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The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1945 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Born: 15 January 1895, Helsinki, Russian Empire (now Finland) Died: 11 November 1973, Helsinki, Finland Affiliation at the time of the award: University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Prize motivation: "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method" Field: Agricultural chemistry Artturi Ilmari Virtanen was born in Helsinki on the 15th of January, 1895, as the son of Kaarlo Virtanen and Serafiina Isotalo. He was educated at the Classical Lyceum at Viipuri, Finland. After finishing school, he studied chemistry, biology, and physics at the University of Helsinki, where he took his M.Sc. in 1916 and obtained his D.Sc. in 1919. Subsequently he studied physical chemistry in Zurich in 1920 under G. Wiegner, bacteriology in Stockholm in 1921 under Chr. Barthel, and enzymology in Stockholm during 1923-1924 under H. von Euler. Since 1923, his interest turned to He was first-assistant of the Central Laboratory of Industries at Helsinki during 1916-1917, and chemist in the Laboratory of Valio, Finnish Cooperative Dairies' Association, during 1919-1920. In 1921 he became Director of this laboratory, and in 1931 of the Biochemical Research Institute at Helsinki. After having been docent in chemistry at the University of Helsinki since 1924, he was appointed Professor of Biochemistry at the Finland Institute of Technology at Helsinki in 1931, and at the University of Helsinki in 1939. Since 1948 he has been member and President of the State Academy of Science and Arts in Finland. Professor Virtanen is a member of the Finnish, Norwegian, Swedish, Flemish, Bavarian, and Pontifical Academies of Science, and of the Swedish and Danish Academies of Engineering Sciences. He is an honorary member of learned societies in Finland, Sweden, Austria, Edinburgh, and the U.S.A., and holds honorary degrees of the Universities of Lund, Paris, Giessen, and Helsinki, the Royal Technical College at Stockholm, and the Finland Institute of Technology. Numerous medals and other distinctions have been conferred upon him from Sweden, Finland, Belgium, and Italy. Virtanen established the indispensability of cozymase in lactic and propionic acid fermentations, as well as the phosphorylation of sugar (1924). In these works the similarity of different fermentation processes as to the first stages in the decomposition of sugar became apparent. Together with his collaborators he continued the fermentation experiments, special attention being paid to the mechanism of different bacterial fermentations. The fermentation of dioxyaceton to glycerol and glyceric acid in the presence of phosphates by the effect of Coli bacteria (1929) was the first sugar fermentation which was elucidated chemically from beginning to end. In this work attention was also paid to the adaptive formation of enzymes, which phenomenon his collaborator H. Karström treated in great detail in his doctor's thesis (constitutive and adaptive enzymes). The phenomenon of adaptation, and in connection with it the uptake of nutrients by cells, is still subjected to investigations in his laboratory. The concept that almost all proteins in bacterial cells are enzyme proteins led to investigations on the relation between the protein content and enzymic activity of cells. Since 1925, the biological nitrogen fixation which takes place in the root nodules of leguminous plants has been subjected to many-sided investigations in his laboratory. The importance of the red pigment, leghaemoglobin, in active root nodules for the fixation of nitrogen was proved. The formation of vitamins in plants, as well as the ability of plants to utilize organic nitrogen compounds as their nitrogen source, have been treated in many publications from his laboratory. Since the end of the 1940's, the chemical composition of higher plants has been given special attention in his laboratory. A large number of new amino acids have been isolated from different plants, and have been characterized chemically. Numerous organic sulphur compounds, which may be of importance for the nutrition of man and domestic animals, have also been isolated from vegetables and fodder plants. The application of biochemistry to agriculture and the dairy industry belongs to the practical activities of his laboratory. Among works performed in this field are the creation of a theoretical basis for the preservation of fresh fodder and the development of a practical method on this basis (the AIV method), with the aim to promote an effective utilization of protein-rich crops, and to produce milk of the same vitamin content in winter as that produced on summer pastures. Investigations aiming at the improvement of the quality of dairy products also have to be mentioned as belonging to the field of applied research. Virtanen married Lilja Moisio in 1920; they have two sons, Kaarlo and Olavi. From Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942-1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964 This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above. Artturi Virtanen died on November 11, 1973. Copyright © The Nobel Foundation 1945 MLA style: "Artturi Virtanen - Biography". Nobelprize.org. 25 May 2013 http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1945/virtanen.html

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Today, there’s a chance that the U.S. Senate will return to some semblance of a functioning legislative body. A majority of senators could vote to eliminate Rule XXII, which authorizes the notorious filibuster. Article 1, Section 6 of the Constitution, which gives to both houses of Congress the determination of “the rules of its proceedings,” offers that opportunity on the first day of each new Congress. The filibuster, which requires a supermajority to cut off debate, entered the Senate’s rules in 1807 as a courtesy to speakers. Since then, Rule XXII has metastasized into a procedural vise that threatens the democratic foundation of our government. The filibuster lost all semblance of being an aid to discussion in the middle of the 19th century, when some senators began using the rule to hold the floor for lengthy speeches to prevent voting on bills they didn’t like. Until 40 years ago, this partisan weapon was used sparingly — no more than 10 times in any two-year congressional session. Then, in the 1970s, frustrated by even that small number of interminable talkathons, senators introduced the concept of the “silent filibuster” which enabled members to merely indicate that they intended to filibuster to block a measure. Since 2007, the Republican minority has expanded the use of the filibuster beyond any recognizable procedural rule. In the 110th, 111th and 112th Congress, they filibustered 380 times. Today no legislation can be introduced, no nominations considered, no votes taken without a supermajority of 60 votes. This formidable, partisan tactic has become so common that bills like the Dream Act and the Paycheck Fairness Act have failed in the Senate despite having enough votes for passage because of the deadly filibuster. The Founding Fathers, rebelling against monarchy, were so partial to majority rule that they specified in the Constitution only five instances requiring a supermajority. They were: to override a presidential veto, to expel a member, to approve treaties, to convict in an impeachment and to propose a constitutional amendment. The Constitution does not require a supermajority for adopting the rules for Senate proceedings. When senators insist upon supermajority votes for rule-changes and filibusters, they are stealthily amending the Constitution. Two years ago, Sens. Tom Udall, Jeff Merkley and Tom Harkins mounted a campaign for rules reform. They succeeded in getting rid of the anonymous filibuster, an even more egregious practice. Now, after two additional years of accelerating legislative obstruction, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid has finally called for ending the silent filibuster. Reid’s proposal would prevent the use of the filibuster to block the introduction of new measures. More important, it would require a senator to speak if he or she wished to halt a vote, instead of effortlessly indicating an intention to demand supermajority concurrence to continue any action. Newly elected Sens. Elizabeth Warren, Angus King, Heidi Heitkampf and Martin Heinrich have joined the filibuster’s foes, but the outcome of even Reid’s mild proposal is far from certain. Sen. Carl Levin is now assembling a bipartisan group to oppose any substantive change in the Senate’s rules. Far more promising than Reid’s “make them talk” effort is the lawsuit filed by the public advocacy group Common Cause. Contending quite correctly that the Senate’s arcane rule is actually threatening our democratic process, their case highlights the stake that we American citizens have in the filibuster issue. Suing on behalf of Reps. John Lewis, Michael Michaud, Hank Johnson and Keith Ellison and three young people hurt by the use of the filibuster to block the Senate from passing the Dream Act in 2010, Common Cause must demonstrate that its case does not fall under “the political question doctrine,” which posits that the judiciary can’t interfere with Congress’ procedures. Lawyers for Common Cause are arguing in the litigation that the Senate’s rule-making powers are not absolute, particularly when they violate actual constitutional law, in this case the principle of majority rule. Resistance to changing the pernicious rule that is stifling the will of the majority rests on a historical myth and both parties’ fear of being curtailed when they are in a minority. The myth teaches that the Senate was meant to counteract the democratic structure of the House. The opinions of the Founding Fathers tell otherwise. The so-called Great Compromise at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which granted each state two Senate seats regardless of its population, reflected a concession, not a principle. Because there were far more small states in the original 13 than large ones, the arrangement proved necessary to getting the delegates in Philadelphia to agree on a draft constitution. As a consequence, Wyoming’s 180,000 registered voters have the same number of senators as California’s 18 million. Today’s filibustering senators are only furthering this imbalance. The Founders designed the Senate to be a steadying force in Congress, with six-year terms and a requirement that members be at least 30 years old, but no Founding Father ever spoke in favor of minority rule. James Madison, the father of the Constitution, recognized that majorities could err, but insisted persuasively that majority rule was far superior to any other mechanism for making legislative decisions. His views anticipated Winston Churchill, who noted that democracy might be considered the worst form of government except for all the others. The rationales for the filibuster are but fig leaves to hide the fact that substantial numbers of senators in both parties want an insurance policy against minority impotence, and they are willing to curb the workings of our democracy to get it. Now only an aroused public can get Democrats and Republicans in the Senate to see the damage that the filibuster is doing to our political order. Majority rule is the bedrock democratic principle. When we citizens of the United States elect a majority, we want it to govern. Wisdom, experience, and the Constitution are on our side; let’s hope that enough members of the Senate move there also by Jan. 3 when the opening of the 113th Congress gives them a chance to vote with their hopes instead of their fears. Joyce Appleby is an emeritus professor of history at UCLA and author of “The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism.” She lives in Taos, N.M., and she wrote this for the Los Angeles Times.

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DIY Industrial Art Pieces Made from Rubbings I was in a used book store one day and I saw a book on art rubbings. Of course, I was familiar with the idea of putting a penny or leaf under a paper and running a pencil over the top to transfer the image, but this book was taking it to a whole new level. So we grabbed our art supplies and went outside to make some new art pieces from rubbings! - Paper … and plenty of it. I found that I like using very thin paper, personally. I bought a cheap sketchpad and I really liked the texture and thinness of the paper for this project. - Rubbing Materials. There are all sorts of rubbing materials you could use! Take a bunch with you and try them out to see what you prefer. Graphite, colored pencils, pastels, chalks, wax, you name it! Although I did not expect it, I ended up preferring crayons for larger pieces. Colored pencils were nice for more detailed/smaller items. - A Kneeling Pad. If you’re going to be crouching on sidewalks and streets making your rubbings, it’s a little more comfortable if you have something under your knees. - A Folder. Or something to put your finished rubbings in to prevent them from getting bent up and wrinkled. - Masking Tape. You need for need something to hold the paper still while making a rubbing, and I found masking tape to work very well. It’s especially helpful for working on vertical surfaces, of course, but even on a flat horizontal surface, it is a good idea. Be aware, though, that depending on the kind of paper you are using, the area with the masking tape may need to be trimmed away. This is usually fine because of the nature of rubbings, often the edges are not the most attractive part, anyway, and can be cut away. - Scissors. This is helpful to have so you can trim away the excess masking tape to prevent the papers from sticking together in the folder. - A Tote. Or something similar to carry all these supplies! You could do a variety of themes out of rubbings, such as a nature theme where you make rubbings of tree bark and feathers and other natural objects. But I wanted to do a more urban and industrial theme. Of course, this works best if you live in a fairly urban area. However, even in a small town we were able to find some interesting subjects for rubbings. Try man hole covers, engraved signs, and plaques for more definite rubbings, or try brick walls, metal plates and concrete for more textural subjects. Be aware, though, that you need to know what you are allowed to make rubbings of; it is illegal some places to make rubbings of gravestones, and, of course, you shouldn’t wander onto private property to make rubbings. Still, it is a unique way to wander around a town, looking for interesting spots to make into rubbings – you notice all sorts of things you would not have seen before. A few tips on making rubbings: - Look for a subject for the rubbing that has texture or relief to it, and tape the paper over the area you want to transfer to the paper. Choose which art medium you want to use for the particular rubbing. - Don’t use a sharp point of whatever art medium you are using, but rather use a blunt point or use it on an extreme angle as you begin to make the rubbing. - Move your pencil, or other rubbing tool, smoothly and evenly over the surface of the paper. Start out marking lightly. If you press too hard, you’ll just be drawing on top of the surface, not really picking up the texture. But if you start lightly and gradually get to darker/harder strokes, you’ll get a better feel for what works well. - While making the rubbing, try to keep your hand moving in the same plane. In other words, if you’re rubbing right to left, do not suddenly switch to up and down, or you will probably end up with some unattractive competing lines. - When you are finished, gently remove the paper from the surface and trim away the masking tape. Place the rubbing your folder for safe keeping. So try exploring your local area and think outside the box of what you can turn into rubbings! This tutorial is brought to you by April Starr. She likes to say that her motto is "living the amazement" She never wants to lose her sense of wonder and adventure. April Starr is a designer, writer, creative entrepreneur of FlourishCafe, lover of spicy food, amateur explorer and worth very little in the early mornings. Her husband and four year old daughter are always up for trying a new dish she has created, or working on a project together. She is learning, laughing, and living the amazement every day!

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One of Appleton’s early founders, Eleazar Williams, claimed he was the “lost Dauphin”—the rightful heir to the French throne. Maybe it was royal blood that inspired him to devise a lofty plan to lead an empire based in Wisconsin. In the 1820s he led a host of Native Americans from New York to settle in the Fox River Valley. His plans to become their emperor kind of fell through, but he did succeed in accidentally establishing the future location of Appleton and the Fox Cities. Local residents added a personal touch to Appleton from the very beginning. When the design for the city’s college building, Lawrence University, was sent from Boston, Wisconsin builders thought it lacked a certain je ne sais quois. To jazz it up a bit, they added a few gables—four, to be exact. According to one story, Mr. Lawrence was none too keen on their additions, but the college became a source of local pride all the same. Many paper companies call the Fox River Valley their home. In fact, the valley boasts the world’s highest concentration of paper-related companies, with a whopping 80 plants and 90 publishing companies. This is commemorated at the Paper Industry International Hall of Fame, located in Appleton. Imagine how many paper airplanes that is! Plenty of folks know that Houdini called Appleton home, but did you know that Appleton holds the secrets to some of his great tricks? AKA Houdini, an ongoing exhibit in the History Museum at the Castle, lets visitors get a first-hand taste of Houdini’s magic with hands-on activities. The exhibit won the 2005 American Association for State and Local History Award of Merit and has been featured on the Discovery Channel, the Learning Channel, the Arts and Entertainment Network and the BBC. How’s that for spellbinding? The Fox Cities have bred their share of local and national heroes, and the most prominent might be John Bradley. An Appleton native and graduate of Appleton West High School, Bradley helped raise the flag at Iwo Jima and was immortalized in the famous photograph of that event. After the war he returned to Appleton and married his sweetheart, Betty Van Gorp. Today an Appleton clinic and scholarship for college-bound high school seniors bear his name and continue his legacy. Appleton residents played a key role in preserving their city’s shocking heritage. Appleton was the home of the first commercial hydroelectric plant, as well as the first house in the world to be lit with hydroelectricity. That house, which later became known as the Hearthstone House, was set to be demolished by the city in 1986. A group of Appleton residents calling themselves “Friends of Hearthstone” raised enough money to save the house and then turned it into a museum where it continues to shed light on Appleton’s local history. There’s no better place to go through the looking glass—or rather, to go looking for glass than the Bergstrom-Mahler Museum in Neenah. Evangeline Bergstrom bought her first antique paperweight out of the nostalgia she felt for a similar object that her grandmother owned. Her collection grew to more than 200 weights, which were displayed alternately in museums like the Art Institute of Chicago and the Neville Public Museum. When Evangeline died in 1959, she left her collection and home to the city of Appleton, and the museum was born. The Appleton Fire Department sure has come a long way since its inception in 1854, when fire wardens were responsible for garnering volunteers any time they needed to put out a fire. In its early years, the fire department budgeted more than $800 to care for horses. Today the department operates six full-time career department districts with eight vehicles that respond to more than 3,000 calls each year—much more than the 89 calls that the department answered in 1895. Now that’s hot! Apples? We ain’t got no apples. Contrary to the way it sounds, Appleton is not a town named for its fruit production. In fact, the city was known as Grand Chute until the construction of the local Lawrence College. The Methodist Reverend Reeder Smith, himself paramount in Lawrence College’s establishment, named the town in honor of Mr. Lawrence’s wife, Sarah Appleton. Later, Smith and Lawrence convinced Samuel Appleton, a wealthy Boston philanthropist, that the town was named for him in hope of receiving a donation for the college. They were successful, and Samuel donated $10,000 for the school’s library. Before there were the Fox Cities, there was the fur trade. The Fox River played an important role as a channel for pioneers and fur traders alike. Today, the valley’s fur trading era is preserved in the Charles A. Grignon Mansion. Grignon built his mansion on the site of an early trading post as a gift to his Pennsylvania wife, Mary Meade. The mansion is staffed by costumed guides who transport visitors back to the time when Charles and his family lived there. Fur real! Did you already know these facts about Appleton and the Fox Cities? Check out our round up of Green Bay trivia.

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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 212 Desalination: A National Perspective 8 A Strategic Research Agenda for Desalination As noted in Chapter 3, desalination is likely to have a niche in the water management portfolio of the future, although the significance of this niche cannot be definitively determined at this time. The potential for desalination to meet anticipated water demands in the United States is not constrained by the source water resources or the capabilities of current technology, but instead it is constrained by financial, social, and environmental factors. Over the past 50 years the state of desalination technology has advanced substantially, and improvements in energy recovery and declining membrane material costs have made brackish water and seawater desalination a more reasonable option for some communities. However, desalination remains a higher-cost alternative for water supply in many communities, and concerns about potential environmental impacts continue to limit the application of desalination technology in the United States. For inland desalination facilities, there are few, if any, cost-effective environmentally sustainable concentrate management technologies. Meanwhile, as noted in Chapter 2, there is no integrated and strategic direction to current federal desalination research and development efforts to help address these concerns. In this chapter, long-term research goals are outlined for advancing desalination technology and improving the ability of desalination to address U.S. water supply needs. A strategic national research agenda is then presented to address these goals. This research agenda is broadly conceived and includes research that could be appropriately funded and conducted in either the public or private sectors. The committee recognizes that research cannot address all barriers to increased application of desalination technology in regions facing water scarcity concerns; therefore, practical implementation issues are discussed separately in Chapter 7. Recommendations related to implementing the proposed research agenda are also provided in this chapter. OCR for page 213 Desalination: A National Perspective LONG-TERM RESEARCH GOALS Based on the committee’s analyses of the state of desalination technology, potential environmental impacts, desalination costs, and implementation issues in the United States (see Chapters 4-7), the committee developed two overarching long-term goals for further research in desalination: Understand the environmental impacts of desalination and develop approaches to minimize these impacts relative to other water supply alternatives, and Develop approaches to lower the financial costs of desalination so that it is an attractive option relative to other alternatives in locations where traditional sources of water are inadequate. Understanding the potential environmental impacts of desalination in both inland and coastal communities and developing approaches to mitigate these impacts relative to other alternatives are essential to the future of desalination in the United States. The environmental impacts of both source water intakes and concentrate discharge remain poorly understood. Although the impacts of coastal desalination are suspected to be less than those of other water supply alternatives, the uncertainty about potential site-specific impacts and their mitigation are large barriers to the application of coastal desalination in the United States. This uncertainty leads to stakeholder disagreements and a lengthy and costly planning and permitting process. For inland desalination, uncertainties remain about the sustainability of brackish groundwater resources and the environmental impacts from concentrate discharge to surface waters. Without rigorous scientific research to identify specific potential environmental impacts (or a lack of impacts), planners cannot assess the feasibility of desalination at a site or determine what additional mitigation steps are needed. Once potential impacts are clearly understood, research can be focused on developing approaches to minimize these impacts. The second goal focuses on the cost of desalination relative to the cost of other water supply alternatives. At present, costs are already low enough to make desalination an attractive option for some communities, especially where concentrate management costs are modest. In fact, desalination plants are being studied or implemented in at least 30 municipalities nationwide (GWI, 2007). The economic costs of desalination, however, as well as the costs of water supply alternatives, are locally variable. Costs are influenced by factors such as source water quality, siting considerations, potential environmental impacts, local regulations and permitting requirements, and available concentrate management op- OCR for page 214 Desalination: A National Perspective tions. Desalination remains a higher-cost alternative for many locations, and increasing awareness of potential environmental impacts is raising the costs of permitting and intake and outfall configurations in the United States. Inland communities considering brackish groundwater desalination may soon face more restrictions on surface water discharge and, therefore, will have fewer low-cost alternatives for concentrate management. Meanwhile, the future costs of energy are uncertain. If the total costs of desalination (including environmental costs) were reduced relative to other alternatives, desalination technology would become an attractive alternative to help address local water supply needs. STRATEGIC DESALINATION RESEARCH AGENDA The committee identified research topics as part of a strategic agenda to address the two long-term research goals articulated earlier. This agenda is driven by determination of what is necessary to make desalination a competitive option among other water supply alternatives. The agenda is broadly conceived, including research topics of clear interest to the public sector—and therefore of interest for federal funding—and research that might be most appropriately funded by private industry. The suggested research areas are described in detail below and are summarized in Box 8-1. Specific recommendations on the roles of federal and nonfederal organizations in funding the agenda are described in an upcoming section. BOX 8-1 Priority Research Areas The committee has identified priority research areas to help make desalination a competitive option among water supply alternatives for communities facing water shortages. These research areas, which are described in more detail in the body of the chapter, are summarized here. The highest priority topics are shown in bold. Some of this research may be most appropriately supported by the private sector. The research topics for which the federal government should have an interest—where the benefits are widespread and where no private-sector entities are willing to make the investments and assume the risk—are marked with asterisks. GOAL 1. Understand the environmental impacts of desalination and develop approaches to minimize these impacts relative to other water supply alternatives Assess environmental impacts of desalination intake and concentrate management approaches** OCR for page 215 Desalination: A National Perspective Conduct field studies to assess environmental impacts of brackish groundwater development** Develop protocols and conduct field studies to assess the impacts of concentrate management approaches in inland and coastal settings** Develop laboratory protocols for long-term toxicity testing of whole effluent to assess long-term impacts of concentrate on aquatic life** Assess the environmental fate and bioaccumulation potential of desalination-related contaminants** Develop improved intake methods at coastal facilities to minimize impingement of larger organisms and entrainment of smaller ones** Assess the quantity and distribution of brackish water resources nationwide** Analyze the human health impacts of boron, considering other sources of boron exposure, to expedite water-quality guidance for desalination process design** GOAL 2. Develop approaches to lower the financial costs of desalination so that it is an attractive option relative to other alternatives in locations where traditional sources of water are inadequate Improve pretreatment for membrane desalination Develop more robust, cost-effective pretreatment processes Reduce chemical requirements for pretreatment Improve membrane system performance Develop high-permeability, fouling-resistant, high-rejection, oxidant-resistant membranes Optimize membrane system design Develop lower-cost, corrosion-resistant materials of construction Develop ion-selective processes for brackish water Develop hybrid desalination processes to increase recovery Improve existing desalination approaches to reduce primary energy use Develop improved energy recovery technologies and techniques for desalination Research configurations and applications for desalination to utilize low-grade or waste heat** Understand the impact of energy pricing on desalination technology over time** Investigate approaches for integrating renewable energy with desalination** Develop novel approaches or processes to desalinate water in a way that reduces primary energy use** GOAL 1 and 2 Crosscuts Develop cost-effective approaches for concentrate management that minimize potential environmental impacts** OCR for page 216 Desalination: A National Perspective Research on Environmental Impacts The following research topics address Goal 1 to understand the environmental impacts of desalination and develop approaches to minimize those impacts relative to other water supply alternatives. Assess environmental impacts of desalination intake and concentrate management approaches As discussed in Chapter 5, the environmental impacts of desalination source water intake and concentrate management approaches are not well understood. Source water intakes for coastal desalination can create entrainment concerns with small organisms and impingement issues for larger organisms. For inland groundwater desalination, there are potential concerns regarding overpumping, water quality changes, and subsidence. The possible environmental impacts of concentrate management approaches range from effects on aquatic life in surface water discharges to the contamination of drinking water aquifers in poorly designed injection wells or ponds. Both site-specific studies and broad analyses of relative impacts would help communities weigh the alternatives for meeting water supply needs. The specific research needs are described as follows. 1a. Conduct field studies to assess environmental impacts of seawater intakes. Measurements and modeling of the extent of mortality of aquatic or marine organisms due to impingement and entrainment are needed. There have been numerous studies on such impacts of power plants, and extrapolation of such effects to desalination facilities should be performed. 1b. Conduct field studies to assess environmental impacts of brackish groundwater development. The general environmental interactions between wetlands, freshwater, and brackish aquifers for inland sources have not been documented under likely brackish water development scenarios. While site-specific evaluation of any location will be necessary for developing a brackish water resource, the lack of synthesized information is an impediment to the use of this resource for smaller communities with limited resources. 1c. Develop protocols and conduct field studies to assess the impacts of concentrate management approaches in inland and coastal settings. Comprehensive studies analyzing impacts of concentrate discharge at marine, estuarine, and inland desalination locations are needed. OCR for page 217 Desalination: A National Perspective Adequate site-specific baseline studies on potential biological and ecological effects are necessary prior to the development of desalination facilities because biological communities in different geographic areas will have differential sensitivity, but a comprehensive synthesis would be valuable once several in-depth studies have been conducted. Protocols should be developed to define the baseline and operational monitoring, reference sites, lengths of transects, and sampling frequencies. Planners would benefit from clear guidance on appropriate monitoring and assessment protocols. Environmental data should be collected for at least 1 year in the area of the proposed facility before a desalination plant with surface water concentrate discharge comes online so that sufficient baseline data on the ecosystem are available with which to compare postoperating conditions. Once a plant is in operation, monitoring of the ecological communities (especially the benthic community) receiving the concentrate should be performed periodically for at least 2 years at multiple distances from the outflow pipe and compared to reference sites. For inland settings, additional regional hydrogeology research is needed on the distribution, thickness, and hydraulic properties of formations that could be used for disposal of concentrate via deep-well injection. Much information is already available about the potential for deep-well injection in states such as Florida and Texas, although suitable geologic conditions may exist in other states as well. Inventories of industrial and commercial brine-disposal wells and producing and abandoned oil fields should be synthesized and used to develop a suitable protocol for further hydrogeological investigations, as appropriate. This research would provide valuable assistance to small communities that typically do not have the resources available to support extensive hydrogeological investigations. 1d. Develop laboratory protocols for long-term toxicity testing of whole effluent to assess long-term impacts of concentrate on aquatic life. Standard acute toxicity tests as defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are generally 96 hours in duration and use larval or juvenile stages of certain fish and invertebrate species with a series of effluent dilutions and a control. The end point is whether the test organisms survive or not. Chronic tests, according to EPA, are typically 7 days in duration when using larval stages of fish and invertebrate species, and the end points of the tests are sublethal, such as growth reduction. Typical chronic toxicity protocols were designed for testing municipal or industrial wastewater treatment plant effluent, which typically contains higher levels of toxic chemicals than the concentrate from desalination plants. To assess the impacts of desalination effluent, a protocol should be developed to analyze the longer-term effects (over whole life cycles) on organisms that live in the vicinity of desalination plants (as opposed OCR for page 218 Desalination: A National Perspective to the standard species used in EPA-required toxicity testing). These laboratory-based tests should then be used to examine the impacts of whole effluent (and various dilutions) from different desalination plants on a variety of different taxa at numerous representative sites from key ecological regions. 1e. Assess the environmental fate and bioaccumulation potential of desalination-related contaminants. Desalination concentrate contains more than just salts and may include various chemicals that are used in pretreatment and membrane cleaning, antiscaling and antifoulant additives, and metals that may leach from corrosion. Some of these chemicals (e.g., antifoulants, copper leached from older thermal desalination plants) or chemical by-products (e.g., trihalomethanes produced as a result of pretreatment with chlorine) are likely to bioaccumulate in organisms. Investigations into the loading and environmental fate of desalination-related chemicals should be included in modeling and monitoring programs. The degree to which various chemicals biodegrade or accumulate in sediments should also be investigated. High priority should be given to polymer antiscalants, such as polycarbonic acids and polyphosphate, which may increase primary productivity. Corrosion-related metals and disinfection by-products should also be investigated. In conjunction with the field studies described earlier, representative species, preferably benthic infauna along the transects and from the reference (control) site, should be analyzed for bioaccumulative contaminants. Because little is known about the potential of some other desalination chemicals that can be discharged in concentrate to bioaccumulate (e.g., polyphosphate, polycarbonic acid, polyacrylic acid, polymaleic acid), research should be conducted into their toxicity and bioaccumulation potential. Develop improved intake methods at coastal facilities to minimize impingement of larger organisms and entrainment of smaller ones Although intake and screen technology is rapidly developing, continued research and development is needed in the area of seawater intakes to develop cost-effective approaches that minimize the impacts of impingement and entrainment for coastal desalination facilities. Current technology development has focused on subsurface intakes and advanced screens or curtains, and these recent developments should be assessed to determine the costs and benefits of the various approaches. Other innovative concepts could also be considered that might deter marine life from entering intakes. OCR for page 219 Desalination: A National Perspective Assess the quantity and distribution of brackish water resources nationwide Sustainable development of inland brackish water resources requires maps and synthesized information on total dissolved solids of the groundwater, types of dominant solutes (e.g., NaCl, CaSO4), thickness, and depth to brackish water. The only national map of brackish water resources available (Feth, 1965; Figure 1-1) simply shows depth to saline water. Newer and better solute chemistry data collected over the past 40 years exist in the files of private, state, and federal offices but are not generally organized for use in brackish water resources investigations. Using the aforementioned information, basin analyses, analogous to the U.S. Geological Survey Regional Aquifer System Analysis program for freshwater, could be developed, emphasizing regions facing near-term water scarcity concerns. These brackish water resource investigations could also be conducted at the state level. The data, once synthesized, could be utilized for desalination planning as well as for other water resources and commercial development scenarios. Analyze the human health impacts of boron, considering other sources of boron exposure, to expedite water-quality guidance for desalination process design Typical single-pass reverse osmosis (RO) desalination processes do not remove all the boron in seawater; thus, boron can be found at milligram-per-liter levels in the finished water. Boron can be controlled through treatment optimization, but that treatment has an impact on the cost of desalination. A range of water quality levels (0.5 to 1.4 mg/L) have been proposed as protective of public health based on different assumptions in the calculations. Because of the low occurrence of boron in most groundwater and surface water, the EPA has decided not to develop a maximum contaminant level for boron and has encouraged affected states to issue guidance or regulations as appropriate (see Chapter 5). Additional analysis of existing boron toxicity data is needed, considering other possible sources of boron exposure in the United States, to support guidance for desalination process design that will be suitably protective of human health. OCR for page 220 Desalination: A National Perspective Research to Lower the Costs of Desalination The following research topics address Goal 2 to develop approaches to lower the costs of desalination so that it is an attractive option relative to other alternatives in locations where traditional sources of water are inadequate. As a broadly conceived agenda, some of this research may be most appropriately supported by the private sector. The appropriate roles of governmental and nongovernmental entities to fund the research agenda are discussed later in the chapter. Improve pretreatment for membrane desalination Pretreatment is necessary to remove potential foulants from the source water, thereby ensuring sustainable operation of the RO membranes at high product water flux and salt rejection. Research to improve the pretreatment process is needed that would develop alternative, cost-effective approaches. 5a. Develop more robust, cost-effective pretreatment processes. Membrane fouling is one of the most problematic issues facing seawater desalination. Forms of fouling common with RO membranes are organic fouling, scaling, colloidal fouling, and biofouling. All forms of fouling are caused by interactions between the foulant and the membrane surface. Improved pretreatment that minimizes these interactions will reduce irreversible membrane fouling. Alteration of solution characteristics can improve the solubility of the foulants, preventing their precipitation or interaction with the membrane surface. Such alteration could be chemical, electrochemical, or physical in nature. Membranes such as microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) have several advantages over traditional pretreatment (e.g., conventional sand filtration) because they have a smaller footprint, are more efficient in removing smaller foulants, and provide a more stable influent to the RO membranes. Additional potential benefits of MF or UF pretreatment are increased flux, increased recovery, longer membrane life, and decreased cleaning frequency. More research is necessary in order to optimize the pretreatment membranes for more effective removal of foulants to the RO system, to reduce the fouling of the pretreatment membranes, and to improve configuration of the pretreatment membranes to maximize cost reduction. 5b. Reduce chemical requirements for pretreatment. Antiscalants, coagulants, and oxidants (such as chlorine) are common chemicals OCR for page 221 Desalination: A National Perspective applied in the pretreatment steps for RO membranes. Although these chemicals are added to reduce fouling, they add to the operational costs, can reduce the operating life of membranes, and have to be disposed of properly or they can adversely impact aquatic life (see Chapter 5). Antiscalants may also enhance biofouling, so alternative formulations or approaches should be examined. Research is needed on alternative formulations or approaches (including membrane pretreatment) to reduce the chemical requirements of the pretreatment process, both to reduce overall cost and to decrease the environmental impacts of desalination. Improve membrane system performance Sustainable operation of the RO membranes at the designed product water flux and salt rejection is a key to the reduction of desalination process costs. In addition to effective pretreatment, research to optimize the sustained performance of the RO membrane system is needed. 6a. Develop high-permeability, fouling-resistant, high-rejection, oxidant-resistant membranes. New membrane designs could reduce the treatment costs of desalination by improving membrane permeability and salt rejection while increasing resistance to fouling and membrane oxidation. Current membrane research to reduce fouling includes altering the surface charge, increasing hydrophilicity, adding polymers as a barrier to fouling, and decreasing surface roughness. Oxidant-resistant membranes enable feedwater to maintain an oxidant residual that will reduce membrane fouling due to biological growth. Current state-of-the-art thin-film composite desalination membranes are polyamide based and therefore are vulnerable to damage by chlorine or other oxidants. Thus, when an oxidant such as chlorine is added to reduce biofouling, dechlorination is necessary to prevent structural damage. Additionally, trace concentrations of chlorine may be present in some feedwaters. Cellulose-derivative RO membranes have much higher chlorine tolerance; however, these membranes have a much lower permeability than thin-film composite membranes and operate under a narrower pH range. Therefore, there is a need to increase the oxidant tolerance of the higher-permeability membranes. Lower risk of premature membrane replacement equates to overall lower operating costs. Past efforts to synthesize RO membranes with high permeability often resulted in reduced rejection and selectivity. There is a need to develop RO membranes with high permeability without sacrificing selectivity or rejection efficiency. Recent research on utilizing nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, as a separation barrier suggest the possibility OCR for page 222 Desalination: A National Perspective of obtaining water fluxes much higher than that of traditional polymeric membranes. The development of membranes that are more resistant to degradation from exposure to cleaning chemicals will extend the useful life of a membrane module. The ability to clean membranes more frequently can also decrease energy usage because membrane fouling results in higher differential pressure loss through the modules. By extending the life of membrane modules, the operating and maintenance cost will be reduced by the associated reduction in membrane replacements required. 6b. Optimize membrane system design. With the development of high-flux membranes and larger-diameter membrane modules, new approaches for optimal RO system design are needed to avoid operation under thermodynamic restriction (see Chapter 4) and to ensure equal distribution of flux between the leading and tail elements of the RO system. The key variables for the system design will involve the choice of optimal pressure, the number of stages, and number and size of membrane elements at each stage. An optimal system configuration may also involve hybrid designs where one type of membrane (e.g., intermediate flux, highly fouling-resistant) is used in the leading elements followed by high-flux membranes in the subsequent elements. Fouling can be mitigated by maintaining high crossflow velocity; thus, fouling-resistant membranes may be better served in the downstream positions where lower crossflow velocity is incurred. Thus, additional engineering research on membrane system design is needed to optimize performance with the objective of reducing costs. 6c. Develop lower-cost, corrosion-resistant materials of construction. The duration of equipment life in a desalination plant directly relates to the total costs of the project. Saline and brackish water plants are considered to be a corrosive environment due to the high levels of salts in the raw water. The development and utilization of corrosion-resistant materials will minimize the frequency of equipment or appurtenance replacement, which can significantly reduce the total project costs. 6d. Develop ion-selective processes for brackish water. Some slightly brackish waters could be made potable simply though specific removal of certain contaminants, such as nitrate or arsenite, while removing other ions such as sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate at a lower rate. High removal rates of all salts are not necessary for such waters. Ion-specific separation processes, such as an ion-selective membrane or a selective ion-exchange resin, should be able to produce potable water at much lower energy costs than those processes that fully desalinate the OCR for page 223 Desalination: A National Perspective source water. Ion-selective removal would also create fewer waste materials requiring disposal. Ion-selective processes would be useful for mildly brackish groundwater sources with high levels of nitrate, uranium, radium, or arsenic. Such an ion-selective process could also be used to optimize boron removal following RO desalination of seawater. 6e. Develop hybrid desalination processes to increase recovery. Overall product water recovery in a desalination plant can be increased through the serial application of more than one desalination process. For example, an RO process could be preceded by a “tight” nanofiltration process, allowing the RO to operate at a higher recovery than it could with less aggressive pretreatment. Other options could be devised, including hybrid thermal and membrane processes to increase the overall recovery of the process. As noted in Chapter 4, the possible hybrid combinations of desalination processes are limited only by ingenuity and identification of economically viable applications. Hybridization also offers opportunities for reducing desalination production costs and expanding the flexibility of operations, especially when co-located with power plants, but hybridization also increases plant complexity and raises challenges in operation and automation. Improve existing desalination approaches to reduce primary energy use Energy is one of the largest annual costs in the desalination process. Thus, research to improve the energy efficiency of desalination technologies could make a significant contribution to reducing costs. 7a. Develop improved energy recovery technologies and techniques for desalination. Membrane desalination is an energy-intensive process compared to treatment of freshwater sources. Modern energy recovery devices operate at up to 96 percent energy recovery (see Chapter 4), although these efficiencies are lower at average operating conditions. The energy recovery method in most common use today is the energy recovery (or Pelton) turbine, which achieves about 87 percent efficiency. Many modern plants still use Pelton wheels because of the higher capital cost of isobaric devices. Thus, opportunities exist to improve recovery of energy from the desalination concentrate over a wide operating range and reduce overall energy costs. 7b. Research configurations and applications for desalination to utilize low-grade or waste heat. Industrial processes that produce waste or low-grade heat may offer opportunities to lower the operating cost of OCR for page 224 Desalination: A National Perspective the desalination process if these heat sources are co-located with desalination facilities (see Box 4-8). Low-grade heat can be used as an energy source for desalination via commercially available thermal desalination processes. Hybrid membrane-thermal desalination approaches offer additional operational flexibility and opportunities for water-production cost savings. Research is needed to examine configurations and applications of current technologies to utilize low-grade or waste heat for desalination. 7c. Understand the impact of energy pricing on existing desalination technology over time. Energy is one of the largest components of cost for desalination, and future changes in energy pricing could significantly affect the affordability of desalination. Research is needed to examine to what extent the economic and financial feasibility of desalination may be threatened by the uncertain prospect of energy price increases in the future for typical desalination plants in the United States. This research should also examine the costs and benefits of capital investments in renewable energy sources. 7d. Investigate approaches for integrating renewable energy with desalination. Renewable energy sources could help mitigate future increases in energy costs by providing a means to stabilize energy costs for desalination facilities while also reducing the environmental impacts of water production. Research is needed to optimize the potential for coupling various renewable energy applications with desalination. Develop novel approaches or processes to desalinate water in a way that reduces primary energy use Because the energy of RO is only twice the minimum energy of desalination, even novel technologies are unlikely to create step change (>25 percent) reductions in absolute energy consumption compared to the best current technology (see, e.g., Appendix A). Instead, substantial reductions in the energy costs of desalination are more likely to come through the development of novel approaches or processes that optimize the use of low-grade heat. Several innovative desalination technologies that are the focus of ongoing research, such as forward osmosis, dewvaporation, and membrane distillation, have the capacity to use low-grade heat as an energy source. Research into the specific incorporation of waste or low-grade heat into these or other innovative processes could greatly reduce the amount of primary energy required for desalination and, thus, overall desalination costs. OCR for page 225 Desalination: A National Perspective Crosscutting Research Research topics in this category benefit both Goal 1, for environmental impacts, and Goal 2, for lowering the cost of desalination. Develop cost-effective approaches for concentrate management that minimize potential environmental impacts Research objectives related to concentrate management are crosscutting, because they address both the need to understand and minimize environmental impacts and the need to reduce the total cost of desalination. For coastal concentrate management, research is needed to develop improved diffuser technologies and subsurface injection approaches and to examine their costs and benefits relative to current disposal alternatives. The high cost of inland concentrate management inhibits inland brackish water desalination. Low- to moderate-cost concentrate management alternatives (i.e., subsurface injection, land application, sewer discharge, and surface water discharge) can be limited by the salinity of the concentrate and by location and climate factors; in some scenarios all of these options may be restricted by site-specific conditions, leaving zero liquid discharge (ZLD) as the only alternative for consideration. ZLD options currently include evaporation ponds and energy-intensive processes, such as brine concentrators or crystallizers, followed by landfilling. These options have high capital or operating costs. Research to improve recovery in the desalination process and thereby minimize the initial volume of concentrate could enhance the practical viability of several concentrate management options for inland desalination. This is particularly true for the concentrate management options that are characterized by high costs per unit volume of the concentrate flow treated and for approaches that are not applicable to large concentrate flows, such as thermal evaporation or evaporation ponds. Advancements are also needed that reduce the capital costs and improve the energy efficiency of thermal evaporation processes. Conventional concentrate management options that involve simple equipment are not likely to see significant cost reductions through additional research. The reuse of high-salinity concentrates and minerals extracted from them should be further explored and developed to help mitigate environmental impacts while generating revenues that can help offset concentrate management costs. Possibilities include selective precipitation of marketable salts, irrigation of salt-tolerant crops, supplements for animal dietary needs, dust suppressants, stabilizers for road base construction, or manufacture of lightweight fire-proof building materials. Studies are OCR for page 226 Desalination: A National Perspective necessary to determine the most feasible uses and to develop ways to prepare the appropriate product for various types of reuse. For all possible uses, site-specific limitations and local and state regulations will need to be considered. Because the transportation costs greatly affect the economics of reuse, a market analysis would also be needed to identify areas in the United States that could reasonably utilize products from desalination concentrate. Highest Priority Research Topics All of the topics identified are considered important, although three topics (1, 2, and 9 above) were deemed to be the highest priority research topics: (1) assessing the environmental impacts of desalination intake and concentrate management approaches, (2) developing improved intake methods to minimize impingement and entrainment, and (3) developing cost-effective approaches for concentrate management that minimize environmental impacts. These three research areas are considered the highest priorities because this research can help address the largest barriers (or showstoppers) to more widespread use of desalination in the United States. Uncertainties about potential environmental impacts will need to be resolved and cost-effective mitigation approaches developed if desalination is to be more widely accepted. Research to develop cost-effective approaches for concentrate management is critical to enable more widespread use of desalination technologies for inland communities. As noted in Chapter 4, the cost of concentrate management can double or triple the cost of the desalination for some inland communities. Research may also reduce the costs of desalination. Any cost improvement will help make desalination an attractive option for communities addressing water shortages. However, the committee does not view these process cost issues as the major limitation to the application of desalination in the United States today. IMPLEMENTING THE RESEARCH AGENDA In the previous section, the committee proposed a broad research agenda that, if implemented, should improve the capacity of desalination to meet future water needs in the United States by further examining and addressing its environmental impacts and reducing its costs relative to other water supply alternatives. Implementing this agenda requires federal leadership, but its success depends on participation from a range of entities, including federal, state, and local governments, nonprofit or- OCR for page 227 Desalination: A National Perspective ganizations, and the private sector. A strategy for implementing the research agenda is suggested in the following section. This section also includes suggestions for funding the agenda and the appropriate roles of government and nongovernmental entities. Supporting the Desalination Research Agenda A federal role is appropriate for research that provides a “public good.” Specifically, the federal government should have an interest in funding research where the benefits are widespread but where no private-sector entities are willing to make the investment and assume the risks. Thus, for example, research that results in significant environmental benefits should be in the federal interest because these benefits are shared by the public at large and cannot be fully captured by any entrepreneur. Federal investment is also important where it has “national significance”—where the issues are of large-scale concern; they are more than locally, state-, or regionally specific; and the benefits accrue to a large swath of the public. Based on the aforementioned criteria, the proposed research agenda contains many topic items that should be in the federal interest (see topics marked with asterisks in Box 8-1). The research topics in support of Goal 1 (see Box 8-1) are directed at environmental issues that are largely “public good” issues. Some of the needed environmental research will, by nature, be site-specific, and purely site-specific research is not of great federal interest. Thus, there is a clear role for state and local agencies to support site-specific research. The federal government, however, should have an interest in partnering with local communities to conduct more extensive field research from which broader conclusions of environmental impacts can be drawn or which would significantly contribute to a broader meta-analysis. This meta-analysis could especially benefit small water supply systems. Also, there should be federal interest in establishing general protocols for field evaluations and chronic bioassays that could then be adapted for site-specific studies. The research needed to support the attainment of Goal 2 includes several topics that are clearly in the federal interest, as defined earlier. These include efforts to reduce prime energy use, to integrate renewable energy resources within the total energy picture and increase reliance upon them, and to understand the impacts of energy pricing on the future of desalination (see highlighted topics in Box 8-1). However, Goal 2 also includes a number of research topics that may be more appropriately funded by the private sector or nongovernmental organizations, assuming that these entities are willing to assume the risks of the research investment. Indeed, private industry already spends far more on research and OCR for page 228 Desalination: A National Perspective development for desalination than the federal government (see Chapter 2) and is already making substantial progress in the improvement of existing membrane performance, developing better pretreatment alternatives, and developing improved energy recovery devices. To avoid duplication and to optimize available research funding, government programs should focus instead on research and development with widespread possible benefits that would otherwise go unfunded because private industry is unwilling to make the investment. Finally, the crosscutting topic to develop cost-effective methods of managing concentrates for inland communities, which impacts Goals 1 and 2, is also in the federal interest. Federal Research Funding The optimal level of federal investment in desalination research is inherently a question of public policy. Although the decision should be informed by science, it is not—at its heart—a scientific decision. However, several conclusions emerged from the committee’s analysis of current research and development funding (see Chapter 2) that suggest the importance of strategic integration of the research program. The committee concluded that there is no integrated and strategic direction to the federal desalination research and development efforts. Continuation of a federal program of research dominated by congressional earmarks and beset by competition between funding for research and funding for construction will not serve the nation well and will require the expenditure of more funds than necessary to achieve specified goals. To ensure that future federal investments in desalination research are integrated and prioritized so as to address the two major goals identified in this report, the federal government will need to develop a coordinated strategic plan that utilizes the recommendations of this report as a basis. It is beyond the committee’s scope to recommend specific plans for improving coordination among the many federal agencies that support desalination research. Instead, responsibility for developing the plan should rest with the Office of Science and Technology Policy’s (OSTP’s) National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) because “this Cabinet-level Council is the principal means within the executive branch to coordinate science and technology policy across the diverse entities that make up the Federal research and development enterprise.”1 For example, the NSTC’s Subcommittee on Water Availability and Quality has member-ship representing more than 20 federal agencies and recently released “A Strategy for Federal Science and Technology to Support Water Avail- 1 For more information, see http://www.ostp.gov/nstc/index.html. OCR for page 229 Desalination: A National Perspective ability and Quality in the United States” (SWAQ, 2007). Representatives of the National Science Foundation, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, the Office of Naval Research, and the Department of Energy should participate fully in the development of the strategic federal plan for desalination research and development. Five years into the implementation of this plan, the OSTP should evaluate the status of the plan, whether goals have been met, and the need for further funding. A coordinated strategic plan governing desalination research at the federal level along with effective implementation of the research plan will be the major determinants of federal research productivity in this endeavor. The committee cannot emphasize strongly enough the importance of a well-organized, well-articulated strategically directed effort. In the absence of any or all of these preconditions, federal investment will yield less than it could. Therefore, a well-developed and clearly articulated strategic research plan, as called for above, should be a precondition for any new federal appropriations. Initial federal appropriations on the order of recent spending on desalination research (total appropriations of about $25 million annually, as in fiscal years 2005 and 2006) should be sufficient to make good progress toward the overall research goals if the funding is strategically directed toward the proposed research topics as recommended in this report. Annual federal appropriations of $25 million, properly allocated, should be sufficient to have an impact in the identified priority research areas, given the context of expected state and private-sector funding. This level of federal funding is also consistent with NRC (2004a), which recommended annual appropriations of $700 million for research supporting the nation’s entire water resources research agenda. Reallocation of current spending will be necessary to address topics that are currently underfunded. If current research funding is not reallocated, the overall desalination research and development budget will need to be enhanced. Nevertheless, support for the research agenda stated here should not come at the expense of other high-priority water resource research topics, such as those identified in Confronting the Nation’s Water Problems: The Role of Research (NRC, 2004a). Environmental research should be emphasized up front in the research agenda. At least 50 percent of the federal funding for desalination research should initially be directed toward environmental research. Environmental research, including Goal 1 and the Goal 1 and 2 crosscuts, should be addressed, because these have the potential for the greatest impact in overcoming current roadblocks for desalination and making desalination an attractive water supply alternative. Research funding in support of Goal 2 should be directed strategically toward research topics that are likely to make improvements against benchmarks set by the best OCR for page 230 Desalination: A National Perspective current technologies for desalination. The best available technologies for desalination at the time of this writing are benchmarked in Chapter 4. Research proposals should make the case as to how and to what degree the proposed research can advance the state of the art in desalination. An emphasis should be placed on energy benchmarks because reductions in energy result in overall cost savings and have environmental benefits. The majority of the federal funding directed toward Goal 2 should support projects that are in the public interest and would not otherwise be privately funded (see Box 8-1), such as some high-risk and long-term research initiatives (e.g., developing novel desalination processes that sharply reduce the primary energy use). Although private industry does make modest investments in high-risk research, it is frequently reluctant to invest in research in the earliest stage of technology creation, when there is extremely low likelihood of success even though there are large potential benefits. The effectiveness with which federal funds are spent will also depend on certain critical implementation steps, which are outlined in the following section. Proposal Announcement and Selection Based on available funding, the opportunity to announce requests for proposals exists for federal agencies, such as the Bureau of Reclamation or the National Science Foundation, or other research institutions that explicitly target one or more research objectives. The principal funding agency should announce a request for proposals as widely as possible to scientists and engineers in municipal and federal government, academia, and private industry. At present, the desalination community is relatively small, but collectively there is a great deal of expertise across the world. International desalination experts and others from related areas of research should be encouraged and given the opportunity to offer innovative research ideas that have the potential to significantly advance the field. Thus, the request for proposals should extend to federal agencies, national laboratories, other research institutions, utilities, and the private sector. Since innovation cannot be preassigned, broad solicitations for proposals should include a provision for unsolicited investigator-initiated research proposals. To achieve the objectives of the research agenda, proposals should be selected through a rigorous independent peer-review process (NRC, 2002b) irrespective of the agency issuing the request for proposals. A rotating panel of independent, qualified reviewers should be appointed based on their relevant expertise in the focal areas. The process should OCR for page 231 Desalination: A National Perspective allow for the consideration and review of unsolicited proposals, as long as their research goals meet the overall research goals. Proposal funding should be based on the quality of the proposed work, the degree to which the proposed research can advance the state of the art in desalination or otherwise contribute toward the research goals, prior evidence of successful research, and the potential for effective publication or dissemination of the research findings. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A strategic national research agenda has been conceived that centers around two overarching strategic goals for further research in desalination: (1) to understand the environmental impacts of desalination and develop approaches to minimize these impacts relative to other water supply alternatives and (2) to develop approaches to lower the financial costs of desalination so that it is an attractive option relative to other alternatives in locations where traditional sources of water are inadequate. A research agenda is proposed in this chapter in support of these two goals (see Box 8-1). Several recommendations for implementing the proposed research agenda follow. A coordinated strategic plan should be developed to ensure that future federal investments in desalination research are integrated and prioritized and address the two major goals identified in this report. The strategic application of federal funding for desalination research can advance the implementation of desalination technologies in areas where traditional sources of water are inadequate. Responsibility for developing the plan should rest with the OSTP, which should use the recommendations of this report as a basis for plan development. Initial federal appropriations on the order of recent spending on desalination research (total appropriations of about $25 million annually) should be sufficient to make good progress toward these goals, when complemented by ongoing nonfederal and private-sector desalination research, if the funding is directed toward the proposed research topics as recommended in this chapter. Reallocation of current federal spending will be necessary to address currently underfunded topics. If current federal research and development funding is not reallocated, new appropriations will be necessary. However, support for the research agenda stated here should not come at the expense of other high-priority water resource research topics. Five years into the implementation of this plan, the OSTP should evaluate the status of the plan, whether goals have been met, and the need for further funding. OCR for page 232 Desalination: A National Perspective Environmental research should be emphasized up front when implementing the research agenda. Uncertainties regarding environmental impacts and ways to mitigate these impacts are one of the largest hurdles to implementation of desalination in the United States, and research in these areas has the greatest potential for enabling desalination to help meet future water needs in communities facing water shortages. This environmental research includes work to understand environmental impacts of desalination intakes and concentrate management, the development of improved intake methods to minimize impingement and entrainment, and cost-effective concentrate management technologies. Research funding in support of reducing the costs of desalination (Goal 2) should be directed strategically toward research topics that are likely to make improvements against benchmarks set by the best current technologies for desalination. Because the private sector is already making impressive strides toward Goal 2, federal research funding should emphasize the long-term and high-risk research that may not be attempted by the private sector and that is in the public interest, such as research on novel technologies that significantly reduce prime energy use. Wide dissemination of requests for proposals to meet the goals of the research agenda will benefit the quality of research achieved. Requests for proposals should extend to federal agencies, national laboratories, research institutions, utilities, other countries, and the private sector. Investigator-driven research through unsolicited proposals should be permitted throughout the proposal process. Proposals should be peer-reviewed and based on quality of research proposed, the potential contribution, prior evidence of successful research, and effective dissemination.

