, lynching, education, and economic justice. Even before the civil-rights movement began, the crusading anti-lynching journalist Ida B. Wells-Barnett tried to protect black women from sexual violence and the antebellum (and later Jim Crow) tradition that allowed white men to abuse and rape black women at will and without punishment. Rosa Parks, whose courageous refusal to surrender her seat to a white man sparked the Montgomery bus boycott, followed in Wells-Barnett’s footsteps. Read more here: https://www.thenation.com/article/the-selfless-servant-leadership-of-the-african-american-women-of-the-civil-rights-movement/

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