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Florida, in the United States of America. It includes a widely diverse area from quiet, unpopulated central areas with "Old Florida" feel to vibrant resort cities. The climate of South Florida, due to its situation just above the Tropic of Cancer, is subtropical. During most of the year, there is substantial warmth and humidity, due to the common rainfall in the area. However, winter is much drier, and is prone to cold snaps that could bring the temperature as low as the 20sF. In the wintertime, weather is generally around 75F and nights are around 57F, with low humidity, and occasional very cold temperatures (as mentioned above) that kills tropical foliage, like coconut palms, and animals. The water temperature at this time is about 70F. Spring sees higher humidity and some more rain, with temperatures around 80F and nighttime lows in the 60s, with water temperatures of 75F. Summer is the most humid time of year due to frequent rainstorms, and sees temperatures around 90F, with water temperatures of 85F and nighttime lows of 80F. Fall has slightly less humidity, with water temperatures of around 80F, and similar weather to springtime ,though nights tend to be warmer, in the 70sF. However, fall is more likely to be affected by hurricanes and tropical storms, thus, still being pretty muggy. Some of the major cities in South Florida are: Other destinations South Florida has a subtropical wet-and-dry climate, which essentially means cold fronts from November through March are to be expected, and most of the year is warm and humid. The dry season begins in October and lasts through the third week in May, with famously mild winters. The hurricane season officially runs from June 1 through November 30, with the most likely time for South Florida to be hit being mid August through early October. A wide variety of languages are commonly spoken throughout South Florida with increasing diversity near the major cities. The City of Miami for example has three official languages: English, Spanish, and Haitian Creole. English, however, dominates and is the preferred language in South Florida. Even in areas where English is not the native language, most people will be bilingual in the other language (although generally not the other way around for native English speakers). The simplest way to get treated in English is to use the "approach rule." Most locals will respond only in the language they were summoned in unless they are not able to speak it. This rule can be used on anyone whether or not they were originally speaking Spanish, English, or any other language. In general the more south you go in South Florida (for instance, Miami-Dade), the more Spanish speakers there will be. Occasionally, you may run into someone who is not fluent in English. If this happens, simply speak slowly and use only simple English. In a few places, especially near Miami, you may find someone that cannot speak any English. Even when encountering a local who does not speak English, one could easily find another local to help with translation if needed without much effort, since most of the population is fluently bilingual. Get in By plane Miami International Airport, one of the busiest international airports in the world, is the main airport serving the Miami metropolitan area. Fort Lauderdale and Fort Myers, West Palm Beach, and Sarasota also have large airports. By train Amtrak provides inter-city rail service through all the major cities in South Florida. Two trains provide daily service, starting in Miami, making stops in Hollywood, Fort Lauderdale, Deerfield Beach, and West Palm Beach, continuing north to Tampa, Orlando, Jacksonville, and eventually Washington D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, with both trains terminating at New York City's Penn Station. All of South Florida's Amtrak stations (except Miami) share platforms with the regional commuter rail service, Tri-Rail. The Miami Amtrak Station is located in the industrial suburb of Hialeah on NW 32nd Ave, just north of NW 72nd St. By boat Coastal cities have excellent year-round marina facilities, often serving some of the largest and most luxurious yachts in the world. Miami is home to the Port of Miami, the largest cruise ship port in the world. Fort Lauderdale also has a cruise port. By bus Greyhound, America's major inter-city bus service provider, has stations at all the major cities in South Florida. At the West Palm Beach and Miami North (Golden Glades) stations, direct connections are available to South Florida's commuter rail service, Tri-Rail. The Miami Greyhound station is located on Le Juene Road (NW 42nd Ave), directly across from Miami International Airport. Service continues further south from Miami, all the way to Key West at the end of US Route 1. By car Get around Public transportation - Local public transportation includes Metrobus, Metromover, and Metrorail—an elevated rapid transit system—each operated by Miami-Dade Transit. There is also an commuter rail system named Tri-Rail, that runs north to south, from MIA all the way to West Palm Beach, making a stop at all three of the Gold Coast's international airports. Hire a car to explore the unique countryside areas. [add listing] See [add listing] Do [add listing] Eat Enjoy such meals such as a Cuban dish of ropa vieja (shredded flank steak in a tomato sauce base), black beans, yellow rice, plantains and fried yuca with beer. Get out

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Updates and changes to codes and standards that affect the way you design and install telecommunications systems Because bonding and grounding systems within a building are intended to have one electrical potential, coordination between electrical and telecommunications bonding and grounding systems is essential during design and installation. One way to coordinate these efforts is to follow industry-established codes and standards. But how do you know which ones to follow? This article presents a brief history and overview of the relevant codes and standards you should be familiar with as well as discusses recent developments that affect all designers and installers. Of course, the first relevant code is the National Electrical Code (NEC), which addresses bonding and grounding as minimum requirements for life safety. While ensuring public safety is the highest priority, the industry began to realize in the late 1980s and early 1990s that the electrical grounding requirements, while protecting end-users, were not protecting the end-user’s expensive electronic (IT) equipment. The industry addressed this concern by developing standards. While similar to a code, which is adopted by local states and municipalities into law, the use of a standard is voluntary. However, it may become a requirement for any given project, if the owner or designer/engineer lists it as such in the construction documents. One of the first standards to address bonding and grounding was IEEE 142, Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems (the Green Book) when Chapter 5 was added in the 1991 edition – Electronic Equipment Grounding. This addition primarily featured improved bonding and grounding practices for the power systems serving information technology (IT) equipment. The IEEE followed up with IEEE Standard 1100, Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment (the Emerald Book) in 1992. IEEE 1100 expanded on the Green Book, explaining the issues with poor power quality, lightning, and other surges and different ground potentials on metallic data cabling. In 1994, the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) published ANSI/TIA/EIA-607, Commercial Building Grounding and Bonding Requirements for Telecommunications, which established the need for a dedicated telecommunications grounding and bonding system (see Main Components of a Telecommunications Grounding and Bonding System on page C27). This standard specified requirements for a ground reference (ground busbar) in each telecommunications space, including the telecommunications entrance room(s), telecommunications closets, and IT equipment rooms. It also established the bonding of telecommunications system pathways within the telecommunications spaces to the ground reference. The ANSI/TIA/EIA standard was revised in 2002 to become ANSI-J-STD-607-A, Commercial Building Grounding (Earthing) and Bonding Requirements for Telecommunications. The standard was developed jointly by TIA/EIA Working Group 41.7.2 in close coordination with the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS) T1E1.5 and T1E1.7. The term “earthing” was used as the internationally accepted term for “grounding.” The major changes from ANSI/TIA/EIA-607 were greater grounding busbar detail, the addition of tower and antenna bonding and grounding recommendations, work area and personal operator-type equipment position grounding and bonding recommendations, and harmonized international terminology (although terminology from the NEC was retained). Nevertheless, the standard only addressed the connections from the electrical ground to the busbar in each telecommunications space — the connection from the busbar to the equipment was still missing. One of the glaring omissions from the standard was ensuring a quality installation. To address this issue, NECA and BICSI developed a joint standard, ANSI/NECA/BICSI-607, Standard for Telecommunications Bonding and Grounding Planning and Installation Methods for Commercial Buildings. Published in 2011, this standard provides limited planning information, but excels in eliciting installation requirements. For example, it clearly states how to ensure a bond to the busbar by using an antioxidant compound to the connection point using compression 2-hole lugs. From a planning perspective, the standard specifies bonding to a telecommunications rack and includes bonding and grounding information for data centers. However, one of the drawbacks is it was based upon ANSI-J-STD-607-A while the updated ANSI/TIA-607-B standard was in development and nearing publication. ANSI/TIA-607-B, Generic Telecommunications Bonding and Grounding (Earthing) for Customer Premises is by far the most encompassing telecommunications standard for bonding and grounding. Its requirements are for “generic” premises rather than for just a commercial building, and its purpose is to enable and encourage the planning, design, and installation of generic telecommunications bonding and grounding systems within premises. This is to address the basic grounding and bonding requirements without prior knowledge of the specific telecommunication or IT system that will be installed. While primarily intended to provide direction for the design of new buildings, this standard may be used for existing building renovations or retrofits. Design requirements and choices are provided to enable the designer to make informed design decisions. The ANSI/TIA-607-B standard covers regulatory requirements, an overview of a bonding and grounding system, the components involved, and design requirements. Additionally, performance and test requirements are covered, although simplistically. The TR-42.16 Subcommittee recognized this shortfall, and is already developing an addendum to this standard on: - soil resistivity testing using a 4-point method, - grounding electrode system design, - grounding electrode system resistance testing including the fall of potential method and use of the clamp-on test meter. Through these updates, there have been many changes to the components of a telecommunications bonding and grounding system. Busbar requirements were modified to be made of copper or copper alloys having a minimum of 95% conductivity when annealed, as specified by the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). While some manufacturers are offering a less expensive product made of other metals, copper is still the preferred material. Regardless of the material, the busbars must still be listed, and the dimensions of the telecommunications main grounding busbar (TMGB) and the telecommunications grounding busbar (TGB) have not changed. As for the connectors to these busbars, the surface of all bonding and grounding connectors used on a TMGB and TGB shall be of a material that provides an electrochemical potential of less than 300mV between connector and grounding busbar. Essentially, with these requirements, the standard is ensuring a well-performing bonding and grounding system. Conductor sizing is still 2kcmil per linear foot of conductor length, but the maximum size is now 750kcmil (Table). The previous edition of this standard sized the TBB conductor up to 3/0 AWG. The standard also states that the grounding conductors shall not decrease in size as the grounding path moves closer to earth, and the size of the conductor is not intended to account for the reduction or control of electromagnetic interference (EMI). The sizing of this conductor affects the: - BCT (bonding conductor for telecommunications) - TBB (telecommunications bonding backbone) - GE (ground equalizer) - Supplementary bonding network (found in computer rooms) - TEBC (telecommunications equipment bonding conductor) - UBC (unit bonding conductor) Design requirements for this standard include the entire system from the entrance point to the equipment in the rack within the telecommunications room. It also specifies that ANSI/NECA/BICSI-607 is to be used for bonding and grounding installation information. In order to limit the potential difference between telecommunications conduits or between telecommunications conduits and power conduits, the standard specifies that the telecommunications conduits shall be bonded to the TMGB/TGB. Additionally, to achieve the objectives of potential equalization, ensure that cable runway/ladder sections are bonded together to the TMGB/TGB. When the electric panelboard serving that telecommunications room is located in the same room or space as the TMGB/TGB, that panelboard’s alternating current equipment ground (ACEG) bus (when equipped) or the panelboard enclosure shall be bonded to the TMGB/TGB. A qualified electrician should install this bond. Informative annexes included with this standard have information on grounding electrodes, towers and antennas, telecommunications electrical protection, electrical protection for operator-type equipment positions, and a cross reference of more commonly used terms. For a designer of telecommunications bonding and grounding systems, the ANSI/TIA-607-B standard is the most encompassing standard to follow for premises buildings. Although there are many other guides (see Resources at a Glance below), standards are developed so that a consensus must be reached among industry expert volunteers. Although best practices may have valuable information, they typically have not been vetted among a large subset of industry experts. What does this mean for the electrical contractor? For anyone with a telecom division, it’s important to stay current on the telecommunications grounding standards. A well-designed system would include a telecommunications grounding detail and riser diagram (click here to see Figure), and specifications would list the most recent edition of the applicable standards. For drawings and specifications that are silent — or that may reference outdated standards or conflicting guidelines — the contractor should ask the design team for clarification (during the bid window, if possible) as to what sizing to follow for the TBB, because a change in conductor size may greatly affect cost. For electrical contractors subcontracting out the telecommunications work, the demarcation point for work between electrical and telecommunications contractors should be carefully coordinated. A recommended practice is for the electrical contractor to provide the grounding conductor and connection from the main electrical ground to the TMGB, as well as from an electrical panel in a telecommunications room to the grounding busbar in that room. The telecommunications contractor would then provide all of the grounding busbars and bonding conductors within and between the telecommunications rooms, as well as make all final connections to the TMGB, TGBs, and telecommunications infrastructure/equipment. Peterworth works in the Information Technology Services - Networking & Telecommunications department at the University of Texas at Austin in Austin, Texas. He can be reached at: firstname.lastname@example.org. SIDEBAR: Main Components of a Telecommunication Grounding and Bonding System The Telecommunications Main Grounding Busbar (TMGB) is typically located in the telecommunications entrance facility — where the telecommunications cables enter the building and need to transition to indoor-rated cables per Sec. 800.48 of the NEC, which limits unlisted cables to 50 ft or less. This busbar is pre-drilled and made of copper with a minimum of 4-in.-wide by ¼-in. -hick material of varying length. It is to be connected to the main electrical ground with an appropriately sized copper conductor. The entrance protectors from the outside cables and conduits are to be connected to this TMGB, as well as any other telecommunications equipment co-located in the entrance facility. (It is common practice for the entrance facility to also be the main network room for IT equipment.) In all other telecommunications rooms, there is to be a telecommunications grounding busbar (TGB), to be made of copper with pre-drilled holes and minimum dimensions of 2-in.-wide by ¼-in.-thick material of varying length. These are to be connected back to the TMGB through appropriately sized copper conductors that form the telecommunications bonding backbone (TBB), as shown in the Figure (click here to see Figure). In each telecommunications room, the ladder rack, equipment rack, entrance (lightning) protectors for the telecommunications lines, and even IT equipment are connected back to the TMGB or TGB with a bonding conductor. If either building steel or the electrical panel is available in the telecommunications room, they need to be connected back to the TMGB or TGB as well, with a minimum of 6 AWG copper conductor or larger. SIDEBAR: Resources at a Glance There are many standards and guidelines a designer may choose to specify. Here are a list of several that may be referenced for more specific project and installation applications: - ANSI/ATIS-0600334, Electrical Protection of Communications Towers and Associated Structures - ATIS 0600318, Electrical Protection Applied to Telecommunications Network Plant at Entrances to Customer Structures or Buildings - ATIS 0600321, Telecommunications – Electrical Protection for Network Operator-Type Equipment Positions - ATIS-0600313, Electrical Protection for Telecommunications Central Offices and Similar Type Facilities - EN 50310, Application of Equipotential Bonding and Earthing in Buildings with Information Technology Equipment - MIL-HDBK-419A, Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding for Electronic Equipments and Facilities Basic Theory - ANSI/IEEE 1100, 2005, Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment - ANSI/IEEE C2, 2007, National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) - ANSI/ATIS 0600333, Grounding and Bonding of Telecommunications Equipment - ANSI/ATIS 0600334, 2008, Electrical Protection of Communications Towers and Associated Structures - ANSI/TIA/EIA-606-A, 2007, Administration Standard for the Telecommunications Infrastructure of Commercial Buildings - FIPS PUBS 94, 1983, Guideline on Electrical Power for ADP Installations, 1983 (USA Federal Information Processing Standards Publications) - ITU-T K.27, 1996, Bonding Configuration and Earthing Inside a Telecommunication Building

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Why is it that farmers competing in state and national soybean yield contests routinely grow 60 or even 85 bu. per acre yields when the national average is closer to 44? That’s the question that motivated some ground-breaking research by Fred Below, a crop physiologist at the University of Illinois. The wise-cracking, caffeinated professor presented his top-line results to a standing-room-only audience of farmers at last week’s 2013 Commodity Classic. There’s a lot more at stake in the answer to this question than a simple scientific inquiry. To feed an extra 2 billion mouths over the next 40 years, "we need to double the production of all grains," says Below. But at current rates of productivity gains, it will take 100 years to reach 85 bu. per acre. "Fortunately, there’s a lot of low-hanging fruit," says Below. In fact, nearly every tactic Below tried – whether it was adding more nitrogen or planting in denser rows – improved yields. The best course of action, he says, is "intelligent intensification," academic-speak for putting more of the right stuff in the ground at the right time. Before diving into his secrets, Below listed some "pre-requisites." He assumes that farmers are draining their fields properly, that they engage in early weed control – "no matter how satisfying it may be to let them grow then go out in the field and kill them with glyphosate" – and are maintaining proper pH levels for soils. Here’s a rundown on the six "secrets" Below revealed, one at a time. Because he figures everyone could guess weather was among the secrets, he lists it first. But it may belong at the top, since according to his studies it has a greater influence on yields than anything else. That’s unfortunate because it can’t be controlled. Fluctuating weather conditions in Below’s home state of Illinois have resulted deviations from trend-line yields of 0.7 bu. per acre over the past 20 years. Good weather, of course, influences early planting, which can create opportunities for early vegetative growth and node formation. "I think we need to plant earlier, but it’s the weather that determines the planting date," Below says. Even if you plant early, the professor says, you need to plant the right seed and protect it. The impact of heat and drought can be mitigated by management practices that promote strong root development, such as fertility, enhanced seed emergence, and disease control. Ethylene blocking compounds that alleviate corn stress may work on soybeans as well, he adds. But there’s nothing like a good rain in August. That’s what saved Below’s test crops last year. "When any of my agronomic schemes don’t work," he says, "I just blame the weather, and I’m usually right." Soil fertility, Below says, may be the most overlooked component of soybean management. "I don’t think we’re adequately fertilizing soybeans, or we’re losing a lot from corn," Below says. The popular approach of adding nitrogen during the growing season may backfire as well. "If you put in too much, in late June or early July, you can shut down the nodules. Then you wind up with worse performance." Soybeans obtain between 25 and 75% of plant nitrogen from the soil, with the balance supplied from symbiotic fixation. "When we get to 85 bu. per acre, we’re mining 100 pounds out of the soil," he says. Some growers, Below said, incorrectly believe that because they applied adequate fertilizer to their corn crop the preceding year that phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) fertility are less critical for soybean production. A typical fertilizer program for soybeans, for instance, might involve fertilizing the previous year’s corn crop with an equivalent of two years of fertilizer. A 230-bu. corn yield, however, removes nearly 100 pounds of P2O5 from every acre. This doesn’t leave much for the soybean crop in the second year. Many people think potassium is the key nutrient for soybeans, Below says. While it is important, corn stover could provide half the potassium that soybeans need. Phosphorus, he says, "is the biggest problem, and it’s probably due to the way we fertilize corn." Phosphorus is quickly immobilized in soil and may not be available in sufficient quantity. Below grew an additional 4.3 bu. per acre through better fertilization. Besides the weather, fertility is the most important variable he tested. Below believes that farmers don’t spend enough time researching soybean varieties. He found big differences in yield, even among varieties of the same maturity. Yields varied by as much as 20 bu. per acre when grown at the same location. Some variation was due to differences in susceptibility to diseases like white mold. But he also noted big differences between seeds with varying insect resistance. All told, Below attributes an additional 3.2 bu. per acre upside to selecting the right seed. 4. Enhance seed emergence and vigor Through the use of fungicidal, insecticidal and plant growth regulator seed treatments, early season growth and vigor will be protected from yield robbing stresses such as disease and insects. The professor says healthier leaves result in bigger seeds, which can dramatically improve yields. "It has a huge impact," he said. Below argues that insect and disease control is especially critical with soybeans because so many pests can limit yield or reduce grain quality. 5. Seed treatment Soybean seeds have their highest yield potential, of course, when first planted. After that, the basic idea is to relieve as much stress on the plants as possible. Seed treatments that promote seed germination, seedling establishment, and early vigor, help in this respect. Some fungicides and insecticides may also promote "physiological vigor," he says. "At my research site, when I had seed with a complete treatment, I saw an enormous improvement in yield." All told, the researcher attributes an increase of 2.6 bu. per acre to seed treatment. 6. Use narrow rows Below’s research turned up a distinct advantage to planting soybeans in narrow rows of 20 inches, rather than 30 inches. This allows more space between plants within a row and increased branching. That in turn creates more opportunities for precision fertilizer placement in a corn-soybean rotation. Twenty-inch rows also improve light interception, though reduced air circulation may create more pressure for disease. Though 15-inch soybean rows have gained in popularity in recent years, Below believes that there’s an advantage to planting both corn and soybeans in 20-inch rows. Farmers could use the same equipment for precision fertilizer placement. And by alternating crops, soybeans could take advantage of the residual fertility from the previous band. Unfortunately, farmers who employed all these secrets wouldn’t get a yield increase equal to the combined value of doing them individually. The whole, in other words, isn’t equal to a sum of the parts. But you do get some added benefit by combining approaches. For instance, in Below’s research, applying fungicide at the R3 growth stage improved yields by 2.1%. Applying insecticide at R3 resulted in a 3.7% yield increase. But doing both only improved yields by 3.8%. Soybean Yield Secrets In terms of yield percentage improvements |Fertility (extra N,P,S and Zn) |Variety (fuller maturity for region) |Foliar protection (fungicide and insecticide) |Seed treatment (fungicide, insecticide, and nematicide) |Row width (20-inch versus 30-inch) Read more information about Below and his research. For More Information

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Table of Contents PC-style floppy disks work mostly like other disk devices like hard disks, except that you need to low-level format them first. To use an common 1440 KB floppy in the first floppy drive, first (as root) format it: #fdformat -f /dev/rfd0a Then create a single partition on the disk using disklabel(8): #disklabel -rw /dev/rfd0a floppy3 Creating a small filesystem optimized for space: #newfs -m 0 -o space -i 16384 -c 80 /dev/rfd0a Now the floppy disk can be mounted like any other disk. Or if you already have a floppy disk with an MS-DOS filesystem on it that you just want to access from NetBSD, you can just do something like this: #mount -t msdos /dev/fd0a /mnt However, rather than using floppies like normal (bigger) disks, it is often more convenient to bypass the filesystem altogether and just splat an archive of files directly to the raw device. E.g.: #tar cvfz /dev/rfd0a file1 file2 ... A variation of this can also be done with MS-DOS floppies using sysutils/mtools package which has the benefit of not going through the kernel buffer cache and thus not being exposed to the danger of the floppy being removed while a filesystem is mounted on it. See if your system has a ZIP drive: dmesg | grep -i zipsd0 at atapibus0 drive 1: <IOMEGA ZIP 100 ATAPI, , 14.A> type 0 direct removable Seems it has one, and it's recognized as sd0, just like any SCSI disk. The fact that the ZIP here is an ATAPI one doesn't matter - a SCSI ZIP will show up here, too. The ZIP is marked as "removable", which means you can eject it with: Insert ZIP disk Check out what partitions are on the ZIP: #/dev/rsd0d: type: ATAPI ... 8 partitions: #size offset fstype [fsize bsize cpg] d: 196608 0 unused 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 95) h: 196576 32 MSDOS # (Cyl. 0*- 95) disklabel: boot block size 0 disklabel: super block size 0 is the whole disk, as usual on i386. is what you want, and you can see it's a msdos filesystem even. Hence, use /dev/sd0h to access the zip's partition. mount -t msdos /dev/sd0h /mnt Access your files: ls -la /mnttotal 40809 drwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 16384 Dec 31 1979 . drwxr-xr-x 28 root wheel 1024 Aug 2 22:06 .. -rwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 1474560 Feb 23 1999 boot1.fs -rwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 1474560 Feb 23 1999 boot2.fs -rwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 548864 Feb 23 1999 boot3.fs -rwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 38271173 Feb 23 1999 netbsd19990223.tar.gz Unmount the ZIP: Eject the ZIP: Data CDs can contain anything from programs, sound files (MP3, wav), movies (MP3, QuickTime) to source code, text files, etc. Before accessing these files, a CD must be mounted on a directory, much like hard disks are. Just as hard disks can use different filesystems (ffs, lfs, ext2fs, ...), CDs have their own filesystem, "cd9660". The NetBSD cd9660 filesystem can handle filesystems without and with Rockridge and Joliet extensions. CD devices are named /dev/cd0a for both SCSI and IDE (ATAPI). With this information, we can start: See if your system has some CD drive: dmesg | grep ^cdcd0 at atapibus0 drive 0: <CD-R/RW RW8040A, , 1.12> type 5 cdrom removable cd0: 32-bit data port cd0: drive supports PIO mode 4, DMA mode 0 cd0(pciide0:1:0): using PIO mode 0, DMA mode 0 (using DMA data transfers) We have one drive here, "cd0". It is an IDE/ATAPI drive, as it is found on atapibus0. Of course the drive (rather, its medium) is removable, i.e., you can eject it. See below. Insert a CD Mount the CD manually: mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0a /mnt This command shouldn't print anything. It instructs the system to mount the CD found on /dev/cd0a on /mnt, using the "cd9660" filesystem. The mountpoint "/mnt" must be an existing directory. Check the contents of the CD: ls /mntINSTALL.html INSTALL.ps TRANS.TBL boot.catalog INSTALL.more INSTALL.txt binary installation Everything looks fine! This is a NetBSD CD, of course. :) Unmount the CD: If the CD is still accessed (e.g. some other shell's still "cd"'d into it), this will not work. If you shut down the system, the CD will be unmounted automatically for you, there's nothing to worry about there. Making an entry in /etc/fstab: If you don't want to type the full "mount" command each time, you can put most of the values into a line in /etc/fstab: # Device mountpoint filesystem mount options /dev/cd0a /cdrom cd9660 ro,noauto Make sure that the mountpoint, /cdrom in our Now you can mount the cd with the following command: Access and unmount as before. The CD is not mounted at boot time due to the "noauto" mount option - this is useful as you'll probably not have a CD in the drive all the time. See mount(8) and mount_cd9660(8) for some other useful options. Eject the CD: If the CD is still mounted, it will be unmounted if possible, before being ejected. Use mscdlabel(8) to add all sessions to the CDs then use the appropriate device node to mount the session you want. You might have to create the corresponding device nodes in mscdlabel cd1track (ctl=4) at sector 142312 adding as 'a' track (ctl=4) at sector 0 adding as 'b' ls -l /dev/cd1bls: /dev/cd1b: No such file or directory ls -l cd1*brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 8 Mar 18 21:55 cd1a brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 11 Mar 18 21:55 cd1d mknod cd1b b 6 9 Make sure you fix the permissions of any new device nodes you create: ls -l cd1*brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 8 Mar 18 21:55 cd1a brw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 6, 9 Mar 18 22:23 cd1b brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 11 Mar 18 21:55 cd1d chgrp operator cd1b chmod 640 cd1b ls -l cd1*brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 8 Mar 18 21:55 cd1a brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 9 Mar 18 22:24 cd1b brw-r----- 1 root operator 6, 11 Mar 18 21:55 cd1d Now you should be able to mount it. mount /dev/cd1b /mnt By default, NetBSD only allows "root" to mount a filesystem. If you want any user to be able to do this, perform the following steps: Give groups and other the access rights to the device. #chmod go+rw /dev/cd0a Ask NetBSD to let users mounting filesystems. #sysctl -w vfs.generic.usermount=1 Note that this works for any filesystem and device, not only for CDs with a ISO 9660 filesystem. To perform the mount operation after these commands, the user must own the mount point. So, for example: $mount -t cd9660 -o nodev,nosuid /dev/cd0a `pwd`/cdrom The mount options nosuid are mandatory from NetBSD 4.0 on. They are not necessary on NetBSD 3.x systems. Sometimes, it is interesting to mount an ISO9660 image file before you burn the CD; this way, you can examine its contents or even copy files to the outside. If you are a Linux user, you should know that this is done with the special loop filesystem. NetBSD does it another way, using the vnode pseudo-disk. We will illustrate how to do this with an example. Suppose you have an ISO image in your home directory, called "mycd.iso": Start by setting up a new vnode, "pointing" to the ISO file: vnconfig -c vnd0 ~/mycd.iso Now, mount the vnode: mount -t cd9660 /dev/vnd0a /mnt Yeah, image contents appear under Go to that directory and explore the image. When you are happy, you have to umount the image: And at last, deconfigure the vnode: vnconfig -u vnd0 Note that these steps can also be used for any kind of file that contains a filesystem, not just ISO images. To play MPEG Video streams as many DVD players can play them under NetBSD, mount the CD as you would do with any normal (data) CD (see Section 13.3, “Reading data CDs with NetBSD”), then use the package to play the mpeg files stored on the CD. There are two ways to handle audio CDs: Tell the CD drive to play to the headphone or to a soundcard, to which CDROMs are usually connected internally. Use programs like cdplay(1), multimedia/kdemultimedia3 package, mixer programs like mixerctl(1), the Curses based or kmix, which is part of This usually works well on both SCSI and IDE (ATAPI) CDROMs, CDRW and DVD drives. To read ("rip") audio tracks in binary form without going through digital->analog conversion and back. There are several programs available to do this: For most ATAPI, SCSI and several proprietary CDROM drives, the audio/cdparanoia package can be used. With cdparanoia the data can be saved to a file or directed to standard output in WAV, AIFF, AIFF-C or raw format. Currently the -g option is required by the NetBSD version of cdparanoia. A hypothetical example of how to save track 2 as a WAV file is as follows: cdparanoia -g /dev/rcd0d 2 track-02.wav If you want to grab all files from a CD, cdparanoia's batch mode is useful: cdparanoia -g /dev/rcd0d -B For ATAPI or SCSI CD-ROMs the audio/cdd package can be used. To extract track 2 with cdd, type: cdd -t 2 `pwd` This will put a file called in the current directory. For SCSI CD-ROMS the audio/tosha package can be used. To extract track 2 with tosha, you should be able to type: tosha -d-t 2 -o track-02.cda The data can then be post-processed e.g. by encoding it into MP3 streams (see Section 13.9, “Creating an MP3 (MPEG layer 3) file from an audio CD”) or by writing them to CD-Rs (see Section 13.11, “Using a CD-R writer to create audio CDs”). The basic steps in creating an MPEG layer 3 (MP3) file from an audio CD (using software from the NetBSD packages collection) are: Extract (rip) the audio data of the CD as shown in Section 13.8, “Using audio CDs with NetBSD”. Convert the CD audio format file to WAV format. You only need to perform this job if your ripping program (e.g. tosha, cdd) didn't already do the job for you! $sox -s -w -c 2 -r 44100 -t cdr track-02.cda track-02.wav This will convert in raw CD format to track-02.wav in WAV format, using signed 16-bit words with 2 channels at a sampling Encode the WAV file into MP3 format. $bladeenc -128 -QUIT track-02.wav This will encode MP3 format, using a bit rate if for bladeenc describes bit-rates in more detail. $lame -p -o -v -V 5 -h track-02.wav track-02.mp3 You may wish to use a lower quality, depending on your taste and hardware. The process of writing a CD consists of two steps: First, a "image" of the data must be generated, which can then be written to CD-R in a second step. Reading an pre-existing ISO image dd if=/dev/rcd0a of=filename.iso bs=2k Alternatively, you can create a new ISO image yourself: Generating the ISO image Put all the data you want to put on CD into one directory. Next you need to generate a disk-like ISO image of your data. The image stores the data in the same form as they're later put on CD, using the ISO 9660 format. The basic ISO9660 format only understands 8+3 filenames (max. eight letters for filename, plus three more for an extension). As this is not practical for Unix filenames, a so-called "Rockridge Extension" needs to be employed to get longer filenames. (A different set of such extension exists in the Microsoft world, to get their long filenames right; that's what's known as Joliet filesystem). The ISO image is created using the mkisofs command, which is part Example: if you have your data in /usr/tmp/data, you can generate a ISO image file in /usr/tmp/data.iso with the following command: $mkisofs -o data.iso -r data Using NETBS000.GZ;1 for data/binary/kernel/netbsd.INSTALL.gz (netbsd.INSTALL_TINY.gz) Using NETBS001.GZ;1 for data/binary/kernel/netbsd.GENERIC.gz (netbsd.GENERIC_TINY.gz) 5.92% done, estimate finish Wed Sep 13 21:28:11 2000 11.83% done, estimate finish Wed Sep 13 21:28:03 2000 17.74% done, estimate finish Wed Sep 13 21:28:00 2000 23.64% done, estimate finish Wed Sep 13 21:28:03 2000 ... 88.64% done, estimate finish Wed Sep 13 21:27:55 2000 94.53% done, estimate finish Wed Sep 13 21:27:55 2000 Total translation table size: 0 Total rockridge attributes bytes: 5395 Total directory bytes: 16384 Path table size(bytes): 110 Max brk space used 153c4 84625 extents written (165 Mb) Please see the mkisofs(8) man page for other options like noting publisher and preparer. The Bootable CD ROM How-To explains how to generate a bootable CD. Writing the ISO image to CD-R When you have the ISO image file, you just need to write it on a CD. This is done with the "cdrecord" command from the Insert a blank CD-R, and off we go: cdrecord -v dev=/dev/rcd0d data.iso... After starting the command, 'cdrecord' shows you a lot of information about your drive, the disk and the image you're about to write. It then does a 10 seconds countdown, which is your last chance to stop things - type ^C if you want to abort. If you don't abort, the process will write the whole image to the CD and return with a shell prompt. Note that cdrecord(8) works on both SCSI and IDE (ATAPI) drives. Mount the just-written CD and test it as you would do with any "normal" CD, see Section 13.3, “Reading data CDs with NetBSD”. If you want to make a backup copy of one of your audio CDs, you can do so by extracting ("ripping") the audio tracks from the CD, and then writing them back to a blank CD. Of course this also works fine if you only extract single tracks from various CDs, creating your very own mix CD! The steps involved are: If you have converted all your audio CDs to MP3 and now want to make a mixed CD for your (e.g.) your car, you can do so by first converting the .mp3 files back to .wav format, then write them as a normal audio CD. The steps involved here are: Create .wav files from your .mp3 files: mpg123 -w foo.wav foo.mp3 Do this for all of the MP3 files that you want to have on your audio CD. The .wav filenames you use don't matter. Write the .wav files to CD as described under Section 13.11, “Using a CD-R writer to create audio CDs”. To copy an audio CD while not introducing any pauses as mandated by the CDDA standard, you can use cdrdao for that: cdrdao read-cd --device /dev/rcd0d data.toc cdrdao write --device /dev/rcd1d data.toc If you have both a CD-R and a CD-ROM drive in your machine, you can copy a data CD with the following command: cdrecord dev=/dev/rcd1d /dev/rcd0d Here the CD-ROM (cd0) contains the CD you want to copy, and the CD-R (cd1) contains the blank disk. Note that this only works with computer disks that contain some sort of data, it does not work with audio CDs! In practice you'll also want to add something like speed=8" to make things a bit You can treat a CD-RW drive like a CD-R drive (see Section 13.10, “Using a CD-R writer with data CDs”) in NetBSD, creating images with mkisofs(8) and writing them on a CD-RW medium with cdrecord(8). If you want to blank a CD-RW, you can do this with cdrecord's cdrecord dev=/dev/rcd0d blank=fast There are several other ways to blank the CD-RW, call cdrecord(8) with blank=help" for a list. See the cdrecord(8) man page for more information. Currently, NetBSD supports DVD media through the ISO 9660 also used for CD-ROMs. The new UDF filesystem also present on DVDs has been supported since NetBSD 4.0. Information about mounting ISO 9660 and UDF filesystems can be found in the mount_cd9660(8) and mount_udf(8) manual pages respectively. DVDs, DivX and many avi files be played with For some hints on creating DVDs, see this postings about growisofs and this article about recording CDs and DVDs with NetBSD. To create an ISO image and save the checksum do this: readcd dev=/dev/cd0d f=/tmp/cd.iso Here is an alternative using dd(1): dd if=/dev/cd0d of=/tmp/cd.iso bs=2048 If the CD has errors you can recover the rest with this: dd if=/dev/cd0d of=/tmp/cd.iso bs=2048 conv=noerror To create an ISO image from a mounted data CD first, mount the CD disk by: mount -t cd9660 -r /dev/cd0d /mnt/cdrom Second, get the image: mkhybrid -v -l -J -R -o /tmp/my_cd.iso /mnt/cdrom/ You can read the volume data from an unmounted CD with this command: file -s /dev/cd0d You can read the volume data from an ISO image with this command: isoinfo -d -i /tmp/my_cd.iso You can get the unique disk number from an unmounted CD with this: You can read the table of contents of an unmounted CD with this command: cdrecord -v dev=/dev/cd0d -toc

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|This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the German Wikipedia. (January 2012)| ||This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2007)| ||This article needs attention from an expert in Psychology. (October 2009)| Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – "essence or shape of an entity's complete form") is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School; the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The principle maintains that the human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts, suggesting the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain stable percepts in a noisy world. Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perception is the product of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist approach to understanding the elements of cognitive processes, gestalt psychologists sought to understand their organization (Carlson and Heth, 2010). The gestalt effect is the form-generating capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. The phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining gestalt theory, though this is a mistranslation of Kurt Koffka's original phrase, "The whole is other than the sum of the parts". Gestalt theory allows for the breakup of elements from the whole situation into what it really is. The concept of gestalt was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualität had been. Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988). Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of perception—seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance: the figure in front, or the background. These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects (Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology. Gestalt therapy The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology. Theoretical framework and methodology The investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object. Contrary to this methodology, the school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. The theoretical principles are the following: - Principle of Totality—The conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships. - Principle of psychophysical isomorphism – A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity. Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined: - Phenomenon experimental analysis—In relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take as a starting point phenomena and not be solely focused on sensory qualities. - Biotic experiment—The school of gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject. Support from cybernetics and neurology In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such: - A frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must center a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted. Cyberneticist Valentin Turchin points out that the gestalts observed in what we usually imagine are 'still images' are exactly the kind of 'moving objects' that make the frog's retina respond: - The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilized on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, "fixes" it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image "marks time" in the vicinity of this point. Emergence is the process of complex pattern formation from simpler rules. It is demonstrated by the perception of the dog picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once. However, this is a description of what occurs in vision and not an explanation. Gestalt theory does not explain how the percept of a dog emerges. Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn. Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as "real" contours. Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen for example in the Necker cube, and in Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the Three-legged blivet and artist M. C. Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do. Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have had more success in explaining how objects are classified. Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism. The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (in the German language, pithiness), which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws". These include: Gestalt laws of grouping A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. The various laws are called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality vision however there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception. Law of Proximity—The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure that illustrates the Law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated. Law of Similarity—The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together, and the light circles as grouped together forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity. Law of Closure—The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are missing from the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes. Law of Symmetry—The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets. Law of Common Fate—The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that movement of elements of an object produce paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units. Law of Continuity—The law of continuity states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. Law of Good Gestalt—The law of good gestalt explains that elements of objects tend to be perceptually grouped together if they form a pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly. This law implies that as individuals perceive the world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe a reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This meaning created by perception implies a global regularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The law of good gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness, which is what all of gestalt theory is based on. This law has also been called the law of Prägnanz. Prägnanz is a German word that directly translates to mean "pithiness" and implies the ideas of salience, conciseness and orderliness. Law of Past Experience—The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U. The gestalt laws of grouping have recently been subjected to modern methods of scientific evaluation by examining the visual cortex using cortical algorithms. Current Gestalt psychologists have described their findings, which showed correlations between physical visual representations of objects and self-report perception as the laws of seeing. Gestalt views in psychology Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive. Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight. This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction. Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous experiences and what is already known. (1945/1959). This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given several segments of information, he/she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and totality, he/she reaches the "aha!" moment, using what is already known. Understanding in this case happens intentionally by reproductive thinking. Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes: - Unconscious leap in thinking. - The increased amount of speed in mental processing. - The amount of short-circuiting that occurs in normal reasoning. Views going against the gestalt psychology are: - Nothing-special view - Neo-gestalt view - The Three-Process View Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter. Fuzzy-trace theory Fuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt Psychology. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist. Uses in human–computer interaction The gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns. Gestalt psychology also has applications in computer vision for trying to make computers "see" the same things as humans do. Quantum cognition modeling Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that "similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable" yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an "implicate order". The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as it is obvious that an experiment performed on a conscious person may influencing the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person. In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green & Georgeson conclude the following regarding gestalt theory's influence on the study of visual perception: - The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws" of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good" or "simple" shape, for example? See also - Gestalt therapy—often mistaken for gestalt psychology - Structural information theory - Rudolf Arnheim - Wolfgang Metzger - Kurt Goldstein - Pál Schiller Harkai - Solomon Asch - Hermann Friedmann - James J. Gibson - James Tenney - Graz School - Important publications in gestalt psychology - Optical illusion - Pattern recognition (psychology) - Pattern recognition (machine learning) - Amodal perception - Topological data analysis - Fuzzy-trace theory - Laws of Association - David Hothersall: History of Psychology, chapter seven,(2004) - Tuck, Michael. "Gestalt Principles Applied in Design (Aug 17 2010)". Retrieved 11/12/11. - Humphrey, G. (1924). The psychology of the gestalt. Journal of Educational Psychology, 15(7), 401–412. doi:10.1037/h0070207 - Bernd Bocian:Fritz Perls in Berlin 1893–1933. Expressionism – Psychonalysis – Judaism, 2010, p. 190, EHP Verlag Andreas Kohlhage, Bergisch Gladbach. - Joe Wysong/Edward Rosenfeld (eds): An Oral History of Gestalt Therapy, Highland, New York 1982, The Gestalt Journal Press, p. 12. - Allen R. Barlow, "Gestalt-Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident", The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, (Fall, 1981) - Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible —– from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology". Gestalt theory. However she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general. See Barlow criticizing Henle: Allen R. Barlow: Gestalt Therapy and Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt – Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident, in: The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Number 2, Fall, 1981. - William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen – World views and scientific discipline formation: science studies in the German Democratic Republic : papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988 - Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCulloch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual System of the Frog. In Sensory Communication edited by Walter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons: New York - Valentin Fedorovich Turchin – The phenomenon of science – a cybernetic approach to human evolution – Columbia University Press, 1977 - "Gestalt Isomorphism". Sharp.bu.edu. Retrieved 2012-04-06. - Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Third Edition, Thomson Wadsworth© 2003. - Stevenson, Herb. "Emergence: The Gestalt Approach to Change". Unleashing Executive and Orzanizational Potential. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Text "noedit" ignored (help) - Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt Principles of form Perception". Interaction Design. Retrieved 8 April 2012. Text "noedit" ignored (help) - Todorovic, Dejan. "Gestalt Principles". scholarpedia. Retrieved 5 April 2012. Text "noedit" ignored (help) - Langley& associates, 1987; Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, 1986,1995"> - Reyna, Valerie (2012). "A new institutionism: Meaning, memory, and development in Fuzzy-Trace Theory". Judgment and Decision Making 7 (3): 332–359. - Soegaard, Mads. "Gestalt principles of form perception". Interaction-design.org. Retrieved 2012-04-06. - Elio Conte, Orlando Todarello, Antonio Federici, Francesco Vitiello, Michele Lopane, Andrei Khrennikov, Joseph P. Zbilut: Some remarks on an experiment suggesting quantum-like behavior of cognitive entities and formulation of an abstract quantum mechanical formalism to describe cognitive entity and its dynamics, Chaos, Solitons & Fractals, vol. 31, no. 5, March 2007, pp. 1076–1088 doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2005.09.061, arXiv:0710.5092 (submitted 26 October 2007) - Elio Conte, Orlando Todarello, Antonio Federici, Francesco Vitiello, Michele Lopane, Andrei Khrennikov: A Preliminar Evidence of Quantum Like Behavior in Measurements of Mental States, arXiv:quant-ph/0307201 (submitted 28 July 2003) - B.J. Hiley: Particles, fields, and observers, Volume I The Origins of Life, Part 1 Origin and Evolution of Life, Section II The Physical and Chemical Basis of Life, pp. 87–106 (PDF) - Basil J. Hiley, Paavo Pylkkänen: Naturalizing the mind in a quantum framework. In Paavo Pylkkänen and Tere Vadén (eds.): Dimensions of conscious experience, Advances in Consciousness Research, Volume 37, John Benjamins B.V., 2001, ISBN 90-272-5157, pages 119-144 - Bruce, V., Green, P. & Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology (3rd ed.). LEA. p. 110. - Carlson, Neil R. and Heth, C. Donald (2010) Psychology the Science of Behaviour Ontario, CA: Pearson Education Canada. pp 20–22. - Smith, Barry (ed.) (1988) Foundations of Gestalt Theory, Munich and Vienna: Philosophia Verlag, 1988. - Gestalt psychology on Encyclopædia Britannica - Gestalt Society of Croatia - International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA - Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design - On Max Wertheimer and Pablo Picasso - On Esthetics and Gestalt Theory - The World In Your Head – by Steven Lehar - Gestalt Isomorphism and the Primacy of Subjective Conscious Experience – by Steven Lehar - The new gestalt psychology of the 21st century - The Pennsylvania Gestalt Center - Gestalt Theory - Ecological Approach to Visual Perception - James J. Gibson in brief

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Editor’s Note: David Wise is the author of numerous books on national security, intelligence and espionage. His latest book, Tiger Trap: America’s Secret Spy War with China, was published June 14 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. By David Wise – Special to CNN For almost half a century during the Cold War, the world focused on the global espionage battle between the United States and the Soviet Union. The duel between the CIA and the KGB, portrayed in countless books, films and news stories captured the public imagination. Espionage became a kind of entertainment thanks in no small part to the fictional exploits of James Bond. This fiction masked a cold reality. In the actual conflict, spies and their agents died. Lives were shattered. The KGB's supermoles - Aldrich Ames in the CIA and Robert Hanssen in the FBI - stole U.S. secrets by the trunkful and betrayed agents working for U.S. intelligence. Many of those agents were executed. A the East-West intelligence battles played out in back alleys across the globe, scant attention was paid to the espionage operations of a rising global power– China. And scant attention was paid to the efforts of U.S. counterintelligence (not always successful) to counter Beijing's attempts to acquire America's secrets. Inside the FBI, Soviet spies were regarded as the principal quarry. Chinese counterintelligence was relegated to a back seat. Yet, China has spied on America for decades with some spectacular but little known results. During World War II, Soviet spies penetrated the Manhattan Project and stole U.S. atomic secrets. That was not lost on China. In the decades after World War II, Chinese espionage was principally aimed at stealing U.S. nuclear weapons data. By acquiring those secrets, China could bypass years of research and testing and speed its own development of nuclear weapons. With its modernization efforts devastated by the chaos of the Cultural Revolution, China coveted such shortcuts. So the United States, particularly the nuclear weapons labs at Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore, became its primary target. The FBI suspected that Gwo-Bao Min, an engineer at the Livermore lab, had passed the secrets of the neutron bomb to China. The case was given the code-name TIGER TRAP by the Bureau. Although the FBI gathered considerable evidence, the Justice Department declined to authorize an arrest. However, Min was forced to resign from the nuclear weapons lab. Another priority of Chinese intelligence has been to infiltrate U.S. counterintelligence. The F.B.I. was penetrated until 2002 by Katrina Leung, a prominent figure in the Chinese American community in Los Angeles who worked as an F.B.I. asset for twenty years under the code name PARLOR MAID. Leung was having affairs with the bureau's two top agents on the West Coast responsible for Chinese counterintelligence, James J. Smith and William V. Cleveland, Jr. She fed F.B.I. secrets to China’s foreign intelligence service, the M.S.S., for years, telling investigators she filched them from Smith's briefcase during their trysts at her home. F.B.I. director Robert S. Mueller III assigned his top counterintelligence agent, Leslie G. Wiser, Jr., to go to Los Angeles in 2002 and investigate. Operating with a team of handpicked agents from a secret location in Santa Monica, Wiser broke open the case. Leung and Smith were arrested. Smith pleaded guilty to lying about his affair with Leung. She, too, pleaded guilty to lying about their affair and to failing to report some of her income from the F.B.I. Neither was sentenced to prison. And the government had avoided a sensational espionage trial in which the Bureau’s secrets might have been aired. The CIA was also penetrated by Chinese intelligence. A mole named Larry Wu-Tai Chin worked for Chinese intelligence for more than 30 years until he was caught by the FBI in 1985. There have been many more recent examples of Chinese spying against the United States. Dongfan "Greg" Chung volunteered to spy for China. Chung, a naturalized U.S. citizen, worked in the aerospace industry in southern California for thirty years. At Boeing he was a stress analyst on the space shuttle. Chung sent twenty-four manuals from Rockwell to China on the B-1 bomber. When the F.B.I. searched his home in California in 2006 they were astonished to find 300,000 pages of Boeing documents hidden in the house pertaining to the space shuttle, rockets and military aircraft. Some of the documents were in a crawl space underneath the house. Chung was arrested, convicted and sentenced in 2010 to almost sixteen years in prison. China and the United States have a mutual dependence and a common interest in avoiding conflict. Without exaggerating the danger of Chinese espionage, it is a fact that China’s spying on America is ongoing, current and shows no sign of diminishing. Chinese computer hackers have penetrated the Pentagon, the State Department and U.S. companies, such as Google. Americans should be aware that China, when it can, steals U.S. secrets. The espionage battle is no less real for being largely unseen. The views expressed in this article are solely those of David Wise. The Global Public Square is where you can make sense of the world every day with insights and explanations from CNN's Fareed Zakaria, leading journalists at TIME and CNN, and other international thinkers. Join GPS editor Jason Miks and get informed about global issues, exposed to unique stories, and engaged with diverse and original perspectives. Every week we bring you in-depth interviews with world leaders, newsmakers and analysts who break down the world's toughest problems. CNN U.S.: Sundays 10 a.m. & 1 p.m ET | CNN International: Find local times Check out all of Fareed's TIME columns here:

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Dr. Gabriel Barkay points to the tomb where he discovered the tiny biblical artifacts that date from well before the Dead Sea Scrolls. SOLVING A RIDDLE WRITTEN IN SILVER By JOHN NOBLE WILFORD New York Times ....An archaeological discovery in 1979 revealed that the Priestly Benediction, as the verse from Numbers 6:24-26 is called, appeared to be the earliest biblical passage ever found in ancient artifacts. ["May Yahweh bless you and keep you; may Yahweh cause his face to shine upon you and be gracious to you; may Yahweh lift up his countenance upon you and grant you peace."] Two tiny strips of silver, each wound tightly like a miniature scroll and bearing the inscribed words, were uncovered in a tomb outside Jerusalem and initially dated from the late seventh or early sixth century B.C. - some 400 years before the famous Dead Sea Scrolls. But doubts persisted. The silver was cracked and corroded, and many words and not a few whole lines in the faintly scratched inscriptions were unreadable. Some critics contended that the artifacts were from the third or second century B.C., and thus of less importance in establishing the antiquity of religious concepts and language that became part of the Hebrew Bible. So researchers at the University of Southern California have now re-examined the inscriptions using new photographic and computer imaging techniques. The words still do not exactly leap off the silver. But the researchers said they could finally be "read fully and analyzed with far greater precision," and that they were indeed the earliest. In a scholarly report published this month, the research team concluded that the improved reading of the inscriptions confirmed their greater antiquity. The script, the team wrote, is indeed from the period just before the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. by Nebuchadnezzar and the subsequent exile of Israelites in Babylonia. The researchers further reaffirmed that the scrolls "preserve the earliest known citations of texts also found in the Hebrew Bible and that they provide us with the earliest examples of confessional statements concerning Yahweh." Some of the previously unreadable lines seemed to remove any doubt about the purpose of the silver scrolls: they were amulets. Unrolled, one amulet is nearly four inches long and an inch wide and the other an inch and a half long and about half an inch wide. The inscribed words, the researchers said, were "intended to provide a blessing that will be used to protect the wearer from some manner of evil forces." The report in The Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research was written by Dr. Gabriel Barkay, the archaeologist at Bar-Ilan University in Israel who discovered the artifacts, and collaborators associated with Southern California's West Semitic Research Project. The project leader is Dr. Bruce Zuckerman, a professor of Semitic languages at U.S.C., who worked with Dr. Marilyn J. Lundberg, a Hebrew Bible specialist with the project, and Dr. Andrew G. Vaughn, a biblical historian at Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter, Minn. A companion article for next month's issue of the magazine Near Eastern Archaeology describes the new technology used in the research. The article is by the same authors, as well as Kenneth Zuckerman, Dr. Zuckerman's brother and a specialist in photographing ancient documents. Other scholars not affiliated with the research but familiar with it agreed with the group's conclusions. They said it was a relief to have the antiquity and authenticity of the artifacts confirmed, considering that other inscriptions from biblical times have suffered from their uncertain provenance. Scholars also noted that early Hebrew inscriptions were a rarity, and called the work on the amulets a significant contribution to an understanding of the history of religion in ancient Israel, particularly the time of the Judean Monarchy 2,600 years ago. "These photographs are far superior to what you can see looking at the inscriptions with the naked eye," said Dr. Wayne Pitard, professor of the Hebrew Bible and ancient Near Eastern religions at the University of Illinois. Dr. Pitard said the evidence for the antiquity of the benediction was now compelling, although this did not necessarily mean that the Book of Numbers already existed at that time. Possibly it did, he added, but if not, at least some elements of the book were current before the Babylonian exile. A part of the sacred Torah of Judaism (the first five books of the Bible), Numbers includes a narrative of the Israelite wanderings from Mount Sinai to the east side of the Jordan River. Some scholars think the Torah was compiled in the time of the exile. A number of other scholars, the so-called minimalists, who are influential mainly in Europe, argue that the Bible was a relatively recent invention by those who took control of Judea in the late fourth century B.C. In this view, the early books of the Bible were largely fictional to give the new rulers a place in the country's history and thus a claim to the land. "The new research on the inscriptions suggests that that's not true," Dr. Pitard said. In fact, the research team noted in its journal report that the improved images showed the seventh-century lines of the benediction to be "actually closer to the biblical parallels than previously recognized." Dr. P. Kyle McCarter of Johns Hopkins University, a specialist in ancient Semitic scrip ts, said the research should "settle any controversy over these inscriptions." A close study, Dr. McCarter said, showed that the handwriting is an early style of Hebrew script and the letters are from an old Hebrew alphabet, which had all but ceased to be used after the destruction of Jerusalem. Later Hebrew writing usually adopted the Aramaic alphabet. There was an exception in the time of Roman rule, around the first centuries B.C. and A.D. The archaic Hebrew script and letters were revived and used widely in documents. But Dr. McCarter noted telling attributes of the strokes of the letters and the spelling on the amulets that, he said, ruled out the more recent date for the inscriptions. Words in the revived Hebrew writing would have included letters indicating vowel sounds. The benediction, the scholar said, was written in words spelled entirely with consonants, the authentic archaic way. The two silver scrolls were found in 1979 deep inside a burial cave in a hillside known as Ketef Hinnom, west of the Old City of Jerusalem. Dr. Barkay, documenting the context of the discovery, noted that the artifacts were at the back of the tomb embedded in pottery and other material from the seventh or sixth centuries B.C. Such caves were reused for burials over many centuries. Near this tomb's entrance were artifacts from the fourth century, but nothing so recent remains in the undisturbed recesses. It took Dr. Barkay another seven years before he felt sure enough of what he had to announce details of the discovery. Even then, for all their microscopic examination of the inscriptions at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, scholars remained frustrated by the many unreadable words and lines. About a decade ago, Dr. Barkay enlisted the help of Dr. Zuckerman, whose team had earned a reputation for achieving the near-impossible in photographing illegible ancient documents. Working with scientists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Dr. Zuckerman's group used advanced infrared imagining systems enhanced by electronic cameras and computer image-processing technology to draw out previously invisible writing on a fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The researchers also pioneered electronic techniques for reproducing missing pieces of letters on documents. By examining similar letters elsewhere in the text, they were able to recognize half of a letter and reconstruct the rest of it in a scribe's own peculiar style. "We learned a lot from work on the Dead Sea Scrolls," Dr. Zuckerman said. "But at first a processing job like this would send your computers into cardiac arrest. We had to wait for computer technology to catch up with our needs." As the researchers said in their magazine article, the only reasonably clear aspect of the inscriptions was the Priestly Benediction. Other lines preceding or following the prayer "could barely be seen." To get higher-definition photographs of the inscriptions, Ken Zuckerman applied an old photographer's technique called "light painting," brought up to date by the use of fiber-optic technology. He used a hand-held light in an otherwise dark room to illuminate a spot on the artifact during a time exposure. In addition, he photographed the artifact at different angles, which made the scratched letters shine in stark relief. The next step was to convert the pictures to digital form, making possible computer processing that brought out "the subtleties of the surface almost at the micron level." This analysis was particularly successful in joining a partial letter stroke on one side of a crack with the rest of the stroke on the other side. It also enabled the researchers to restore fragments of letters to full legibility by matching them with clear letters from elsewhere in the text. In this way, the researchers filled in more of the letters and words of the benediction itself and for the first time deciphered meaningful words and phrases in the lines preceding the benediction. Scholars were particularly intrigued by a statement on the smaller artifact. It reads: "May h[e]/sh[e] be blessed by YHWH, the warrior/helper, and the rebuker of Evil." Referring to God, Yahweh, as the "rebuker of Evil" is similar to language used in the Bible and in various Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars said. The phraseology is also found in later incantations and amulets associated with Israel, evidence that these artifacts were also amulets, researchers concluded. "In the ancient world, amulets were taken quite seriously," Dr. Zuckerman said. "There's evil out there, demons, and you need protection. Having this around your neck, you are involving God's presence and protection against harm." Dr. Esther Eshel, a professor of the Bible at Bar-Ilan and an authority on Hebrew inscriptions, said this was the earliest example of amulets from Israel. But she noted that the language of the benediction was similar to a blessing ("May he bless you and keep you") found on a jar from the eighth century B.C. If the new findings are correct, the people who wore these amulets may have died before they had to face the limitations of their efficacy. They might then have asked in uncomprehending despair, "Where was Yahweh when the Babylonians swooped down on Jerusalem?" Other scholars, including those previously skeptical, will soon be analyzing the improved images. In a departure from usual practices, the researchers not only published their findings in a standard print version in a journal but also as an accompanying "digital article," a CD version of the article and the images to allow scholars to examine and manipulate the data themselves. The research group said, "As far as we are aware, this is the first article to be done in this fashion, but it certainly will not be the last."

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ixated as the Victorians were on death, it is not at all surprising that a number of talented British poets in the nineteenth century would have explored mourning. From the elaborate, regal funerals of British royalty down to the simpler funerals of members of the working class — paid for by dutifully purchased death insurance — rituals of death formed an integral part of British life (Jones, 199). Yet the poets explored here do not write about funerals. Nor do they follow the traditional patterns of elegiac poetry, for example, used in Algernon Charles Swinburne's elegy to Baudelaire, "Ave Atque Vale." Rather, they thoroughly explore various aspects of the emotional experience of mourning. Some poets, notably Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Alfred Lord Tennyson, delve into the ways that people express grief. Tennyson also struggles with the role of one's conscience in the process of mourning and with ways to reconcile a personal need for comfort and consolation with a strong desire to honor and preserve the memory of the deceased. Christina Rossetti examines how gender and sexual interest influence the way people mourn; in particular, she considers the value of mourning in relationships in which the fleeting nature of love is acknowledged. Both she and Tennyson deal with the dead woman as an aesthetic object, and the belated mourning of a previously inattentive male figure who feasts his eyes upon the dead female, bringing to light another aspect of the way gender relations affect mourning. Finally, Rossetti presents contrasting images of the afterlife that variously affect the practice of mourning, depending upon the consciousness of the deceased. A common motif permeating poetry that deals with mourning is sound, be it in the form of tears of mourning, a missed language, a song of mourning or a noted silence. A large number of poems that consider death and mourning utilize images related to sound. The role of sound in the various elements of mourning these poets consider is crucial: sound is a critical link between two people; when one person dies, this connection is apparently broken, and the mourner is left in the unhappy position of vocally trying to maintain contact with the deceased. Thus, the numerous sound illusions in elegiac poetry are no more surprising than the general Victorian focus on death: people have mourned by means of words and songs for a long time. The emotionally charged and experimental ways of examining this method of mourning set apart the work of these poets. Seeking a means of expressing grief The loss of her parents is a shadow that hangs over Aurora Leigh in her struggle to mold her identity, in Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Aurora Leigh. Aurora tells of the loss of her mother early in the poem, describing the pain of a young child hardly old enough to understand what has happened but intensely aware that something is amiss. Aurora feels that she will always be searching for a mother because she was so young when her mother died and hence their time together was extremely brief. I felt a mother-want about the world, And still went seeking, like a bleating lamb Left out at night, in shutting up the fold, — As restless as a nest-deserted bird Grown chill through something being away, though what It knows not. [First book, lines 40-45, p. 2] In Aurora's pain, she likens herself to "a bleating lamb," interestingly connecting her own mourning with the repeated cry of a young animal. The other animal analogy she makes is to a "nest-deserted bird," and since birds are associated with songs, this also seems to have aural connotations. Aurora is like a crying animal, calling out for attention to a loved one who will not hear her. Thus, this passage subtly develops the idea of mourning as a plea to the one who has died somehow to respond and return. Aurora feels that her mother, by dying, has shut her out of her love and deserted her. The animals symbolically carry out Aurora's crying; she is too young to mourn by means of words, tears or songs, as her father writes in the verses to the memory of her mother, "Weep for an infant too young to weep much / When death removed this mother" (first book, lines 103-4, p. 4). Her father's entreaty is primarily calling for sympathy for the child who is too young to have known her mother and therefore too young to mourn her. However, he is literally calling for the act of mourning by means of tears to make up for the child's inability to cry about death at her age. Thus, there is a positive association with mourning in Aurora Leigh: there is a perceived need for Aurora to cry as part of the process of mourning her mother; the sadness of this circumstance is that the child is too young to mourn and hence show reverence and the pain of loss. She is also too young to experience the cathartic effects of mourning. When she is still quite yo ung, Aurora's father dies as well. Aurora is then taken from her nurse and from Italy, her homeland, and sent to live with her aunt. The moment of parting from her nurse is wrought with agony and sounds of loss. Aurora cannot yet express her sadness, but at this point she is acutely aware of others' sounds, particularly the sounds emitted by her nurse in her unhappiness at being parted from Aurora. [W]ith a shriek, She let me go, — while I, with ears too full Of my father's silence, to shriek back a word, In all a child's astonishment at grief Stared at the wharfage where she stood and moaned! My poor Assunta, where she stood and moaned! [First Book, lines 226-31, p. 7] Even as Aurora cannot speak in her youthful misery, she notices that her father's voice has been stilled and that her nurse moans as she anticipates the loss of Aurora. Thus, vocal mourning is associated not only with the adult way of grieving a death but also with the separation of people. Sound creates a connection between people, and death and parting break that link. It is not until Aurora reaches England that she is finally able to cry over the death of her father. She hears Britons speaking English, a language which she had only heard her father speak, and she feels the pain of unfulfilled expectations: the love she had come to associate with that language has passed with the death of her father, and that same language is now spoken by strangers. And when I heard my father's language first From alien lips which had no kiss for mine, I wept aloud, then laughed, then wept, then wept, — And some one near me said the child was mad Through much sea-sickness. [First Book, lines 254-58, p. 8] Hearing the language and focusing on her loss, Aurora is finally able to grieve aloud, and she cries and laughs with sadness and relief at her ability to mourn. Her expression of grief is perceived by those around her as delirium or a fit of insanity. Although this is a somewhat negative response to her mourning, those around her do not know the cause of her tears, and so this passage does not seem to contradict the general sentiment in Aurora Leigh with regards to vocal mourning: it is a natural expression of pain that adults manifest, and that children, as they mature, will also learn to convey. Furthermore, the loss of a person creates a void: his voice is silenced. Hence, the vocal act of calling a person back fills that sound void, and is therefore comforting to the mourner. Tennyson also considers the appropriate way to mourn and the role of sound in this process — particularly in the form of mourning songs — in In Memoriam, his experimental elegy for his beloved friend, Arthur Henry Hallam. He questions the morality of such methods of mourning with respect to the memory of the deceased; yet it seems that in addition to his concern for the deceased, the narrator is also personally dissatisfied with the effects of mourning songs. Peace; come away: the song of woe Is after all earthly song. Peace; come away: we do him wrong To sing so wildly: let us go. [57, lines 1-4, p. 239] These lines suggest that the songs a mourner sings and the sounds of weeping together express a need to cling to the deceased and a refusal to relinquish him. The speaker and the other mourners dwell on the dead one, carrying on wildly rather than letting him pass peacefully and calmly. The narrator's call to those singing is to leave the dead behind and go on. He literally says that it does the deceased wrong when those alive sing, but he seems to be concerned with those who survive as well. Although this singing about loss is an earthly thing to do, and it is not exactly viewed by the speaker as an inappropriate way for those on earth to channel their grief, it is nonetheless not satisfying for exactly the reason it is natural: it is only earthly, and it provides no divine satisfaction to the mourner. The narrator is seeking that sort of spiritual experience and confirmation that Hallam died for a divine reason. The speaker feels this divine connection to Hallam in poem 95 of In Memoriam, and it is by means of touch not sound that the spiritual experience occurs, and that the narrator finds at least some degree of satisfaction. The role of conscience Throughout In Memoriam, Tennyson, as an evolving narrator, struggles in his efforts to cope with Hallam's death. He considers thoroughly how he will be affected by different modes of mourning, and he worries deeply about the effects these will have on him. He is acutely concerned that in mourning Hallam, he will somehow ease his own suffering; although he is urgently searching for divine meaning behind Hallam's death, his conscience continuously discourages him from mourning in any way that consoles him, and this makes his mourning process even more difficult and painful. He contemplates the morality of writing about his friend's death, fearing that the action of writing, which may mitigate his pain — "Like dull narcotics, numbing pain" (5, line 8, p. 208), is unethical. The act of forming words out of his pain, he fears, will misrepresent his feelings because it is impossible to perfectly capture the state of his soul (5, lines 1-4, p. 208). Similarly, he worries that beyond simply soothing his pain, he is actually using the death of his friend as inspiration for his own artistic creation, just as the yew tree receives its nourishment from the dead bodies buried in graveyards (2, lines 1-4, p. 207); this is a highly disturbing thought to a character so plagued by his conscience. He also worries that the elegy he is writing for Hallam will not provide an enduring tribute to his friend. Come; let us go: your cheeks are pale; But half my life I leave behind. Methinks my friend is richly shrined; But I shall pass, my work will fail. [57, lines 5-8, p. 239] Thus, in his mourning, the narrator is aiming not only to grapple with Hallam's death, but to create a worthy memorial for him. Although the narrator calls for an end to mournful singing, he expresses the belief that he will always be haunted by sounds reminding him of the death of Hallam. He notes that until his hearing fails him or until he himself dies, he shall hear a slow, constant bell announcing the death of his friend repeatedly in his own ears. He also describes hearing the repeated farewells said to those who are dead. Yet in these ears, till hearing dies, One set slow bell will seem to toll The passing of the sweetest soul That ever look'd with human eyes. I hear it now, and o'er and o'er, Eternal greetings to the dead; And "Ave, Ave, Ave," said, "Adieu, adieu," for evermore. [57, lines 9-16, p. 239] Thus, even when the mourner stops his vocal mourning, he nonetheless remains doomed to hear reminders of the death. It is as though the connection between the two men is so strong that not even death can break it, and sounds still draws them to one another. At this point in the poem, the narrator seems to believe that it is the responsibility of the mourner forever to hear morbid, painful sounds. Interestingly, if memories of the dead can aurally infiltrate the being of the mourner but the mourner must remain silent and experience pain fully, the natural order of the world becomes inverted: rather than the dead being silenced and those who remain alive retaining the power to speak and sing, the reverse essentially is condoned. That is, the narrator may continue to speak and sing, orally expressing his grief, but such vocal manifestations of sadness are not encouraged. On the contrary, the bells prompting him to grieve, which the narrator hears in his mind, are considered righteous and appropriate. Whereas some poems denigrate the act of mourning aloud, suggesting that it is inappropriate or inadequate, others discourage such forms of mourning in the particular context of romantic relationships and gender relations. For example, in Christina Rossetti's "Song," the narrator's request that the person to whom the poem is addressed not mourn is more a reflection of the dynamic between the characters and an indicator of gender relations than a suggestion of a general dissatisfaction of the narrator with vocal mourning. When I am dead, my dearest, Sing no sad songs for me; Plant thou no roses at my head, Nor shady cypress tree: Be the green grass above me With showers and dewdrops wet; And if thou wilt remember, And if thou wilt forget. [lines 1-8, p. 198] As George Landow has shown in "The Dead Woman Talks Back: Christina Rossetti's Ironic Intonation of the Dead Fair Maiden," Rossetti is toying with and upsetting common ideas of Victorian femininity. The last two lines of the quotation above seem to conform to standard stereotypes of the self-sacrificing female: she does not want to inconvenience her lover or cause him distress by demanding that he mourn her and always remember her. Yet the final lines of the poem, "Haply I may remember, / And haply may forget" (lines 15-16) reverse the previous vision of self-sacrifice and eternal love on the part of the female speaker, suggesting instead that she is content to or at least quite capable of forgetting her lover and that he should do the same. This reading allows for further consideration of the role of the specific acts of mourning that are mentioned in the poem. As the poem continues, the speaker describes a senseless afterlife in which she will not see, feel or hear anything, including the nightingale's song. Thus, her death will distinctly separate her from the world, and not even the mourning song of the nightingale will reach her. The removal of the speaker from the living world will render her incapable of hearing songs of mourning, and therefore such mourning rituals become ridiculous. In the course of the poem, the narrator gradually challenges the notion that there is eternal love between herself and the speaker. Thus, death can be seen as the appropriate moment at which to accept the rupture of their relationship, since it would not continue forever anyway; there is no need, then, to prolong the connection by means of songs and other customs of mourning. Rossetti boldly states what many people dare not admit: that the person who has died will not benefit from the mourning practices of those who survive him and hence, such customs only serve those who live. In a situation in which the lover is not likely to go on loving the woman who has died, Rossetti's narrator urges him not to mourn in false, showy ways: both of them will soon forget each other anyway. Beyond projecting herself into the grave, the speaker in Rossetti's "After Death" is already dead and narrates the poem from the grave. She is thus a standard aesthetic object, deemed a beautiful and rich source for poetry (Landow). In this poem, the lamenting words of the dead woman's beloved reach her ears, even though he does not know it. He leaned above me, thinking that I slept And could not hear him; but I heard him say: "Poor Child, poor child:" and as he turned away Came a deep silence, and I knew he wept. [lines 5-8, p. 200] In this case, the man's grieving words do provide comfort to the narrator, whom he did not love in her life and whom he can only pity in death. In the silence, she indicates her certainty that he is crying for her. Thus, words and tears of mourning have practical significance in this poem because they can be heard and felt by the deceased. Here the acts of mourning do not fall on deaf ears, and they are conveyed to the reader by the character with the most personal investment in them: the dead woman for whom they were intended. The dead woman as an aesthetic object also appears at the end of Tennyson's "The Lady of Shalott" when the knight Lancelot notices the beauty of the dead Lady of Shalott. From the moment that she places herself in the boat and sets out down the river, sound plays a key role in setting the scene of her death. As she floats, "the noises of the night"(line 139) are mentioned, but it is the music that she herself creates that is the more powerful sound. They heard her singing her last song, The Lady of Shalott. Heard a carol, mournful, holy, Chanted loudly, chanted lowly, Till her blood was frozen slowly, And her eyes were darkened wholly, Turned to tower'd Camelot. For ere she reach'd upon the tide The first house by the water-side, Singing in her song she died, The Lady of Shalott. [lines 143-53, p. 44] It is as though the Lady of Shalott sounds her own death knell with her song. Her music is her final and only direct interaction with the world, distant as it is, before her death. She has emerged from her bower and sings a song that reaches the ears of those her boat passes on the journey to Camelot. Then, after death, she physically confronts the outside world. Previously, she saw shadows and reflections of the world outside and made no art that the outside world could appreciate. The sound she emits before her death, however, establishes a brief and melancholic connection between her and the world. Yet when she reaches Camelot, she is "silent" (line 158, p. 44), and her deathly presence causes the merriment in the palace to cease, killing the sounds within (lines 164-5, p. 45). The silence of those at the palace stresses the absence of vocal mourning, emphasizing the distance between her and them, and their inability to feel deep compassion for her. The connection she made with them with her song is largely one-sided: most of them do not respond. Lancelot, however, does respond, but his comments about the beauty of her face and his request for God's blessing on her ring of transience: in death she has caught his fancy for a moment, but he will soon move on and forget her. In the same way that Rossetti argues against the immortality of love in "Song," Tennyson seems to suggest the inherently ephemeral nature of vocal mourning at the end of "The Lady of Shalott." The use of the word "mournful" anticipates her death, and perhaps compensates for the fact that she will not be mourned by anyone who knew her, except in her own self-pitying song. The post-mortem mourning of the men who did not love or notice the women in life has a dramatic and ironic, yet somewhat shallow effect. In both "After Death" and "The Lady of Shalott," the reader is left with a slight feeling of satisfaction: at least the man has finally noticed the woman, if only for a moment and after her death. An aura of revenge, if only mild revenge, is thereby achieved: the punishment for having ignored the women in life is that the men are doomed to see beauty in the women only when they are already out of reach. Images of the Afterlife Rossetti's imaginings of life after death range from the complete alertness seen in "After Death" to the partially aware state of the woman in "Dream Land" to the completely senseless states of the women in "Song" and "Rest." The woman discussed in "Rest" is completely shielded from the sounds of earthly life. However, the sounds discussed in the poem are not sounds of mourning, but rather the sounds that make up daily life. The omniscient narrator calls for the earth to physically isolate and protect the buried woman from "mirth/ With its harsh laughter" (lines 3-4, p. 200) and the "sound of sighs" (line 4, p. 200). The narrator, who several times alludes to sound, claims that the woman will be spared all noise in her rest, and that the silence of death will be "more musical than any song" (line 10, p. 200). The afterlife in this poem resembles that described in "Song" in that the woman escapes to a senseless, timeless place of peace. Although "Rest" does not deal directly with mourning, it reinforces the idea that sound establishes a connection between people; in the woman's desire to escape the world in death, she is entirely isolated, both from people and sound. Interestingly, in Rossetti's "Dream Land," she creates a post-mortem state somewhere between the full awareness of the narrator in "After Death" and the senseless afterlife described in "Song" and "Rest." The third person narrator in "Dream Land" never states that the woman in the poem is dead, saying rather that she is asleep, which is also implied by the title. However a number of illusions in the poem suggest that her sleep is actually death, or at least strongly resembles such a state: "a perfect rest" (line 17), "rest, for evermore" (line 25), and Till time shall cease: Sleep that no pain shall wake; Night that no morn shall break Till joy shall overtake Her perfect peace. [lines 28-32, p. 199]. The final two lines in particular suggest the prospect of heaven after a deathly respite. Although Rossetti describes how the speaker cannot see grain or feel rain, she nonetheless is able to see "the sky look pale" (line 14) and hear "the nightingale / That sadly sings" (lines 15-6). Her awareness of these sights and sounds suggests an increased awareness as opposed to the senseless afterlife anticipated by the narrator of "Song." In "Dream Land" there is no indictment of mourning. Rather, there is a slight indication that sounds can pass between the worlds of the living and the dead or at least deeply sleeping; therein may lie a justification for the nightingale's song or a lover's cries of mourning, despite the indications in "Song" that such methods of mourning are futile. As a contrast to Rossetti's quieter imaginings of the afterlife, and a parallel to "After Death," it seems reasonable to mention the afterlife envisioned by Robert Browning in his dramatic monologue, "The Bishop Orders his Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church." In "A Strangely Literal Afterlife," I discuss the lack of faith suggested by the fully aware, materialistic, and grudge-holding afterlife the Bishop envisions for himself. Yet despite Rossetti's devout religious tendencies, her depiction of the afterlife, in the poems discussed above, seems less religiously than emotionally focused: she is concerned with the women's connections or lack thereof to the world and people around them, and how death and awareness of sound affect these connections. Mourning and the connections people hope to make by emitting sounds are relatively specific themes, yet they illuminate a distinct perspective on the broader topics of personal expression, conscience, gender and the afterlife, all subjects explored by the Victorian poets here considered. They created characters who aspire to connect with other people, sometimes those who have died and are therefore out of reach. These characters struggle to adequately express their emotions. In situations of loss, this need to express oneself is heightened as a result of suffering. As they grieve and search for meaning or solace in the wake of a death, some characters feel the strains of a strong conscience, causing them to question which forms of mourning and self-expression are moral and which are not. Certain poets considered the way that men grieve for women, sometimes viewing the process from unusual angles. Gender relations played an ever-changing role in Victorian life, so of course their appearance in the elegiac poetry of the nineteenth century is understandable. Poetry that deals with love often also considers loss, and this loss allows for creative conceptions of the afterlife. All of these subjects intimately relate to human relationships. By addressing these issues, the poems discussed show that sounds both draw people together and ultimately force them to accept that their connections have been severed — and that all that remains is silence. Bolton, John, Robert Glorney and Julia Bolton Holloway, eds. Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Aurora Leigh and other Poems. Penguin Putnam Inc., New York, 1995. Buckley, Jerome H. ed. The Pre-Raphaelites. Academy Chicago Publishers, Chicago: 1968. Hill, Robert W. Jr., ed. Tennyson's Poetry. W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., New York: 1999. Jones, Gareth Stedman. "Working-class culture and working-class politics in London, 1870-1900: Notes on the remaking of a working class" in Languages of class: studies in English working class history, 1832-1982. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1983. Smalley, Donald ed. Poems of Robert Browning . Houghton Mifflin Company Riverside Editions, Boston: 1956. Swinburne, Algernon Charles. "Ave Atque Vale, In Memory of Charles Baudelaire." [text on U. of Toronto site]. Last modified 17 December 2003

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This is the third and final installment of this three part series. Please see earlier entries for part 1 and part 2. What does the atheist do with Jesus of Nazareth? Some atheists, right from the start, try to inject doubt into this topic by either overtly claiming or subtly hinting that there actually was no historical Jesus of Nazareth. For example, Bertrand Russell wrote: “Historically it is quite doubtful whether Christ ever existed at all, and if he did we know nothing about him.” Although some may argue for the participation of other, earlier historical figures that began making these claims, most historians peg the start of these allegations with a man named Bruno Bauer (1809 – 1882). Bauer was a German theologian, philosopher and historian who looked at the sources of the New Testament and controversially concluded that early Christianity owed more to Greek philosophy (Stoicism) than to Judaism. Starting in 1840, he began a series of controversial works arguing that Jesus was a myth, a second century fusion of Jewish, Greek, and Roman theology. Bauer’s work was picked up by Albert Kalthoff (1850-1906) who followed Bauer’s extreme skepticism about the historical Jesus. Kalthoff went so far as to claim that Jesus of Nazareth never existed and was not the founder of Christianity. However, Bauer’s and Kalthoff’s assertions were refuted (and have continued to be refuted) by legions of historians, both Christian and secular. One example is Gary Habermas book “The Historical Jesus” that chronicles scores of extra-Biblical historical references to Jesus’ first century life, the count of which outnumbers citations of historical figures that no person doubts (e.g. Tiberius Caesar; 10 mentions vs. 43 for Jesus). Summing up the conclusion on whether Jesus of Nazareth actually lived, Princeton New Testament scholar Dr. Bruce Metzger says, “Today no competent scholar denies the historicity of Jesus.” So where is the atheist’s evidence that Jesus of Nazareth never existed? To date, no compelling proof has been offered. Some atheists who know better than to attack the historicity of Jesus’ actual life put forward arguments that involve Christ being mythologized by His followers into more than He was. They try and assert that various pagan gods such as Horus, Mithras, etc., influenced the disciples who borrowed traits from those deities and attached them to Jesus. Books such as James Frazer’s The Golden Bough and more recent works like the Internet Zeitgeist movie have been literally pulverized into submission by scholars who have showcased the many logical fallacies committed by the authors and the extraordinary lack of real commitment to historical research. Metzger says, “It goes without saying that alleged parallels which are discovered by pursuing such methodology evaporate when they are confronted with the original texts. In a word, one must beware of what have been called, ‘parallels made plausible by selective description.’” The fact is, the atheist cannot deny the historicity of Jesus’ life and be on the side of historical truth. The core historical facts include the following: Jesus was born to a young and very ordinary couple. There was some controversy surrounding his birth (which primarily centered on who his actual father was), however outside of that, he lived in relative obscurity for about thirty years. He then burst onto the religious scene in the Roman occupied areas of Galilee and Jerusalem as a very learned Jewish Rabbi, despite never being formerly educated. Reports of him performing amazing miracles (e.g. healing the sick, raising the dead, performing exorcisms) spread throughout the regions, along with claims of him being the long awaited Jewish Messiah. He gathered around him a band of fairly unsophisticated disciples, with others also following his itinerant preaching journeys. Soon, though, he ran afoul of the Jewish religious leaders and was brought before the Roman authorities on a number of unsubstantiated charges. He was then condemned to death under the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, put to death under the common form of Roman execution, which was crucifixion, and then buried. Three days later, his body went missing and remains missing to this day. Reports of him appearing to both believers and unbelievers alike quickly began to circulate. His disciples who had fled from him during his arrest then boldly began to declare that they had seen him alive, that he was the Christ of God, with his resurrection becoming the absolute center of their preaching. A number of his disciples were martyred for their refusal to deny their story, with others like John dying of natural causes. Lastly, a zealous Jewish Pharisee, Saul of Tarsus, who had formerly persecuted the new Jesus movement, claimed he too had seen Jesus alive. Saul converted to the Christian faith and eventually was beheaded by the emperor Nero for his faith around 65 A.D. Now, it’s important to understand one thing about the prior statements: none of them requires any faith whatsoever to believe. Not one. Every claim above can be confirmed via the standard, scholarly methods (including archaeological finds that back the Bible) used to verify ancient history. The question is, when a philosophical appeal to the best explanation is made to account for these facts, where does the atheist end up? What bothers the atheists the most, obviously, is Christ’s resurrection. Dead men stay dead, says the atheist. Our experience tells us that this is something you can count on. Dead people do indeed stay dead in a naturalistic-only reality that is a closed system. But what if…what if there is a supernatural reality and our universe is actually an open system to a Creator that transcends everything that is physical? That is a horse of a different color, and one that goes back to the atheist’s need for philosophical and empirical evidence to rule out God. Occasionally an atheist will say to me (quoting Carl Sagan): “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” What they often don’t realize is that, while they meant to slice into me with their comment, their sword actually cuts both ways. The atheist claims that a cause (with a beginning all its own) possessing none of the characteristics of its effects created all that we know. That’s a pretty extraordinary claim. The atheist claims that “Living objects . . . look designed, they look overwhelmingly as though they’re designed. Biology is the study of complicated things which give the impression of having been designed for a purpose”, and that the information (not data) contained with all of us did not come from an intelligent source. That’s a pretty extraordinary claim. The atheist claims that either Jesus never existed or all the historical accounts written about Him are inaccurate, exaggerated, and cannot be trusted. That’s a pretty extraordinary claim. If extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, then the atheist has some explaining to do. And that explaining needs to involve supplying the same rock-solid proof (not mere theories) that they themselves routinely require of Christians. Bertrand Russell, Why I am not a Christian, pg. 16. Bruce Metzger, The New Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content (New York: Abingdon, 1965), pg. 78. Bruce Metzger, Historical and Literary Studies: Pagan, Jewish, and Christian (Grand Rapid, MI: Eerdmans Publishing, 1968), 9. Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, 1986, Pg. 1.

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a trip to Middle Earth no, not Tolkien's land of hobbits and elves, although the sites may not look too different from that fantasy world. Middle Earth is one area of the California Cavern in Calaveras County, Calif. And yes, that is the Calaveras County made famous by Mark Twain's jumping frogs. The cavern has also hosted such notable visitors as Bret Harte and John Muir. California Cavern is imbedded in limestone beds beneath the Sierra Nevada foothills. Ten million years ago, hot brine pools formed, dissolving much of the limestone and leaving giant caverns, says Steve Fairchild, president and founder of Underground Adventures, which maintains the cavern and offers tours there. The limestone was then metamorphosed into marble with the emplacement of the immense Sierra Nevada batholith nearby. Speleothems began growing shortly after the caverns were formed, according to dating from stalactite and stalagmite growth rings. Moaning Cavern's spectacular speleothems are other-worldly. Photo courtesy of Underground Adventures. California Cavern first opened to the public after its discovery in 1850 by a miner, and is California's first cave on exhibit, according to Fairchild. A mining camp called Cave City was established around the cavern between 1859 and 1875, and early residents used the cavern for dances, religious services, town meetings and weddings; there was even a bar inside. Now a popular tourist spot, California Cavern offers three walking tours, including the Middle Earth expedition. The journey to Middle Earth is the longest tour, lasting three to four hours, and is more than a mile long. Tour operators warn visitors that they will get soaked to the skin and covered in mud on this expedition. The first hour of the trip is crawling and wiggling through passages that connect 13 chambers in the Mammoth Cave area. Explorers then pass into Middle Earth, a major cave that connects Mammoth Cave to another cave the Cave of the Quills that was found in the 1950s, Fairchild says. It is a large room filled with rare speleothems, such as beaded helictites (curved, twiglike deposits of calcite or aragonite). Here guides lead visitors through nearly knee-deep clay muck. The remainder of the journey consists of exploring horizontal fissures in the Cave of the Quills (named because of porcupine quills found at its mouth when it was first discovered) and an underground rafting trip across a 200-foot-deep lake in one of the caves. Underground rafting in California Cavern is certainly not an everyday experience. Photo courtesy of Underground Adventures. Another tour, the Trail of Lights journey (aptly named because it is well-lit, in contrast to other trails), is more suitable for the entire family. The tour is a little more than an hour long and meanders over fairly level, lighted passages and walkways. Experienced guides lead groups into the recently discovered Jungle Room (named for the array of crystalline "vines" (stalactites) covering the ceiling), and they teach the history and geology of the cavern. Winter and early spring are an interesting time to visit California Cavern, but you have to time it right, Fairchild says. The cave floods in the winter, usually around Jan. 1, and small clear pools cover the ground and provide an interesting glimpse into natural cave life. When the cave is completely flooded, the trails close so be sure to call ahead if visiting over the winter. Moaning Cavern is not far from California Cavern and was discovered in 1851 by gold miners hoping to strike it rich. When the prospectors realized there was not significant gold, they abandoned the cave. Moaning Cavern was rediscovered in 1919, and legend has it that tourists were lowered into the cavern in ore buckets with only candles or whale oil lamps to light their way. The bones of about 100 humans were found at the bottom of the cavern, but don't worry, they weren't modern tourists one skull was dated using uranium-thorium isotopes to be 13,000 years old! Moaning Cavern is the largest single-chamber public cavern in California. The main room is large enough to fit the Statue of Liberty inside. The total depth of the cave is 410 feet, though family walking tours only descend 165 feet. The cavern was christened by early explorers who noticed a distant moaning sound emitting from the cave. The "moan" is created by echoes of drops of water, which falls into holes in a flowstone formation with a bottle-like shape, Fairchild says. The sound is similar to one you can make by blowing across the top of a partially full soda bottle, and the cave still moans today. "More like a booming echo," Fairchild says, "but still moaning." As at California Cavern, Underground Adventures offers varying tours of Moaning Cavern. The Adventure Trip begins with a rappel 165 feet straight down into the main chamber of the cavern. While visitors can stop there, it might be well worth spending a couple of hours exploring the deep chambers and passages that are mostly undeveloped meaning there are no stairs, walkways or lights with professional, experienced guides. At 310 feet below ground, explorers encounter the Pancake Room, Godzilla's Nostril, Roach Motel and Meat Grinder, among other interesting places, and will frequently be crawling on their bellies or wading through thick mud. The total trip is about three hours, and minors over the age of 12 must be accompanied by an adult (no one under 12 is admitted). All equipment is provided, and again, prepare to get dirty. Beginning with a 165-foot rappel deep into the earth, a visit to Moaning Cavern is for the truly adventurous. Photo courtesy of Underground Adventures. Moaning Cave is open to visitors every day of the year, and fall and winter are a great time to visit to avoid crowds, Fairchild says. November is also the month that offers the most exploration because the water table is at its lowest point, he adds. Moaning Cavern doesn't flood like California Cavern, but it does get wetter in the winter, and some treks will get very wet and muddy. Both caverns also offer gemstone and gold mining, as well as aboveground nature trails with free trail guides to learn about the local flora and fauna, the Gold Rush, and the original human inhabitants of the area. California Cavern and Moaning Cavern are about 150 miles from the San Francisco Bay Area, 70 miles from Sacramento and 100 miles from South Lake Tahoe. Nearby sites include Columbia State Historic Park, Big Trees State Park, Sutter Gold Mine and Bear Valley Ski Resort. What better way to begin or end an adventurous family weekend than by visiting the world's natural wonders? Underground Adventures in California Back to top

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POLITICAL THOUGHT IN MODERN EGYPT. The bases of Egyptian thought had remained fundamentally Arab-Islamic until its roots extended themselves into the modern soil of European culture throughout the nineteenth century. Eventually Egyptian political thought crystallized into modern concepts and terms. However, other influences also played an important role. Most sources agree that the French invasion of Egypt (1798-1801) opened the eyes of the Egyptian intelligentsia to political concepts they had never known. Even though the Egyptians did not benefit immediately or directly, the French factor marked the beginnings of the modernizing of society in MUHAMMAD ‘ALI's reign (1805-1848). Muhammad ‘Ali's educational missions to Europe were a potent factor in the development of Egyptian political thought and bridged some gaps between Egypt and the West. European academicians and experts brought into Egypt new ideas and principles. They also extended the wide and active translation movement, which had transplanted into Egypt, among other things, many new political ideas. The press was also an important factor in promoting political consciousness, an influence of the French. During Muhammad ‘Ali's reign, the Bulaq printing press was built (1821) and the al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyyah was issued (1828). Pope CYRIL IV gave orders for the purchase of a press to be established in 1860. This was followed by a great journalistic revival, and papers like Al-Watan, edited by ‘Abdallah Abu al-Su‘ud (1866), and Al-Watan, edited by Mikha’il ‘Abd al-Sayyid (1877), were issued. The newspapers helped form public opinion and established a base of readers with distinct political interests. The second half of the nineteenth century witnessed the growth of cultural institutions, scientific societies, and literary salons where political ideas were exchanged. There appeared, for instance, the Knowledge Society (1868), the Geographic Society (1875), the Islamic Benevolent Society (1878), the Higher Institute for Arabic and Islamic Studies (1872), and the National Library (1870). During the first half of the nineteenth century there were attempts to modernize some sectors of Egyptian society, notably the army and governmental administration, by utilizing European expertise. This began a flood of European ideas into Egypt that put the traditional political and social structure in jeopardy. Repercussions occurred in the second half of the nineteenth century, with European political ideas being absorbed into the Arab-Islamic tradition along with Coptic reformism. Although some rejected the European intellectual influence and held to their traditional culture, others enthusiastically adopted Western ideas. From this variety of attitudes emerged political thought based on certain specific attitudes, the most outstanding of which were the liberal trend, the democratic trend, the religious-political trend, and the socialist trend. The National Liberal Trend This represents a response, though limited at the beginning, to the flow of European thought into Egypt after the French invasion. Among the first Egyptians to accept this thinking was Shaykh Hasan al-‘Attar (1766-1835), who greatly influenced Rifa‘ah al-Tahtawi (1801-1873), who was considered the real initiator of the modern renaissance. In his books Hasan recorded his observations in France and made valuable comments on the state, the constitution, the ruler's jurisdiction, and the citizens' rights. It was from such works that Egyptian liberals drew many of their ideas. In his books al-Tahtawi presented the ideas of the French Enlightenment, including those of Voltaire, Condillac, Rousseau, and Montesquieu. Al-Tahtawi's new ideas inspired the next generation through his pupils, who established their liberal ideas in the press and in their literary works, particularly in the second half of the nineteenth century. This movement was followed by the liberal ideas of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897). Shaykh Husayn al-Marsafi's Epistle on the Eight Modes of Speech (1881) also introduced new concepts of nationalism, politics, and social justice. Mikha’il ‘Abd al-Sayyid, a Copt, also established (1877) his daily newspaper Al-Watan where he reflected the nationalistic attitude before the British occupation (1882) and after. Adib Ishaq, a Syrian orthodox Christian living in Egypt (1882), issued the first organ named Misr, which dealt with nationalistic principles and advocated freedom of thought. Writing in a simple, popular style, ‘Abdallah al-Nadim (1845- 1896) came forth with a campaign against autocracy and foreign interference, calling for national unity and the Egyptianization of new ideas. ‘Abdallah Fikri combined the idea of Egyptian patriotism with educational rather than political reform. The generation that emerged after the British occupation included such names as Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid (1872-1963), who advocated political democracy and a secular state based on national rather than religious laws (Shar‘ah). He influenced a whole generation through his newspaper Al-Jaridah (1907). After World War I, his followers preached his ideas in varying forms and degrees. Qasim Amin, however, was preoccupied with the problem of modernizing society by reviving it intellectually and scientifically. He was a reader of Rousseau, Herbert Spencer, John Stuart Mill, and others. Ultimately his studies led him to advocate a change in the status of women and in their freedom in society. His Tahrir al-Mar’ah (Liberation of Women; 1899) and Al-Mar’ah al- Jadidah (The New Woman; 1900) express his philosophy. Another contemporary was Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, who espoused the cause of transplanting European culture to Egypt in certain fields and advocated political democracy, new methods of government, a free economy, and secularism in legislation. He meticulously translated some of the works of Jeremy Bentham, such as An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1892), part of Camille Desmoulins' Oeuvres (1900), and at least two of the treatises of André Lebon, including Modern France (Story of the Nations) (1913). Most of the Egyptian writers of this generation belonged to al-Ummah party, whose members enriched Egyptian political thought with liberal patriotism. These writers were also contemporaries of such leaders and political thinkers as MUSTAFA KAMIL (1874-1908) and Muhammad Farid (1868-1919), who were not so much theorists as practical politicians. They patriotically played their roles in combating the British presence in Egypt. They stood for Islamic unity, in spite of the concept of secular patriotism detectable in their writings as members of the National party (established in 1907). SA‘D ZAGHLUL emerged as a political leader after World War I. He led the 1919 revolution on a national basis—actually a continuation of the practical politics expounded by the National party. After the 1919 revolution, the political unity of the country was fragmented into parties such as the WAFD and the Constitutional Liberals, as well as the National party. From the 1920s to the 1940s exponents of the liberal national trend dominated the scene. Some thinkers advocated the abolition of religious courts, the modification of marital laws, and the dismantling of certain social institutions. They also championed the use of Western techniques in the field of literature, as expounded in Taha Husayn's Al-Shi‘r al-Jahili on pre-Islamic poetry (1926). The writings of Tawfiq al-Hakim and Taha Husayn, the sculptural works of Mahmud Mukhtar, the novels of Najib Mahfuz and Mahmud Taymur, and the writings of Salama Musa (a Copt), Louis ‘Awad (another Copt), Mahmud ‘Azmi, and others called for the Egyptianization of foreign ideas in all areas. In the 1930s some of those writers turned their thoughts to Oriental Islamic topics, as in the Islamic writings of Taha Husayn and Muhammad Husayn Haykal. The Democratic Trend It might be an overstatement to say that Egypt was acquainted with democratic thought before al-Tahtawi. It was not until the reign of Isma‘il (1863-1879) that a parliamentary council, the Shura al-Nuwwab, was established as the first representative body in Egypt. Sharif Pasha's cabinet was made up of those loyal to the 1879 constitution. Recognizing the supremacy of the people, the cabinet tried to issue a basic code for the council and another for elections. During the same period, another revolution in thought occurred, promoting more freedom and more constitutional rights, in the writings of Adib Ishaq, a Copt who advocated the establishment of a senate house that would be a link between the Shura al-Nuwwab and the government, while Mikha’il ‘Abd al-Sayyid, another Copt, launched a campaign to open the council members' eyes to matters of rule and politics. The ‘Urabi revolution (1881-1882) marked a new stage in Egyptian democratic thought. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani had played his part in paving the way for its advent through the old National party (see POLITICAL PARTIES); ‘Abdallah al-Nadim played a distinguished role in this period. He made a social analysis of the nature of representative councils and advocated that their membership should represent all social classes. He often reiterated that democracy is a practice in which the people should be trained. Later on, Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905) emphasized his claim that the representative-council manifesto should mention its part in helping the government and in sharing the rule of the country by supervising its activities and work. After the British occupation, Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid emerged as one of the political thinkers who linked the claim for independence to that of rule by the people through their representatives. He borrowed his ideas of political democracy from Rousseau, Locke, and Hobbes. Together with his disciples in the Ummah party, he succeeded in bringing about a democratic trend on a wide scale. This trend was manifest when Egypt obtained a limited degree of independence after the February 1922 declaration. At that time, a committee was set up to write the 1923 constitution, which marked the start of a constitutional monarchy in Egypt. That constitution played a part in creating parliamentary life from 1924, thus letting the common people participate in ruling the country. On that occasion a number of thinkers tried to deepen the democratic concepts and fight autocracy. Outstanding among those were Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Mahmud ‘Azmi, and Salama Musa. The Religious Political Trend In spite of the rise of religious reform movements such as Wahhabism, Senusism, and Mahdi’ism prior to the twentieth century, their supporters in Egypt never constituted a majority. Perhaps religious reform had a revolutionary political impression that was precipitated by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897). His emergence represents a turning point in the history of religious reform. His disciples were acquainted with European political and administrative institutions, economic systems, and thought. Some of them advocated a compromise between the essence of the Islamic faith, on the one hand, and the sciences and Western concepts and institutions, on the other. Such views represented the Islamic reaction to Western hegemony. Though religion was a fundamental element in Afghani's system, it treated the secular and religious elements equally. He was also known for his advocacy of Pan- Islamism. Muhammad ‘Abduh clarified and analyzed his teacher's ideas and then developed them further. He called for a return to authentic Islam and to the freedom of religious thought from the shackles of tradition and conservatism. He launched an onslaught on the al- Azhar, the oldest Islamic university in Cairo, and he advocated an understanding of the religious guidelines expressed by the earliest Muslims before sectarian differences developed. He claimed that the spirit of modern civilization and Islam are not contradictory; indeed, one of his basic objectives was to prove the possibility of a compromise between Islam and modern thought. However, he did not deal with the relationship between religion and the state as much as was later done by a number of his disciples. Whereas al-Afghani was associated with the Pan-Islamic movement, Muhammad ‘Abduh concentrated on the Islamic political revival and modernization of its legal theories. Some of his disciples assumed a secularizing attitude. Among them were Lutfi al-Sayyid, Taha Husayn, and ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq. Others, led by Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865-1935) and his Manar school, interpreted his views on the basis of early Islamic thought. Rashid Rida agreed with his mentors al-Afghani and Muhammad ‘Abduh that Islam could constitute a worthy national entity capable of opposing the secular tendencies of modern European thought. Immediately after his arrival in Egypt in 1898, in his articles in Al-Manar, his monthly journal, Rida issued a proclamation calling for the constitution of a Pan-Islamic society under the Ottoman caliph's flag. His main objective was the unification of all Muslims under one legal system based on Shari‘ah, the code derived directly from the Qur’an under the leadership of the caliphate, as against the Western concept of nationalism promoted by Kemal Atatürk after his suppression of the Ottoman caliphate in 1924. This was followed in 1925 by ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq's (1888-1961) famous work Islam and the Principles of Government, in which he denied that the caliphate was a basic institution of Islam. He made it clear that the Prophet's leadership was religious and that it ended with his death, when his authority was taken over by lay political power. Conservative thinkers objected to his ideas, and a reactionary religious movement flared up, ending with the rise of the Muslim Brethren, whose ultimate objective was the reconstruction of society on the basis of a modern Pan-Islamic front derived from the Qur’an against secular European trends. The Socialist Trend Cultured Egyptians had read and heard about socialism from the middle of the nineteenth century in organs such as Al-Muqtataf magazine. In fact, socialism did not come from a vacuum but was the outcome of social, economic, and cultural developments manifest in the development of Egyptian society during the reign of Muhammad ‘Ali. The first group of socialist advocates was inspired by Saint-Simon, whom Muhammad ‘Ali invited to Egypt. Shibli Shumayyil (1860-1917), a Christian Syrian who went to Egypt in 1885, engaged himself in writing literary commentaries instead of practicing medicine, and socialism was one of his chief topics. He was followed by another Syrian Christian, Nicola Haddad, who was a prolific author in many fields, including socialism. In the meantime, an Egyptian teacher by the name of Mustafa Hasanayn al-Mansuri contributed a valuable study of socialism in his own writing or in translations from European literature. Together with the aforementioned writers, he aimed at carrying his theories into practice by the establishment of a socialist party in 1909. The project was doomed to failure until it was assumed by the real pioneer of socialism in Egypt, SALAMAH MUSA (1887-1958), who had studied in England and France and had become acquainted with Britain's Labour party. A prolific writer, he fell under the influence of socialist thinkers such as George Bernard Shaw, and his book on socialism may be considered the first consistent work on the subject to be published in the Arab world. Generally, socialist thought was regarded as a European idea that had infiltrated into Egypt on a wide scale since the middle of the nineteenth century. With the outbreak of the Russian revolution of 1917 and the Third International in 1919, which marked the beginning of Russia's interest in the East, cultured Egyptians became acquainted with the new socialist trend. Joseph Rosenthal, an Egyptian Jew, called for the establishment of an Egyptian socialist party that would speak for workers' unions, instead of being restricted to a membership consisting mainly of foreigners living in Alexandria. Rosenthal induced a group of progressive Egyptians to join him, Salamah Musa, ‘Ali al-‘Inani, Muhammad ‘Abdallah ‘Inan, and Mahmud Husni al-‘Arabi being the outstanding figures in that group. They signed a manifesto establishing the Socialist party in 1921. Although successive governments tried to suppress the party, it carried on its activities and attracted hundreds of workers, who were very often encouraged to go on strike. On the political front, ‘Aziz Mirhom led the labor movement for some time. However, the party ultimately splintered because of disagreements about ideological principles. In 1922 one of its factions that joined the Comintern called itself the Egyptian Communist party. It persisted through the 1930s and 1940s when Marxist circles became active in many secret ways, until the July 1952 revolution. AHMAD ZAKARIYYA AL-SHILIQ Click tabs to swap between content that is broken into logical sections.

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Interaction of TCP/IP and Other Protocols It is possible to classify applications as being network-aware or network-unaware. The distinction can be made because some applications, such as Web browsers and client/server applications, need to make explicit use of an underlying network protocol. Other applications, such as standard Windows application suites, simply function within the confines of a workstation's own operating system. For these applications to make use of network file and print services, it is necessary for the NOS to provide extensions to the functions of the local operating system. The next section examines how these different types of applications can make use of the underlying network. Application Programming Interface (API): Application developers can write network-aware applications by accessing a set of standard procedures and functions through an Application Programming Interface (API). This interface specifies software-defined entry points that developers can use to access the functionality of the networking protocols. The use of an API enables a developer to develop networkable applications, while being shielded from having to understand how the underlying protocols operate. Other APIs define interfaces to other system functionality. Figure 114 provides a visual representation of how a networking API might fit within the OSI seven-layer model. The majority of network applications have been written specifically to access a single networking protocol. This is because each of the NOS implementations have developed their APIs as a standard. Redirectors and File Sharing: One of the main application requirements within a network is saving files on a central file store. To achieve this, NOS implementations commonly include a program known as a redirector. A redirector program extends the functionality of the workstation operating system to enable it to address remote file stores. In a DOS/Windows environment, file storage areas are denoted with the use of letters, typically with the letters A through E being reserved for local disk drives. When a user wants to access a network file volume, it is common for the NOS to facilitate some form of mapping between a volume name and an available drive letter. After the mapping has been made, it is possible for any application to access the shared file volumes in the same way as the would access a local drive. This is because of the operation of the installed redirector program. The program sits between the workstation operating system and the NOS protocol stack and listens for application calls made to any of the mapped network drives. The functionality of a redirector can be further clarified by considering the example of an application user attempting to save a file on a network drive. The user prompts the application to save the file on a network file volume that the NOS has mapped to the DOS drive I:. The application makes a call to the workstation operating system to complete the required file save operation. The redirector program recognise that the application is attempting to access a network drive and steps in to handle the required data transfer. If the redirector hadn't been active, the workstation operating system would have been presented with a request to save a file on a drive letter that is knew nothing about, and it would have responded with a standard error message, such as 'Invalid drive specification'. In a UNIX environment, similar file sharing capabilities are provided through the use of a Network File System (NFS). The use of NFS enables the workstation to access file volumes located on remote host machines as if they were extensions to the workstation's native filesystem. As such, the use of NFS, on the workstation side, is very similar to the use of the NOS redirector as outlined earlier. Implementation of client NFS software are available from several thirdparty companies. These implementations require a TCP/IP protocol stack to operate alongside the installed NOS protocol stack. A workstation configured with both an NOS and a TCP/IP protocol stack is able to operate two independent applications that can provide file sharing access between environments. This is accomplished through the use of the redirector program, to provide access to the NOS file server, and NFS, operating on the TCP/IP protocol stack to provide access to NFS volumes on UNIX-servers. Figure 115 illustrates how a single workstation can be utilise to access both network environments. The indicated workstation loads a NetWare protocol software and the associated redirector software. File areas on the NetWare server are mapped as local drive F: and G:. The TCP/IP stack and NFS implementation are also loaded, and the remote UNIX file system is mounted as the local drive H: on the workstation PC. Files are then available to be saved by any application operating on the workstation to any of the mapped drivers. NOS Gateways and Servers: It is often more efficient to utilise an NOS server as a gateway into an existing TCP/IP network than to run dual protocol stacks upon each network client. In figure 117, the NetWare server has the Novel NFS Gateway software installed. The UNIX host has exported the NFS, which has been mounted to a drive on it. This file area is now available to any of the NetWare client workstations. These users are able to access the UNIX file area through the standard NetWare redirector program, removing the requirement of having to load a TCP/IP protocol stack and run a TCP/IP-based application. The NetWare server provides application gateway services between the IPX/SPX-based networks and the TCP/IP network. To achieve this, it is necessary for the server to load both protocol stacks. On the network clients, however, it is necessary to operate only the standard IPX/SPX protocol. The client directs applications requests to use resources within the UNIX network to the gateway using IPX/SPX protocols. The gateway relays these requests to the UNIX host via its TCP/IP protocol stack. In this way, the use of a gateway greatly reduces the administrative overhead required to provide network clients with access to TCP/IP hosts. Network users are able to utilise UNIX-based resources without the requirement to run multiprotocol stacks. Figure 116 outlines a sample configuration of a NOS server as a gateway. NOS gateways tend to be implemented in one of two ways. The first is through the operation of proxy application services. The use of a proxy service provides the user with a special set of the network applications, such as Telnet, FTP, and Web browsers, that have been specifically written to operate over NOS protocols. The client applications communicate with the gateway process, which forwards the application request to the specified UNIX hosts. An alternative solution utilise a tailored version of a standard WinSock driver. This special WinSock driver provides support for standard WinSock applications, but instead of operating on an underlying TCP/IP protocol stack it communicates using IPX/SPX protocols. Yet again, communication occurs between the client workstation and the gateway application, with the gateway acting to forward application data between the client and UNIX host. The use of the tailored WinSock driver means that network clients are able to utilise any standard. WinSock application and don't have to rely on the gateway manufacturer to provide specialised application software. Figure 117 shows a tailored version of a standard WinSock driver enables the network clients to use any standard WinSock application. NOS Support for Native IP: The major NOS vendors have recognised an increasing demand to replace their proprietary communication methods with native TCP/IP protocols. However, network applications have generally interfaced with a specific protocol. If NOS vendors were to suddenly adopt a different protocol, many of the existing network applications would no longer function. For this reason, vendors are looking for ways to replace their proprietary network protocols, but at the same time to provide a degree of backward-compatibility to protect existing applications. For example, within NetWare it is possible to replace the standard IPX/SPX protocols with a TCP/IP protocol stack to provide standard communication between network client and server. However, within this implementation each data packet actually consists of an IPX packet enclosed within a UDP packet. The inclusion of the IPX header provides NetWare with the backward-compatibility it requires to support its existing application base. However, the inclusion of the IPX header places an additional overhead on each data packet. This overhead is likely to account for around 8 to 10 percent of the total packet size. Other NOS vendors also provide native support for TCP/IP protocols. For example, Windows NT allows for the users of the NetBEUI protocol or TCP/IP protocols or a combination of both. Within NT, network protocols are provided via an interface that it refers to as the Transport Driver Interface (TDI). This is a layer that is loaded toward the top of the protocol stack and is used to provide a standard interface between application environments and any underlying network protocols. Figure 118 illustrates the location and operation of the Transport Driver Interface within Windows NT. At the TDI interface, standard APIs such as NetBIOS and WinSock are able to interact with communication modules, principally TCP/IP and NetBEUI. The TDI model has been designed around a flexible architecture so that it can be adapted to support additional network protocols as required. Under this networking model, applications that have been written to the NetBIOS interface can operate over an installed TCP/IP protocol stack. NetBIOS operates by assigning a unique name to every network node. The assignment and management of the NetBIOS name space results in the generation of a large amount of network traffic. This is because hosts send out broadcasts to all network nodes when they want to register the use of a name they need to perform name resolution. The NetBIOS over TCP/IP standards specifies a method whereby this functionality can occur over a TCP/IP protocol stack. The excessive broadcast requirements effectively limit the use of NetBIOS to small LAN environments where the necessary bandwidth is available. IP networks, on the other hand, often include wide area links where bandwidth might not be sufficient to handle the required broadcasts needed to maintain the NetBIOS address space.

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Benefits » Enabling People With Disabilities High speed Internet empowers people with disabilities to become more independent. An Internet connection with enough speed to allow two-way voice, data, and video transfer can remove barriers that keep people with disabilities from participating in everyday activities such as employment, education, civic responsibilities and social connection. According to the 2008 U.S. Census, 50 million Americans have some kind of disability. Not only does this substantial segment of our population stand to benefit greatly from universally accessible broadband, but we all benefit from the increased participation when more people are broadband users. Expert studies find that Americans with disabilities currently use the Internet approximately half as much as those without disabilities and their rate of adoption lags behind that of the general population. This is true for people with disabilities in both urban and rural environments. With 60 percent of working-age persons with disabilities unemployed or underemployed, affordable, universal access to broadband at home is crucial. Those without high speed Internet access at home who must use public computers contend with transportation challenges and inaccessible locations. Benefits of High Speed Internet for Enabling People with Disabilities - Live streaming video and instant text communication liberate people who are deaf, or hard of hearing, and those with speech disabilities, from dependency on the phone. - High speed Internet makes new services available to people with physical disabilities, such as attending classes remotely, online medical consultations with far away specialists, or applying for and securing jobs, eliminating the need for unnecessary or difficult commutes or trips. - Programs that read text and describe visual contents aloud in a synthetic voice or a Braille display enable people who are blind or visually impaired to search the Internet, understand videos, and communicate online. - For persons with certain mental conditions or learning disabilities, slow download speeds discourage Internet use. - Video relay services (VRS), which require high speed Internet to run, allow people who are deaf to have phone conversations in their native sign language by means of an online interpreter. - Initiatives to expand high speed Internet should include, as a principle, provisions to ensure not only affordability, but also accessibility and usability, for people with disabilities. - Measures undertaken to increase employment through deploying more high speed Internet availability should include the employment needs of people with disabilities. - Research on high speed Internet access should look at the economic benefits of assimilating marginalized segments of society as a means of integration. For More Information Related Blog Posts: - 05-14-2013: The Truth About Lifeline - 04-26-2013: Republican attack on Lifeline runs into strong defense - 12-20-2012: FCC presents accessibility awards - 11-19-2012: CWA stands with video interpreters - 06-20-2012: Yes, Netflix, the ADA does apply to you - 06-08-2012: To help the disabled, mobile needs more spectrum - 03-05-2012: Digital technology makes the disabled more able - 01-18-2012: FCC advances with Internet video closed captioning - 12-21-2011: Genachowski and Knight Foundation name winners of “Apps for Communities” project - 10-20-2011: House Dems Ask FCC To Develop Internet In Nation’s School And Libraries - 10-13-2011: FCC Takes Major Step For People With Disabilities - 08-29-2011: FCC Mandates Closed Captioning On Streaming Video - 08-19-2011: Telemedicine Does Reduce Patient Travel - 07-29-2011: Administration Presses Federal Government On Technology Accessibility - 07-28-2011: FCC Sets Six Month Deadline for Online Closed Captioning - 07-22-2011: Disabled Can Increase Employment Opportunities With Assistive Technology - 07-08-2011: Bring Broadband to the Billion with Disability - 06-30-2011: Lawsuit Against Netflix Exposes Need for Closed Captioning - 06-20-2011: COAT Adds Its Support For AT&T/T-Mobile Merger - 04-25-2011: App Design Challenge Offers Crowd-sourced Solution for Underserved Communities - 04-14-2011: FCC Adopts Equipment Program for Persons with Disabilities - 03-11-2011: AAPD Hosting Policy Forum on Telerehabilitation - 03-08-2011: FCC Proposes Rules to Expand Access for the Disabled - 02-16-2011: Americans With Disabilities are Underserved by Online Technologies - 11-09-2010: NTIA/ESA Report Sheds Light on Broadband Gaps - 11-01-2010: Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, CWA Urge FCC to Act - 10-15-2010: Accessibility Act Signed Into Law - 09-28-2010: Digital Disability Access Bill Passes Senate - 08-24-2010: The Benefits of Broadband - 08-10-2010: Senate Unanimously Approves Historic Accessibility Legislation - 07-26-2010: The FCC Celebrates the 20th Anniversary of the ADA - 07-21-2010: Senate committee approves new technology accessibility standards - 06-02-2010: Kerry: Legislation Ensuring Broadband Access for Disabled May Pass in 2010 - 04-30-2010: Commerce announces $28.5 million in grant money for One Economy - 04-28-2010: FCC begins work on new public safety broadband network - 04-28-2010: Broadband adoption rates low among Americans with disabilities, according to FCC - 04-22-2010: Hollis: National recovery efforts must include Internet equality - 03-10-2010: High-speed Internet brings improved dental care to underserved community - 02-01-2010: Disability advocates laud CWA’s broadband plan recommendations - 02-01-2010: CWA calls for broadband goal of 50 mbps downstream and 20 upstream by 2015 - 11-20-2009: APT re-launches, focusing on broadband adoption - 11-12-2009: Redefining “access” - broadband for those with disabilities - 10-15-2009: Advances in telemedicine accelerate - 07-15-2009: Speed matters to the American Association of People with Disabilities - 06-15-2009: Broadband tools overcome barriers for quality healthcare - 06-08-2009: National broadband plan must include public hearings, benchmarks for progress - 06-05-2009: Broadband stimulus progress report stipulates grant application deadlines - 09-19-2008: Hearing shows high speed Internet opening doors for the disadvantaged - 09-03-2008: Telemedicine allows doctors to get regular vital signs from patients - 11-09-2007: Broadband changes lives - 09-20-2007: Children with Disabilities: Logging on to Learn - 06-14-2007: High speed for the hard of hearing - 10-09-2006: A picture is worth a thousand words - 09-12-2006: Giving the Deaf a Welcome Sign - 09-12-2006: Bringing More of the World to the Blind

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1946-01 Introduction to What Means This Strike? [Petersen] More than four decades have passed since Daniel De Leon delivered his great speech before the striking textile workers of New Bedford, Massachusetts. When it appeared in print it was instantly recognized as one of the great speeches of our times. It contains all the elements that combine to make a speech a great classic. It measures up to Daniel Webster’s claim as to the requirements of a great speech: The Man; the Subject; the Occasion. The Man: eloquent, gifted, fully informed, fearless, uncompromising, and the very soul of integrity. The Subject: a great, irrepressible issue, and the need of stating it in simple, yet withal correct and scientific terms. The Occasion: a supremely important manifestation of that fundamental, irrepressible issue — a typical and illuminating effect of the basic cause of the universal conflict of our times, the STRIKE. And presently the merging of Subject and Occasion into the Man, the speaker, who (tirelessly and patiently proclaiming the truth born of new occasions) pointed to the true goal of the victims of modern injustice — clear and specific beyond any doubt or wavering as to the nature of that goal, and the means imperative and essential for its attainment. The strike is the manifestation of two primary factors: The fact of a social system based on classes, one of which exploits and feeds upon the other; and the indomitable spirit and unconquerable mind of slaves worthy to be free, and destined to become freemen. Around these two manifestations revolve our entire social problem and the relations of modern classes,, and the solution of that problem. In his famous speech De Leon probes the cause of the strike. The cause, being shown to be the struggle between the capitalists and the workers over the "division" of the wealth produced by labor alone (the question of length of working day being a mere variant of the same thing), De Leon proceeds to show what are wages, and what profits, and the whence and wherefore of both. He establishes the fact that the share of the capitalists in; production is nil, that the "work" they do is no more productive than "the intense mental strain and active ‘work’ done by pickpockets is directly or indirectly productive." He shows how the owners of capital came into possession of their "original accumulation." He analyzes the class struggle, and outlines the development of capitalist society. He disposes of the myth that inventors reap the benefit of their genius, showing that, on the contrary, it is the useless, unproductive owner of capital who appropriates the fruits of the inventor’s genius. He demonstrates the never-ceasing process of concentration of capital, with its destruction of smaller competitors who join in the labor market the workers displaced by improved machinery. And last, but not least, he projects the principles and the structure of the organization which the workers must build if they would free themselves from wage slavery, and without which the strikes in and by themselves would become and remain idle and hopeless gestures of despair against the all-crushing power of capital, that is, of the strongly entrenched and powerfully organized capitalist class. "What Means This Strike?" is the class-struggle primer par excellence. It is the handbook, the textbook, of the exploited worker seeking to understand the meaning, the sense, of strikes, and what to do when they take place. Strikes, in the language of Marx, are the "unavoidable guerrilla fights incessantly springing up from the never-ceasing encroachments of capital or changes of the market." Guerrilla fights are disorganized skirmishes by individuals or separate groups or bands (usually in a losing struggle) carried on against highly organized armies in aggressive pursuit. That correctly describes the struggle of the modern workers on strike in their present form of organization against the solidly organized power of capital. Hence, the form of organization, its avowed purpose and objective, are of the highest significance to the workers, whether on strike or not. That strike, therefore, is lost (no matter what the temporary gain may seem to be] which does not take heed of the structure and objective of labor unions. And experience has proved that in the situation and set of circumstances so brilliantly and eloquently portrayed by De Leon, the workers, in order to seize the crown of victory, MUST ORGANIZE COMPACTLY INTO SOCIALIST INDUSTRIAL UNIONS FOR THE PURPOSE OF ENDING CAPITALIST WAGE SLAVERY — FOR THE PURPOSE OF ESTABLISHING THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF FREE LABOR. Not merely for a few more crumbs, not simply in order to ease the chains of slavery, but in order that the workers may secure the whole loaf which they alone produced; in order that .slavery itself may be forever banished from the earth. Strikes are rife throughout the country during this postwar period. The immediate cause is, of course, the return to "peacetime" production standards. During World War II, capitalism-backed financially and otherwise by the power of government-produced for "use" — that is, for war use. Costs, expenses, were no more a consideration than were human lives. The workers, through overtime pay and uninterrupted labor, enjoyed a relatively high standard of living. Shifted back on a peacetime production basis, all this came to an end. Capitalism, when it is not producing for war and destruction, is producing for a market. The question of keeping workers employed, or paying at least a living wage, concerns the capitalists not at all. Hence, the workers, employed in decreasing numbers, were offered wages that fell far below those received during the war. To their credit the workers have rebelled. They have refused to sell their labor power below its value, that is, below the amount required to maintain the minimum in a bare living. And so the struggle is on. The corporations, entrenched behind their tremendous economic resources, can afford to wait. Moreover, they even benefit by keeping their plants idle, at least until the huge tax reductions become effective. For a time, at least, it was as profitable for them to keep their plants closed down as to operate them, and evidently they feel that they are in a position to starve their wage slaves into submission. In view of the fact that the working class is not organized in Socialist Industrial Unions, prepared to take over the operation of industry for itself and society at large, the plutocratic exploiters may be right. Then, again, they may be wrong — they may be stretching the bow too far. For these are not the halcyon days of prewar capitalism — these are not the days when workers would submit — grumblingly to be sure, but submit nevertheless — to the caprices of the market, and the whims of capitalist exploiters. A world war has been fought during which the workers were told that they were fighting and producing for a "victory" that was to bring peace and plenty. The workers have had a taste of higher standards, and many of them swallowed whole the promises of capitalists and politicians. But now they stand, with empty hands, or "enjoying" a starvation diet, with increasing millions out of work. And they don’t like it. And despite efforts on the part of the labor fakers to hold them back, they are forcing these to act. Meanwhile, the capitalist class and its political and editorial spokesmen are howling and denouncing the workers. The familiar fake arguments are advanced — the dear "public" is menaced, "inflation" is being caused by the workers’ demands, and, horror of horrors, the sacred private-property interests and prerogatives of the ruling class are being placed in jeopardy! Dire threats issue from the halls of Congress, threats of repressive legislation, anti-strike laws, compulsory arbitration, and so forth. In 1941, Representative Hatton W. Summers of Texas raucously shouted from his privileged seat in Congress: "… I would not hesitate one split second to enact legislation to send them [striking workers] to the electric chair." Similar barbarous cries may soon be heard again, from Congress, from the press and radio — aye, even from the pulpit. For the ruling class of America has learned little from the fate that befell its kindred spirits, the Hitlers and the Mussolinis. And thus we may find history repeating itself on this side of the ocean where economic fascism is as rampant as ever it was in Hitler’s and Mussolini’s slave empires before they met their doom. The menace confronting the working class can be met only by organized resistance to the exploiting, useless owners of industry. But that resistance, to become effective, and in order to place the workers in an offensive instead of a defensive position, must manifest itself through powerful Socialist Industrial Unions a& urged by the Socialist Labor Party, and the goal of Socialist freedom must be proclaimed by the working: class thus organized. For there can never be peace, plenty and general social well-being without Socialism. May the workers soon fully realize this. What De Leon said in his memorable New Bedford address forty-three years ago holds good today — in some respects even more so. Here and there the text has become somewhat "dated" by the relentless march of events, and the enlargement and deepening of the science of Socialism. On page 43 of this pamphlet De Leon speaks of the workers bringing the government under their control, implying that the State would be controlled by the workers in their interest, and that that would be Socialism. State ownership is not Socialism; Industrial Union administration and operation of industry is. And organizing in Industrial Unions, and capturing at the ballot box the political government and dismantling it, will alone establish Socialism — not the "industrial unions" headed by the John L. Lewises, Philip Murrays, Sidney Hillmans, etc. These are not industrial unions in any proper sense. They are in reality agencies of capitalism and, structurally as well as ideologically, almost identical to Hitler’s "Labor Front" and Mussolini’s "corporate State." They are, in short, instruments of slavery and not of freedom. The same now erroneous implication is found on page 45, second paragraph. The reference to "shop organization" on page 50 must now be read as "Socialist industrial organization" in order to render the argument valid. The same applies in a measure to the language employed on pages 52 and 53. The Socialist Trade and Labor Alliance ceased to exist in 1905 when it merged with the Industrial Workers of the World organized that year in Chicago. The Industrial Workers of the World until 1908 represented Socialist Industrial Unionism in its true, though incomplete and undeveloped, form. In 1908 it was captured by an Anarchist element, disrupted and is now practically out of existence. On page 53, De Leon also speaks of the workers boldly marching out upon the streets, organizing monster parades, etc. Street demonstrations, parades, and the like have proved vain and futile efforts in the class struggle. Today the watchword is: Organization on class and industrial lines. Here and there, De Leon speaks of profits when, strictly speaking, he should have used the scientific term "surplus value." The occasion was hardly one that lent itself to the use of terms which required involved or lengthy explanation. And though the word "profit" was technically wrong, it did express the general idea. On page 36, De Leon speaks of "the brown of his brains being exhausted…." This is probably a typographical error. The sentence no doubt should have read: "his brawn and his brain being exhausted On pages 19 through 22, De Leon presents some arbitrary figures to illustrate a point. Through what the erudite would call a lapsus linguae, De Leon failed to correlate the figures properly. The argument, however, is not affected. Apart from these minor or incidental corrections, De Leon’s "What Means This Strike?" remains after more than forty years the same instructive and inspiring introduction to a study of Socialism which it proved to be when first released. And the basic principles and arguments will remain sound and irrefutable while capitalism persists as the blight of the fair earth and the curse of man. To this pamphlet there has been added an appendix which is a resolution on strikes adopted by the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Labor Party in May session, 1940. It should be read carefully as a supplement to De Leon’s masterpiece. Absorbing the knowledge which these important documents impart, the worker will be fortified and aided in his struggle, and, acting upon the knowledge and lessons imparted, by organizing correctly, politically and industrially, his early freedom will be assured. And out of the present chaos, darkness and slavery, there shall then emerge order, light and freedom for all. January 24, 1946.

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Last time, I introduced you to SELinux: what it is, what it can do, and really why you need it (or a system like it). It is especially important with reported (and fixed) security vulnerabilities on the rise, and each year brings more reports, and more updates for end-users to install. This data tells us that we are in greater need of proactive security measures now than we ever were before. And this is where software like SELinux fits in. There is a lot to SELinux, and we’re only going to touch on SELinux contexts and labels. Suffice it to say, SELinux policies contain various rules that allow interaction between different contexts. Contexts are ports, processes, files, directories, and so on. Instead of getting overwhelmed with the technical concepts of SELinux, we’ll instead look at the practical side of using SELinux so that it doesn’t seem quite as daunting. The first thing to do is determine what mode SELinux is running in: The getenforce command tells us what mode SELinux is in. The possible modes are Enforcing, Permissive, or Disabled. Enforcing means that SELinux will report access violations and deny the attempt, Permissive tells SELinux to report the violation but allow it, and Disabled completely turns SELinux off. Ideally, if you are unprepared to run SELinux in Enforcing mode, it should be in Permissive mode. This can be set at boot by editing (on Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Fedora) the /etc/sysconfig/selinux file and setting the SELINUX option: This will ensure it persists across reboot. SELinux can transition from Enforcing to Permissive easily using the setenforce command. Providing setenforce with a “0″ argument will put the system in Permissive mode, a “1″ will set it to Enforcing. To transition to or from Disabled mode, you need to reboot after making the appropriate changes to the sysconfig file. Using setenforce can be a great way of troubleshooting problems; if the problem goes away after setting the system to Permissive mode then you know it is SELinux. If not, then it is something else. # setenforce 0 To view the contexts that a process is running with, add the Z option to ps: # ps auxZ | grep httpd system_u:system_r:httpd_t:s0 apache 30544 0.0 0.0 305612 6688 ? S Mar30 0:00 /usr/sbin/httpd This tells us that the httpd process is using the httpd_t type, the system_r role, and the system_u user. More often than not, it is the httpd_t type you would be interested in. The Z option is also used with other commands, such as ls, cp, id, and others. For instance, to view your security context: # id -Z Or to view the security context associated with a file: # ls -lZ /var/www/html/index.html -rw-r--r--. root root unconfined_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 /var/www/html/index.html Again, probably the most useful bit of information here is the type, in this case it is httpd_sys_content_t. As an example of how to quickly change the policy, assume that you do not put your websites in /var/www/, but rather use /srv/www/foo.com/html/ for your site’s document root. You can configure Apache to use these directories as the DocumentRoot for various websites, but if you were to visit them, Apache would return an error because SELinux would disallow access. SELinux knows nothing about allowing Apache to these directories as of yet. To determine what type a file needs to have in order for Apache to access it, the above ls command tells us that the type we want is probably httpd_sys_content_t; after all, Apache by default serves files from /var/www/html/. Another, probably better, way is to use the semanage tool. This tool is used to show, and change, defined SELinux policy. We could also do: # semanage fcontext -l | grep '/var/www' /var/www(/.*)? all files system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 This command tells semanage to list all fcontext entries (file contexts), and we hand that output to grep to search for and display ‘/var/www’. For brevity, the whole output is not shown, but the above confirms that /var/www/* has the httpd_sys_content_t type. So what we need to do is tell SELinux to give this same type to /srv/www/foo.com/html/*, so that Apache can serve up those files. This can be done by using semanage to add a new context: # semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t '/srv/www(/.*)?' # semanage fcontext -l | grep '/srv/www' /srv/www(/.*)? all files system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 # restorecon -Rv /srv/www The SELinux policies here use regular expressions, so the above tells semanage to add (-a) a new fcontext with the type (-t) httpd_sys_content_t, and targets /srv/www itself and any sub-directories and files. We use semanage to list the fcontexts and search for any ‘/srv/www’ entries, to verify it is in place, and then use restorecon to re-label and set the appropriate security context on the /srv/www directory and any sub-directories and files. At this point, Apache will serve content from that directory if configured to do so, because Apache has the right to read httpd_sys_content_t files and /srv/www/ will now be labeled correctly. The restorecon tool is used to set default contexts on files and directories, according to policy. You will become very familiar with this tool because it is used very often. For instance, if you move a file from a home directory to this web root, it will not immediately gain the appropriate security context because the mv command retains the existing context (cp will make a new context because it is making a new file). For instance: % echo "my file" >file.html % ls -Z file.html -rw-rw-r--. vdanen vdanen unconfined_u:object_r:user_home_t:s0 file.html % mv file.html /srv/www/foo.com/html/ % ls -Z /srv/www/foo.com/html/ -rw-rw-r--. vdanen vdanen unconfined_u:object_r:user_home_t:s0 file.html Apache is not, by default, allowed to serve up user_home_t files, so any attempt to display this file via Apache will fail with denied access. restorecon is required to re-label the file so Apache can access it: # restorecon -v /srv/www/foo.com/html/file.html restorecon reset /srv/www/foo.com/html/file.html context unconfined_u:object_r:user_home_t:s0->system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t:s0 Now the security context of the file is correct. Similarly, when going from Disabled mode to Permissive or Enforcing mode, SELinux will have to re-label the entire filesystem (effectively running “estorecon /) because contexts are not set at all when SELinux is disabled. Once you wrap your head around these basics of SELinux, all of a sudden it is no more difficult to use than manipulating iptables firewall rules. Just as you would adjust your firewall to allow access to a new service, you adjust SELinux file contexts to allow applications and services to access them. Yes, it does require a little more work to set up, initially, but the security benefits are really quite useful, especially considering that the bulk of this kind of manipulation will only happen when initially setting up a system or adding new services. And getting into the habit of running restorecon on new files and directories as they are created isn’t any more difficult than using ls on them to double-check their permissions. The next and final tip on SELinux will introduce us to SELinux logging, to detect access violations, and to some other basic SELinux commands.

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|135–185 million Communities majorly in Iran,Afghanistan and also in Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia, Oman, China (Xinjiang), India, Pakistan, United Kingdom, Germany and United States.| |Regions with significant populations| |Iran and Iranian Plateau, Anatolia, South Asia, Central Asia, the Caucasus and as immigrant communities in North America and Western Europe.| |Related ethnic groups| Other Indo-Iranian peoples The Iranian peoples or Iranic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise the speakers of Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, as such forming a branch of the Indo-European-speaking peoples. Their historical areas of settlement were on the Iranian plateau (mainly Iran) and certain neighbouring areas of Central Asia (such as Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan West of the River Indus, northern Iraq and eastern Turkey, and scattered part of the Caucasus Mountains) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the Persian empires and the Iranian history. Their current distribution spreads across the Iranian plateau, and stretches from Pakistan's Indus River in the east to eastern Turkey in the west, and from Central Asia and the Caucasus in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south – a region that is sometimes called the Iranian cultural continent, or Greater Persia by scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the Persian people, through the geopolitical reach of the Persian empire. The Iranian group emerges from an earlier Iranian group during the Late Bronze Age, and it enters the historical record during the Early Iron Age. The Iranians comprise the Persians, Medes, Scythians, Bactrians, Parthians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetians, Cimerians and their sub-groups. The Iranians had domesticated horses, had travelled far and wide, and from the late 2nd millennium BCE to early 1st millennium BCE they had migrated to, and settled on, the Iranian Plateau. They moved into the Zagros Mountains (inhabited by Gutians, Kassites and others, home of the Mannaean kingdom) above the indigenous non Iranian Elamite Kingdom. For approximately three centuries after arriving in the region, the Medes and Persians fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire (911–609 BCE), based in nearby Mesopotamia. In 646 BCE, Susa and many other cities of Elam were plundered and wrecked by Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, allowing the Iranian peoples to become the predominant group in Iran. After the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to unravel due to a series of bitter civil wars. In 616 BCE the Median king Cyaxares threw off the Assyrian yoke, united the Medes and Persians, and in alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylon and the Scythians, attacked the civil war ridden Assyrian Empire. By 609 BCE, the Assyrians and their Egyptian allies had been defeated. This began the Iranian domination in the Iranian Plateau. Persians formed the Achaemenid Empire by the 6th century BCE, while the Scythians dominated the Eurasian steppe. With numerous artistic, scientific, architectural and philosophical achievements and numerous kingdoms and empires that bridged much of the civilized world in antiquity, the Iranian peoples were often in close contact with the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. The various religions of the Iranian peoples, including Zoroastrianism, Mithraism and Manichaeism, are believed by some scholars to have been significant early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism. The term Iranian is derived from the Old Iranian ethnical adjective Aryana which is itself a cognate of the Sanskrit word Arya. The name Iran is from Aryānām; lit: "[Land] of the Aryans". The old Proto-Indo-Iranian term Arya, per Thieme meaning "hospitable", is believed to have been one of the self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from Central Asia. Another meaning for Aryan is noble. In the late part of the Avesta (Vendidad 1), one of their homelands was referred to as Airyanem Vaejah. The homeland varied in its geographic range, the area around Herat (Pliny's view) and even the entire expanse of the Iranian plateau (Strabo's designation). The academic usage of the term Iranian is distinct from the state of Iran and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality and thus popularly referred to as Iranians) in the same way that Germanic people is distinct from Germans. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily "Iranian people" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages. Unlike the various terms connected with the Aryan arya- in Old Indian, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning and there can be no doubt about the ethnic value of Old Iran. arya (Benveniste, 1969, I, pp. 369 f.; Szemerényi; Kellens). The Avesta clearly uses airya as an ethnic name (Vd. 1; Yt. 13.143-44, etc.), where it appears in expressions such as airyāfi; daiŋˊhāvō "Iranian lands, peoples," airyō.šayanəm "land inhabited by Iranians," and airyanəm vaējō vaŋhuyāfi; dāityayāfi; "Iranian stretch of the good Dāityā," the river Oxus, the modern Āmū Daryā. The term "Ariya" appears in the royal Old Persian inscriptions in three different contexts: 1) As the name of the language of the Old Persian version of the inscription of Darius the Great in Behistun; 2) as the ethnic background of Darius in inscriptions at Naqsh-e-Rostam and Susa (Dna, Dse) and Xerxes in the inscription from Persepolis (Xph) and 3) as the definition of the God of Iranian people, Ahuramazda, in the Elamite version of the Behistun inscription. For example in the Dna and Dse Darius and Xerxes describe themselves as "An Achaemenian, A Persian son of a Persian and an Aryan, of Aryan stock". Although Darius the Great called his language the Iranian language, modern scholars refer to it as Old Persian because it is the ancestor of modern Persian language. The Old Persian and Avestan evidence is confirmed by the Greek sources". Herodotus in his Histories remarks about the Iranian Medes that: "These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; " (7.62). In Armenian sources, the Parthians, Medes and Persians are collectively referred to as Iranians. Eudemus of Rhodes apud Damascius (Dubitationes et solutiones in Platonis Parmenidem 125 bis) refers to "the Magi and all those of Iranian (áreion) lineage"; Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2) considers Zoroaster (Zathraustēs) as one of the Arianoi. The name of Ariana is further extended to a part of Persia and of Media, as also to the Bactrians and Sogdians on the north; for these speak approximately the same language, with but slight variations. — Geography, 15.8 The trilingual inscription erected by Shapur's command gives a more clear description. The languages used are Parthian, Middle Persian and Greek. In Greek, the inscription says: "ego ... tou Arianon ethnous despotes eimi"("I am lord of the kingdom (Gk. nation) of the Aryans") which translates to "I am the king of the Iranian people". In the Middle Persian, Shapour states: "ērānšahr xwadāy hēm" and in Parthian he states: "aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm". The Bactrian language (a Middle Iranian language) inscription of Kanishka the founder of the Kushan empire at Rabatak, which was discovered in 1993 in an unexcavated site in the Afghanistan province of Baghlan, clearly refers to this Eastern Iranian language as Arya. In the post-Islamic era, one can still see a clear usage of the term Iran in the work of the 10th-century historian Hamzeh Isfahani. In his book the history of Prophets and Kings writes: "Aryan which is also called Pars (Persia) is in the middle of these countries and these six countries surround it because the South East is in the hands China, the North of the Turks, the middle South is India, the middle North is Rome, and the South West and the North West is the Sudan and Berber lands". All this evidence shows that the name arya "Iranian" was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of Ahura Mazdā. History and settlement The language referred to as Proto-Indo-European (PIE): is ancestral to Diba and the Celtic, Italic (including Romance), Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Albanian, Armernian, Greek, and Tocharian languages. 'There is an agreement that the PIE community split into two major groups from wherever its homeland was situated (its location is unknown), and whenever the timing of its dispersal (also unknown). One headed west for Europe and became speakers of Indo-European (all the languages of modern Europe save for Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) while others headed east for Eurasia to become Indo-Iranians. The Indo-Iranians were a community that spoke a common language prior to their branching off into the Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages. Iranian refers to the languages of Iran (Iranian), Pakistan (Balochi and Pashto), Afghanistan (Pashto and Dari), and Tadjikistan (Tajiki) and Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit, Urdu and its many related languages.' – (Carl C. Lamberg-Karlovsky: Case of the Bronze Age) By the early 1st millennium, Ancient Iranian peoples such as Medes, Persians, Bactrians, Parthians and Scythians populated the Iranian plateau, and other Scythian tribes, along with Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Saka, Scythian, tribes spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang. Scythians as well formed the Indo-Scythian Empire, and Bactrians formed a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom founded by Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria. The Kushan Empire, with Bactrian roots/connections, once controlled much of Pakistan, some of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. The Kushan elite (who the Chinese called the Yuezhi) were either a Tocharian-speaking (another Indo-European branch) people or an Eastern Iranian language-speaking people. The division into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group by the early 1st millennium is visible in Avestan vs. Old Persian, the two oldest known Iranian languages. The Old Avestan texts known as the Gathas are believed to have been composed by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, with the Yaz culture (c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a candidate for the development of Eastern Iranian culture. Western Iranian peoples |Part of a series on| During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the Assyrians. Remnants of the Median language and Old Persian show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and Soghdians in the east. Following the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian language (referred to as "Farsi" in Persian) spread from Pars or Fars Province to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as Dari) and Central-Asia (known as Tajiki) descending from Old Persian. Old Persian is attested in the Behistun Inscription (c. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by Darius the Great. In southwestern Iran, the Achaemenid kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual form (Elamite, Babylonian and Old Persian) while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later Imperial Aramaic. The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of Zoroastrianism. The Baloch who speak a west Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from Aleppo, Syria around the year 1000 CE, whereas linguistic evidence links Balochi to Kurmanji, Soranî, Gorani and Zazaki. Eastern Iranian peoples While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, Indo-Aryans as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient Sanskrit texts make references to tribes like Sakas, Paradas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Uttaramadras, Madras, Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, Tukharas or Tusharas etc. and locate them in the (Uttarapatha) (north-west) division, in Central Asia, around Hindukush range in northern Pakistan. The Greek chronicler, Herodotus (5th century BCE) makes references to a nomadic people, the Scythians; he describes them as having dwelt in what is today southern Russia. It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the Sarmatians, who are mentioned by Strabo as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium CE. These Sarmatians were also known to the Romans, who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as Roman Britain. The Sarmatians of the east became the Alans, who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in Western Europe and North Africa, as they accompanied the Germanic Vandals during their migrations. The modern Ossetians are believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, Hunnic and ultimately Slavic migrations and invasions. Another group of Alans allied with Goths to defeat the Romans and ultimately settled in what is now called Catalonia (Goth-Alania). Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further southeast and invade the Iranian plateau, large sections of present day Afghanistan and finally deep into present day Pakistan (see Indo-Scythians). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the Parni in Central Asia, and who later become indistinguishable from the Parthians, speakers of a northwest-Iranian language. Many Iranian tribes, including the Khwarazmians, Massagetae and Sogdians, were assimilated and/or displaced in Central Asia by the migrations of Turkic tribes emanating out of Xinjiang and Siberia. The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranian peoples are represented by the Pashtuns, whose origins are generally believed to be from the Sulaiman Mountains, from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as Herat, north to areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan; and as eastward towards the Indus. The Pashto language shows affinities to the Avestan and Bactrian. The modern Sarikoli in southern Xinjiang and the Ossetians of the Caucasus are remnants of the various Saka tribes. The modern Ossetians claim to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and their claims are supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the Kabardians and Circassians. Various extinct Iranian people existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the Azaris, while some Iranian people remain in the region, including the Talysh and the Tats (including the Judeo-Tats, who have relocated to Israel), found in Azerbaijan and as far north as the Russian republic of Dagestan. A remnant of the Sogdians is found in the Yaghnobi speaking population in parts of the Zeravshan valley in Tajikistan. Later developments Starting with the reign of Omar in 634 CE, Muslim Arabs began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the Sassanid Empire of the Persians and seized much of the Byzantine Empire populated by the Kurds and others. Ultimately, the various Iranian people, including the Persians, Azaries, Kurds, Baluchis and Pashtuns, converted to Islam. The Iranian people would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the Hazara) adopted the Shi'a sect. As ancient tribes and identities changed, so did the Iranian people, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and people. Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian people would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and empire. Saladin, a noted adversary of the Crusaders, was an ethnic Kurd, while various empires centered in Iran (including the Safavids) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is today Iran and adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the Ottoman Empire, where Persian was often spoken at court, as well to the court of the Mughal Empire. All of the major Iranian people reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern national identities until the 19th and early 20th centuries (just as Germans and Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own). The following either partially descend from Iranian people or are sometimes regarded as possible descendants of ancient Iranian people: - Azeris: Although Azeris speak a Turkic language (modern Azerbaijani language), they are believed to be primarily descendants of ancient Iranians. Thus, due to their historical ties with various ancient Iranians, as well as their cultural ties to Persians, the Azeris are often associated with the Iranian people (see Origin of Azerbaijani people and the Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis for more details). - Uzbeks: The modern Uzbek people are believed to have both Iranian and Turkic ancestry. "Uzbek" and "Tajik" are modern designations given to the culturally homogeneous, sedentary population of Central Asia. The local ancestors of both groups – the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and the Iranian-speaking Tajiks – were known as "Sarts" ("sedentary merchants") prior to the Russian conquest of Central Asia, while "Uzbek" or "Turk" were the names given to the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of the area. Still today, modern Uzbeks and Tajiks are known as "Sarts" to their Turkic neighbours, the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz. The ancient Soghdians and Bactrians are among their ancestors. Culturally, the Uzbeks are closer to their sedentary Iranian-speaking neighbours rather than to their nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic neighbours. Some Uzbek scholars, i.e. Ahmadov and Askarov, favour the Iranian origin theory. - The native name of Yakuts is Sakha, very similar to the Sakkas, proposing Yakuts to be related of descendants of Scythians, specifically Sakkahs. - Volga TatarsMany are mixed from Volga bulgars. The reasons are same with Bulgarians, and the putative claim on the Iranian origin of bulgars. - A few linguists suggest that the names of the South Slavic people, the Serbs and Croats are of Iranian origin. Those who entertain such a connection propose that the Sarmatian Serboi and Kharoti tribes might have migrated from the Eurasian steppe lands to eastern Europe, and assimilated with the numerically superior Slavs, passing on their name. Iranian-speaking people did inhabit parts of the Balkans in late classical times, and would have been encountered by the Slavs. However, direct linguistic, historical or archaeological proof for such a theory is lacking. (See also: Theories on the origin of Serbs and Theories on the origin of Croats)Ultimately, Montenegrins and Bosniaks may be counted to this theory. - Some modern Bulgarian historians claim that the Bulgars were of Iranian origin and that they migrated to Europe from the region of today's northern Afghanistan – Hindukush mountains, from the Kingdom of Balhara. Their claims are based on medieval Armenian sources, the writings of ancient historians ("Ashharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi; Agathias of Myrina, Theophylact Simocatta, Michael the Syrian) archaeological findings in modern Bulgaria, the similarities with Iranian languages (place names, people names, and Iranian words in modern Bulgarian), similarities with culture (e.g.: some buildings in Pliska were built in a Zoroastrian fashion; similarities in traditional music, dancing and carpet making) and the very close similarity of the DNA of Pamirian/Iranian people with that of modern Bulgarians After their arrival on Balkans, the Bulgars subjugated and then formed an alliance with the local Slavs and formed the Bulgarian nation. Ultimately, Slavic Macedonians could be counted due to their close linguistic affinities with the standard Bulgarian language. |english||persian||zazaki||(Kurdish) Kurmanji / Sorani||bulgarian| |i know||midânam||ez dizono||ez dizanim /min azanim||az znam| |you know||midâni||ti dizana||tu dizanî / to azanit||ti znayş| |i don't know||nemidânam||ez nizon||ez nizanim / min nazanim||az neznam| |you don't know||nemidâni||ti nizona||tu nizanî / to nazanit||ti niznayş| |a dog||sag||kûtik||kûtchik / sag||kutche (kûçe)| - Indo-Aryan speakers - Speakers of Indo-Aryan languages share linguistic affinities with speakers of Iranian languages, which suggests a degree of historical interaction between these two groups. - Brahui people in Pakistan are speakers of a language classified as Dravidian, although culturally there is considerable Iranic influence among Brahui populations. - Uralic speakers - Many Volga Finns may be of part Iranian admixture due to Bulgar invasion of the Volga basin, if they (Bulgars) were Iranian people. - Hungarians have long prided themselves as Scythians in the past, Scythians being an Iranian people, prior to the Finno-Ugric/Uralic theory. It's possible they've undergone a language shift. In a Magyar folkore suggests Iranian admixture among Hungarian, when Hunor and Magor marry princesses who were Alans, another Iranian people. Jassic people of Hungary are of Ossetian origin. The Szekely are possibly of Iranian origin, as their name is similar to Sakka. - Shirazis:The Shirazi are a sub-group of the Swahili people living on the Swahili Coast of East Africa, especially on the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba and Comoros. Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from Shiraz in Persia who settled along the Swahili Coast. There are an estimated 150 to 200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, the five major groups of Persians, Lurs, Kurds, Baloch, and Pashtuns accounting for about 90% of this number. Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in Iran, the Caucasus (mainly Ossetia, other parts of Georgia, and Azerbaijan), Iraqi Kurdistan and Kurdish majority populated areas of Turkey, Iran and Syria, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. The following is a list of peoples that speak Iranian languages with the respective groups's core areas of settlements and their estimated sizes (in millions): |Persian-speaking peoples||Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Bahrain|| |Kurds||Turkey, Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, Syria|| |Baluchis||Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan|| |Gilakis & Mazanderanis||Iran|| |Lurs & Bakhtiaris||Iran|| |Pamiri people||Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China (Xinjiang), Pakistan|| |Ossetians||South Ossetia, Georgia, Russia (North Ossetia), Hungary |Yaghnobi||Uzbekistan and Tajikistan (Zerafshan region)|| It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian people have been linked, as many non-Iranian people have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well, for example, a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian people, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and Turkic invasions. Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and farmers and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds. Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian people. For example, the social event Norouz is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian people as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to Zoroastrianism and pre-historic times. Some Iranian cultures exhibit traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as Pashtunwali, which has a similar counterpart among the Baloch, called Mayar, that is more hierarchical. The early Iranian people worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where Indo-European immigrants established themselves. The earliest major religion of the Iranian people was Zoroastrianism, which spread to nearly all of the Iranian people living in the Iranian plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were Mithraism, Manichaeism, and Mazdakism, among others. Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow Islam. Some follow Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and the Bahá'í Faith, with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Overall the numbers of Sunni and Shia among the Iranian people are equally distributed. Most Kurds, Tajiks, Pashtuns, and Baluch are Sunni Muslims, while the remainder are mainly Twelver Shi'a, comprising mostly Persians in Iran, and Hazaras in Afghanistan. Zazas in Turkey are largely Alevi, while the Pamiri peoples in Tajikistan and China are nearly all Ismaili. The Christian community is mainly represented by the Armenian Apostolic Church, followed by the Russian Orthodox and Georgian Orthodox Ossetians followed by Nestorians. Judaism is followed mainly by Persian Jews, Kurdish Jews, Bukharian Jews (of Central Asia) and the Mountain Jews (of the Caucasus), most of whom are now found in Israel. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it still has a few thousand followers, mostly in Yazd and Kerman. They are known as the Parsis in the Indian subcontinent, where many of them fled in historic times following the Arab conquest of Persia, or Zoroastrians in Iran. Another ancient religion is the Yazidi faith, followed by some Kurds in northern Iraq, as well as the majority of the Kurds in Armenia. Cultural assimilation In matters relating to culture, the various Turkic-speaking ethnic groups of Iran (notably the Azerbaijani people) and Afghanistan (Uzbeks and Turkmen) are often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and also have Iranian culture to the extent that the term Turko-Iranian can be applied. The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and cultural overlap or commonalities. Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are the Azeris, whose culture, religion and significant periods of history are linked to the Persians. Certain theories and genetic tests suggest that the Azeris are genetically more Iranian than Turkic. ||This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (November 2010)| R1 is more closely linked to Iranians, while R1b is linked to Europeans. Haplogroup J2 especially the clade J2a is frequently found among almost all groups of Iranian people. In comparison with the haplogroup R1a1, J2 is not restricted to geographically eastern and western Iranian populations, but also found among north-western and south-western Iranian populations such as the Bakhtiaris and Mazanderani, as well as geographically north-western Iranian Ossetians. Despite its supposed origin in the fertile crescent, J2a is also found among Iranian populations in the east such as the Yagnobi which are of Soghdian origin as well as the Parsis of India. Beside the relatively high percentage among the Yagnobis in Central Asia, other Iranian populations tend to have a higher frequency of J2a when compared to neighboring Turkic populations. The relatively strong presence of J2a among Ossetians as well as Yagnobis proves distant from the supposed Mesopotamian origin region of J2, are carriers of this Haplogroup. In the Indo-Iranian context, the occurrence of J2a in South Asia is limited to caste populations, with the highest frequencies found among northern areas of South Asia. Compared with R1a1, J2a shows a more conservative distribution, stronger limited to Indo-Iranian origin groups. Many Haplotypes of Y-chromosomal Haplogroup R have been found throughout the Iranian Plateau, and it has been suggested that this Haplogroup may have had its origins in Iran. Cambridge University geneticist Toomas Kivisild has suggested : "Given the geographic spread and STR diversities of sister clades R1 and R2, the latter of which is restricted to India, Pakistan, Iran, and southern central Asia, it is possible that southern and western Asia were the source for R1 and R1a differentiation."(Kivisild et al. 2003). A similar conclusion was given by population geneticist Miguel Regueiro in the Journal of Human Heredity (Regueiro et al. Human Heredity vol. 61 (2006), pp. 132–143) Genetic studies conducted by Cavalli-Sforza have revealed that Iranians have weak correlation with Near Eastern groups, and are closer to surrounding Indo-Europeans speaking populations. This study is partially supported by another one, based on Y-Chromosome haplogroups. The findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian people from the Tigris river of Iraq to the Indus of Pakistan. This correlates with the Iranian languages spoken from the Caucasus to Kurdish areas in the Zagros region and eastwards to western Pakistan and Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan in Central Asia. The extensive gene flow is perhaps an indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking people, whose languages are now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions. Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was done by a team of Cambridge geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani). Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive DNA testing on different language groups, including Indo-European and non Indo-European speakers, in Iran. The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have a similar FSt and other genetic markers found in Anatolian and European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and other genetic traits like MRca and mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to Persians in Iran. Azaris of Iran also show very close genetic ties to Kurds. See also Literature and further reading - Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (eds.). The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East), Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4. - Canfield, Robert (ed.). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9 - Curzon, R. The Iranian People of the Caucasus. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6. - Derakhshani, Jahanshah. Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr., 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5. - Frye, Richard, Greater Iran, Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2. - Frye, Richard. Persia, Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY. - Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates, Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4 - Khoury, Philip S. & Kostiner, Joseph. Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1. - Littleton, C. & Malcor, L. From Scythia to Camelot, Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0. - Mallory, J.P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans, Thames and Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1. - McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds, I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6. - Nassim, J. Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities, Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6. - Riasanovsky, Nicholas. A History of Russia, Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4. - Sims-Williams, Nicholas. Indo-Iranian Languages and People, British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6. - Iran Nama, (Iran Travelogue in Urdu) by Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbi Academy, Aligarh, India (1998). - Saga of the Aryans, Historical novel on ancient Iranian migrations by Porus Homi Havewala, Published Mumbai, India (2005, 2010). - Chopra, R. M.,"Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations Through The Ages", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2005. - Iran: Library of Congress, Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. "Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran". Retrieved 2009-12-02. (Persian and Caspian dialects-65% Kurdish 8%-Luri/Bakhtiari 5%- Baluchi 2%):80% of the population or approximately 63 million people. - Afghanistan: CIA Factbook Afghanistan: unting Pashtuns, Tajiks, Baluchs, 21 million - Tajiks of Central Asia counting Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 10–15 million - Kurds and Zazas of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq based on CIA factbook estimate 22 million - Ossetians, Talysh, Tats, Kurds of the Caucasus and Central Asia: 1–2 million based on CIA factbook/ethnologue. - Tajiks of China: 50,000 to 100,000 - Iranian speakers in Bahrain, the Persian Gulf , Western Europe and USA, 3 million. - Pakistan counting Baluchis+Pashtus+Afghan refugees based on CIA factbook and other sources: 35 million. - The Ossetians of the Caucasus are Orthodox Christians - R.N Frye, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encycloapedia Iranica. "In the following discussion of "Iranian peoples," the term "Iranian" may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language. The set of Iranian-speaking peoples is thus considered a kind of unity, in spite of their distinct lineage identities plus all the factors which may have further differentiated any one group’s sense of self." - J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages, ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357 - Ronald Eric Emmerick. "Iranian languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved Feb. 6, 2011. - PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ (December 15, 2006). "Iran vi. Iranian languages and scripts Also, Diba". Encyclopedia Iranica. - Frye, Richard Nelson, Greater Iran, ISBN 1-56859-177-2 p.xi: "... 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Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - R.W. Thomson. History of Armenians by Moses Khorenat’si. Harvard University Press, 1978. Pg 118, pg 166 - MacKenzie D.N. Corpus inscriptionum Iranicarum Part. 2., inscription of the Seleucid and Parthian periods of Eastern Iran and Central Asia. Vol. 2. Parthian, London, P. Lund, Humphries 1976–2001 - N. 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The April issue of Scientific American includes an exclusive excerpt from Bill McKibben's new book, Eaarth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet, plus an interview that challenges his assumptions. Expanded answers to key interview questions, and additional queries and replies, appear here. McKibben is a scholar in residence at Middlebury College in Vermont and is a co-founder of the climate action group, 350.org. He argues that humankind, because of its actions, now lives on a fundamentally different world, which he calls Eaarth. This celestial body can no longer support the economic growth model that has driven society for the past 200 years. To avoid its own collapse, humankind must instead seek to maintain wealth and resources, in large part by shifting to more durable, localized economies—especially in food and energy production. [A Scientific American interview with McKibben follows.] You entitled your book Eaarth, because you claim that we have permanently altered the planet. How so? And why should we change our ways now? Well, gravity still applies. But fundamental characteristics have changed, like the way the seasons progress, how much rain falls, the meteorological tropics—which have expanded about two degrees north and south, making Australia one big fire zone. This is a different world. We underestimated how finely balanced the planet's physical systems are. Few people have come to grips with this. The perception, still, is that this is a future issue. It's not—it's here now. Is zero growth necessary, or would "very slight" growth be sustainable? A specific number is not part of the analysis. I'm more interested in trajectories: What happens if we move away from growth as the answer to everything and head in a different direction? We've tried very little else. We can measure society by other means, and when we do, the world can become much more robust and secure. You start having a food supply you can count on, and an energy supply you can count on, and know they aren't undermining the rest of the world. You start building communities that are strong enough to count on, so individual accumulation of wealth becomes less important. If "growth" should no longer be our mantra, then what should it be? We need stability. We need systems that don't rip apart. Durability needs to be our mantra. The term "sustainability" means essentially nothing to most people. "Maintenance" is not very flashy. "Maturity" would be the word we really want, but it's been stolen by the AARP. So durability is good; durability is a virtue. In part, you're advocating a return to local reliance. How small is "local"? And can local reliance work only in certain places? We'll figure out the sensible size. It could be a town, a region, a state. But to find the answer, we have to get the incredibly distorting subsidies out of our current systems. They send all kinds of bad signals about what we should be doing. In energy we've underwritten fossil fuel for a long time; unbelievable gifts to the "clean coal" industry, and on and on. It's even more egregious in agriculture. Most of the United States's cropland is devoted to growing corn and soybeans--not because there's an unbelievable demand to eat corn and soybeans, but because there are federal subsidies to grow them—written into the law by huge agricultural companies who control certain senators. Once subsidies wither, we can figure out what scale of industry makes sense. It will make sense to grow a lot of things closer to home. It's plausible to "go local" in, say, your home state of Vermont, where residents have money and are forward-looking—and their basic needs are met. But what about people in poor places; don't they need outside help? Absolutely. The rich nations have screwed up the climate. It's our absolute responsibility to figure out how to allow poor people to have something approaching a decent life. What happens to the poorest and most vulnerable people in the world? They get dengue fever. The fields they depend on are ruined by drought or flood. The glaciers that feed the Ganges will be gone, yet 400 million people depend on that water. We are not helping the poor by destabilizing the planet's systems. Meantime, what works best for them? Local, labor-intensive, low-input agriculture: It provides jobs, security, stability and food, and helps make local ecological systems robust enough to withstand the damage that's coming. U.S. debt is rising to insane levels because the country has lived beyond its means, which supports your call to switch from growth to maintenance. But how do countries like the U.S. get out of debt without growing? Do we need a transition period where growth eliminates debt, and then we embrace durability? My sense is that all of this will flow logically from the physics and chemistry of the world we're moving into, just like the centralized industrial model flowed logically from the physics and chemistry of the fossil-fueled world. The primary political question is: Can we make change happen fast enough to avoid all-out collapses that are plausible, even likely, under the patterns we're operating in now? How do we force global changes that move these transitions more quickly than they want to move? We have an incredibly small amount of time; we have already passed the threshold points in some respects. We best get to work.

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(Also known as CARDINAL JULIAN) Born at Rome, 1398; died at Varna, in Bulgaria 10 November, 1444. He was one of the group of brilliant cardinals created by Martin V on the conclusion of the Western Schism, and is described by Bossuet as the strongest bulwark that the Catholics could oppose to the Greeks in the council of Florence. He was of good family and was educated at Perugia, where he studied Roman law with such success as to be appointed lecturer there, Domenico Capranica and Nicholas of Cusa being among his pupils. When the schism was ended by the universal recognition of Martin V as pope, Giuliano returned to Rome, where he attached himself to Cardinal Branda. Suggestions of wide reform were rife, and the principles of the outward unity of the Church and its reformation from within became the ideals of his life. In 1419 he accompanied Branda on his difficult mission to Germany and Bohemia, where the Hussites were in open rebellion. The cardinal thought so highly of his services that he used to say that, if the whole Church were to fall into ruin, Giuliano would be equal to the task of rebuilding it. He had all the gifts of a great ruler, commanding intellectual powers, and great personal charm. He was a profound scholar and a devoted Humanist, while his private life was marked by sanctity and austerity. In 1426 Martin V created him cardinal and sent him to Germany to preach a crusade against the reformers who were committing grievous excesses there. After the failure of this appeal to arms Cesarini was made President of the Council of Basle in which capacity he successfully resisted the efforts of Eugene IV to dissolve the council, though later (1437) he withdrew from the opposition, when he perceived that they were more anxious to humiliate the pope than to accomplish reforms. When the reunited council assembled at Ferrara he was made head of the commission appointed to confer with the Hussites and succeeded at least in winning their confidence. In 1439, owing to a plague, the council was transferred from Ferrara to Florence, where Cesarini continued to play a prominent part in the negotiations with the Greeks. After the successful issue of the council, Cesarini was sent as papal legate to Hungary (1443) to promote a national crusade against the Turks. He was opposed to the peace with Ladislaus, King of Hungary and Poland, and signed at Szegedin with Sultan Amurath III, and persuaded the former to break it and renew the war. It was an unfortunate step and resulted in the disastrous defeat of the Christian army at Varna in 1444, when Cardinal Giuliano was slain in the flight. His two well-known letters to Aeneas Sylvius about the pope's relations to the Council of Basle are printed among the works of Pius II (Pii II Opera Omnia, Basle 1551, p. 64). VESPASIANO DA BISTICCI, Vite di Uomini illustri, first printed at Rome, 1763; also printed in MAI, Spicilegium Romanum, I, 166-184; and in the new ed. of VESPASIANO (Bologna, 1892), I. JENKINS, The Last Crusader: The Life and Times of Cardinal Julian (London, 1861); PASTOR, History of the Popes, tr. ANTROBUS (London, 1899), I; GREGOROVIUS, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, tr. HAMILTON (London, 1900), VII, Part I, Bk. XIII, i, ii; CHEVALIER, Rep.: Bio bibl. (Paris, 1905-1907) gives an extensive bibliography. APA citation. (1908). Giuliano Cesarini. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03546a.htm MLA citation. "Giuliano Cesarini." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03546a.htm>. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Ted Rego. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. November 1, 1908. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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Tucked inside Carl Zimmer's wonderful and thorough feature on de-extinction, a topic that got a TEDx coming out party last week, we find a tantalizing, heartbreaking anecdote about the time scientists briefly, briefly brought an extinct species back to life. The story begins in 1999, when scientists determined that there was a single remaining bucardo, a wild goat native to the Pyrenees, left in the world. They named her Celia and wildlife veterinarian Alberto Fernández-Arias put a radio collar around her neck. She died nine months later in January 2000, crushed by a tree. Her cells, however, were preserved. Working with the time's crude life sciences tools, José Folch led a Franco-Spanish team that attempted to bring the bucardo, as a species, back from the dead. It was not pretty. They injected the nuclei from Celia's cells into goat eggs that had been emptied of their DNA, then implanted 57 of them into different goat surrogate mothers. Only seven goats got pregnant, and of those, six had miscarriages. Which meant that after all that work, only a single goat carried a Celia clone to term. On July 30, 2003, the scientists performed a cesarean section. Here, let's turn the narrative over to Zimmer's story: As Fernández-Arias held the newborn bucardo in his arms, he could see that she was struggling to take in air, her tongue jutting grotesquely out of her mouth. Despite the efforts to help her breathe, after a mere ten minutes Celia's clone died. A necropsy later revealed that one of her lungs had grown a gigantic extra lobe as solid as a piece of liver. There was nothing anyone could have done. A species had been brought back. And ten minutes later it was gone again. Zimmer continues The notion of bringing vanished species back to life--some call it de-extinction--has hovered at the boundary between reality and science fiction for more than two decades, ever since novelist Michael Crichton unleashed the dinosaurs of Jurassic Park on the world. For most of that time the science of de-extinction has lagged far behind the fantasy. Celia's clone is the closest that anyone has gotten to true de-extinction. Since witnessing those fleeting minutes of the clone's life, Fernández-Arias, now the head of the government of Aragon's Hunting, Fishing and Wetlands department, has been waiting for the moment when science would finally catch up, and humans might gain the ability to bring back an animal they had driven extinct. "We are at that moment," he told me. That may be. And the tools available to biologists are certainly superior. But there's no developed ethics of de-extinction, as Zimmer elucidates throughout his story. It may be possible to bring animals that humans have killed off back from extinction, but is it wise, Zimmer asks? "The history of putting species back after they've gone extinct in the wild is fraught with difficulty," says conservation biologist Stuart Pimm of Duke University. A huge effort went into restoring the Arabian oryx to the wild, for example. But after the animals were returned to a refuge in central Oman in 1982, almost all were wiped out by poachers. "We had the animals, and we put them back, and the world wasn't ready," says Pimm. "Having the species solves only a tiny, tiny part of the problem." Maybe another way to think about it, as Jacquelyn Gill argues in Scientific American, is that animals like mammoths have to perform (as the postmodern language would have it) their own mammothness within the complex social context of a herd. When we think of cloning woolly mammoths, it's easy to picture a rolling tundra landscape, the charismatic hulking beasts grazing lazily amongst arctic wildflowers. But what does cloning a woolly mammoth actually mean? What is a woolly mammoth, really? Is one lonely calf, raised in captivity and without the context of its herd and environment, really a mammoth? Does it matter that there are no mammoth matriarchs to nurse that calf, to inoculate it with necessary gut bacteria, to teach it how to care for itself, how to speak to other mammoths, where the ancestral migration paths are, and how to avoid sinkholes and find water? Does it matter that the permafrost is melting, and that the mammoth steppe is gone?... Ultimately, cloning woolly mammoths doesn't end in the lab. If the goal really is de-extinction and not merely the scientific equivalent of achievement unlocked!, then bringing back the mammoth means sustained effort, intensive management, and a massive commitment of conservation resources. Our track record on this is not reassuring. In other words, science may be able to produce the organisms, but society would have to produce the conditions in which they could flourish.

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September 14, 2004 > Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month by Susana Nuñez September 15 marks the beginning of National Hispanic Heritage Month, a month dedicated to raising public awareness and appreciation of Hispanic/ Latino culture. The observation was initiated in 1968 when Congress authorized President Lyndon B. Johnson to proclaim a week in September as National Hispanic Heritage Week. In 1988, the observance was expanded to include the entire 31-day period. The month, which runs through October 15, focuses directly on the ingenuity, creativity, cultural, and political experiences of Hispanic Americans. In addition, September 15 celebrates the anniversary of independence for five Latin American countries: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Also, Mexico declared its independence on September 16, and Chile on September 18. As a people who have contributed greatly to American culture, Hispanics/Latinos are the largest ethnic minority. According to a United States Census release, as of July 1, 2003, Hispanics/Latinos make up 13.7 percent of the United States population. That's over 39.9 million! By 2050, the percentage is expected to rise to 24 percent, at 102.6 million. Around the bay, activities for everyone to enjoy with their Hispanic/Latino friends and neighbors will be held in the following weeks. For a taste of what's to come, the following is a list of events to celebrate and enhance your knowledge of this influential culture. Alameda County Library Presents Latino Cultural Arts Series Event Location: Alameda County Library (check for local branch) Time: library hours US Bank graciously provided funding to the Foundation for a series of programs honoring National Hispanic Heritage Month. The programs feature a variety of wonderful family-oriented events at Alameda County Library Branches. Mr. Juan L. Sanchez entertains audiences with Musica de Las Americas/Music of the Americas, a bilingual program of songs and stories from all over the Americas. Ms. Olga Loya, a master storyteller, with stories full of mystery, suspense and humor. Joe and Ronna Leon delight audiences with their popular Caterpillar Puppets and PINATA program. For more information, contact the Library at (510) 745-1514. Viva Las Americas Saturday, September 18 Event Location: Pier 39, San Francisco Time: 12-5 PM This festive event showcases music and dance performances commemorating the artistry of Mexico, Central and South America. Mariachis strumming their guitars serenade visitors as they stroll throughout PIER 39. Fun for children includes traditional Latin American craft making and face painting. For further information, call Pier 39 at (415) 705-5500. Tardeada Latina Silent Auction Fundraiser Saturday, September 18 Event Location: Duran Foundation 1035 Carleton Street, Berkeley Time: 2 PM The Bay Area Institute for Advancement, Inc. will be holding its fourth annual Silent Auction fundraiser to benefit its bilingual (Spanish/English) childcare centers (Centro VIDA & Bahia School Age Program). BAHIA's mission is to provide quality bilingual and multi-cultural early childhood education, particularly serving low-income Latino families of Northern Alameda County, enabling them to improve the quality of life for their children. Sponsorship opportunities are available. Featuring DJ José Ruiz; Catering provided by Cancun Sabor Mexicano of Berkeley and Tlaloc Sabor Mexicano of San Francisco. Tickets: $50/person, $75/couple. For more info: (510) 525-1463, CentroVIDA1975@aol.com A Talk by Dr. Solimar Sunday, September 19 Event Location: 34007 Alvarado Niles Rd., Union City Time: 3 PM Vernice Solimar, PhD is here to talk about the values of the indigenous people ion the Amazonian rainforest and how these values can be helpful today in our own lives. During her three-week stay in Quito and the Ecuadorian Rainforest, Vernice directly experienced the spiritual depth, beauty and living presence of Pachamama, the sacred Earth Mother. She is here to share the experience of her journey through slides and discussion of indigenous wisdom. 2nd Annual Dunsmuir Mariachi Festival Sunday, September 19 Event Location: 2960 Peralta Oaks Court, Oakland (off of Highway 580) Time: 12-6 pm The historic Dunsmuir Estate in Oakland is once again planning to bring a touch of Mexico to Oakland. This year's event will feature Mariachi bands and Ballet Folklorico dancers. There will be cultural exhibits, crafts and entertainment for all ages. Tickets are $20; at the door, $25. For more information, call (510) 615-5555 x7 http://www.dunsmuir.org. Festival Cine Latino (Latino Theater) Friday- Sunday, September 17-19 Event Location: Presentation Theater, 2350 Turk Street, University of California San Francisco See films directed by US and Latin American filmmakers and cutting-edge videographers at the 12th Annual Festival ÁCine Latino! hosted by Cine Accién. Over 40 films will be shown. Tickets are $8, general admission and $5 for Cine Accién members, students and seniors. For more information, call (415) 553-8135, email@example.com, http://www.cineaccion.com. A Speech by Author, Activist Elizabeth Martinez Thursday, September 23 Event Location: Toland Hall, UC Hall, 533 Parnassus Ave., University of California San Francisco Time: 12-1:00 PM Elizabeth "Betita" Martinez will be the keynote speaker for the Hispanic Heritage Month celebration. The topic of her talk is "Multicultural Alliances in Building the Road to Educational Justice." She is best known for her bilingual volume 500 Years of Chicano History in Pictures, which became the basis for a video that she co-directed. Her latest book is De Colores Means All of Us: Latina Views for a Multi-Colored Century. All are invited to the event, which is sponsored by the Latin American Campus Association. Light refreshments will be available. Benefit Fashion Show - Tarde Internacional del Rebozo Friday, September 24 Event Location: The Mexican Heritage Plaza at 1700 Alum Rock Ave, San Jose Time: 5:30-8:30 PM The rebozo from Santa Maria del Rio, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, is a pre-Hispanic accessory that is now considered a piece of art because they are still weaved by hand! This event will feature "rebozo" dances by the Ballet Folklorico Mexicano de Carlos Moreno, highlighting the traditions from various states in Mexico, modeling, arts and crafts, displays, music by Juanita Ulloa and more. Tickets are $20 in advance, $25 at the door. For more information, check out http://www.palaciosproductions.com. San Jose Tamale Festival Saturday, October 23 Event Location: Emma Prusch Park, San Jose (at Story & King Rd.) Time: 10 AM-4:30 PM Hot Tamales, anyone? This year's San Jose Tamale Festival was designed with a few things in mind. To promote, preserve, celebrate and share the Mexican Heritage and Culture with the communities of the Bay Area with a healthy family environment of goodwill, music, dance, and of course, tamales! Free admission. For more information, contact Roger Hooks at (408) 617-2520, firstname.lastname@example.org, www.sanjosetamalefestival.com. Casa de los Esp’ritus: The Paul Sherrill Days of the Dead Collection September 8- November 27 Event Location: The Mexican Museum of San Francisco; Marina Boulevard and Buchanan St. Fort Mason, Building D, San Francisco Time: Wednesday to Saturday 11 AM to 5 PM (Gallery hours) The Paul Sherrill Days of the Dead Collection is drawn from the prized art collection of the late San Francisco architect, Paul Sherrill, who over his lifetime gathered more than 600 pieces of popular Mexican art. For more information, call (415) 202-9700 or visit www.mexicanmuseum.org. Museum admission: Members and children 12 and under free, adults $3.00, students and seniors $2.00, group tours $25.00, first Wednesday of every month free!

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From her earliest days in school, Professor Jana Gevertz was beguiled by the elegance and precision of mathematics. But as her experience widened, she also felt the pull of biology, a powerful, hands-on force in such critical arenas as health care. “I love how beautifully logical math is. You can’t fight me on a proof—there is no bias. What I love about biology is its ability to impact people and how we live our lives. I’m drawn to the human side of it. So for me, the ideal career was one that used math to benefit people in society,” she says. Her eureka moment came during her junior year in college when she took the course Differential Equations in Biology and realized “it was possible to work at the interface of math and biology.” That discovery led her to cancer research, where mathematicians, scientists, and clinicians are teaming up to exploit reams of new data—much of it at the molecular level—to advance their understanding of cancer growth and treatments. As a specialist in mathematical biology, Gevertz, an assistant professor in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, devises equations that model the progression of tumors. To date, she has focused on glioblastoma, a complex and deadly form of brain cancer that poses a persistent challenge to researchers and clinicians. “When I first started researching in this field, mean survival times for these patients hadn’t budged since the 1970s, while we were seeing progress in treating other types of cancer. While tons of data was being gathered about glioblastoma, it was not translating into improved clinical outcomes for patients. So much remained unknown about the disease,” she recalled. Gevertz was particularly drawn to an aspect of cancer progression that was not well understood: the interactions between different elements of a tumor and the surrounding healthy tissue that lead to its growth. These elements include the genes expressed by cancer cells, the blood vessels that give the tumor oxygen, the stiffness of the surrounding healthy tissue, and immune system responses. While the tumor is initially constrained by its host, it works to reshape its environment so it can thrive. “Imagine a scenario in which a 17th-century scientist finds a modern-day computer,” she says, by way of analogy. “The scientist would try to understand how each component functions, for instance, the hard drive, the keyboard, and the mouse. But even if the function of each computer part were understood, the scientist would still need to figure out how these pieces interact to produce a functioning computer. Increasingly, researchers are focusing on pinpointing the interactions that allow the tumor to overcome normal physiological defenses against cancer and coming up with ways to inhibit them. A primary goal of the field, she adds, is to develop a “virtual patient,” a computer program that would use specific information about a patient’s disease to predict how their particular tumor will grow and what treatments would be most effective. “Patients with the same cancer respond differently. Some people are cured by chemotherapy and some are not. Some people have awful side effects, others none,” she says. “The holy grail of the field is to obtain clinical data on a singular patient, plug that into a computer, and be able to figure out how best to treat them. This is what we call individualized medicine, and it’s something many are striving for in all branches of medicine.” The relationship between math and biology is not new, Gevertz notes. She points to Gregor Mendel, often called the father of modern genetics, who used comparatively simple math in the 1800s to derive his laws of inheritance, based on breeding experiments with pea plants. The partnership between the two fields has become increasingly productive, however, in recent years. “There was a boom in the 1990s when biologists began gathering large amounts of data, necessitating a more quantitative approach to their field,” she says. Advances in molecular biology had given them the ability to identify the genes that are mutated in cancer, as well as the proteins expressed by these genes that abet tumor growth. A leap in computing power gave mathematicians powerful new analytical tools. On occasion, math-based insights can seem counterintuitive, she notes, citing an example in which her equations suggested that using an on/off schedule for a drug that prevents a tumor from growing its own blood supply was more effective than deploying the drug continuously, at full-blast. “Sometimes you learn things you weren’t expecting to be true,” she says.Supported in graduate school by National Science Foundation and Burroughs Wellcome Fund fellowships, Gevertz comes to her career with a research-intensive background. But she discovered earlier in her academic life that teaching was also important to her. “What sold me on a career in math ultimately was tutoring. I love working with people and communicating complicated ideas in a way that others can understand,” said Gevertz, who teaches courses ranging from introductory calculus to upper-level classes in applied mathematics. She is thrilled to see her students embracing interdisciplinary subjects as well. “Students’ interest in fields like mathematical biology is growing rapidly,” she says, noting that her course on the topic next semester is already over-enrolled. This summer, she will be working on research projects with two of her TCNJ students: a physics major who will study the way cancer cells invade normal tissue and a math major looking at the interactions between a tumor and the body’s immune system. Both students will be using mathematical and computational techniques to tackle challenging biological problems. “I’m excited that these students are engaging in real scientific research, and also pleased that they will come away from it appreciating that there are multiple ways to approach these important problems,” she says.

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The name ἀντίχριστος signifies an opposer of Christ. It is used only by John in his first and second epistles, though those opposed to Christ are referred to by others under different names. It is important to distinguish between an antichrist and the antichrist. John says, "as ye have heard that antichrist shall come, even now are there many antichrists;" whereas "he is the antichrist that denieth the Father and the Son." 1 John 2:18, 22. He is the consummation of the many antichrists. To deny Jesus Christ come in the flesh is the spirit or power of the antichrist, but it eventuates in a departure from the special revelation of Christianity: 'they went out from us.' 1 John 2:19; 1 John 4:3; 2 John 7. Now this clears the ground at once of much that has obscured the subject. For instance, many have concluded that Popery is the antichrist, and have searched no farther into the question, whereas the above passage refutes this conclusion, for Popery does not deny the Father and the Son; and, in Revelation 17, 18, Popery is pointed out as quite distinct from 'the false prophet,' which is another name for the antichrist. It is fully granted that Popery is anti-christian, and a Christ-dishonouring and soul-deceiving system; but where God has made a distinction we must also do so. Besides Popery there were and there are many antichrists, which, whatever their pretensions, are the enemies of Christ, opposers of the truth, and deceivers of man. As to the Antichrist, it should be noticed that John makes another distinction between this one and the many. He speaks of the many as being already there, whereas the one was to come; and if we turn to 2 Thess. 2:3-12 we read of something or some one that hinders that wicked or lawless one being revealed, although the mystery of iniquity was already at work. Now there has been no change of dispensation since this epistle was written, and John wrote much later, from which we learn that the revelation of the antichrist is still future, though doubtless the mystery of iniquity is getting ripe for his appearing; that which hindered and still hinders the manifestation of the antichrist is doubtless the presence of the Holy Spirit on earth. He will leave the earth at the rapture of the saints. This passage in Thessalonians gives us further particulars as to this MAN OF SIN. His coming is after the working of Satan, that is, he will be a confederate of Satan, and be able to work signs and lying wonders with all deceit of unrighteousness in them that perish. Those that have refused the truth will then receive the lie of this wicked one. We get further particulars in Rev. 13:11-18, where the anti-christian power or kingdom is described as a beast rising out of the earth, having two horns as a lamb, but speaking as a dragon. Here again we read that he will do great wonders, making fire come down from heaven, with other signs or miracles. In the description in Thessalonians he opposeth himself against all that is called God or that is worshipped, and sits down in the temple of God, and sets forth himself as God. The Jews will receive him as their Messiah, as we read in John 5:43. In the above passage in the Revelation this counterfeit of Christ's kingdom is openly idolatrous. He directs the dwellers on the earth to make an image of the beast (named in ver. 1, the future head of the resuscitated Roman empire) to which image he gives breath, that it should speak, and persecutes those who will not worship the image. He also causes all to receive a mark on their hand or their forehead that they may be known to be his followers; and that none else should be able to buy or sell. We thus see that in the Revelation the anti-christian power called also 'the false prophet' will work with the political head, and with Satan — a trinity of evil — not only in deceiving mankind, but also, in Rev. 16:13-16, gathering together by their influence the kings of the earth to the battle of that great day of God Almighty. The three are cast into the lake of fire Rev. 19:20; Rev. 20:10. In the O.T. we get still another character of this wicked one. In Dan. 11:36-39 he is called 'king.' Here he exalts himself and speaks marvellous things against the God of gods. He will not regard the God of his fathers (pointing out that he will be a descendant of Israel, probably from the tribe of Dan, cf. Gen. 49:17), nor "the desire of women" (i.e. the Messiah, of whom every Jewess hoped to be the mother): he exalts himself above all. Here again he is an idolater, honouring a god that his fathers knew not. In Zech. 11:15-17 he is referred to as the foolish and idol shepherd, who cares not for the flock, in opposition to the Lord Jesus the good Shepherd. This man of sin will 'do according to his own will' — just what the natural man ever seeks to do. In contrast to this the blessed Lord was obedient, and came not to do His own will. May His saints be ever on the watch against the many false prophets in the world, 1 John 4:1, and be loyal to their absent Lord, behold His beauty in the sanctuary, and reproduce Him more down here in their earthen vessels. Strictly, those opposed to the inculcation of good works from a perverted view of the doctrines of grace; but the term is also falsely applied to those who know themselves free through the death of Christ from the law as given by Moses. Rom. 7:4; Gal. 2:19. One has but to read carefully the epistle to the Galatians to see that for Gentile believers to place themselves under the law is to fall from grace; and Paul exhorted them to be as he was, for he was (though a Jew by birth) as free from the law by the death of Christ as they were as Gentiles. They had not injured him at all by saying he was not a strict Jew, Gal. 4:12: in other words, they may have called him an antinomian, as others have been called, whose walk has been the most consistent. To go back to the law supposes that man has power to keep it. For a godly walk the Christian must walk in the Spirit, and grace teaches that, "denying ungodliness and worldly lusts, we should live soberly, righteously, and godly in this present world." Titus 2:12. On the other hand, there have been, and doubtless are, some who deny good works as a necessary fruit of grace in the heart: grace, as well as everything else, has been abused by man. See LAW. Antioch in Pisidia. [An'tioch in Pisid'ia] A Roman colony of Phrygia in Asia Minor, founded by Seleueus Nicator. Its ruins are now called Yalobatch or Yalowaj. Paul's labour here was so successful that it roused the opposition of the Jews and he was driven to Iconium and Lystra; but he returned with Silas. Acts 13:14; Acts 14:19-21; 2 Tim. 3:11. Antioch in Syria. [An'tioch in Syria] This is memorable in the annals of the church as the city where the disciples were first called Christians, Where an assembly of Gentiles was gathered, and from which Paul and his companions went forth on their missionary journeys, and to which they twice returned. It formed a centre for their labours among the Gentiles, outside the Jewish influence which prevailed at Jerusalem; yet the church in this city maintained its fellowship with the assembly at Jerusalem and elsewhere. Acts 6:5; Acts 11:19-30; Acts 13:1; Acts 14:26; Acts 15:22-35; Acts 18:22; Gal. 2:11. Antioch was once a flourishing and populous city, the capital of Northern Syria, founded by Seleueus Nicator, B.C. 300, in honour of his father Antiochus. It was afterwards adorned by Roman emperors, and was esteemed the third city was eventually the seat of the Roman proconsul of Syria. It stood on a beautiful spot on the river Orontes, where it breaks through between the mountains Taurus and Lebanon. It is now called Antakia 36 12', 36 10' E. It has suffered from wars and earthquakes, and is now a miserable place. Comparatively few antiquities of the ancient city are to be found, but parts of its wall appear on the crags of Mount Silpius. There were several kings bearing this name who ruled over Syria, and though they are not mentioned by name in scripture, some of their actions are specified. These are so clear and definite that sceptics have foolishly said that at least this part of the prophecy of Daniel must have been written after the events! The Greek kingdom, the third of the four great empires, was, on the death of Alexander the Great, divided among his four generals, and this resulted principally in a series of kings who ruled in Egypt bearing the general name of PTOLEMY, and are called in scripture 'Kings of the South;' and another series, called 'Kings of the North,' who bore the general name of either SELEUCUS or ANTIOCHUS. Both the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae began eras of their own, and some of the kings of each era had to do with Palestine and the Jews. The following is a list of the kings, with the dates when they began to reign, noticing the principal events that were prophesied of them in Daniel 11. 320 Ptolemy I, Soter. He takes Jerusalem. Era of the Ptolemies begins. 312 SELEUCUS I, Nicator. He re-takes Palestine. Era of the Seleucidae begins. 283 Ptolemy II, Philadelphus. The O.T. translated into Greek. 280 ANTIOCHUS I, Soter. 261 ANTIOCHUS II, Theos. He was at war with Ptolemy, but peace was restored on condition that Antiochus should put away his wife Laodice and marry Berenice the daughter of Ptolemy. This was done, but on the death of Philadelphus he restored Laodice; but she, fearing another divorce, poisoned her husband, and then caused the death of Berenice and her son. See Dan. 11:6. 247 Ptolemy III, Euergetes. He revenged his sister's death, being 'a branch of her roots;' and carried off 40,000 talents of silver, etc. 'Shall enter into the fortress of the king of the north,' and carry away their precious vessels of silver and gold. Dan. 11:7-9. 246 SELEUCUS II, Callinicus. 226 SELEUCUS III, Ceraunus. 223 ANTIOCHUS III, the Great. 222 Ptolemy IV, Philopater. War between Ptolemy and Antiochus. Ptolemy recovers Palestine. Dan. 11:10-12. 205 Ptolemy V, Epiphanes (5 years old). Antiochus seized the opportunity of the minority of the king to regain the country. Dan. 11:16. He also joined with Philip of Macedonia to capture other portions of the dominions of Ptolemy. But Rome was now growing in power, and on being appealed to by Egypt for protection, Antiochus was told he must let Egypt alone. In the meantime an army from Egypt had re-taken Palestine; but Antiochus, on his return, again obtained the mastery there. Wishing to extend his dominions in the west he proposed that Ptolemy should marry his daughter Cleopatra, that she might serve her father's ends; but she was faithful to her husband. Daniel thus speaks of it: "He shall give him the daughter of women, corrupting her, but she shall not stand on his side, neither be for him." Dan. 11:17. Antiochus took many maritime towns, but after many encounters he was compelled by Rome to quit all Asia on that side of Mount Taurus, give up his elephants and ships of war and pay a heavy fine. Antiochus had great difficulty in raising the money, and on attempting to rob a temple at Elymais he was killed. Dan. 11:18, 19. 187 SELEUCUS IV, Philopator, succeeded. His principal work was the raising of money to pay the war-tax to Rome. He ordered Heliodorus to plunder the temple; but Heliodorus poisoned him. He was thus 'a raiser of taxes,' and was 'destroyed neither in anger, nor in battle.' Dan. 11:20. Heliodorus seized the crown but was destroyed by Antiochus IV. 181 Ptolemy VI, Philometor. He was a minor, under his mother and tutors. 175 ANTIOCHUS IV, Epiphanes. He was not the rightful heir. He 'obtained the kingdom by flatteries.' He called himself Epiphanes, which is 'illustrious;' but he was such 'a vile person' that people called him Epimanes, 'madman.' Dan. 11:21-24. He invaded Egypt and was at first successful: cf. Dan. 11:25, 26. The two kings entered into negotiations, though neither of them was sincere in what they agreed to: their hearts were to do mischief, and they 'tell lies at one table.' Dan. 11:27. Then Antiochus returned to his land with great riches: his heart was 'against the holy covenant,' and he entered Jerusalem and even into the sanctuary and took away the golden altar, the candlestick, the table of showbread, the censers of gold, and the other holy vessels and departed. 'At the appointed time he shall return and come toward the South,' Dan. 11:29; but he was stopped by Rome; 'ships of Chittim,' ships from Macedonia, came against him; and in great anger he returned and vented his wrath on Jerusalem. He sent an army there with orders to slay all the men and sell the women and children for slaves. This was to a certain extent carried out. The walls were also thrown down and the city pillaged and then set on fire. He then decreed that the Jews should forsake their religion, and all should worship the heathen gods. To ensure this at Jerusalem with the few that still clung to the place, an image of Jupiter Olympius was erected in the temple and on an altar sacrifices were offered to this god. This was in B.C. 168 on the 25th of the month Chisleu. Daniel relates "They shall pollute the sanctuary of strength, and shall take away the daily sacrifice, and they shall place the abomination that maketh desolate." Dan. 11:31: cf. also Dan. 8:9-12 where the 'little horn' refers to Antiochus Epiphanes. Bleek, Delitzsch, and others consider that in Dan. 8:14, the 2,300 'evening, morning,' margin, refer to the daily sacrifice, which is spoken of in Dan. 8:11, 12, 13; and that by 2,300 is meant 1,150 days: cf. also Dan. 8:26. The dedication of the temple was on the 25th of Chisleu, B.C. 165, and the desecration began some time in the year 168. Dan. 11:32b, 33-35 refer to the change that soon took place under Judas Maccabeus and his brothers, commencing B.C. 166, and in 165 the temple was re-dedicated. In B.C. 164 ANTIOCHUS V. Eupator succeeded to the throne; and in 162 DEMETRIUS SOTER; but they were not powerful against Judaea, and in B.C. 161 an alliance was made by Judaea with Rome. The historical notices in Daniel end at Dan. 11:35. It will be seen by the above that the records of history agree perfectly with the prophecy, as faith would expect them to do. It is only unbelief that has any difficulty in God foretelling future events. Without doubt some of the acts of Antiochus Epiphanes are types of the deeds of the future king of the North — referred to in other prophecies as 'the Assyrian' — in respect to the Jews and Jerusalem. 1. A Christian of Pergamos, who was martyred. Rev. 2:13. 2. Son of Herod the Great, but not called Antipas in the N.T. See HEROD. The town to which Paul was taken in the night from Jerusalem on his way to Caesarea. Acts 23:31. It was built by Herod the Great in a well-watered spot surrounded by a wood, and named after his father. At Ras el-Ain, 32 6' N, 34 56' E, are ruins which are held to mark the spot. This is 5 or 6 miles nearer Jerusalem than Kefr Saba, which some associate with Antipatris, because Josephus says it was called Kapharsaba before its name was altered by Herod. The former place being nearer to Jerusalem removes the difficulty that some have felt as to the distance of Antipatris being too far to reach in a night ; this reduces it to about 36 miles, and it would be even less by cross roads. The word antitype does not occur in the A.V., but the Greek word ἀντίτυπον occurs in Heb. 9:24, translated 'figures,' and in 1 Peter 3:21, translated 'like figure.' It is that which answers to a type, as a wax impression answers to a seal: if the device is sunk, the impression will be raised, or vice versa. To take a simple but beautiful example, a lamb was offered up for a burnt offering both morning and evening under the law; and in the N.T. we read, "Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." It is plain that the morning and evening lamb in Israel were types and the death of the Lord Jesus was the antitype. In Heb. 9:23, the 'heavenly things' are the type, and 'holy places,' Heb. 9:24, the antitype, or what corresponded to the pattern. In 1 Peter 3:21, eight souls were saved through water, of which baptism is the figure, or what answers to it. Doubtless there are many other antitypes in the N.T., but every antitype must have a type to which it corresponds, though the correspondence may not lie on its surface. Where scripture is silent as to types and antitypes the teaching of the Holy Spirit is needed, or grievous error may result in associating two things together which have no spiritual connection, though names and words may seem to correspond. A tower or fortress built by Herod the Great near the temple at Jerusalem in which he placed a guard to watch over the approaches to the sacred edifice. Josephus (Wars v. 5, 8) says it was situated "at the corner of two cloisters of the court of the temple; of that on the west, and that on the north; it was erected upon a rock fifty cubits in height and was on a great precipice." Where this precipice was is not known, for it is a much disputed question upon what part of the temple area the temple was built. There is a tower, now called Antonia, on the N.W. angle, and there are indications of a similar one having stood on the S.E. angle. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:24. Son of Coz, of the posterity of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:8. The ape is not indigenous to Palestine; they were brought in the days of Solomon, with gold, silver, ivory and peacocks by the ships of Tarshish. The word goph may signify any of the monkey tribe. 1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21. A Christian of Rome saluted by Paul as 'approved in Christ.' Rom. 16:10. Apharsachites, Apharsathchites. [Aphar'sachites, Aphar'sathchites] Some unknown Assyrian tribe sent as colonists to Samaria under Asnapper. Ezra 4:9; Ezra 5:6; Ezra 6:6. An unknown Assyrian tribe as the preceding. Ezra 4:9. 1. Royal city of the Canaanites, the king of which was killed by Joshua, Joshua 12:18: probably the same as APHEKAH in Joshua 15:53. Not identified. 2. City in the north border of Asher, from which in the time of Joshua the inhabitants were not expelled. Joshua 13:4; Joshua 19:30: called APHIK in Judges 1:31. Identified with Afka at the foot of the Lebanon between Baalbek and Byblus. 3. Place where the Philistines encamped when Israel was defeated. 1 Sam. 4:1. 4. Where the Philistines encamped when Saul and Jonathan were killed. 1 Sam. 29:1. Perhaps the same as No. 3. 5. City, the wall of which falling killed 27,000 of the Syrians, 1 Kings 20:26, 30; 2 Kings 13:17. It is identified with Fik, 32 47' N, 35 41' E, on the great road between Damascus and Jerusalem. A 'mighty man of power,' an ancestor of Saul. 1 Sam. 9:1. The margin of Micah 1:10 explains the name as 'house of dust,' so that there is a play upon the word 'dust:' 'in the house of dust roll thyself in the dust.' The LXX read 'the house in derision.' It may refer to OPHRAH in Joshua 18:23; 1 Sam. 13:17, a city in the tribe of Benjamin. Head of the eighteenth course of priests for service in the temple. 1 Chr. 24:15. Another name for the REVELATION, q.v., being its Greek title ἀποκάλυψις. The name given to those Books which were attached to the MSS copies of the LXX, but which do not form a part of the canon of scripture. The term itself signifies, 'hidden,' 'secret,' 'occult;' and, as to any pretence of being a part of scripture, they must be described as 'spurious.' There are such writings connected with both the Old and the New Testament, but generally speaking the term 'Apocrypha' refers to the O.T. (for those connected with the N. Test. see APOSTOLIC FATHERS. The O.T. books are: 1 I. Esdras. 2 II. Esdras. 5 Chapters of Esther, not found in the Hebrew nor Chaldee. 6 Wisdom of Solomon. 7 Jesus, son of Sirach; or Ecclesiasticus; quoted Ecclus. 8 Baruch, including the Epistle of Jeremiah. 9 Song of the Three Holy Children 10 The History of Susanna. 11 Bel and the Dragon. 12 Prayer of Manasseh. 13 I. Maccabees. 14 II. Maccabees. The Council of Trent in A.D. 1546, professing to be guided by the Holy Spirit, declared the Apocrypha to be a part of the Holy Scripture. The above fourteen books formed part of the English Authorised Version of 1611, but are now seldom attached to the canonical books. Besides the above there are a few others, as the III., IV., and V. Maccabees, book of Enoch, etc., not regarded by any one as a part of scripture. It may be noticed 1. That the canonical books of the O.T. were written in Hebrew (except parts of Ezra and Daniel which were in Chaldee); whereas the Apocrypha has reached us only in Greek or Latin, though Jerome says some of it had been seen in Hebrew. 2. Though the Apocrypha is supposed to have been written not later than B.C. 30, the Lord never in any way alludes to any part of it; nor do any of the writers of the N.T., though both the Lord and the apostles constantly quote the canonical books. 3. The Jews did not receive the Apocrypha as any part of scripture, and to 'them were committed the oracles of God.' 4. As some of the spurious books were added to the LXX Version (the O.T. in the Greek) and to the Latin translation of the LXX, some of the early Christian writers were in doubt as to whether they should be received or not, and this uncertainty existed more or less until the before mentioned Council of Trent decided that the greater part of the Apocrypha was to be regarded as canonical. Happily at that time the Reformation had opened the eyes of many Christians to the extreme corruption of the church of Rome, and in rejecting the claims of that church they were also freed from its judgement as to the Apocryphal books. 5. The internal evidences of the human authorship of the Apocrypha ought to convince any Christian that it can form no part of holy scripture. Expressions of the writers themselves show that they had no thought of their books being taken for scripture. There are also contradictions in them such as are common to human productions. Evil doctrines also are found therein: let one suffice: "Alms doth deliver from death, and shall purge away all sin." Tobit 12:9. The value of holy scripture as the fountain of truth is such that anything that might in any way contaminate that spring should be refused with decision and scorn. Some parts of the Apocryphal books may be true as history, but in every other respect they should be refused as spurious. Nor can it be granted that we need the judgement of the church, could a universal judgement be arrived at, as to what is to be regarded as the canon of scripture. The Bible carries its own credentials to the hearts and consciences of the saints who are willing to let its power be felt. City of Macedonia, in the district of Mygdonia, some 28 miles from Amphipolis and 35 from Thessalonica, through which Paul and Silas passed. Acts 17:1. A convert from Alexandria, an eloquent man and mighty in the scriptures, who, when only knowing the baptism of John, taught diligently the things of Jesus. At Ephesus he was taught more perfectly by Priscilla and Aquila. He laboured at Corinth, following the apostle Paul, who could hence say 'I have planted, Apollos watered,' and subsequently he greatly desired Apollos to revisit Corinth. His name is associated with that of Paul in connection with the party spirit at Corinth, which the apostle strongly rebuked; but from his saying he had 'transferred these things to himself and to Apollos,' it would appear that the Corinthians had local leaders, under whom they ranged themselves, whom he does not name; and that he taught them the needed lesson, and established the general principle by the use of his own name and that of Apollos rather than the names of their leaders. Acts 18:24; Acts 19:1; 1 Cor. 1:12; 1 Cor. 3:4-22; 1 Cor. 4:6; 1 Cor. 16:12; Titus 3:13. The Greek translation of the Hebrew name ABADDON, which signifies 'destroyer.' He is king of the locusts of the bottomless pit, and ruler over the destroying agents that proceed from thence: it is one of the characters of Satan. Rev. 9:11. Though the word 'apostasy' does not occur in the A.V., the Greek word occurs from which the English word is derived. In Acts 21:21 Paul was told that he was accused of teaching the Jews who were among the Gentiles to apostatise from Moses. Paul taught freedom from the law by the death of the Christ and this would appear to a strict Jew as apostasy. The same word is used in 2 Thess. 2:3, where it is taught that the day of the Lord could not come until there came 'the apostasy,' or the falling from Christianity in connection with the manifestation of the man of sin. See ANTICHRIST. Though the general apostasy there spoken of cannot come till after the saints are taken to heaven, yet there may be, as there has been, individual falling away. See, for instance, Heb. 3:12; Heb. 10:26, 28, and the epistle of Jude. There are solemn warnings also that show that such apostasy will be more and more general as the close of the present dispensation approaches. 1 Tim. 4:1-3. Now a falling away necessarily implies a position which can be fallen from, a profession has been made which has been deliberately given up. This is, as scripture says, like the dog returning to his vomit, and the sow to her wallowing in the mire. It is not a Christian falling into some sin, from which grace can recover him; but a definite relinquishing of Christianity. Scripture holds out no hope in a case of deliberate apostasy, though nothing is too hard for the Lord. The Greek word ἀπόστολος signifies 'a messenger,' 'one sent,' and is used in this sense for any messenger in 2 Cor. 8:23; Phil. 2:25; and as 'one sent' in John 13:16. It is also used in a much higher and more emphatic sense, implying a divine commission in the one sent, first of the Lord Himself and then of the twelve disciples whom He chose to be with Him during the time of His ministry here. The Lord in His prayer in John 17:18 said, "As thou hast sent me into the world, even so have I also sent them into the world." He was the Sent One, and in Heb. 3:1 it is written "Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our profession, Jesus."* They were to consider this One who had been faithful, and who was superior to Moses, to the Aaronic priests, and to angels, and was in the glory. The ordering of a dispensation depended on the apostolic office as divinely appointed. * The word 'Christ' is omitted by the Editors. APOSTLES, THE TWELVE. The Lord appointed these "that they should be with him, and that he might send them forth to preach, and to have power to heal sicknesses, and to cast out demons," and also to carry out the various commissions given by Christ on earth. It will be seen by the lists that follow that Lebbaeus, Thaddaeus and Judas are the same person; and that Simon the Canaanite (Cananaean) and Simon Zelotes are the same; Peter is also called Simon; and Matthew is called Levi. 1 Peter and 3 James and 5 Philip and 7 Thomas and 10 and Lebbaeus. 11 Simon the Cananean and 12 Judas Iscariot. 12 Judas I. 11 Simon Zelotes. 12 Judas I. 11 Simon Z. Peter is always named first; he with James and John was with the Lord on the mount of transfiguration and also with the Lord at other times, though no one apostle had authority over the others: they were all brethren and the Lord was their Master. Judas Iscariot is always named last. In Matthew the word 'and' divides the twelve into pairs, perhaps corresponding to their being sent out two and two to preach. Bartholomew and Simon Zelotes are not mentioned after their appointment except in Acts 1. When the Lord sent the twelve out to preach He bade them take nothing with them, for the workman was worthy of his food: and on their return they confessed that they had lacked nothing. Their mission was with authority as the sent ones of the Lord; sicknesses were healed and demons cast out; and if any city refused to receive them it should be more tolerable for Sodom and Gomorrha in the day of judgement than for that city. Matt. 10:5-15. They received a new mission from the Lord as risen: see Luke 24; John 20. And before the ascension the apostles were bidden to tarry at Jerusalem until they were endued with power from on high. This was bestowed at the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. They are also viewed first among the gifts with which the church was endowed by the Head of the body when He ascended up on high. Eph. 4:8-11. These gifts were for "the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ." The mystery hitherto hid in God was now revealed to His holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit, namely, that the Gentiles should be joint heirs, and a joint body, and partakers of His promise in Christ Jesus. Eph. 3. Paul was the special vessel to make known this grace. His apostleship occupies a peculiar place, he having been called by the Lord from heaven, and being charged with the gospel of the glory. See PAUL. On the death of Judas Iscariot, Matthias, an early disciple, was chosen in his place, for there must be (irrespective of Paul, who, as we have seen, held a unique place) twelve apostles as witnesses of His resurrection, Acts 1:22; Rev. 21:14 as there must still be twelve tribes of Israel. James 1:1 ; Rev. 21:12. At the conference of the church in Jerusalem respecting the Gentiles 'the apostles' took a prominent part, with the elders. Acts 15. How many apostles remained at Jerusalem is not recorded: we do not read of 'the twelve' after Acts 6. Tradition gives the various places where they laboured, which may be found under each of their names. Scripture is silent on the subject, in order that the new order of things committed to Paul might become prominent, as the older things connected with Judaism vanished away: cf. 2 Peter 3:15, 16. There were no successors to the apostles: to be apostles they must have 'seen the Lord.' Acts 1:21, 22; 1 Cor. 9:1; Rev. 2:2. The foundation of the church was laid, and apostolic work being complete the apostles passed away, there remain however, in the goodness of God, such gifts as are needed "till we all come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ." Eph. 4:12, 13. This designation is applied to the early Christian writers, who had known the apostles, or had known those who had been acquainted with them. 1. BARNABAS; 2. CLEMENT; 3. HERMAS; are supposed to be the persons so named in the N.T.: see under their respective names. 4. POLYCARP, Bishop of Smyrna. He wrote an epistle to the Philippians about A.D. 125, Irenaeus says Polycarp was "instructed by the apostles, and was brought into contact with many who had seen Christ." He died a martyr's death. An ancient letter gives a particular account of his martyrdom. 5. IGNATIUS, Bishop of Antioch. Seven epistles are supposed to have been written by him, but they have been grossly interpolated; eight or nine others are wholly spurious. He was a martyr. 6. PAPIAS, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia. He is said to have heard the apostle John. Various writings are attributed to him, but of which only fragments remain. He also died a martyr. 7. An unknown author of an eloquent and interesting epistle to Diognetus. Nearly all the above writings are very different from the scripture except where that is quoted. There is a deep dark line of demarcation between them and the writings which are inspired. Some of them however are found at the end of some of the Greek Testaments and were formerly read in the churches. Happily all these are now eliminated from any association with the N.T. Besides the above there are six apocryphal 'Gospels,' a dozen 'Acts,' four 'Revelations,' the 'Passing away of Mary,' etc. This term is not used in scripture in the modern sense of a compounder of drugs for medicine; but in that of a compounder of ointments, etc., such as would now be called a 'perfumer,' as it is rendered in the margin of Ex. 30:25, where the holy anointing oil is an ointment compounded "after the art of the apothecary." The same was said of the holy incense. Ex. 30:35; Ex. 37:29. Asa was buried in a tomb filled with sweet odours and spices prepared by the apothecaries' art. 2 Chr. 16:14: cf. also Neh. 3:8. Spices were also carried to the tomb of the Lord to embalm His body. Son of Nadab, of the tribe of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:30, 31. It would appear from the arrangements made by Moses that some of the judges were accounted as judges of appeal, but that Moses himself, as having the mind of God, was the ultimate judge. Ex. 18:13-26. It is not probable, when the kingdom was established, that all causes were tried at Jerusalem; but only cases of appeal from the tribal judges; and it was such that Absalom alludes to in 2 Sam. 15:2, 3: see also Deut. 16:18. It is evident from Deut. 17:8-12 that the mind of God was to be sought where He put His name, if the matter was too hard for the judges. The Jewish writers say that before and after the time of Christ on earth, appeals could be carried through the various courts to the Grand Sanhedrim at Jerusalem. In the case of Paul appealing to Caesar, it was not an appeal from a judgement already given, as is the case in what is now called an appeal; but Paul, knowing the deadly enmity of the Jews, and the corruption of the governors, elected to be judged at the court of Caesar, which, as a Roman, he had the right to do. Acts 25:11. There is One who "cometh to judge the earth: with righteousness shall he judge the world, and the people with equity." Ps. 98:9. Appearing of Christ. This is to be distinguished from Christ coming for His saints, though intimately connected with it, for He will bring them with Him. "When Christ, who is our life, shall appear, then shall ye also appear with him in glory." Col. 3:4. Here it is the manifestation of Christ with His own, to be followed by the setting up of His kingdom and the apportionment of rewards to His saints. 2 Cor. 5:10. The Lord's servant is exhorted by His appearing and His kingdom to preach the word, etc. 2 Tim. 4:1, 2. The saints will be associated with Christ in His judgements at His appearing. Jude 14, 15. Christ will execute judgement on the Beast and the False Prophet and the western powers. Also on the Assyrian and the eastern powers that will oppress the Jews. The Jews and the ten tribes will be restored to their land in blessing, ushering in the Millennium. See ADVENT, SECOND. Probably the wife of Philemon, whom Paul addresses in that epistle, ver. 2. Appii Forum. [Ap'pii For'um] Station on the Appian Way, the main road from Rome to the Bay of Naples, where brethren went to meet Paul though 43 miles from Rome. Acts 28:15. The road was 18 to 22 feet wide, and parts of the ancient paving stones may still be seen. It was constructed by Appius Claudius, hence its name. Apple, Apple Tree. This is generally supposed to refer to the citron but apples grow in Palestine, and the Arabic name for the apple (tuffuh) differs little from the Hebrew word, tappuach. Others believe the quince is alluded to, which is fragrant and of a golden colour. Cant. 2:3, 5; Cant. 7:8; Cant. 8:5; Joel 1:12. In Prov. 25:11 "a word fitly spoken" is like some elegant device, as "apples of gold in pictures [or baskets] of silver." Apple of the Eye. 1. ishon. Gesenius says this word signifies 'little man' and then 'the little man of the eye; 'that is, "the pupil of the eye in which, as in a mirror, a person sees his own image reflected in miniature." He says "this pleasing image is found in several languages." It is the part of the eye specially to be guarded: God preserved His own as the apple of His eye. Deut. 32:10; Ps. 17:8. His law should be kept as a precious thing. Prov. 7:2. 2. babah, the black or pupil of the eye, or, as others, 'the gate of the eye.' To touch God's people is touching the apple of His eye. Zech. 2:8. 3. bath, daughter. The sense is, Let not the apple (the daughter) of thine eye cease to shed tears. Lam. 2:18. In all places 'the apple of the eye' is a beautifully figurative expression for that which must be tenderly cherished as a most choice treasure. The word chagorah signifies 'anything girded on.' When Adam and Eve had sinned they discovered that they were naked, and sewed fig-leaves together and made aprons, Gen. 3:7; but were soon conscious that this did not cover their nakedness, for when God called to them they owned that they were naked, and hid behind the trees. This teaches that nothing that man can devise can cover him from the eye of God. God clothed Adam and Eve with coats of skins; it was through death, typical of Christ Himself. In Acts 19:12 the word is σιμικίνθιον, and occurs but that once; it signifies a narrow apron or linen covering. A converted Jew of Pontus, husband of Priscilla, whom Paul first met at Corinth. Acts 18:2. He and Paul worked together as tent-makers. Aquila and Priscilla had been driven from Rome as Jews by an edict of the emperor Claudius. They travelled with Paul to Ephesus, where they were able to help Apollos spiritually. Acts 18:18-26. They were still at Ephesus when Paul wrote 1 Corinthians (1 Cor. 16:19); and were at Rome when the epistle to the saints there was written, in which Paul said they had laid down their necks for his life, and that to them all the churches, with Paul, gave thanks. Rom. 16:3, 4. In Paul's last epistle he still sends his greeting to them. 2 Tim. 4:19. A chief city in the Moabite territory. In Jerome's time it was called Areopolis. It is identified with Rabba,, 31 19' N, 35 38' E, about 10 miles from the Dead Sea. Num. 21:15, 28; Isa. 15:1. In other passages the name Ar appears to include the land of the Moabites. Deut. 2:9, 18, 29. Son of Jether, of the tribe of Asher. 1 Chr. 7:38. City in the hill country of Judah. Joshua 15:52. Identified with er-Rabiyeh, 31 26' N, 35 2' E. This occurs as a proper name only once in the A.V. where it should read 'the Arabah,' Joshua 18:18; but it occurs in many other passages where it is translated 'a plain' or 'the plain,' and is also translated 'desert,' 'wilderness,' etc. It refers to the plain situated between two series of hills that run from the slopes of Hermon in the north to the Gulf of Akaba in the far south. It is in this plain that the Jordan runs, and in which is the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea, also called 'the Sea of the Plain.' About 7 miles south of the Dead Sea the plain is crossed by some hills: all north of this is now called el-Ghor, but the plain south of it retains the name of the Wady-el-Arabah. This latter part is about 100 miles in length, and the northern part about 150, so that for nearly 250 miles this wonderful plain or valley extends. It might naturally be thought that the Jordan had at some time, after running into the Dead Sea, continued to run south until it poured itself into the Gulf of Akaba. But this is not probable, for the Dead Sea is nearly 1,300 feet below the sea, and the southern part is from end to end higher than the Ghor, The width of the Arabah is in some parts about 15 miles, but further south not more than 3 or 4. The southern end is also called the Wilderness of Zin, and it was in this part of the Arabah that a good deal of the wanderings of the people of Israel took place, before they turned to the east and left the plain on their left. There can be no doubt that scripture uses the name 'Arabah' for the whole of the plain, both north and south. The northern part is referred to in Deut. 3:17; Deut. 4:49; Joshua 3:16; Joshua 12:3; Joshua 18:18: and the southern part in Deut. 1:1; Deut. 2:8. In other passages, especially in the prophetic books, the plain in general may be alluded to. It extends nearly due north and south, but bears toward the west before it reaches the Gulf. A very large country is embraced by this name, lying south, south-east, and east of Palestine. It was of old, as it is now by the natives, divided into three districts. 1. Arabia Proper, being the same as the ancient Arabia Felix, embraces the peninsula which extends southward to the Arabian Sea and northward to the desert. 2. Western Arabia, the same as the ancient Arabia Petraea, embraces Sinai and the desert of Petra, extending from Egypt and the Red Sea to about Petra. 3. Northern Arabia, which joins Western Arabia and extends northward to the Euphrates. 1 Kings 10:15; 2 Chr. 9:14; Isa. 21:13; Jer. 25:24; Ezek. 27:21; Gal. 1:17; Gal. 4:25. See ARABIANS. We read that Abraham sent the sons of Keturah and of his concubines "eastward, to the east country." Gen. 25:6. There were also the descendants of Ishmael and those of Esau. Many of these became 'princes,' and there can be no doubt that their descendants still hold the land. There are some who call themselves Ishmaelite Arabs, and in the south there are still Joktanite Arabs. We read of Solomon receiving gifts or tribute from the kings of Arabia. 1 Kings 10:15. So did Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17:11 ; but in the days of Jehoram they attacked him, plundered his house, and carried away his wives and some of his sons, 2 Chr. 21:17; 2 Chr. 22:1. They were defeated by Uzziah. 2 Chr. 26:7. During the captivity some Arabians became settlers in Palestine and were enemies to Nehemiah. Cf. Neh. 2:19; Neh. 4:7; Neh. 6:1. Among the nations that had relations with Israel, and against whom judgement is pronounced are the Arabians. Isa. 21:13-17; Jer. 25:24. And doubtless they will be included in the confederacies that will be raised against God's ancient people when Israel is again restored to their land. Cf. Ps. 83. In the N.T. 'Arabians' were present on the day of Pentecost, but whether they were Jews or proselytes is not stated. Acts 2:11. 1. A royal city of the Canaanites, in the south, near Mount Hor, whose king fought against Israel, but who was by the help of God destroyed, both he and his people. Num. 21:1-3; Num. 33:40; Joshua 12:14; Judges 1:16. (In the two passages in Numbers read 'the Canaanite king of Arad.') It is identified with Tell Arad, 31 17' N, 35 7' E. 2. Son of Beriah, a descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:15. 1. Son of Ulla, a descendant of Asher. 1 Chr. 7:39. 2. Father of a family who returned from exile. Ezra 2:5; Neh. 7:10. 3. A Jew whose grand-daughter married Tobiah the Ammonite, who greatly hindered the building of the city Neh. 6:18. 1. Son of Shem. Gen. 10:22, 23; 1 Chr. 1:17. 2. Son of Kemuel, Abraham's nephew. Gen. 22:21. 3. Son of Shamer, of the tribe of Asher. 1 Chr. 7:34. 4. Son of Esrom, and father of Aminadab. Matt. 1:3, 4; Luke 3:33: called RAM, Ruth 4:19; 1 Chr. 2:9, 10. 5. Place in the land of Gilead, east of the Jordan, which Jair captured. 1 Chr. 2:23. This is the name of a large district lying north of Arabia, north-east of Palestine, east of Phoenicia, south of the Taurus range, and west of the Tigris. It is generally supposed that the name points to the district as the 'Highlands,' though it may be from Aram the son of Shem, as above. The word occurs once untranslated in Num. 23:7, as 'Aram' simply, from whence Balaam was brought, 'out of the mountains of the east;' but it is mostly translated Syria or Syrian. Thus we have - 1. ARAM-DAMMESEK, 2 Sam. 8:5, translated 'Syrians of Damascus,' embracing the highlands of Damascus including the city. 2. ARAM-MAACHAH, 1 Chr. 19:6, translated 'Syria-maachah,' a district on the east of Argob and Bashan. 3. ARAM-BETH-REHOB, 2 Sam. 10:6, translated 'Syrians of Beth-rehob: cf. Judges 18:28, a district in the north, near Dan. 4. ARAM-ZOBAH, 2 Sam. 10:6, 8, translated 'Syrians of Zoba,' a district between and Damascus, but not definitely recognised. 5. ARAM-NAHARAIM signifying 'Aram of two rivers,' Gen. 24:10; Deut. 23:4; Judges 3:8; 1 Chr. 19:6, translated 'Mesopotamia.' The two rivers are the Euphrates and the Tigris. The district would be the highlands from whence the rivers issue to the plain, and the district between the two rivers without extending to the far south. This word occurs 2 Kings 18:26; Ezra 4:7; and Isa. 36:11, where it is translated 'the Syrian language' or 'tongue;' also in Dan. 2:4, where it is 'Syriack.' Aramaic is the language of Aram, and embraces the language of Chaldee and that of Syria. Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Syria were its proper home. The first time we meet with it in scripture is in Gen. 31:47, where Laban called the heap of witness 'Jegar-sahadutha,' which is Chaldee; whereas Jacob gave it a Hebrew name, 'Galeed.' In 2 Kings 18:26; Isa. 36:11 the heads of the people asked Rab-shakeh to speak to them in Aramaic that the uneducated might not understand what was said. In Ezra 4:7 the letter sent to Artaxerxes was written in Aramaic, and interpreted in Aramaic, that is, the copy of the letter and what follows as far as Ezra 6:18 is in that language and not in Hebrew. So also is Ezra 7:12-26. In Daniel 2:4 the Chaldeans spoke to the king in Aramaic, the popular language of Babylon, and what follows to the end of chap. 7: is in that language, though commonly called Chaldee. This must not be confounded with the 'learning and the tongue of the Chaldeans' in Dan. 1:4, which is the Aryan dialect and literature of the Chaldeans, and probably the ordinary language which Daniel spoke in the court of Babylon. Jer. 10:11 is a verse in Aramaic. This language differs from the Hebrew in that it avoids the sibilants. Where the Hebrew has ז z, שׁ sh, צ tz, the Aramaic has ד d, ת th, and ט t. Letters of the same organ are also interchanged, the Aramaic choosing the rough harder sounds. The latter has fewer vowels, with many variations in the conjugation of verbs, etc. When the ten tribes were carried away, the colonists, who took their place, brought the Aramaic language with them. The Jews also who returned from Babylon brought many words of the same language. And, though it doubtless underwent various changes, this was the language commonly spoken in Palestine when our Lord was on earth, and is the language called HEBREW in the N.T., and is the same as the Chaldee of the Targums. In the ninth century the language in Palestine gave way to the Arabic, and now Aramaic is a living tongue only among the Syrian Christians in the district around Mosul. A female belonging to Aram. 1 Chr. 7:14. Descendant of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36:28; 1 Chr. 1:42. A kingdom which was called upon by God, in conjunction with Medes, Persians, and others, under one captain, Cyrus, to punish Babylon in revenge of Israel. Jer. 51:27. It is identified with Urartu or Urardhu of the Assyrian inscriptions, a district in Armenia, in which is Mount Ararat, on some part of which the ark of Noah rested. Gen. 8:4. The mount is situate 39 45' N, 44 28' E, and its extreme height is about 17,000 feet above the sea, covered with perpetual snow. Objection has been taken to its great height, but it may not have been on its highest part that the ark rested. The Jebusite from whom David purchased the place on which to build the altar of the Lord. 2 Sam. 24:16-24. Called ORNAN in 1 Chr. 21:15-28. In Samuel it is stated that David bought the threshing floor and the oxen for fifty shekels of silver. He there built an altar, and offered burnt offerings and peace offerings, without anything being said of his building a house for the Lord on the spot: whereas in Chronicles David gave to Ornan 600 shekels of gold by weight for the place. In 2 Chr. 3:1, 2 we learn that the threshing floor was on Mount Moriah, and that the site was prepared by David for the temple, which was built by Solomon. Doubtless therefore 'the place' included a much larger area than was needed for David's altar, and perhaps included the homestead of Araunah. This no doubt formed a part of what is now called the Temple area, or Mosque enclosure, in the S.E. of Jerusalem, but on what part of that area the temple was built is not known. Arba, Arbah. [Ar'ba, Ar'bah] Father of Anak, head of the Anakim, who were also giants. Num. 13:33. Their city was Hebron. Gen. 35:27; Joshua 14:15; Joshua 15:13; Joshua 21:11. The 'city of Arba' is elsewhere called KIRJATH-ARBA, which was afterwards called HEBRON. Native of the northern Arabah, or el-Ghor. 2 Sam. 23:31; Chr. 11:32. Designation of Paarai, one of David's mighty men. 2 Sam. 23:35. The word elam occurs only in Ezek. 40:21-36, and in the A.V. is translated 'arch;' but this is judged not to be its meaning, though it is not at all certain as to what it really refers. In the margin it reads, 'galleries' or 'porches,' elsewhere 'vestibule,' and again 'projection.' Son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samaritan. He succeeded his father as Ethnarch of Idumea, Judaea, Samaria, and the maritime cities of Palestine. From his known oppressive character Joseph feared to bring back the infant Jesus into his territory, and turned aside to Galilee, which was under the jurisdiction of his brother Antipas. Matt. 2:22. He reigned 10 years. Josephus relates that soon after his accession he put to death 3,000 Jews: eventually, for his tyranny to the Jews and the Samaritans he was deposed and banished to Vienne in Gaul. People removed from Assyria to Samaria. They joined in the petition to Artaxerxes against the Jews. Ezra 4:9. The origin of the name is unknown. City on the border of Ephraim. Joshua 16:2. Identified with Ain Arik, 31 54' N, 35 8' E. A Christian teacher at Colosse, whom Paul calls his fellow soldier, and exhorts to fulfil his ministry. Col. 4:17; Philemon 2. The designation of Hushai, David's friend. 2 Sam. 15:32; 2 Sam. 16:16; 2 Sam. 17:5, 14; 1 Chr. 27:33. The word ash or aish has always been a difficult one to translate, the versions differing much; but it is now pretty well agreed that the allusion is not to the star known as Arcturus, but to the constellation known as the Great Bear; 'his sons' are supposed to be the stars in the tail of the bear. In the northern hemisphere this constellation is seen all the year round, with its apparent ceaseless motion around the north star, which none but the mighty God can guide. Job 9:9; Job 38:32. It is translated 'the Bear' in the R.V. 1. Son of Benjamin. Gen. 46:21. 2. Son of Bela, son of Benjamin (called ADDAR in 1 Chr. 8:3), whose descendants are ARDITES. Num. 26:40. Son of Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2:18. Areli, Arelites. [Are'li, Are'lites] Son of Gad, and his descendants. Gen. 46:16; Num. 26:17. One connected with the court of Areopagus at Athens, where Dionysius heard Paul and "clave to him and believed." Acts 17:34. Areopagus, or Mars Hill. [Areop'agus, or Mars' Hill] The hill of Ares, or Mars. Here was held the highest and most ancient and venerable court of justice in Athens for moral and political matters. It was composed of those who had held the office of Archon unless expelled for misconduct. Paul, who had been disputing daily in the market place, was conducted by some of the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers to Mars' Hill, not for any judicial purpose, but doubtless that they might hear him more quietly. Here he delivered his address respecting God, so suited to the heathen philosophers who heard him, and which was not without its fruit. Acts 17:19. The Greek words are Areios-pagos, but are translated Mars' Hill in Acts 17:22. The court was situate on a rocky hill opposite the west end of the Acropolis. Sixteen stone steps still lead up to the spot. The common appellation (like Pharaoh for Egyptian kings) of the Arabian kings of the northern part of Arabia. The deputy of Aretas in Damascus sought to arrest Paul. 2 Cor. 11:32. This king, who was father-in-law to Herod Antipas, made war against him for divorcing his daughter, and defeated him. Vitellius, governor of Syria was ordered to take Aretas dead or alive; but Tiberius died before this was accomplished. Caligula, who succeeded to the empire, banished Antipas. He made certain changes in the East, and it is supposed that Damascus was detached from the province of Syria and given to Aretas. 1. A district lying to the south of Damascus and which formed a part of Bashan, where the giants resided. It had at one time 60 cities, which were ruled over by Og. Its name signifies 'stony' and it forms a remarkable plateau of basalt, which rises some 30 feet above the surrounding fertile plain, and extends 22 miles N. and S. and 14 miles E. and W., the boundary line being marked by the Bible word chebel, which signifies 'as by a rope.' Og was conquered by Moses, and Jair of Manasseh took the fortified cities, and it became a part of Manasseh's lot. Later it was called Trachonitis, and is now known as el-Lejah. There are many houses still in the district which, because of their massive proportions, are supposed to have been built by the giants. Deut. 3:3, 4, 13, 14; 1 Kings 4:13. 2. One, apparently in the service of Pekahiah, killed by Pekah. 2 Kings 15:25. Son of Haman, slain and hanged. Esther 9:9. Son of Haman, slain and hanged. Esther 9:8. One, apparently in the service of Pekahiah, killed by Pekah. 2 Kings 15:25. 1. Symbolical name of Jerusalem, signifying 'Lion of God,' probably in reference to the lion being the emblem of Judah. Isa. 29:1, 2, 7. In the margin of Ezek. 43:15, the altar is called the 'lion of God;' but the word is slightly different and is translated by some the 'hearth of God,' the place for offering all sacrifices to God. 2. One whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia. Ezra 8:16. 3. In 2 Sam. 23:20; 1 Chr. 11:22, we read that Benaiah slow two 'lion-like men,' which some prefer to translate 'two [sons] of Ariel.' The Hebrew is literally 'two lions of God.' The city of Joseph, the 'honourable counsellor,' who was permitted by Pilate to take down the body of the Lord and bury it in his own new to tomb. Matt. 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:51; John 19:38. It has not been identified, but has been supposed to be the same as Ramah, the birth-place of Samuel. 1. King of Ellasar in the East. Gen. 14:1, 9. 2. Captain of Nebuchadnezzar's guard. Dan. 2:14, 15, 24, 25. Son of Haman the Agagite, slain and hanged. Esther 9:9. A Macedonian of Thessalonica, companion of Paul on several journeys and on his way to Rome. Paul once calls him 'my fellow prisoner.' Acts 19:29; Acts 20:4; Acts 27:2; Col. 4:10; Philemon 24. A resident at Rome whose household Paul saluted Rom. 16:10. Ark of God. This is also called 'ARK OF THE COVENANT,' 'ARK OF THE TESTIMONY,' 'ARK OF JEHOVAH.' The sacred chest belonging to the Tabernacle and the Temple. It was made of shittim wood, overlaid within and without with pure gold. It was 2-1/2 cubits long, 1-1/2 cubits in breadth, and the same in height, with a crown or cornice of gold. On each side were rings of gold in which were inserted the staves by which it was carried. Its lid, on which were the two cherubim made wholly of gold, was called the MERCY-SEAT, q.v. The ark was typical of Christ, in that it figured the manifestation of divine righteousness (gold) in man; the mercy-seat was Jehovah's throne, the place of His dwelling on earth. In the ark were placed the two tables of stone (the righteousness demanded by God from man), and afterwards the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron's rod that budded. For the place of the ark and the manner of its being moved see the TABERNACLE. In the first journey of the children of Israel from Mount Sinai the ark of the covenant went before them to "search out a resting place for them," type of God's tender care for them. When the ark set forward Moses said, "Rise up, Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered;" and when it rested he said, "Return, O Lord, unto the many thousands of Israel." Num. 10:33-36. When they arrived at Jordan, the ark was carried by the priests 2000 cubits in front of the host that they might know the way they must go, Joshua 3:3, 4, and the ark remained on the shoulders of the priests in the bed of the river, until all had passed over. Joshua 3:17. This typifies association with Christ's death and resurrection. The ark accompanied them in their first victory: it was carried by the priests around Jericho. It is only in the power of Christ in resurrection that the saint can be victorious. The tabernacle was set up at Shiloh, and doubtless the ark was placed therein, Joshua 18:1, though it may have been carried elsewhere. In Eli's days when Israel was defeated they fetched the ark from Shiloh that it might save them, but they were again defeated, and the ark, in which they had placed their confidence instead of in Jehovah, was seized by the Philistines. 1 Sam. 5:1. When put into the house of their god Dagon the idol fell down before it on two occasions, and on the second was broken to pieces. Subsequently it was taken from Ashdod to Gath, and from Gath to Ekron, and the people were smitten by the hand of God in each city. After seven months a new cart was made, to which two milch kine were yoked, and the ark sent back to the Israelites with a trespass offering to the God of Israel. The kine, contrary to nature, went away from their calves, and went direct to Beth-shemesh, for it was God who restored the ark. There God smote the men of the place for looking into the ark. It was then taken to Kirjath-jearim and placed in the house of Abinadab. 1 Sam. 6; 1 Sam. 7:1, 2. See ABINADAB. In after years David fetched the ark from thence on a new cart, but the ark being shaken, Uzzah put forth his hand to steady it, and was smitten of God. This frightened David and the ark was carried aside to the house of Obed-edom. The law had directed how the ark was to be carried, and the new cart was following the example of the Philistines: Uzzah disregarded God's plain direction and heeded not the sacredness of that which represented the presence of God. David however, hearing that God had blessed the house of Obed-edom, again went for the ark, and now it was carried by the Levites according to divine order, and with sacrifices and rejoicing it was placed in the tabernacle or tent that David had pitched for it. 2 Sam. 6. When Solomon had built the temple, the ark was removed thither, and the staves by which it had been carried were taken out: the ark had now found its resting place in the kingdom of Solomon, whose reign is typical of the millennium. It is significant too that now there were only the two tables of stone in the ark, 1 Kings 8:1-11: the manna had ceased when they ate of the old corn of the land, which is typical of a heavenly Christ; and the witness of Aaron's rod was no longer needed now they were in the kingdom. The wilderness circumstances, in which the manna and the priesthood of Christ were so necessary, were now passed. These are both mentioned in Heb. 9:4, for there the tabernacle, and not the temple is in contemplation. No further mention is made of the ark: it is supposed to have been carried away with the sacred vessels to Babylon, and to have never been returned: if so there was no ark in the second temple nor in the temple built by Herod, nor do we read of the ark in connection with the temple described by Ezekiel. In Rev. 11:19 the ark of God's covenant is seen in the temple of God in heaven: symbol here of the resumption of God's dealings with His earthly people Israel. Ark of Noah. The vessel constructed by the command of God, by which Noah and his household and some of every living creature of the earth were saved when the world was destroyed by the flood. Precise instructions were given by God as to the construction of the ark. It was to be made of 'gopher' wood, a kind known at the time, but which cannot now be identified with certainty; and it was to be pitched within and without with pitch, or bitumen, to make it water-tight. Its proportions were to be 300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad, and 30 cubits high. If the cubit be taken at 18 inches, its length would have been 450 feet, its breadth 75 feet and its height 45 feet. If the cubit used had been 21 inches, the dimensions would be one-sixth larger. A window was to be made to the ark. Gen. 6:16. The word tsohar signifies 'a place of light' and was probably placed in the roof, and may have served in some way for ventilation as well as for giving light. Another word for window is used in Gen. 8:6 (challon) which could be opened from the inside. This word is used for the windows or casements of houses, and would give ventilation. In Gen. 6:16, after speaking of the window, it says, "and in a cubit shalt thou finish it above;" it is a question whether this refers to the size of the window or whether the word 'it' refers to the ark. It has been said that the feminine suffix, which is rendered 'it' cannot refer to the word window, which is masculine: so that it is possible the cubit refers to the roof; that the middle of the roof should be raised, giving a cubit for the pitch of the roof. A door was to be made in the side of the ark; and the ark was to be divided into three stories. 'Rooms,' or 'nests' (margin) are also mentioned. Gen. 6:14. Such is the description given us of the form of the ark. It was by faith Noah prepared the ark, by which he condemned the world, and became heir of the righteousness which is by faith. Heb. 11:7. It is thus referred to in 1 Peter 3:20, 21, "into which few, that is, eight souls, were saved through water: which figure also now saves you, [even] baptism, not a putting away of [the] filth of flesh, but [the] demand as before God of a good conscience, by [the] resurrection of Jesus Christ." It may just be added that the form of the ark was not intended for navigation amid storms and billows, but it was exactly suited for the purpose for which it was constructed. A ship for freight was once made in like proportions, to be used in quiet waters, and was declared to be a great success. Various questions have been raised as to the veracity of the Bible account of the Deluge, for which see FLOOD. Ark of Bulrushes. The little boat or cradle in which Moses was placed by his mother. It was made of bulrushes, or rather paper-reeds or papyrus which grew in the river Nile. It was daubed with slime and with pitch, that is, most probably first covered with wet earth or clay, and then with bitumen. Ex. 2:3, 5. Some of the heathen writers speak of the papyrus-woven craft of the Nile. God answered the faith of the parents, and Moses was drawn out of the water to be the saviour of His people. Tribe descended from Canaan, son of Ham; it probably resided in Arca, in the north of Phoenicia, about 15 miles north of Tripoli, now called Tell Arka. Gen. 10:17; 1 Chr. 1:15. The member of the body which is capable of lifting burdens and defending the person: it is used symbolically for the power and strength of God on behalf of His saints. Ex. 15:16; Ps. 77:15; Isa. 51:9; Isa. 53:1. The arm of Jehovah is often spoken of in the O.T. It redeemed, Ex. 6:6; etc.; gathers His own, Isa. 40:11; and rules for Him, Isa. 40:10, as in the kingdom. It is a holy arm, Isa. 52:10; Ps. 98:1; and it is a glorious arm, Isa. 63:12. The arm of the Lord is revealed to souls where there is repentance and faith in the report which God sends. Isa. 53:1; Rom. 10:16. It is to be trusted in even by the isles of the Gentiles, that is, by sinners everywhere in creation. Isa. 51:5. The Hebrew name of the place where the kings of the earth and of the whole world will be gathered together to make war against the Lord Jesus in the great day of Almighty God. Rev. 16:16. There seems to be an allusion to the great battle field of Palestine in the Esdraelon, and to the Megiddo mentioned in Judges 5:19; 1 Kings 4:12; 2 Kings 23:29, 30. The word itself is translated 'the mountain of slaughter,' and may be used symbolically for the destruction that will surely fall upon the enemies of the Lord Jesus. This name occurs in the A.V. in 2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38, as the place to which two sons of Sennacherib fled after killing their father; but in both these passages the Hebrew word is Ararat. Armenia occurs in the LXX in the passage in Isaiah. Armenia lies west of the Caspian Sea, and extends northward of 38 N. lat. It is now partly in the Russian and partly in the Turkish empires. Son of Saul and Rizpah, hanged by the Gibeonites. 2 Sam. 21:8. None of the Hebrew words translated 'armour' refer definitely to what is understood now by armour worn on the person. Saul armed David with his 'armour,' 1 Sam. 17:38, but the word used is also translated 'clothes,' etc., and it may refer to Saul's warrior-dress. The articles named are somewhat more definite. 1. Saul put on David a 'HELMET of brass.' These were raised a little above the head, as may be seen by some of the sculptures from Nineveh. 1 Sam. 17:38; Ezek. 23:24: the word is qoba. Another word, koba, meaning the same, is found in 1 Sam. 17:5; 2 Chr. 26:14; Isa. 59:17; Jer. 46:4; Ezek. 27:10; Ezek. 38:5. 2. COAT OF MAIL. Saul put on David a 'Coat of Mail,' shiryon. 1 Sam. 17:5, 38. This word is translated 'HABERGEON ' in 2 Chr. 26:14 ; Neh 4:16, which also signifies 'coat of mail,' and there is a similar word in Job 41:26. It was made of brass scales fastened together. The weight of Goliath's coat of mail was 5,000 shekels. 3. GREAVES. The giant wore Greaves of brass upon his legs. 1 Sam. 17:6. The word is mitschah, and occurs nowhere else. 4. TARGET. He had a Target of brass between his shoulders, 1 Sam. 17:6: the word is kidon, and is elsewhere translated both 'shield' and 'spear.' In this case it was probably a small spear carried between the shoulders. 5. SHIELD. A Shield was carried before him. This was a tsinnah, a shield of large size to protect the whole body, with a large boss in the centre rising to a point which could be used as a weapon. It is employed figuratively for God's protecting care of His people. Ps. 5:12; Ps. 91:4. The same word is translated BUCKLER. Ps. 35:2; Ezek. 23:24; Ezek. 26:8, etc. Another word is used for a smaller shield, magen, and this is the word which occurs most commonly in the O.T., especially in the Psalms, referring to God's protection, as Ps. 28:7; Ps. 33:20; Ps. 84:11; Ps. 119:114, etc. The same word is translated BUCKLER. 2 Sam. 22:31; 1 Chr. 5:18; Cant. 4:4; Jer. 46:3, etc. The word shelet is translated Shield, but is also applied to Shields of gold, 2 Sam. 8:7, and those suspended for ornament. Ezek. 27:11. It occurs also in 2 Kings 11:10; 1 Chr. 18:7; 2 Chr. 23:9; Cant. 4:4; Jer. 51:11. In the N.T. 'armour' is used symbolically. 1. ὅπλα in contrast to 'the works of darkness' we are exhorted to put on 'the armour of light.' Rom. 13:12. Paul and his fellow-labourers commended themselves as God's ministers by the "armour, or arms, of righteousness on the right hand and on the left." 2 Cor. 6:7. 2. πανοπλία, 'whole armour.' One stronger than Satan takes away all his 'armour.' Luke 11:22. The Christian is exhorted to put on the 'whole armour of God,' the panoply, that he may stand in the evil day in his conflict with the spiritual powers of wickedness in the heavenlies. Eph. 6:11, 13. See BREASTPLATE, HELMET, etc. An attendant on a warrior, filling a place of trust and honour. When Saul loved David he made him his armourbearer. 1 Sam. 16:21. On Saul being wounded, his armourbearer refused to kill him; but when Saul was dead the armourbearer fell upon his sword and died also. 1 Sam. 31:5. In Neh. 3:19 the word is nesheq also translated 'armour.' In Cant. 4:4 it is talpiyyoth, 'armoury' or heap of swords. In Jer. 50:25 it is otsar, signifying 'treasury.' The offensive arms found in the O.T. are: 1. The SWORD, for which several Hebrew words are used: a. baraq, often translated 'lightning;' it is 'glittering sword' in Job 20:25. b. chereb, a sword, as laying waste. It is the word commonly used in the O.T. for sword (everywhere indeed except in the references given here under the other words): it was a straight tapering weapon, with two edges and a sharp point. Ps. 149:6; Isa. 14:19. It is used metaphorically for keen and piercing words, as in Ps. 57:4; Ps. 64:3. c. retsach, an undefined slaying weapon, translated 'sword' only in Ps. 42:10. d. shelach, a missile of death, as a dart. Job 33:18; Job 36:12; Joel 2:8. e. pethichoth, from 'to open,' is translated 'drawn sword' in Ps. 55:21. 2. SPEARS. a. chanith, thus named as being flexible: it is the word mostly used for the spear. 1 Sam. 13:19; Ps. 57:4. It is this weapon that will be beaten into pruning hooks. Isa. 2:4; Micah 4:3. b. kidon, a smaller kind of lance, or javelin. Joshua 8:18, 26; Job 41:29; Jer. 6:23. c. tselatsal, harpoon. Job 41:7. d. qayin, lance, 2 Sam. 21:16. e. romach, spear used by heavy-armed troops, the iron head of a spear. Judges 5:8, etc. The pruning hooks are to be beaten into spears in the time of God's judgements. Joel 3:10. 3. BOW, from which arrows are discharged, qesheth, generally made of wood, but sometimes of steel or brass. Job 20:24. It is constantly found in the O.T. from Genesis to Zechariah. It is used to express punishment from God, Lam. 2:4; Lam. 3:12; and of men to show their power to injure. Ps. 37:14, 15. 'A deceitful bow' expresses a man who fails just when his aid is most needed, as when a bow breaks suddenly. Ps. 78:57; Hosea 7:16. 4. The SLING, by which stones are discharged, qela. It was by means of this that David smote Goliath. 1 Sam. 17:40, 49, 50. Of the Benjamites there were 700 men lefthanded; "every one could sling stones at an hair breadth, and not miss." Judges 20:16. (In Prov. 26:8 occurs another word for sling margemah, but the passage is considered better translated "as he that putteth a precious stone in a heap of stones," as in the margin.) 5. 'ENGINES,' with which Uzziah shot arrows and great stones. 2 Chr. 26:15. It must be remembered that Israel were the hosts of Jehovah, keeping His charge and fighting His battles. Ex. 12:41; Joshua 5:14. It appears that all who reached the age of twenty years were contemplated as able to bear arms, Num. 1:3; and they marched and encamped in 4 divisions of 3 tribes each, with a captain over every tribe. The subdivisions were into thousands and hundreds, Num. 31:14, and into families. Joshua 7:17. There were also trumpet calls, Num. 10:9 (cf. 1 Cor. 14:8), and all the appearance of careful organisation. Until the time of the kings this natural or tribal organisation seems to have been usual, but in the time of Saul there was a body guard, 1 Sam. 13:2, and a captain of the host, 1 Sam. 17:55. In David's days those heroes who were with him in the cave of Adullam formed the nucleus of his 'mighty men.' 2 Sam. 23:8-39. They were devoted to the service of God's king. David afterwards organised a monthly militia of 24,000 man under 12 captains. 1 Chr. 27:1-15. The general gradation of ranks was into privates; 'men of war;' officers; Solomon's 'servants;' captains or 'princes;' and others variously described as head captains, or knights or staff officers; with rulers of his chariots and his horsemen. 1 Kings 9:22. It may be noticed that horses having been forbidden, Deut. 17:16, it was not until Solomon's time that this was organised, though David had reserved horses for a hundred chariots from the spoil of the Syrians. 2 Sam. 8:4. Solomon, trading with Egypt, 1 Kings 10:28, 29, enlarged their number until the force amounted to 1,400 chariots, and 12,000 horsemen, 1 Kings 10:26; 2 Chr. 1:14. Every able man being a soldier gave David the immense army of 1,570,000 men that 'drew sword.' 1 Chr. 21:5. After the division, Judah under Abijah had an army of 400,000 'valiant men,' and Israel at the same time of 800,000 'chosen men.' Afterwards Asa had 580,000 'mighty men of valour;' and Jehoshaphat, who had waxed great exceedingly, had as many as 1,160,000 men, besides those left in the fenced cities. 2 Chr. 17:14-19. In the N.T. a few references are made to the Roman army. A 'Legion' was a body that contained within itself all the gradations of the army. It might be called under the empire, in round numbers, a force of not more than 6,000 men. Every legion at times contained 10 cohorts of 600 each; every cohort 3 maniples of 200; and every maniple 2 centuries of 100: hence the name of centurion or commander of 100 men, as found in Acts 10:1, 22, etc. Each legion was presided over by 6 chiefs, χιλίαρθος, each commanding 1,000 men, mostly translated 'chief captain,' as in Acts 21:31-37, etc.: it is 'high captain' in Mark 6:21; and 'captain' in John 18:12; Rev. 19:18. A cohort, σπεῖρα, is translated 'band' in Acts 10:1; Acts 21:31, etc. A 'quaternion' embraced 4 soldiers. Acts 12:4. The head quarters of the Roman troops was at Caesarea, with a cohort at Jerusalem; but at the time of the feast, when, alas, the mutinous disposition of the Jews was sure to appear, additional troops were present in the city but without their standards of the eagle, etc., which were especially obnoxious to the Jews. Though the Romans were God's rod to punish them, their stiff necks could not bow, nor receive the punishment as from Jehovah. Descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3:21. Ravine or wady with its mountain torrent, which formed the border between Moab and Ammon, now known as Wady Mojib. It has sources both north and south which unite, and its stream running nearly east and west, rushes through a deep ravine and falls into the Dead Sea at about its centre north and south. Num. 21:13-28; Num. 22:36; Deut. 2:24, 36; Judges 11:13-26; Isa. 16:2; Jer. 48:20; etc. Arod, Arodi, Arodites. [A'rod, Aro'di, Aro'dites] Son of Gad, and his descendants. Gen. 46:16; Num. 26:17. 1. City 'before Rabbah,' that is, near Rabbath Ammon, in the valley of the Jabbok, built or rebuilt by the tribe of Gad. Num. 32:34; Joshua 13:25; 2 Sam. 24:5. 2. Moabite city on the north bank of the Arnon. Deut. 2:36; Joshua 13:9, 16; Judges 11:26; 2 Kings 10:33. Identified with Arair, 31 27' N, 35 43' E. 3. District near Damascus. Isa. 17:2. 4. City in Judah, S.E. of Beersheba. 1 Sam. 30:28. Identified with Ararah, 31 11' N, 34 56' E. Designation of Hothan, father of two of David's captains. 1 Chr. 11:44. Arpad, Arphad. [Ar'pad, Ar'phad] Fortified city near Hamath. 2 Kings 18:34; 2 Kings 19:13; Isa. 10:9; Isa. 36:19; Isa. 37:13; Jer. 49:23. Son of Shem, born two years after the flood, from whom Abraham descended. Gen. 10:22, 24; Gen. 11:10-13; 1 Chr. 1:17,18, 24. Stated as the father of Cainan in Luke 3:36. See CAINAN. With the bow, a common weapon of the ancients. We know not of what wood the arrows of the Israelites were made. Apparently the arrows were sometimes poisoned. Job 6:4; Ps. 120:4; Num. 24:8; Deut. 32:23, etc. Arrows are used metaphorically for the judgements of God, Ps. 38:2; Ps. 45:5: also for anything sharp and painful, as smiting by the tongue. Jer. 9:8. 1. Persian king, identified as the magian impostor who pretended to be Smerdis the brother of Cambyses. When appealed to by the adversaries of the Jews, he stopped the building of the temple. He was slain after a reign of eight months. Ezra 4:7, 8, 11, 23. 2. Another Persian king identified as Artaxerxes Longimanus B.C. 474-434, son of Xerxes, the Ahasuerus of Esther. He greatly favoured both Ezra and Nehemiah; he beautified the temple or bore the expense of its being done, Ezra 7:27, and under his protection the wall of the city was finished. Ezra 6:14; Ezra 7:1-21; Ezra 8:1; Neh. 2:1; Neh. 5:14; Neh. 13:6. It was in the 20th year of this king that the command to build the city was given, from which began the dates of the prophecy of the Seventy weeks of Daniel, which is fixed by Usher and Hengstenburg at B.C. 454-5. For the succession of the Persian kings see PERSIA. Companion of Paul at Nicopolis. Titus 3:12. Name of the heathen goddess Diana, as given in the Greek of Acts 19:24-35: she was regarded as presiding over the productive and nutritive powers of nature. A general name for skilled artisans, whether in metal, stone, or wood. Tubal-cain was the first named as an artificer in brass and iron. Jubal was the father of all such as handled, or invented and made, the harp and the organ. Cain also built a city. Gen. 4:17, 21, 22. In the above we see the application of the arts by man at a distance from God to promote their own welfare in independence of God. In after times the spirit of wisdom was given to Bezaleel for the work of the tabernacle in "all manner of workmanship." Ex. 35:31: cf. also 1 Chr. 29:5; 2 Chr. 34:11. It would seem that the Jews never afterwards lost this skill, as the remains of the walls of Jerusalem indicate. Nebuchadnezzar carried off all the craftsmen (same word as artificers) and smiths from Jerusalem, 2 Kings 24:14, and he may have made use of their skill to adorn Babylon. A general term for tools, armour, etc. In 1 Sam. 20:40 it refers to the bow and arrows Jonathan had used. The third commissariat district of Solomon, probably the rich corn-growing country in the Shephelah or low hills of Judah. 1 Kings 4:10. City or district apparently near Shechem, the abode of Abimelech. Judges 9:41. Identified with el-Ormeh, 32 9' N, 35 19' E. Island on the Phoenician coast: now called Ruad, about 34 51' N, 35 52' E. Ezek. 27:8, 11. Family name of one of the sons of Canaan. Gen. 10:18; 1 Chr. 1:16: doubtless connected with the island of Arvad. Steward of Elah, king of Israel. 1 Kings 16:9. 1. Great grandson of Solomon and king of Judah, B.C. 955-914. "Asa did that which was right in the sight of the Lord, as did David his father." He removed the idols his fathers had made, 1 Kings 15:11, and he deposed Maachah, his mother, or perhaps grandmother, from being queen because she favoured idolatry. On the country being invaded by the Ethiopians with a million troops and 300 chariots, he cried to the Lord, who fought for him, and the enemy was smitten. He was counselled by Azariah not to forsake the Lord, which led to the spoil being offered to God, and to the king and his people entering into a covenant to seek the Lord. Subsequently Asa was threatened by Baasha king of Israel who began to build Ramah, a fortified city only a few miles from Jerusalem. To stop this Asa paid a large sum of money to Benhadad king of Syria to invade Israel. This was for the time successful: the building of Ramah was stopped, and Asa carried away the stones thereof and built Geba and Mizpah. This recourse for aid to the king of Syria, who was an idolater, was very displeasing to God, and the king was rebuked by Hanani the seer. While Asa trusted in the Lord he had deliverance, but having relied on the king of Syria, he should have war all his days. Asa, alas, did not humble himself, but put Hanani in prison, and oppressed some of the people. He was disciplined in his person, for he was diseased in his feet, and the disease increased exceedingly; yet he sought not the Lord, but to the physicians (perhaps these were healers by magic arts in connection with idolatry, on which God's blessing could not be asked) and he died after a reign of 41 years. 1 Kings 15.; 2 Chr. 14, 15, 16.; Matt. 1:7, 8. 2. A Levite, the father of Berechiah. 1 Chr. 9:16. 1. Nephew of David, being son of his sister Zeruiah; he was a valiant man and one of David's captains; was slain by Abner while pursuing him. 2 Sam. 2:18-32; 2 Sam. 3:27, 30; 1 Chr. 11:26; 1 Chr. 27:7. 2. Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the cities of Judah. 2 Chr. 17:8. 3. Levite in Hezekiah's time, an overseer of tithes, etc. 2 Chr. 31:13. 4. Father of Jonathan who returned from exile. Ezra 10:15. Asahiah, Asaiah. [Asahi'ah, Asai'ah] 1. An officer sent by Josiah to Huldah the prophetess after the book of the law had been found. 2 Kings 22:12, 14; 2 Chr. 34:20. 2. Descendant of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4:36. 3. Descendant of Merari. 1 Chr. 6:30. 4. A Shilonite who became a dweller in Jerusalem. 1 Chr. 9:5. 5. Descendant of Merari who assisted in bringing up the ark from Obed-edom's house, 1 Chr. 15:6, 11 (possibly the same as No. 3). 1. A leader of the choir in David's time, and once called a 'seer.' 2 Chr. 29:30. He was descended from Gershom the Levite. 1 Chr. 6:39; 1 Chr. 15:17, 19; 1 Chr. 16:5, 7, 37, etc. Twelve psalms are attributed to him, namely, 50, 73 to 83. His office seems to have been hereditary. Ezra 2:41; Ezra 3:10; Neh. 7:44, etc. 2. Father of Joah recorder to Hezekiah. 2 Kings 18:18, 37; Isa. 36:3, 22. 3. A Levite, whose descendants dwelt in Jerusalem after the exile. 1 Chr. 9:15. 4. A Korhite, whose posterity were porters in the tabernacle in the time of David. 1 Chr. 26:1. 5. An officer, probably a Jew, controller of the forests of king Artaxerxes in Judaea. Neh. 2:8. Son of Jehaleleel, a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:16. Son of Asaph appointed by David to the service of song. 1 Chr. 25:2. Supposed by some to be the same as JESHARELAH in 1 Chr. 25:14, as noted in the margin; and by others to be the same as AZAREEL in 1 Chr. 25:18. This term is constantly applied to the return of the Lord Jesus Christ to heaven from whence He came. John 3:13. Leading His eleven apostles out as far as Bethany, on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, in the act of blessing them He ascended up to heaven, and a cloud hid Him from their sight. Mark 16:19; Luke 24:50, 51; Acts 1:9. The ascension of the Lord Jesus is a momentous fact for His saints: the One who bore their sins on the cross has been received up in glory, and sits on the right hand of God. As forerunner He has entered into heaven for the saints, and has been made a high priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec. Heb. 6:20. His ascension assured, according to His promise, the descent of the Holy Spirit, which was accomplished at Pentecost. John 16:7; Acts 1:4, 8; Acts 2:1-47. As ascended He became Head of His body the church, Eph. 1:22, and gave gifts to men, among which gifts are evangelists who preach to the world, and pastors and teachers to care for and instruct the saints. Ps. 68:18; Eph. 4:8-13. His ascension is a demonstration through the presence of the Holy Spirit that sin is in the world and righteousness in heaven, for the very One they rejected has been received by the Father into heaven. John 16:10. The ascension is also a tremendous fact for Satan: the prince of this world has been judged who led the world to put the Lord to death; and in His ascension He led captivity captive, having broken the power of death in which men were held, Eph. 4:8, for He had in the cross spoiled principalities and powers and made a show of them openly, triumphing over them in it. Col. 2:15. Above all, the ascension is a glorious fact for the blessed Lord Himself. Jehovah said unto Him, "Sit thou at my right hand, until I make thine enemies thy footstool." Ps. 110:1. He has taken His place as man where man never was before, and He is also glorified with the glory which He had before the world was, besides the glory which He graciously shares with His saints. John 17:5, 22. Daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On, wife of Joseph, and mother of Manasseh and Ephraim. Gen. 41:45, 50; Gen. 46:20. The particular tree pointed out by the Hebrew word oren is not known. Isa. 44:14. The LXX and the Vulgate call it 'pine.' 1. Levitical city in Judah. Joshua 15:42; 1 Chr. 6:59: not identified. 2. City in Simeon. Joshua 19:7; 1 Chr. 4:32. See AIN. A family apparently descended from Shelah who 'wrought fine linen.' 1 Chr. 4:21. Ashbel, Ashbelites. [Ash'bel, Ash'belites] Son of Benjamin and family descended from him. Gen. 46:21; Num. 26:38; 1 Chr. 8:1. One of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It was assigned to Judah, but was not subdued by them, and thus became a thorn in their sides. Num. 33:55. It was to this city that the ark was taken by the Philistines, and where Dagon their fish-god fell before it. 1 Sam. 5:1-7. Uzziah broke down its wall, and built cities near it. 2 Chr. 26:6. It was on the high road from Palestine to Egypt which doubtless led Sargon king of Assyria to take it by his general, about B.C. 714. Isa. 20:1. Herodotus records that Psammetichus, king of Egypt, besieged it for 29 years. Jeremiah speaks of Ashdod as one of the places which was made to drink of the fury of God. Jer. 25:15-20. The Maccabees destroyed the city, but Gabinius rebuilt it at the time of the conquest of Judaea by the Romans, B.C. 55, and it was afterwards assigned on the death of Herod the Great to his sister Salome. It was situated about 3 miles from the Mediterranean, and midway between Gaza and Joppa. It is now called Esdud, or Esdood, 31 46' N, 34 40' E, and is wretched in the extreme, though lying in a fertile plain. It is called in the N.T. AZOTUS, where Philip was found after baptising the eunuch. Acts 8:40. Its inhabitants are referred to as ASHDODITES, ASHDOTHITES. Joshua 13:3; Neh. 4:7. This is once translated 'springs of Pisgah,' pointing it out as a place from whence water issued, being the sides of the mountain called Pisgah, or it may apply to the range of mountains on the east of the Dead Sea, of which Pisgah was a part. Deut. 3:17; Deut. 4:49; Joshua 12:3; Joshua 13:20. It lies due east of the north end of the Dead Sea, and is now called Ayun Musa. Asher, Aser. [Ash'er, A'ser] Eighth son of Jacob by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid. Gen. 13. The signification of the name as in the margin is 'happy.' His posterity formed one of the twelve tribes. Its portion in the land was in the extreme north, extending northward from Mount Carmel. It was bounded on the east by Naphtali, and on the south east by Zebulon. It was doubtless intended that their west border should have been the Great Sea, but we read that they did not drive out the inhabitants of Accho, Zidon, Ahlab, Achzib, Helbah, Aphik and Rehob; but the Asherites dwelt among the Canaanites. Judges 1:31, 32. This left a tract of land on the sea coast unoccupied by Asher. When Jacob called his sons about him to tell them what should befall them in the last days, he said of Asher, "Out of Asher his bread shall be fat, and he shall yield royal dainties." Gen. 49:20. When Moses ordained that certain of the tribes should stand on Mount Gerizim to bless the people, and certain others on Mount Ebal to curse, Asher was one of those chosen to stand on the latter. Deut. 27:13. And when Moses blessed the tribes before he died, he said of Asher, "Let Asher be blessed with children; let him be acceptable to his brethren, and let him dip his foot in oil. Thy shoes shall be iron and brass; and as thy days, so shall thy strength be." Deut. 33:24, 25. In Jacob's prophecy as to this tribe there is depicted the future blessing of all Israel after the salvation of the Lord has come in, announced at the close of Dan's apostasy. In Deuteronomy, what is future also as to Israel, is probably presented, but connected rather with the government of God in His hands who is King in Jeshurun. When Deborah and Barak went to the war they had to lament in their song that Asher abode by the sea coast, and came not to their aid, Judges 5:17; but when subsequently the Midianites and the Amalekites invaded the land Asher responded to the call of Gideon. Judges 6:35; Judges 7:23. At the secession of the ten tribes Asher became a part of Israel, and very little more is heard of this tribe. When Hezekiah proclaimed a solemn passover and sent invitations to the cities of Israel as well as to Judah, though many laughed the messengers to scorn, divers of Asher humbled themselves and came to Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 30:11. When numbered at Sinai there were 41,500 able to go forth to war, and when near the promised land they were 53,400; but when the rulers of the tribes are mentioned in the time of David, Asher is omitted. Num. 1:41; Num. 26:47; 1 Chr. 27:16-22. The tribe is twice referred to in the N.T. as ASER. In Rev. 7:6, twelve thousand of Asher will be sealed, and in Luke 2:36, Anna a prophetess, of the tribe of Asher, gave thanks in the temple at the birth of the Saviour. Asher is one of the tribes still to come into blessing, and have a portion in the land. Ezek. 48:2, 3. See THE TWELVE TRIBES One of the tribe of Asher. Judges 1:32. Ashes, mostly from burnt wood, were used as a sign of sorrow or mourning, either put on the head, 2 Sam. 13:19, or on the body with sackcloth, Esther 4:1; Jer. 6:26; Lam. 3:16; Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13; or strewn on a couch on which to lie, Esther 4:3; Isa. 58:5; Jonah 3:6. To eat ashes expresses great sorrow, Ps. 102:9; and to be reduced to them is a figure of complete destruction, Ezek. 28:18; Malachi 4:3; to feed on them tells of the vanities with which the soul may be occupied. Isa. 44:20. 'Dust and ashes' was the figure Abraham used of himself before Jehovah, Gen. 18:27; and Job said he had become like them by the hand of God. Job 30:19. For the ashes of the Red Heifer see HEIFER. An idol introduced into Samaria by the colonists sent from Hamath by the king of Assyria. 2 Kings 17:30. Ashkelon, Askelon. [Ash'kelon, As'kelon] One of the five principal cities of the Philistines. It fell to the lot of Judah, who took Askelon and the coasts thereof, Judges 1:18, but they did not really subdue it, for it was in the hands of the Philistines when Samson, with the Spirit of the Lord upon him, slew thirty men in the city and took their spoil, Judges 14:19, and that it remained so we see from 1 Sam. 6:17, and 2 Sam. 1:20. The judgements of God were denounced against this city, Jer. 25:20; Jer. 47:5, 7; Amos 1:8; Zech. 9:5; and the remnant of Judah should dwell there. Zeph. 2:4, 7. The city was situated on the sea coast, midway between Gaza and Ashdod: it is now called Askulan or Askalan, 31 40' N, 34 33' E. In modern times the city was held by the Crusaders, and within its walls Richard of England held his court: the walls which this king aided with his own hands to repair may, it is thought, still be traced, and masses of masonry and broken columns of granite still lie about. By the Mahometan geographers it was called the Bride of Syria. Ashkenaz, Ashchenaz. [Ash'kenaz, Ash'chenaz] Son of Gomer, the son of Japheth, and his descendants, who settled in the vicinity of Armenia. Gen. 10:3; 1 Chr. 1:6; Jer. 51:27. 1. Town in the west of Judah near Dan. Joshua 15:33. Identified with Hasan, 31 47' N, 34 59' E. 2. Town in the low hills of Judah, probably to the S.W. of Jerusalem. Joshua 15:43. Prince of the eunuchs under Nebuchadnezzar. Dan. 1:3. Descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:14. See ASRIEL.

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Considerations for giving feedback on skill performance When giving athletes extrinsic feedback about their technical skills, you can either tell them what you saw (descriptive feedback) or tell them what you think they need to do based on what you saw (prescriptive feedback). Guidelines for helping athletes develop tactical skills It has been said that “experience is knowledge acquired too late.” As a coach you want to do all you can to speed up your athletes’ learning of tactical skills rather than wait for them to learn by experience. Sport Skill Instruction for Coaches is designed to help current and aspiring coaches teach the skills athletes need in order to perform at their best. Written from a real-world perspective primarily for high school coaches, this practical, user-friendly text addresses the who, what, and how questions facing every coach: Who are the athletes I’m coaching? What are the skills I need to teach? How do I teach the skills effectively? Coaches will address these questions by thoroughly examining such concepts as individual differences exhibited by athletes; technical, tactical, and mental skills athletes need to learn; content and structure of skill practice; the art of providing feedback; and the preparation of athletes for competition. This exploration prepares coaches to work with athletes competently and confidently. The easy-to-follow format of the text includes learning objectives that introduce each chapter, sidebars illustrating sport-specific applications of key concepts and principles, chapter summaries organized by content and sequence, key terms, chapter review questions, activities that challenge readers to apply concepts to real-world situations, and a comprehensive glossary. ASEP Silver Level Series Preface Part I Foundations of Skill Instruction Chapter 1 Basics of Good Teaching Differences Between Learning and Performing Three Basic Ingredients of Skill Instruction Process-Focused Approach to Providing Sport Skill Instruction Chapter 2 It All Starts With the Athlete Difficulties in Predicting Future Performance Success Part II Skills Your Athletes Need Chapter 3 Technical Skills What Are Technical Skills? Classifications of Technical Skills Chapter 4 Tactical Skills Understanding Tactical Skills Identifying Important Tactical Skills Helping Your Athletes Develop Their Tactical Skills Creating a Blueprint of Tactical Options Chapter 5 Mental Skills Emotional Arousal in Athletic Performance Attention During Sport Competition Connection Between Arousal and Attention Memory in Performance Preparation Using Mental Skills to Maximize Performance Combining Mental and Physical Rehearsal Part III Designing Practice Sessions Chapter 6 Skill Analysis: Deciding What to Teach Identifying the Skills Your Athletes Need to Learn Analyzing Technical Skills Identifying Target Behaviors Chapter 7 Deciding on the Content and Structure of Practice Games Approach to Skill Practice Establishing Two-Way Communication Instructions, Demonstrations, and Guidance Modifications of Technical Skill Rehearsal Developing Athletes’ Anticipation Games Approach to Practicing for Competition Chapter 8 Providing Feedback Intrinsic and Extrinsic Feedback Verbal and Visual Feedback Outcome and Performance Feedback Program and Parameter Feedback Descriptive and Prescriptive Feedback Practical Considerations for Giving Feedback Chapter 9 Combining the Practice of Technical, Tactical, and Mental Skills Planning Effective Practices Creating Practice Activities Evaluating the Effectiveness of Practice Activities A Final Comment Appendix A: Answers to Review Questions Appendix B: Answers to Practical Activities About the Author High school coaches; also for college undergraduates pursuing professions as coaches, physical education teachers, and sport fitness practitioners. Craig A. Wrisberg, PhD, is a professor of sport psychology in the department of exercise, sport, and leisure studies at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, where he has taught since 1977. During the past 30 years he has published numerous research articles on the topics of anticipation and timing in performance, knowledge of results and motor learning, and the role of cognitive strategies in sport performance. He is also the coauthor (with Richard Schmidt) of the popular text Motor Learning and Performance, published by Human Kinetics. In 1982 he received the Brady Award for Excellence in Teaching and in 1994 the Chancellor's Award for Research and Creative Achievement. A former president of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) and the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Dr. Wrisberg is a fellow of both AASP and the American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education. In addition to teaching and conducting research, Dr. Wrisberg provides mental training services for student-athletes in the men's and women's athletics departments at Tennessee. In his work with athletes, he applies many of the important concepts and principles covered in Sport Skill Instruction for Coaches. Dr. Wrisberg enjoys several outdoor activities, including tennis, canoeing, and hiking in the Great Smoky Mountains.

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Alternative treatments for Asthma are many…from herbs to homeopathy, from breathing exercises to meditation, etc….But most of the ‘accepted’ Western medical doctors are hesitant to accept the possibility that these methods can help in conjunction with their prescriptions, let alone do the job alone! There is insufficient research done on any of these possible treatments for most doctors to endorse their use; and as long as there is insufficient research being funded and conducted it will remain the same! Also the research needs more than funding and conducting …it also needs to be accomplished by people who are not prejudiced before hand by Western medicine to keep the results pure! Dietary Changes: There have been limited numbers of studies that show that diet influences Asthma significantly. Therefore fixing specific issues could contribute just as significantly to its treatment! - Increase Water consumption: Drinking water may seem a little too simple, but…..water will help thin out the mucous secretions that increase during an asthma attack, making it easier to clear the lungs and bronchial tubes. - Milk elimination: Milk has been shown to be one of the leading dietary causes of allergies, which are one of the leading triggers of an asthma attack! When I was growing up it was considered general knowledge that consumption of milk (or other milk products) could increase mucous production! - Coffee may help in an attack: Because coffee (black coffee no sugar or milk added) is a stimulant it can often encourage the lungs to function more normally. It will help to break up the mucous and alleviate the tightness in the chest and throat. But this is not necessarily recommended for daily use! - Ensure daily consumption of magnesium in the diet: Magnesium has bronchio-dilating effect in the body. Studies have shown that magnesium levels are often low in people experiencing Asthma. Food sources of Magnesium are: almonds, spinach, cashews, soybeans, peanuts (including peanut butter), potato, blackeyed peas, pinto beans, brown rice, lentils, kidney beans, bananas, etc. - Supplement with Omega-3: Omega-3’s are believed to decrease inflammation. You can increase the Omega-3’s in your diet by eating it in Salmon, scallops, cauliflower, broccoli, spinach, walnuts, almonds, kale, tofu, shrimp, tuna, mussels, sardines, etc.’ - Increase antioxidants in the diet: Antioxidants tend to stimulate free radical activity; they in turn help to decrease inflammation! These can be found in the Vitamins A, C, and E among other sources! Some dietary sources include…blueberries, blackberries, strawberries, cranberries, Kidney beans, pinto beans, avocados, pineapple, cherries, kiwi, plums, artichokes, spinach, red cabbage, sweet potatoes, broccoli, green tea, walnuts, pecans, hazelnuts, and oat products (like oatmeal) Increase Exercise: Often exercise can cause an asthma attack, but in good asthma management the goal is to return the patient back to normal or near normal activity, and that includes exercise. Just try to tell a child they cannot run, and jump, and ride their bike! I dare you! Regular exercise helps the Asthmatic in multiple ways including, but not limited to the following benefits: stress reduction, increased energy, and sleep improvements. Exercise also lowers your risk for obesity and heart disease, common problems with adult asthmatics!! - Recommended types of exercise include: volleyball, gymnastics, baseball and wrestling, and any other exercise that allows occasional breaks in the activity! - Use of precautions: Use common sense when exercising….never exercise when you feel ‘off,’ and use some of the following suggestions to prepare for each session: Stretching exercises to help warm up, avoid allergen areas (…use an exercise pad when working out on carpet, avoid areas where there is high pollen or car exhaust). Breath through your nose, rather than your mouth. Move: This may seem extreme, but if you live in a very moist, humid location moving to a dry, hot atmosphere may just seem to cure your asthma! Try vacationing in different locals….desert southwest, mountainous areas, by the sea, in a city, out in the country. Where are you the most comfortable? Consider if this dramatic a change may just be worth the expense! In lieu of an actual move try some of these ideas: - Find a good, dry exercise area, such as a local gym - Avoid high allergen areas - Make sure you sleep with your chest and head elevated! Acupuncture: Acupuncture has been used to treat Asthma because it balances the positive and negative flows of energy in the body, and that is precisely how Acupuncture is believed to work. Asthma is believed to be an imbalance of these opposing energies, with acupuncture restoring the stability to normal levels. It is believed by many to restore lung function and to reduce the severity of an asthma attack should it occur. Research however has not been able to prove the effectiveness of acupuncture in asthma, but rather the results are inconclusive. The most recent Cochrane Collaborative Review feels that the information thus far does not allow recommendation of this treatment. Aromatherapy: Essential oil blends can reduce the severity and occurrence of asthma attacks, and help relieve them once they commence! The best time for aromatherapy treatments is between attacks since you do not want the scent to make the problem a worse issue. E.O.’s to use: To reduce Bronchial Spasms: chamomile, lavender, rose, geranium and marjoram Decongestant and Antihistamine: peppermint and ginger To Encourage deep breathing and to allow lung expansion: Frankincense and marjoram These Essential oils can be incorporated into chest rubs, steams, humidifiers, the bath or in massage oils. Biofeedback: Biofeedback is the use of electronic devices to help the patient control or influence normally automatic body functions such as heartbeat and breathing. In controlled studies it has shown to have benefit for most patients, where they maintain control of their asthma while reducing their inhaled steroids. Herbal Medicine: Many herbs will decrease the inflammation and relieve bronchio-spasms. Homeopathy: Homeopathy uses very small amounts of natural substance to stimulate the body’s immune function and natural defenses. Each person, and each asthma attack is different so the choices here are prescribed as a tailored approach to each patients needs. Massage: Massage is believed effective due to the relaxation in the whole being that can be achieved. It can be done using aromatherapy massage oils to enhance its effectiveness. Massage can retrain the muscles to a state of relaxation and reduced stress. Although not well studied, massage can be beneficial by relieving a known trigger for asthma attacks, stress. Additional research is needed in this area. Pulmonary Therapy (Breathing Exercises): It has been demonstrated that people with asthma that use Breathing Exercises can reduce their use of medications by up to 86%. At Sydney’s Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Melbourne’s Alfred Hospital conducted this research and released their findings in the August, 2006 edition of Thorax. Relaxation Techniques – Meditation: It has been found that people who practice meditation and the resulting relaxation have a marked decrease in asthma symptoms and attacks. Meditation can eve help to bring an active attack under control. Often the fear of the attack will trigger panic which will make everything worse. The meditation can counteract this phenomenon. Yoga: Through gentle stretching and exercise Yoga helps to relax the body and the mind, allowing improvement in circulation and respiration. It will relieve tension and assist the body in its own healing. Folklore: These are for entertainment only! Own a Chihuahua: in Mexican Folk Medicine it is believe to cure asthma! To cure asthma: Drill a hole into a black-oak tree at the height of the patient’s head. Place a lock of hair in the hole, and drive a wooden peg into the hole to hold the hair in place. Now cut the peg and hair flush with the tree bark. When the bark has grown over the peg and hair, hiding it from sight and the hair has re-grown, the asthma will be cured! Asthma could be cured by tying a live frog to the patient’s throat. When the frog died the disease was “completely absorbed” by the frog. Kill a steer, cut open its gut, and place the patient’s feet into the abdomen. When the entrails have cooled the asthma will be cured. Boil the comb of a hornet’s nest and sweeten it with honey, take to cure asthma! Chihuahua for Asthma

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International Perspectives on Food and Fuel Agricultural Marketing Resource Center Co-Director – Ag Marketing Resource Center Iowa State University (Second in a series) Last month we provided perspectives on the food and fuel debate from the viewpoint of U.S. consumers. This article provides world perspectives on the debate. When discussing food issues, we must preface the discussion with the understanding that food is the most personal of all consumer purchases. We can do without or find ways to circumvent the need for most consumer products. But the specter of not having enough food is a basic need and elicits an emotional response. Although this specter is foreign to U.S. consumers, it is very real for millions of people around the world. Dwindling Grain Reserves Although grains used for biofuels have impacted world grain usage in recent years, the conditions for limited supplies and higher prices were already in motion. Over the last ten years, world grain reserves have been dwindling. As shown in Figure 1, world stocks-to-use ratios for wheat and coarse grains have fallen by half. In 1998/99 we had reserves equal to 30% of a year’s usage (about 3.5 months). While not large, these reserves could cushion the impact of a sudden disruption in grain supplies (e.g.widespread drought). Also, these reserves were large enough to substantially dampen the price of grains. For example, the Iowa average corn price in 1998/99 was $1.87 per bushel. These low prices provided ample incentive for farmers to search for new uses for grains like biofuels to strengthen grain prices. They also discouraged expanding grain production. Source: Foreign Ag Service, USDA However, grain prices were already on the way up, regardless of biofuels. We had entered a period when grain usage outstripped production. Non-biofuel grain usage was growing faster than production. The deficit was covered by drawing down reserves. Today’s world reserves are only 15 percent of a year’s usage, of which a significant portion is needed to smoothly transition from one year to the next. So we cannot continue to cover the deficit by drawing down reserves. The result is high prices that will ration existing supplies and stimulate future production. While dwindling grain reserves and higher prices have an adverse impact on consumers, it has a positive impact on producers. Around the world, 2.5 billion people depend on agriculture for their livelihood (FAO). This is close to 40% of the world’s population. So higher prices have both negative and positive implications. Adverse Crop Events We experienced adverse crop events at precisely the time when the world’s grain situation was most vulnerable to supply shocks. Periods of low production can easily upset the delicate balance between surplus and shortage, especially when reserves are low. Adverse crop events in 2007 were a driving factor in grain price increases. It was the second consecutive year of a drop in average yields around the world. An overview of 2007 crop problems is shown below. - Australia – multi-year drought - U.S. winter wheat – late freeze - Northern Europe – dry spring & wet harvest - Southeast Europe – drought - Ukraine and Russia – drought - Canada – summer hot and dry - Northwest Africa – drought - Turkey – drought - Argentina – late freeze & drought followed by flooding in parts of the corn-soybean belt. Most of the world’s grains are consumed in the country in which they are produced. A relatively small amount is traded on the international market, as shown in Table 1. However, if trade is disrupted, this small amount can have a significant impact on food distribution and prices, especially during periods of low reserves. Table 1. Percent of World Consumption from International Trade Source: What’s Driving Food Prices, Farm Foundation, 2008 Although unknown in this country in recent years, it is not uncommon for countries to impose restrictions such as “export taxes” or “export embargoes” on agricultural commodities sold to other countries. These restrictions become increasingly common when world shortages and high prices appear. These policies are meant to discourage exports and keep food within the country for domestic consumers. Essentially, the restriction means that “our citizens eat first”, if there is anything left over, your citizens can have it. A prominent example is Argentina, a large producer of agricultural commodities such as soybeans. Argentina already had a 35 percent export tax and in March its president, Christina Fernandez de Kirchner, increased the tax. The decision led to riots and demonstrations by Argentina’s farmers. In July the measure was narrowly rescinded by Argentina’s Senate. These trade distortions can take many forms in addition to export taxes. Below is a listing of policies that have recently been implemented by both exporting and importing countries due to high food prices and food shortages. - Export Bans - Ukraine, Serbia, India, Egypt, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Kazakhstan - Export Restriction (quantitative) – Argentina, Ukraine, India, Vietnam - Export Taxes – China, Argentina, Russian, Kazakhstan, Malaysia - Eliminate Export Subsidies – China - Reduced Import Tariffs – India, Indonesia, Serbia, Thailand, EU, Korean, Mongolia - Subsidize Consumers – Morocco, Venezuela The long-term implications of export restrictions are negative to the world’s consumers and world agriculture. It distorts trade in agriculture commodities at the precise time when there should be no distortion. It greatly increases the vulnerability of poor countries that are net food importers. It penalizes long-term agricultural development and growth in exporting countries. Commodity Price Impact on Food Budgets Although notable exceptions exist, most hunger situations are not caused by an actual shortage of food. Rather hunger is caused by the financial inability to buy food. So how do high food prices this impact the food consumers in low-income, food deficit countries? As we discussed last month, the average U.S. consumer spends only 10 percent of his/her disposable income on food (although food expenditures for low-income consumers are substantially higher). And the food the consumer buys is highly processed, packaged and often ready to eat. So, of the money spent on food, only 20 percent goes to farmers for producing basic commodities like wheat, milk, meat, etc. The situation is much different for consumers living in low-income, food-deficit countries. An illustrative example is shown in Table 2. Half of a consumer’s disposable income may be spent on food. And this is primarily for staples (basic commodities). People in developing countries tend to buy basic staples and prepare them rather than buying processed/prepared food. In our example, 70 percent of their food expenditures are for staples compared to 20 percent in high income countries. If the prices of staples increase by 50 percent, the amount of disposable income spent by consumers in high income countries will only increase by one percentage point, going from 10 percent to 11 percent, or a 10 percent increase ((11 – 10)/10). However, the amount spent by consumers in low income countries increases by 18 percentage points, going from 50 percent to 67.5 percent, or a 35% increase ((67.5 – 50)/50). So, people in low income countries, who already spend a disproportionately large amount on food, are the hardest hit by increased commodity prices. Table 2. Impact of Higher Commodity Prices on Food Budgets * |High-income Countries||Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries| |Food Cost as % of Income||10%||50%| |Staples as % of total food spending||20%||70%| |Expenditures on staples||$800||$280| |50% price increase in staples| |Increase in cost of staples||$400||$140| |New cost of staples||$1,200||$420| |New total food costs||$4,400||$540| |Food Cost as % of Income||11%||67.5%| |Percent increase in food cost||10%||35%| * These are illustrative food budgets that characterize the situations for consumers in high- and low-income countries. Source: Based on information from Global Agricultural Supply and Demand: Factors Contributing to the Recent Increase in Food Commodity Prices/WFS-0801, July, 2008. Economic Research Service, USDA. Future Demand Growth The demand for grains will continue to grown in the future. One of the driving factors is expanding world population. From 2000 to 2005, world population grew by more than the entire population of the United States. As shown in Table 3, 85 percent of the growth occurred in Asia and Africa. The population of Europe actually declined. So, most of the growth is occurring in developing countries. Table 3. World Population Growth (2000 to 2005) In combination with population growth, the expanding world “middle class” is demanding high value food products that put additional demands on world agricultural production. A future article titled “China on a Western Diet” will address this topic. The Impact of Biofuels A reason commonly given for the current high world food prices is the diversion of cropland acreage away from food production to energy production. In the U.S. ethanol is made from corn. As shown in Table 4, U.S. corn acreage increased substantially in 2007 from its 2003-06 average. The majority of those acres were taken from soybean production. In 2008, corn acreage retreated and soybean acreage rebounded to its 2003-06 level. Corn and soybeans are used primarily for livestock feed. For example, only about 10 percent of U.S. corn production is processed directly into food products. Most is fed to livestock that are mostly consumed by high income consumers. However, U.S. feed corn prices have driven up food corn prices in Africa and Mexico, where corn goes directly into the human food chain. Moreover, soybean oil is an important staple in the Far East. In China, almost everything is cooked in soybean oil or other vegetable oil. Table 4. U.S. Planted Acreage of Major Crops 1/ Represents 59% of world corn acreage 2/ Represents less than 10% of world wheat acreage 3/ Represents less than 1% of world rice acreage The basic staples of many poor countries are grains that can be consumed directly like wheat and rice. Although world wheat price increased substantially in 2007 and early 2008, it was not due to the encroachment of corn for U.S. biofuels production. As shown in Table 1, U.S. wheat acreage actually increased in 2007 from the 2003-06 average, and increased again in 2008. However, in the absence of corn for biofuels production, wheat acres may have expanded more or the actual expansion may have been achieved at lower wheat prices. Moreover, the need for expanded corn acreage in the future will place continued pressure on wheat acreage and the wheat price need to main existing acreage. The small U.S. rice acreage is on land that is not designed for the production of traditional grains. The threat of substitution is limited. On a worldwide basis, about 35 million acres of land were used for biofuels in 2004. This is about one percent of total arable land. The Energy Information Administration predicts this will increase to 2 to 3.5 percent by 2030. While the biofuels industry (U.S. and worldwide) is a contributing factor, it is not the only cause of rising world commodity food prices. The precise impact is difficult to assess. In next month’s article we will attempt to provide some comparison scenarios of food supplies and prices if the biofuels industry did not exist. Most of the popular press reports about the food and energy situation focus on actions we can take to solve the situation immediately. However, if we are to be successful, we must also take a holistic and long-term view of the situation and implement policies and programs that will impact the long-term causes of the problem. Below we address the situation from a short-, intermediate- and long-term perspective. There is no good short-term solution to the situation we face today. Many of the programs and policies we implement today will not produce results until the intermediate and long term time periods. However, if you are one of the millions without enough to eat, solutions that provide help next year or in the next decade provide little comfort. Programs that provide immediate food aid and other assistance are required to meet the current needs. However, these programs need to provide assistance without competing with the local agricultural sector. If the problem is the high price of food rather than an actual shortage of food, buying food locally at world prices and providing it to residents at a discounted price provides food for local residents while supporting local agriculture. Conversely, bringing in food staples from outside competes directly with local farmers and impedes the country’s ability to be self-sustaining in food production in future years. Higher agricultural prices stimulate farmers around the world to increase production. This is a powerful force that is often neglected in discussions about the current food situation. The payoff from using better seed varieties, more fertilizer and other production inputs is magnified when grain prices are high. However, this will not impact today’s situation. At least one production cycle is required to increase production. And this assumes that farmers have access to production inputs and the money to purchase them. So, programs that provide access and funding are important for increased production in the coming years. Moreover, policies that limit commodity price increases within countries must be avoided. Developing countries are under pressure to limit price increases in an effort to ease the domestic short-term situation. However, high prices are necessary to stimulate increased domestic production. So, short term programs and policies need to be designed that provide immediate food assistance without depressing or limiting prices. Increased funding for agricultural research and education is the long-term solution to the situation. New seed varieties, new and improved production inputs, better cultural practices, increased knowledge of how to apply these practices, and an array of other research efforts have the ability to significantly increase world agricultural production. Although research programs are of little value in the short-term, their cumulative impact over five, ten or more years can be enormous. However, the challenge will be great. The combined forces of: - continued world population growth, - increased demand for higher quality food by the world’s expanding “middle class”, and - the need to provide both food and fuel, require careful monitoring by the international community and substantial worldwide investment in agricultural research and application. And this agricultural expansion needs to be done in a sustainable manner while adapting to the impacts of climate change on the world’s agricultural production capacity in the near term and mitigating climate change in the long term. References and Further Reading Issue Report: What's Driving Food Prices? - Farm Foundation, July 2008. Global Agricultural Supply and Demand: Factors Contributing to the Recent Increase in Food Commodity Prices/WFS-0801, July, 2008. Economic Research Service, USDA. Rising Food Prices and Global Food Needs: The U.S.Response, Congressional Research Service, May 2008. Rising Food Prices: Policy Options and World Bank response , World Bank, 2008. Implications of Higher Global Food Prices for Poverty in Low-income Countries, World Bank, April, 2008. Impact of High Food and Fuel Prices on Developing Countries—Frequently Asked Questions. International Monetary Fund, April, 2008. The High-Level Conference on World Food Security: the Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy, Food and Agriculture Organization, June 2008. Biofuels and Sustainable Development, Executive Session on Grand Challenges of the Sustainability Transition, May 2008.

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16th-century Peruvian convent and its historic art eyed for restoration LIMA, Peru (CNS) — Half-hidden behind palm trees at the end of a once elegant avenue in a now rundown neighborhood, the Convento de los Descalzos — the Convent of the Barefoot Friars — has witnessed half a millennium of Peruvian history. Age, economic woes and benign neglect have taken their toll, and the convent has fallen on hard times. But Alberta Alvarez, the director of a foundation established less than a year ago to revitalize the convent, is trying to change that. With about 500 artworks hanging throughout its seven cloisters and tucked away in storerooms, the building that once housed Franciscan missionaries offers “a journey through three centuries of religious art, all in one place,” Alvarez said. During colonial times, Spanish clergy used paintings and statues of religious figures and scenes for evangelization. The convent’s 16th-, 17th- and 18th-century art represent styles known as the Cuzco, Lima and Quito schools, which reflect the melding of European and indigenous artistic styles. Built at the foot of St. Christopher’s Hill, a Lima landmark that provides a panoramic view of the city, the convent itself is a work of art. Founded in the late 1500s by Franciscan friars who sought to live more simply — and whose practice of going without shoes or wearing only sandals gave the Convent of Saint Mary of the Angels its popular name — the place became a museum in the 1980s. Graceful arched porticos around the convent’s seven cloisters provide a refuge from the loud rush-hour traffic outside. But some pillars cracked in recent earthquakes, electrical wiring is exposed to the elements, and saints, angels and early Franciscan missionaries stare down from the walls through layers of mold and grime. “The museum has many needs,” said Alvarez, a native of Spain who first traveled to Lima to volunteer in Franciscan mission work and now heads the fledgling museum foundation. Protecting and restoring the artwork is a priority, but restoration experts are in short supply in Peru, she said. The few who do graduate from National University of San Marcos or Lima’s Fine Arts School are snapped up by art museums or better-funded organizations. As a first step, Alvarez organized a seminar on colonial art restoration in May, inviting Pilar Sedano, director general of cultural heritage for the city of Madrid and former head of restoration and conservation at the Museo Nacional del Prado, Spain’s national art museum. The seminar drew more than 100 participants, including many students from towns in the interior of the country. “Everyone asked if they could sign up for the next one,” said Alvarez, who hopes future events can include more hands-on training. She estimates that it would cost about $200,000 to establish a workshop in the convent where half a dozen professional art restorers could work on a rotating basis with six art school graduates on fellowships. That amount is currently beyond the museum’s reach, but the seminar gave Alvarez and her colleagues a chance to test restoration techniques on a painting from the convent’s collection. The surface was so dark that details were unclear, and Alvarez thought it was probably a painting of St. Francis of Assisi. But an X-ray image — made with a machine borrowed from the parish clinic next door — revealed the head of a violin beneath the saint’s left arm, a symbol associated with the Franciscan missionary St. Francis Solano. As they began to clean and restore the painting, the violin scroll and other details came into view. “It’s exciting when you start to work and people appear on the canvas,” Alvarez said. Although it is now in the middle of Peru’s sprawling capital, the convent originally was outside the city, surrounded by fields and vineyards. Behind the refectory, where the walls are lined with images of saints and early Franciscan missionaries, a wine cellar still holds huge wooden barrels for aging wine. Up a flight of stairs, apothecary jars and equipment from the 19th century are on display in a room in an adjoining courtyard, and Alvarez said she hopes to plant medicinal plants the friars used in the garden. Another room holds old printing equipment. Alvarez would like to create displays recounting the missionary history of the Franciscans, who were among the first to venture into the Peruvian Amazon, using the museum’s old maps. They also need preservation and restoration work, however, as does a set of choral books. “Every day, you see more opportunities,” Alvarez said. “We have the documentation, but someone has to sit down and review it, pull out the information, and think about how the museum can be organized.” For now, her biggest challenge is finding a way to launch an ambitious project on a shoestring budget. “We need everything,” she said. “We’re just beginning.”

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Culture of poverty |Part of a series on| |Economic, applied and development |Social and cultural anthropology| ||This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. (July 2010)| The culture of poverty is a social theory that expands on the cycle of poverty. It attracted academic and policy attention in the 1960s, but has largely been discredited by academics around the turn of the century (Goode and Eames, 1996; Bourgois, 2001; Small M.L., Harding D.J., Lamont M., 2010). Although the idea is experiencing a "comeback" current scholars recognize racism and isolation, rather than the "values" of the poor as the reason for potentially mal-adaptive behaviors of the poor. It offers one way to explain why poverty exists despite anti-poverty programs; critics of the culture of poverty argument insist that structural factors rather than individual characteristics better explain the persistence of poverty (Goode and Eames, 1996; Bourgois, 2001; Small M.L., Harding D.J., Lamont M., 2010). Early proponents of this theory argued that the poor are not simply lacking resources, but also acquire a poverty-perpetuating value system. According to Oscar Lewis, "The subculture [of the poor] develops mechanisms that tend to perpetuate it, especially because of what happens to the world view, aspirations, and character of the children who grow up in it.” (Moynihan 1969, p. 199). Later scholars have noticed that the poor do not have different values. The term "subculture of poverty" (later shortened to "culture of poverty") made its first appearance in the ethnography Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (1959) by anthropologist Oscar Lewis. Lewis struggled to render "the poor" as legitimate subjects whose lives were transformed by poverty. He argued that although the burdens of poverty were systemic and therefore imposed upon these members of society, they led to the formation of an autonomous subculture as children were socialized into behaviors and attitudes that perpetuated their inability to escape the underclass. Lewis gave some seventy characteristics (1996 , 1998) that indicated the presence of the culture of poverty, which he argued was not shared among all of the lower classes. The people in the culture of poverty have a strong feeling of marginality, of helplessness, of dependency, of not belonging. They are like aliens in their own country, convinced that the existing institutions do not serve their interests and needs. Along with this feeling of powerlessness is a widespread feeling of inferiority, of personal unworthiness. This is true of the slum dwellers of Mexico City, who do not constitute a distinct ethnic or racial group and do not suffer from racial discrimination. In the United States the culture of poverty that exists in the Negroes has the additional disadvantage of racial discrimination. People with a culture of poverty have very little sense of history. They are a marginal people who know only their own troubles, their own local conditions, their own neighborhood, their own way of life. Usually, they have neither the knowledge, the vision nor the ideology to see the similarities between their problems and those of others like themselves elsewhere in the world. In other words, they are not class conscious, although they are very sensitive indeed to status distinctions. When the poor become class conscious or members of trade union organizations, or when they adopt an internationalist outlook on the world they are, in my view, no longer part of the culture of poverty although they may still be desperately poor. (Lewis 1998) Although Lewis was concerned with poverty in the developing world, the culture of poverty concept proved attractive to U.S. public policy makers and politicians. It strongly informed documents such as the Moynihan Report (1965) and the War on Poverty more generally. The culture of poverty also emerges as a key concept in Michael Harrington's discussion of American poverty in The Other America (1962). For Harrington, the culture of poverty is a structural concept defined by social institutions of exclusion which create and perpetuate the cycle of poverty in America. Since the 1960s critics of culture of poverty explanations for the persistence of the underclasses have attempted to show that real world data do not fit Lewis' model (Goode and Eames, 1996). In 1974, anthropologist Carol Stack issued a critique of it, calling it "fatalistic" and noticing the way that believing in the idea of a culture of poverty does not describe the poor so much as it serves the interests of the rich. She writes, "The culture of poverty, as Hylan Lewis points out, has a fundamental political nature. The ideas matters most to political and scientific groups attempting to rationalize why some Americans have failed to make it in American society. It is, Lewis (1971) argues, 'an idea that people believe, want to believe, and perhaps need to believe.' They want to believe that raising the income of the poor would not change their life styles or values, but merely funnel greater sums of money into bottomless, self-destructing pits." Thus, she demonstrates the way that political interests to keep the wages of the poor low create a climate in which it is politically convenient to buy into the idea of culture of poverty (Stack 1974). In sociology and anthropology, the concept created a backlash, pushing scholars to look to structures rather than "blaming-the-victim" (Bourgois, 2001). Since the late '90s, the culture of poverty has witnessed a resurgence in the social sciences, although most scholars now reject the notion of a monolithic and unchanging culture of poverty and attribute destructive attitudes and behavior not to inherent moral character but to sustained racism and isolation (Small M.L., Harding D.J., Lamont M., 2010). - Cohen, Patricia, ‘Culture of Poverty’ Makes a Comeback, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/18/us/18poverty.html - Stack, Carol. 1974. All Our Kin. Harper & Row. - Goode, Judith and Edwin Eames (1996). "An Anthropological Critique of the Culture of Poverty". In G. Gmelch and W. Zenner. Urban Life. Waveland Press. - Harrington, Michael (1962). The Other America: Poverty in the United States. Simon & Schuster. - Lewis, Oscar (1996 (1966)). "The Culture of Poverty". In G. Gmelch and W. Zenner, eds. Urban Life. Waveland Press. - Lewis, Oscar (1969). "Culture of Poverty". In Moynihan, Daniel P. On Understanding Poverty: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. New York: Basic Books. pp. 187–220. - Lewis, Oscar (January 1998). "The culture of poverty". Society 35 (2): 7. doi:10.1007/BF02838122. - Mayer, Susan E. (1997). What money can’t buy : family income and children’s life chances. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-58733-2. Retrieved 2009-11-09. - Duvoux, Nicolas, "The culture of poverty reconsidered", La vie des idées : http://www.laviedesidees.fr/The-Culture-of-Poverty.html - Patricia Cohen (2010-10-17). "‘Culture of Poverty’ Makes a Comeback". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-10-20. - Bourgois, Phillipe (2001). "Culture of Poverty". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Waveland Press. - Small M.L., Harding D.J., Lamont M. (2010). "Reconsidering culture and poverty". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 629 (1): 6–27. doi:10.1177/0002716210362077.

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What’s it like to walk in space? In the first part of an examination of the challenges of living in space, our space correspondent steps outside the International Space Station. “Here we go…” “Whoah!” is all I can manage as I find myself transported from a cluttered office in Houston to Earth orbit. Below, 350km (220 miles) away, the blue and white crescent of the Earth. Above me is the glistening white hull of the International Space Station (ISS), its vast solar arrays glinting in the sunshine. Nasa hasn’t invented teleport. This is the agency’s Virtual Reality (VR) Laboratory at the Johnson Space Centre where dreams of space travel really can come true. The lab complements underwater training and prepares astronauts for EVAs [Extra Vehicular Activity] – space walks – and work with robotic arms. Most of the room looks like a regular office with desks, computers and monitors but the rear section resembles an eccentric gym. Ropes hang from the ceiling, metal boxes are suspended on bungee cords and the room is criss-crossed by lines and pulleys. “That’s where most of the virtual reality takes place,” says James Tinch, chief engineer for the Robotics Astronaut Office and manager of the lab. “The crewmembers put on the helmets and they get the sensation that they’re at the space station. The metal boxes with the ropes and pulleys tied to them are a mass handling device, so the crews can get a feel for what it takes to handle a large mass in space and how much trouble they might have just to move it around.” I sit on the chair at the centre of the test area and Tinch gently lowers a harness over my shoulders. This holds the electronics for the virtual reality helmet, which he tightens around my head, allowing me to see an image of the VR environment. Next come the gloves. They look like cycling gloves and are fitted with sensors for grip and movement. I pull them onto my fingers. A box mounted to the ceiling above me will track their position as I move my hands around. Then Tinch clicks the start button and I’m in orbit reaching out to the handrail just outside the airlock. I truly feel that I’m in space and yet to look at me, I’m still sitting on a chair at the centre of a room. “Right now you’re next to the ISS airlock, where the crew members come out,” says Tinch, calmly. But I’m feeling anything but calm as I struggle to comprehend my new surroundings. Try before you buy If I look down I can see the rest of my spacesuit; straight ahead and there are my hands, now encased in astronaut gloves, tightly clasping the handrail. After giving me a few minutes to get acquainted with the view, Tinch instructs me to try to pull myself across one of the space station modules by releasing my left hand from the rail and gripping again further along. The idea is to pull myself around, hand over hand. But I let go too quickly and end up pushing myself away. I try to ‘swim’ back towards the structure, waving my hands wildly back and forth, but realise there’s nothing to push against. One of the major challenges of space walking – and a fuller understanding of Newton’s laws of motion – starts to become apparent. “In space your hands pretty well do all your work for you,” says Tinch. “So your legs can kick and do anything but they’re not helping you.” “One of the things you’ll find in space is that your wrist is one of the primary sources of how you move your body around, so astronauts do a lot of exercises with their hands and wrists to make sure they’re strong enough,” Tinch explains. “It’s a long day in those suits as you’re working against the suit and working against yourself, trying to get the work done.” Quite how difficult space walking could prove to be was first brought home to Nasa in 1966, when astronaut Gene Cernan left the confines of the Gemini 9 spacecraft for the world’s third EVA. Later described by Cernan as “the spacewalk from hell,” he fought to control his tether and tumbled in a “slow motion ballet.” By the end, his heart rate had tripled, his visor had fogged up and he struggled to get back into the capsule. Although I wasn’t in any danger (except perhaps from falling off my chair), forty-six years later, I experienced similar problems. If I moved my arm one way, my virtual body spun the other. The normal rules of movement that we are accustomed to on Earth do not apply in space. Imagine the simple act of tightening a bolt – without something to push against, as you turn the bolt you end up spinning in the opposite direction, achieving nothing. To overcome this problem, the ISS is fitted with handrails, footholds and often the crew will also use a robotic arm to assist them. And they cannot just pop outside when the mood takes them. Lessons learnt over the years mean that every EVA is meticulously planned and choreographed. In fact, “space dance” might be a better way of describing what’s involved. Tinch explains that the VR lab enables astronauts to solve problems before they try it for real. “If I have these four bolts I have to undo, what’s the best way for my body position to be? So you’re trying to do the choreography of the EVA and trying to figure out what works best for that workspace.” For those already on the ISS, the lab is developing VR helmets that can hook up to the station’s own laptops so astronauts can refresh their training on the job. After 20 minutes in orbit, I’m exhausted. My back aches, my face is dripping with sweat and my wrists are sore. As he lifts off the helmet, Tinch assures me that astronauts trying this for the first time have similar problems. If this were real, I would be wearing a bulky spacesuit, looking through a visor and would not have the luxury of stopping when I got a bit tired. The experience has given me a new appreciation of the training, skill and effort it takes to operate in the uncompromising space environment. A reality check for those of us who advocate manned missions to the Moon and Mars that we should never take this stuff for granted. Space walking may look like fun but, once you get over the amazing view, it is hard. Really hard. In future columns Richard will be reporting from inside the space station control room and the full-sized mock-up of the ISS at Houston to discover what it takes to keep the astronauts alive.

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|Search Results (6 videos found)| |NASASciFiles - Meteors NASA Sci Files segment explaining what meteors, meteoroids, and meteorites are and the differences in these. Keywords: NASA Sci Files; Rock; Comet; Outer Space; Meteor; Meteoroid; Meteorite; Sonic Boom; Speed of Sound; Seismic Activity; Fire Ball; Shooting Star; Popularity (downloads): 2170 |NASAWhy?Files - Equilibrium NASA Why? Files segment explaining the concept of equlibrium and how the Treehouse Detectives could maintain equlibrium in a Martian environment. Keywords: NASA Why? Files; Adaptation; Environment; Oxygen; Atmosphere; Astronauts; Trash Management; Module; Sunlight; Gravity; Equlilibrium; Balanced System; Mars; Habitat; Weather; Meteors; Plants; Algae; Algal Bloom; Fish; Popularity (downloads): 1401 |NASASciFiles - Moon Phases NASA Sci Files segment explaining the phases of the moon and how they are created. 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Researchers at Rensselaer have developed a new energy storage device that easily could be mistaken for a simple sheet of black paper. The nanoengineered battery is lightweight, ultra thin, completely flexible, and geared toward meeting the trickiest design and energy requirements of tomorrow’s gadgets, implantable medical equipment, and transportation vehicles. Along with its ability to function in temperatures up to 300 degrees Fahrenheit and down to 100 below zero, the device is completely integrated and can be printed like paper. The device is also unique in that it can function as both a high-energy battery and a high-power supercapacitor, which are generally separate components in most electrical systems. Another key feature is the capability to use human blood or sweat to help power the battery. Details of the project are outlined in the paper “Flexible Energy Storage Devices Based on Nanocomposite Paper” published Aug. 13 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The semblance to paper is no accident: more than 90 percent of the device is made up of cellulose, the same plant cells used in newsprint, loose leaf, lunch bags, and nearly every other type of paper. Rensselaer researchers infused this paper with aligned carbon nanotubes, which give the device its black color. The nanotubes act as electrodes and allow the storage devices to conduct electricity. The device, engineered to function as both a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor, can provide the long, steady power output comparable to a conventional battery, as well as a supercapacitor’s quick burst of high energy. The device can be rolled, twisted, folded, or cut into any number of shapes with no loss of mechanical integrity or efficiency. The paper batteries can also be stacked, like a ream of printer paper, to boost the total power output. “It’s essentially a regular piece of paper, but it’s made in a very intelligent way,” said paper co-author Robert Linhardt, the Ann and John H. Broadbent Senior Constellation Professor of Biocatalysis and Metabolic Engineering. “We’re not putting pieces together it’s a single, integrated device,” he said. “The components are molecularly attached to each other: the carbon nanotube print is embedded in the paper, and the electrolyte is soaked into the paper. The end result is a device that looks, feels, and weighs the same as paper.” The creation of this unique nanocomposite paper drew from a diverse pool of disciplines, requiring expertise in materials science, energy storage, and chemistry. Along with Linhardt, authors of the paper include Pulickel M. Ajayan, professor of materials science and engineering, and Omkaram Nalamasu, professor of chemistry with a joint appointment in materials science and engineering. Senior research specialist Victor Pushparaj, along with postdoctoral research associates Shaijumon M. Manikoth, Ashavani Kumar, and Saravanababu Murugesan, were co-authors and lead researchers of the project. Other The researchers used ionic liquid, essentially a liquid salt, as the battery’s electrolyte. It’s important to note that ionic liquid contains no water, which means there’s nothing in the batteries to freeze or evaporate. “This lack of water allows the paper energy storage devices to Along with use in small handheld electronics, the paper batteries’ light weight could make them ideal for use in automobiles, aircraft, and even boats. “Plus, because of the high paper content and lack of toxic chemicals, it’s environmentally safe,” Shaijumon said. Paper is also extremely biocompatible and these new hybrid battery/supercapacitors have potential as power supplies for devices implanted in the body. The team printed paper batteries without adding any electrolytes, and demonstrated that naturally occurring electrolytes in human sweat, blood, and urine can be used to activate the battery device. “It’s a way to power a small device such as a pacemaker without introducing any harsh chemicals such as the kind that are typically found in batteries into the body,” Pushparaj said. The materials required to create the paper batteries are inexpensive, Murugesan said, but the team has not yet developed a way to inexpensively mass produce the devices. The end goal is to print the paper using a roll-to-roll system similar to how newspapers are printed. The team of researchers has already filed a patent protecting the invention. They are now working on ways to boost the efficiency of the batteries and supercapacitors, and investigating different manufacturing techniques. The paper energy storage device project was supported by the New York State Office of Science, Technology, and Academic Research (NYSTAR), as well as the National Science Foundation (NSF) through the Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center at Rensselaer. Send comments to: Inside Rensselaer, Strategic Communications and External Relations 1000 Troy Building, 110 Eighth Street, Troy, N.Y. 12180 or to email@example.com. |Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute | About RPI | Virtual Campus Tour | Academics | Research | Student Life | Admissions | News & Events|

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The waste characteristics factor category in the ground water pathway is made up of two components: the toxicity/mobility of the most hazardous substance associated with the site and the hazardous waste quantity at the site. The most hazardous substance at a site is identified as the hazardous substance receiving the highest toxicity/mobility value factor. The hazardous waste quantity factor is evaluated as discussed in Section 5. - The Most Hazardous Substance at a Site - Toxicity/Mobility Factor - Hazardous Waste Quantity - Waste Characteristics Factor Category Value The most hazardous substance at a site is identified by calculating the toxicity/mobility factor all eligible hazardous substances associated with the site. Eligible hazardous substances consist of those hazardous substances available to migrate from the sources at the site to ground water and include: - All hazardous substances found in ground water observed releases at the site. - All hazardous substances found in a source with a non-zero ground water containment factor value. - All hazardous substances assigned to the "unallocated source." As noted in Section 5, the determination of the toxicity value for a hazardous substance is complex, involving assessments of a substances relative propensity to cause cancer and/or non-cancer adverse health effects (such as liver damage or death). Toxicity values for nearly all hazardous substances of interest can be found in SCDM. If a value is needed for a hazardous substance not found in SCDM, then EPA should be consulted to determine the appropriate course of action. Toxicity factor values should not be independently calculated. Ground water mobility is a measure of the propensity of a substance to migrate through an aquifer and reach targets. The mobility factor value assigned to a hazardous substance is based on generic and site-specific considerations. The mobility factor for any substance found in any ground water observed release at the site is assigned a value of 1. Otherwise, the substance mobility factor value is assigned based on the water solubility and distribution coefficient of the substance. As with the toxicity factor, the rules for determining the mobility factor values for a hazardous mobility factor values for nearly all hazardous substances of interest can be found in SCDM. If a value is needed for a hazardous substance not found in SCDM, then EPA should be consulted to determine the appropriate course of action. Mobility factor values should not be independently calculated. The SCDM mobility factor values may not be directly applicable at a site because the HRS contains special, site-specific provisions to be applied in certain situations: - Substances found in ground water observed releases are assigned a mobility factor value of 1. - Hazardous substance deposited or currently present in the source as a liquid are essentially assigned the maximum water solubility value. - Hazardous substances are essentially assigned the minimum distribution coefficient value when evaluating karst aquifers. - A default value of 0.002 is used if none of the hazardous substances eligible to be evaluated can be assigned a mobility factor value. SCDM contains water solubility and distribution coefficient values for many hazardous substances for use in these situations. It is important to note the sequential effect that demonstrating an observed release has on the ground water pathway score. If an observed release is demonstrated then: - the maximum likelihood of release value of 550 is assigned (a value 10 percent higher than the maximum potential to release value) - all hazardous substances meeting the observed release criteria are assigned the maximum mobility factor value. Further impacts of observed release demonstrations on target evaluations will be discussed later. With toxicity and mobility values calculated, the toxicity/mobility factor is obtained by referring to Table 3-9 of the HRS Rule. The most hazardous substance for the ground water pathway is the one with the highest toxicity/mobility value. This is the value used to score the aquifer (the value is entered in line 4 of Table 3-1 of the HRS Rule). Note that many substances that are highly toxic have low values for ground water mobility. For example, PCBs, which are highly toxic (toxicity value of 10,000), sorb easily and have a mobility value of 0.0001, even when in liquid state. This explains why observed releases of PCBs to ground water have been documented at only a few sites. What would happen to the toxicity/mobility value if PCBs were detected in a ground water sample at observed release criteria? ANSWER The hazardous waste quantity (HWQ) — the second component of the waste characteristics factor value — is evaluated based only on those sources that have a ground water containment value greater than zero. The waste characteristics factor category value is determined in a straight-forward manner by first multiplying the toxicity/mobility factor value by the hazardous waste quantity value, subject to a maximum value of 108. The waste characteristics factor category value is then determined using this product as specified in HRS Rule Table 2-7. The maximum value achievable in the ground water pathway is 100. In the absence of both an observed release and karst terrain, the waste characteristics factor category value remains the same for all aquifers underlying the site. The above diagram summarizes the steps taken to arrive at the waste characteristics value. Consider the site shown above. As illustrated, the site records indicate that 13 drums containing waste chlordane and arsenical pesticides were deposited in an unlined pit. The SCDM toxicity values for chlordane and arsenic: - arsenic: 10,000 - chlordane: 10,000 The SCDM ground water mobility values for chlordane and arsenic: - arsenic: 0.01 - chlordane: 0.01 [Slide 1 of 3] [Home]

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Friday, December 15, 2006 Welcome Message Converted Sunday, December 03, 2006 The Cascajal Block and the Lost Continent of Mu Cascajal Block and Symbols In September 2006, Science Magazine published a paper entitled "Oldest Writing In the New World". The item of note in the article and most widely reported was that the block showed what appeared to be a sample of the oldest writing ever found in the Americas. As this discovery took place in a location where William Niven had unearthed artifacts and relics in the early 20th century and some of these items were subsequently used as evidence by James Churchward of ancient civilizations - then this new discovery might have some bearing on my research. The questions I want answered are: 1. How close were the discoveries by Niven to the Cascajal Block? 2. Does this ancient script have similar characters to the symbols discussed in the books by James Churchward ? 3. Does this new discovery prove, disprove, or have no bearing on the theories of James Churchward ? In answering questions about William Niven and his digs in Mexico - I turned to the biography of William Niven entitled: "Buried Cities, Forgotten Gods."[Wicks and Harrison; Texas Tech University Press] Niven's Tablet #1584 It is true that the 1926 'Lost Continent of Mu, Motherland of Man' had an entire chapter entitled "Niven's Buried Cities," but James' first contact with Niven was after the publication of the first book (September 19, 1927.) Their relationship, as determined from correspondence, is covered in "Buried Cities, Forgotten Gods." In 1928, Niven sent rubbings of some 2500 tablets from the Valley of Mexico to James. These were translated by James and found their way into the 1931 "Lost Continent of Mu" and the 1931, "Children of Mu." I have seen references to these rubbings having been published, however I am not aware of the location of the original or reproductions thereof. Whether or not James' interpretation was valid is left to different research, the preceding is background information to help calculate the distance between discoveries. One location cited in the Mexico Valley was Atzcapotzalco (19.4889N 99.1836W.) The Cascajal Block was found in Cascajal, Veracruz-Llave (17.9500N 95.1167W). Using an online latitude/longitude calculator (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~cvm/latlongdist.html) and would place them 286.9 statute miles apart. In answering question #2, I perused the 1926 Lost Continent of Mu, Motherland of Man, a 1969 reprint of the 1931 Lost Continent of Mu, a 1988 reprint of the 1959 printing of Children of Mu (originally published in 1931,) and the 1988 reprint of the 1960 printing of the Sacred Symbols of Mu (originally published in 1933.) I could find no direct matches between the symbols on the Cascajal Block and any symbol in the aforementioned books. I looked at the symbols contained in the creation myth, I looked at the tables of primitive symbols and hieratic characters and I looked at the depictions of rock carvings. Cascajal Block Symbol #53 Lost Continent of Mu (1931) page 53 The closest a symbol came to resembling a symbol in James Churchward's books is #3[& 16, 45, 53, 59.] The symbol at the top is referenced in numerous places as "Lands of the West" (Lost Continent of Mu, Motherland of Man page 53). The oblong shape beneath is not part of Churchward's theories. Michael Everson, on his website analysis of the Cascajal Block (http://www.evertype.com/gram/olmec.html) identifies the symbol as a pineapple, which is as good an explanation given the other symbols on the tablet. Given that 28 (or 30 as interpretated by Michael Everson) unique symbols found on the Cascajal Block only one remotely resembles a symbol from an ancient civilization, then I would have to answer that there is no correlation between the symbols on the Cascajal Block and symbols discussed by James Churchward. Does this discovery prove, disprove or have no bearing on the theories of James Churchward ? Having no matches between the Cascajal Block symbols and those found in James Churchward's works does not prove or disprove anything, nor does the distances between where the objects were found. It might be said that the age of the artifacts could be different and that could account for the differences. Unfortunately, the Cascajal Block has no bearing on proving or disproving the theories of James Churchward, but still is an object to be studied in the hopes that one day, its secrets will be revealed to the world. - Stone Pages Archaeo News Printed Coverage - Stone Pages Archaeo News Audio Coverage - Archaeology Channel Printed Coverage - Archaeology Channel Audio Coverage - NPR Coverage - LiveScience Coverage - Research Paper (pdf format)

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Herbal Alternatives to Drugs in Pain Management, Part II By John Chen, PhD, PharmD, OMD, LAc Editor's note: Part I of Dr. Chen's column appeared in the May issue of Acupuncture Today. Traditional Chinese Medicine According to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), the fundamental etiology of pain is qi stagnation, blood stagnation, or both. It is often said that where there is pain, there is stagnation; where there is stagnation, there is pain. Therefore, effective pain relief most often requires the use of herbs that activate qi and blood, removing stagnation and thus resolving the cause of pain. As is true in all treatment involving Chinese medicinal herbs, they are most commonly prescribed in carefully-combined formulas (rather than singly) that directly address the causes and/or symptoms of the imbalance and treat without creating unwanted side-effects or complications. In addition to treating qi and blood stagnation, successful treatment of pain also requires careful differential diagnosis of pain. The three main diagnostic keys are the location of the discomfort, the type of pain and the cause of pain. Location refers to the exact part of the body that is affected: upper body, lower body, external musculoskeletal muscle, internal smooth muscle and so on. The type of pain refers to the characteristics of the patient's pain, such as a sharp, stabbing pain or dull aching, pain at a fixed location as opposed to migratory pain, pain helped by cold or by heat, and other distinguishing characteristics. Lastly, identifying the cause of pain helps the practitioner differentiate soft tissue injuries from structural damage. For example, leg spasms and cramps often involve only soft tissue, while an acute sprained ankle is often accompanied by structural damage. Accurate evaluation of these three criteria is crucial for greatly enhanced diagnostic accuracy and successful relief for the patient. Herbal Treatment for Headache Headache pain may arise from internal or external causes such as invasion of wind, cold, heat, dampness, dryness, summer heat, accumulation of phlegm, and other pathogens in addition to qi and blood stagnation. Headache pain may represent excess or deficient conditions and may affect the occiput, vertex, sinuses and orbital region. It may also present with a complex of locations/symptoms, such as in migraine. Corydalis (yan hu suo) is one of the strongest herbs available to relieve pain and reduce inflammation. Research studies have shown it to work directly on the central nervous system with analgesic effects comparable to those of morphine and codeine.1,2 Another herb, pueraria root (ge gen), has demonstrated remarkable effectiveness in relieving headache pain.3,4,5 Other herbs have proved effective in relieving various types of headaches, including (but not limited to) migraine, vertex, sinus and orbital headache.6,7,8 Many classical Chinese herbal formulas are also commonly used to treat headache. Cnidium & tea formula (chuan xiong cha tiao san) treats headaches due to wind cold. Evodia combination (wu zhu yu tang) relieves vertex headache due to cold and is also used to treat migraine. Coptis, phellodendron & mint formula (huang lian shang qing wan) addresses headache caused by heat. Notopterygium & tuhuo combination (qiang huo sheng shi tang) treats headache due to wind and dampness. Gastrodia & gambir combination (tian ma gou teng yin) relieves headache secondary to liver yang rising. Eucommia & rehmannia formula (you gui wan) tonifies kidney deficiency to relieve headache. Tangkuei & ginseng eight combination (ba zhen tang) tonifies qi and blood deficiency to relieve headache. Pinellia & gastrodia combination (ban xia bai zhu tian ma tang) relieves headache due to phlegm stagnation. Herbal Treatment for Neck and Shoulder Pain Neck and shoulder injuries can be divided into two major categories: acute and chronic. Acute injuries are generally characterized by redness, swelling, inflammation and sharp pain. Chronic injuries are generally characterized by stiffness, numbness, discomfort and dull pain. Acute neck and shoulder problems are often caused by accidents, whiplash, improper sleeping or reading postures, and similar traumas. In addition to pain, redness, swelling and/or inflammation are sometimes present. Treatment consists of reducing pain, swelling and muscle spasms. Herbal formulas are designed to dispel painful symptoms while supporting the healing process. Strong analgesic herbs like corydalis (yan hu suo) are combined with anti-spasmodic herbs and blood-invigorating herbs to alleviate pain, promote blood circulation and open the meridian channels. Chronic neck and shoulder problems are characterized by pain, numbness, stiffness, discomfort, limited mobility, slow recovery or continuing deterioration. Effective treatment must focus on activating qi and blood circulation, opening the channels and collaterals, and nourishing the muscles and tendons. Corydalis is a main herb in the treatment of both acute and chronic neck and shoulder problems. In addition to having strong analgesic properties, it also has a distinctive facility for treating both acute and chronic cases of inflammation.9 Corydalis also protects against NSAID-induced gastric and duodenal ulcers by reducing gastric acid secretion.10 Classical formulas that treat neck and shoulder pain include the following specific applications. Lindera formula (wu yao shun qi san) is formulated for shoulder pain, while pueraria combination (ge gen tang) is more specific for stiff neck due to cold. Atractylodes & arisaema combination (er zhu tang) relieves deficient-type neck and shoulder disorders but may not have strong analgesic effects. Herbal Treatment for Back Pain Similar to neck and shoulder pain, back pain can be divided into two major categories: acute and chronic, with many of the key symptoms described in the categories above. Many classic formulas tonify the kidney to relieve back pain and weakness. Tuhuo & loranthus combination (du huo ji sheng tang) eliminates wind and dampness and has a rapid onset to relieve acute back pain. Herbal formulas that tonify the kidney tend to be slower in action and are more suitable for chronic back pain. Cyathula & rehmannia formula (zuo gui wan) is more specific to address kidney yin deficiency; eucommia & rehmannia formula (you gui wan) focuses more specifically on kidney yang deficiency; and rehmannia eight formula (ba wei di huang wan) tonifies both kidney yin and yang. Herbal Treatment for Musculoskeletal Pain and Painful Obstruction (Bi) Syndrome Musculoskeletal pain is often classified as painful obstruction (bi) syndrome. Though there are many causes of this syndrome, cold and heat are the most common etiologies. Cold-type musculoskeletal pain is characterized by stiffness, pain and limited range of motion of the joints. In Western terms, cold conditions are associated with chronic arthritis and arthralgias such as osteoarthritis and fibromyalgia. Heat-type musculoskeletal pain is characterized by redness, swelling, pain and/or inflammation of the muscles and joints. Patients typically present with muscle cramping and spasms. From a Western perspective, these patients have acute musculoskeletal disorders, typically involving inflammation of the muscles, bursae, tendons and ligaments. Gentiana macrophylla root (qin jiao), a popular ingredient in some remedies, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory activities comparable to those of aspirin (salicylic acid).4 Aconite tsao wu (cao wu) and aconite wu tou (chuan wu) Other herbs have demonstrated exceptional anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-pyretic functions.13,14 White peony (bai shao) and licorice (gan cao) have demonstrated remarkable properties in relieving spasms, cramps and pain of skeletal and smooth muscles. Clinical applications include dysmenorrhea,3 musculoskeletal disorders,15 trigeminal pain,16 muscle spasms and twitching in the facial region,17 pain in the lower back and legs,18 abdominal pain and cramps due to intestinal parasites,19 and epigastric and abdominal pain.20 If there are complications to the musculoskeletal disorders described above, classical formulas offer treatment options for the patients. Cinnamon & anemarrhena combination (gui zhi shao yao zhi mu tang) treats musculoskeletal and joint pain due to wind heat. Cyathula & plantago formula (ji sheng shen qi wan) treats musculoskeletal and joint pain arising from cold. Coix combination (yi yi ren tang) treats musculoskeletal and joint pain caused by dampness. Tuhuo & astragalus combination (san bi tang) treats musculoskeletal and joint pain due to deficiency of qi and blood and weakness of the liver and kidney. If the etiology is unclear, notopterygium & turmeric combination (juan bi tang) may be used for relief of general musculoskeletal and joint pain. Herbal Treatment for Traumatic Injury Traumatic injury is characterized by severe qi and blood stagnation. Types of injuries include bruises, contusions, sprains, broken bones, surgical incisions and related internal trauma, and other physical traumas. For complications of traumatic injury, cinnamon & hoelen formula (gui zhi fu ling wan) is used to treat internal bleeding after traumatic or sports injuries; persica & rhubarb combination (tao ren cheng qi tang) is used to treat subcutaneous bleeding with severe swelling and pain. Pain is universally understood as a signal of disease and is the most common symptom that brings a patient to a physician.21 Western clinical medicine and traditional Oriental medicine share common goals of alleviating pain and eliminating the causes of pain; however, the philosophy and clinical approach to pain management in the two disciplines is very different. Generally speaking, Western drugs have immediate and reliable analgesic effects. Unfortunately, Western pharmaceuticals often cause serious short- and long-term side-effects. In addition, the chronic use of drugs, especially opioid analgesics, is strongly associated with addiction and negative social consequences and connotations. As a result, more and more patients are turning to herbal medicine as their primary, complementary or alternative treatment for pain. Herbal medicines definitely have outstanding analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-spasmodic functions and benefits. However, even though herbs and pharmaceutical drugs have many overlapping functions, they are not directly interchangeable or analogs of each other. The therapeutic effectiveness of herbal formulas is dependent on accurate diagnosis and careful prescription. When used properly, herbs are powerful alternatives to drugs for pain management. Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Herbs 1983; 447. Zhu XZ. Development of natural products as drugs acting on central nervous system. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 86 (2):173-5, 191. Bensky D, et al. Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica. Eastland Press 1993. Yeung HC. Handbook of Chinese Herbs. Institute of Chinese Medicine, 1983. Gao XX, et al. Effectiveness of pueraria root (ge gen) in treating migraine headache: a case report of 53 patients. Journal of TCM Internal Medicine (Zhong Hua Nei Ke Za Zi) 1977;6:326. Effectiveness of angelica (bai zhi) in treating occipital headache: a report of 73 cases. Air Force hospital in Hengyang, China. Modern Medical Journal (Xin Zhong Yi) 1976;3:128. Effectiveness of angelica (bai zhi) in treating chronic headache: a report of 62 cases. National Defense Hospital. Journal of Modern Medicine (Xin Yi Xue Yao Za Zi) 1976;8:35. Wang LS. Treatment of headache using xiong zhi shi gao tang: 50 cases. Shanxi Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1985;10:447. Kubo M, et al. Anti-inflammatory activities of methanolic extract and alkaloidal components from corydalis tuber. Biol Pharm Bull February 1994;17(2):262-5. Study of Chinese Herbal Medicine 1976; p. 340. Military Hospital Unit #64. Effectiveness of aconite wu tou (chuan wu) in treating low back pain, a report with 225 patients. New Journal of Medicine and Pharmacology 1975;4:45. Zhang HT, et al. Treatment of frozen shoulders with aconite wu tou (chuan wu) and camphor (zhang nao). Shanghai Journal of Medicine and Pharmacology 1987;1:29. Liao JF. Evaluation with receptor binding assay on the water extracts of ten CNS-active Chinese herbal drugs. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Republic of China. Part B, Life Sciences. July 1995;19(3):151-8. Sun DH. Treatment of heat type of painful obstruction (Bi) syndrome with stephania (fang ji) in 120 patients. Shangdong Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1987;6:21. Tan H, et al. Chemical components of decoction of radix paeoniae and radix glycyrrhizae. China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica Sep 1995;20(9):550-1, 576. Huang DD. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1983;11:9. Luo DP. Hunan Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1989;2:7. Chen H. Yunnan Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1990;4:15. Zhang RB. Jiangxu Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1966;5:38-39. You JH. Guanxi Journal of Chinese Herbology 1987;5:5-6. Harrison TR, et al. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th edition, 1998. Click here for more information about John Chen, PhD, PharmD, OMD, LAc.

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Judicature Genes and Justice The Growing Impact of the New Genetics on the Courts November-December 1999 Vol 83(3) COMPLEX SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE and the JURY by Robert D. Myers, Ronald S. Reinstein, and Gordon M. Griller DNA—deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical molecule inside cells which carries biological information. DNA is a double stranded molecule held together by weak hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs of nucleotides (Adenine and Thymine; Guanine and Cytosine). This molecule carries genetic information from parent to offspring. Genome—one copy of all the DNA found in each cell of an organism. The human genome is composed of three billion base pairs of DNA packaged as 23 chromosomes. There are two copies of each [chromosome] in a cell, one copy from each of your parents. The genome contains the organism's genes, the instructions for building that life form. These definitions of DNA and genome, two scientific concepts at the heart of this issue of Judicature, seem rather straightforward and simple. One may think that even without scientific background and learning, these concepts can be readily understood, perhaps with a few additional definitions, or a little more explanation from someone knowledgeable. But as the twentieth century draws to a close, the U.S. Human Genome Project moves closer to its goal: determining and mapping the complete sequence of DNA in the human genome by the year 2003. The implications of the Project's work for courts and the entire legal system are enormous: The HGP's ultimate goal is to discover all of the more than 80,000 human genes and render them accessible for further biological study.... Information obtained as part of the HGP will dramatically change almost all biological and medical research and dwarf the catalog of current genetic knowledge. Both the methods and data developed through the project are likely to benefit investigations of many other genomes, including a large number of commercially important plants and animals. In a related project to sequence the genomes of environmentally and industrially interesting microbes, in 1994 DOE initiated the Microbial Genome Program. For this reason, in addition to the DOE and NIH programs, genome research is being carried out at agencies such as the U.S. Department of AgricultureÉand the private sector. In a departure from most scientific programs, research also is being funded on the ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) of HGP data.1 Potential government and private sector applications of this knowledge—gene therapies, gene transfers, genetic screening, and new biotechnologies—ultimately will give rise to a myriad of disputes that will make their way into the courts for resolution. The legal issues involved in these controversies, and the evidence that underlies them, will be far more complex than the two brief definitions of DNA and genome at the outset of this article. As judges and lawyers ready themselves for this growing level of scientific evidence, one principal justice system decision maker is largely unprepared...the trial juror. Already, the most familiar form of genomic evidence, DNA "fingerprinting" (or "profiling," or "typing") in criminal cases, is widely admissible in state and federal courts, by court decision or legislation. The possible uses of genomic evidence, however, are not limited to criminal matters. Some states have already enacted legislation regulating health insurers' use of genetic testing data. Disputes involving insurance coverage, medical malpractice, product liability, toxic torts, employment discrimination, paternity, privacy, and intellectual property will become increasingly complex as the knowledge of not only human, but plant and animal genetics, and the practical applications of that knowledge, become more widespread. As one commentator has said, it is "not whether genetic evidence will ever be admitted into court, but when and under what kinds of circumstances."2 Against this backdrop, the ability of juries to adequately understand genomic evidence, distinguish between and resolve contradicting opinions of expert witnesses, and properly apply the law to the evidence is being called into question. Some court watchers believe juries are not competent to resolve scientific evidence issues, and matters of complex scientific evidence should be removed from them. Others argue that the societal values represented by both criminal and civil juries are too important to forego, and that the common sense approach jurors bring to disputes equip them in a unique, capable manner to comprehend novel and complex scientific evidence. In reality, the truth likely lies somewhere in between. Yet, there is little doubt that increasingly complex scientific issues have the potential to further tax the jury system, and that courts must seek new ways to help jurors deal with scientific evidence. To do so, courts will have to promote an active learning environment within the courtroom—in effect, turn courtrooms into classrooms. This new approach to jury trials is under way in some states today, pioneered by Arizona in its far-reaching 1995 jury rule changes including permitting jurors to ask questions, take notes, and in civil cases allowing jurors to discuss the evidence during the trial.3 Arizona's objective: improve the experience and decision making of jurors by redefining their role from passive observers to active participants, using applied, proven adult learning methods, and permitting information to unfold during the trial in more meaningful and understandable ways—in other words, to increase the potential of the "search for the truth." As research on Arizona's jury reform experience progresses, there is growing evidence that the courtroom, turned juror-friendly classroom, is more conducive to juror comprehension and promotes ease in understanding complex concepts and data. If such is the case, must others wait for statewide system changes? The simple answer: no. Courts and lawyers already possess the means and discretion to enable juries to better carry out their vital roles. Judges and lawyers can independently recognize their roles as educators by embracing ground breaking jury reforms and introducing them in their own courts. These reforms will become increasingly important as genomic evidence appears ever more routinely in America's courtrooms. Juries and complex cases Over the past 30 to 40 years, the perceived performance of juries has been criticized, both in high-profile criminal cases and in complex civil litigation in antitrust, securities, intellectual property, and product liability cases. Critics have questioned whether a jury of untrained and inexperienced people can be a competent fact finder and decision maker in lengthy trials that require comprehension of substantial quantities of complex scientific, technical, or statistical evidence, and resolving the testimony of duplicative expert witnesses whose opinions conflict. Moreover, it is alleged, juries in complex trials will have greater difficulty understanding and remembering the court's instructions, and properly applying the law to the facts. Faced with such a burden, say critics, jurors who are untrained in science and technology are ill-equipped for sound fact finding. As a result, critics allege, jurors will base their decisions less on the evidence and a careful consideration of the reliability of expert testimony, than on external cues, such as the perceived relative expertise and status of the expert witnesses, and will be more susceptible to "junk science" and emotional appeals.4 Intuitively then, we would expect juries to have enormous difficulties with the complex legal issues and scientific evidence that will confront the courts as disputes involving the strange, new world of human genetics and statistical probabilities become more commonplace. We would expect, as well, new proposals for replacing juries with such expert bodies as science courts and expert or "blue ribbon" panels. At the same time, however, a growing body of research on juries and their performance in both "simple" and complex cases is giving us a different picture.5 This research, based on case studies and "lab" or experimental studies, shows that jurors, rather than giving up in the face of voluminous evidence and conflicting expert opinions, take their fact-finding and decision-making responsibilities seriously. The research shows that while certain elements of complex trials do tax jurors' comprehension and understanding, there is no firm evidence that their judgments have therefore been wrong. Jurors are in fact capable of resolving highly complex cases. These studies have also shown that factors such as length of trial, and evidentiary complexity in itself, are not necessarily the critical factors in jury performance in complex matters. The problem presented by conflicting testimony of experts hired by the respective parties, for example, is present in simple as well as complex cases. Finally, the research shows that jurors, rather than being passive participants in the trial process, are active decision makers and want to understand. Jurors actively process evidence, make inferences, use their common sense, have individual and common experiences that inform their decision making, and form opinions as a trial proceeds.6 What the research shows then, along with the experiments and experiences of active and concerned judges in complex cases, is that the trial process itself may be as much an impediment to jury comprehension and understanding as the complexity of the legal concepts and evidence, or the competencies of jurors.7 Many factors, including failure to follow instructions, confusing instructions, non-sequential presentation of evidence, "dueling" expert witnesses, evidentiary admissibility rulings, and attorney strategic errors, affect the jury's ability to follow and comprehend complex evidence. Researchers, and increasingly many progressive courts, suggest that reforming and improving the "decision making environment"8 can improve not only jury comprehension and performance, but juror satisfaction with their trial experience. Challenging the current model The Arizona Supreme Court's Committee on More Effective Use of Juries recognized these issues when it made 55 recommendations to reform the jury system, many of which resulted in the officially adopted comprehensive jury reform rules in 1995. In the introduction to Jurors: The Power of 12, its report to the supreme court, the Committee cited "unacceptably low levels of juror comprehension of the evidence" as one of the motivating factors in urging the Supreme Court to adopt its proposed jury reform rules.9 Arizona's reforms, designed to make jurors active participants during the trial, include juror note taking, pre-deliberation discussions of evidence during civil trials, and the right of jurors to ask written questions. The Arizona reforms also permit judges greater latitude in exercising their inherent powers to provide to each juror preliminary and final written jury instructions, as well as to open up a dialogue between the jurors, the judge, and the lawyers when a jury believes it is deadlocked or needs assistance. The result has been increased satisfaction with the judicial process by judges, lawyers, jurors, and litigants. For years, jury reforms such as note taking and question asking were opposed on the assumption that jurors would miss crucial pieces of evidence or assume the role of advocate rather than neutral fact-finder. The empirical evidence collected thus far, however, overwhelmingly indicates that such opportunities do not adversely affect the pace or outcome of trials. It is intellectually arrogant for those in the legal system to assume that lay jurors are incapable of processing complex information. We have all been thrust into a technologically advanced world, and lawyers and judges are hardly better prepared for the task of sifting through scientific evidence than the jury. But common sense suggests that jury reform measures will aid understanding, and jurors themselves support reforms such as those described above.10 We should recognize that it makes little sense to oppose practices that make jurors more comfortable with complex scientific information. To drive the point home, we have often made the observation that it is difficult to imagine an academic setting in which taking notes and asking questions would not be permitted. Fortunately, the tides are beginning to shift in the debate over jury reform. Already a number of states are adopting new rules; Arizona, Colorado, and California are just a few.11 In New York, much of the reform debate has centered on the selection, administration, and management of the jury, but substantive changes are not far behind. Reforms such as increased jury fees and security, and a juror hotline to report problems have been quite successful. However, the trend in these states and others is to expand beyond administrative concerns and attempt to improve jury deliberations and performance. These grassroots efforts led the American Bar Association in 1998 to adopt a number of jury reform ideals drafted by a Section of Litigation task force as part of its Civil Trial Practice Standards. In adopting these standards, the ABA recognized the need to provide juries, lawyers, and judges with the tools to increase jury comprehension in this era of increasingly complex evidentiary issues. However, a complete overhaul of state and local jurisdictional rules is not necessary. These reforms can often be implemented, consistent with existing rules, at the discretion of the trial judge. Of course, when local rules conflict, those rules control, but most judges possess the inherent power to implement reforms in complex cases. For example, Rule 611 of the Federal (and Arizona) Rules of Evidence permit the judge to control the mode and order of questioning witnesses and presenting evidence. With the number of complex cases dramatically on the rise, judges and lawyers need to collaborate to help the jury become better fact-finders. A practical guide Many lawyers and judges seem to have forgotten the proper role of juries. Alexis de Tocqueville, the renowned historian, once said: [t]he jury...may be regarded as a gratuitous public school, ever open, in which every juror learns his rights,...and becomes practically acquainted with the laws, which are brought within the reach of his capacity by the efforts of the bar, the advice of the judge, and even the passions of the parties...I look upon the [the jury] as one of the most efficacious means for the education of the people which society can employ.12 It is this idea of educating the jury, of treating the courtroom as a classroom, that judges and lawyers alike need to recapture. We urge all members of the legal profession to implement, on their own initiative, the appropriate reforms when cases require an understanding of complex scientific evidence. Before we discuss individual reforms in more detail, it is important to note the role of judges in rigorously applying the rules of evidence. The judge plays a very important role in improving jury comprehension by appropriately screening evidence and admitting only that which meets the appropriate standards. The judge must scrupulously protect the jury from unreliable scientific evidence.13 Jury selection. Lawyers are often criticized for using their peremptory challenges to "dumb down" the jury. In complex cases, however, it is in the best interest of all concerned to select educated jurors and not strike persons based on the extent of their education. While there is little empirical evidence to demonstrate that more educated jurors are struck more often than less educated jurors, there does seem to be an unwritten rule of practice that professionals should be struck when possible. The authors themselves plead guilty to using that approach as trial lawyers. Perhaps lawyers fear that highly educated individuals will dominate in the jury room and be able to persuade the jury to their side during deliberations. However, preliminary data suggest, and we believe, that jurors take their job seriously and will not be easily persuaded to a position with which they do not agree.14 Those lawyers who believe in "dumbing down" juries should adjust their views accordingly, and recognize the important role of jurors as fact finders and decision makers. Of course, both lawyers and judges must still attempt to detect jurors with prejudices or preconceived ideas, but they should also seek to empanel the best jurors available from the pool. Juror note taking and notebooks. Of all the reforms discussed, allowing the jury to take notes during the trial must be the most common-sense and least controversial. Nevertheless many jurisdictions just don't get it. Research indicates that note taking does not distract jurors, nor does it create an undue influence on those jurors who choose not to take notes. Judges in Arizona instruct jurors that they are not obligated to take notes, and they tell the jury to pay attention to all aspects of the trial including witness demeanor and the documentary and testimonial evidence. The vast majority of courts recognize that it is within the sound discretion of the trial judge to permit jurors to take notes. Judges need to thoughtfully exercise their discretion and allow juror note taking in complex cases, and lawyers must urge judges to do so. Jurors need to be encouraged to take an active role in the trial. Allowing the jury to keep track of parties, witnesses, testimony, and evidence by taking notes will empower juries to improve their recall and understanding of all issues, simple and complex. Jurors in complex cases should also be given a comprehensive notebook containing items such as simplified jury instructions, layouts of the courtroom with the names and locations of lawyers and parties, and glossaries of scientific terms or helpful scientific diagrams, photographs, charts, and background data of all types. Better jury instructions. Judges historically instruct juries at the end of the trial. There are few rules or cases, however, that prohibit judges from instructing juries earlier. Judges in Arizona provide juries with pretrial instructions that, for example, define the elements of the alleged crime or define terms such as "negligence" and "fault." This permits the jury to understand the basic legal standards early in the case, refer to them during the trial, and then concentrate on the presentation of the evidence. Jury instructions should be written in plain English. When drafting jury instructions, both judges and lawyers should avoid unnecessary legal jargon. In Arizona, the state bar's Civil Jury Instruction Committee even includes a linguistics professor from a local university. Jury instructions must also be tailored to the case at trial. Instead of using only pattern jury instructions, judges should work with counsel to draft case-specific instructions that include party names and actual facts in the case, without commenting on the evidence. Instructions should be given early in the case both orally and in writing for maximum comprehension and memory retention. The written instructions should be included in the jury notebook. Jurors need to understand the legal context of the evidence presented, and early instruction facilitates a better understanding of its legal relevance. Finally, jurors should each be given a written copy of the final instructions and they should be allowed to have the instructions in the deliberation room. Arizona's rules require judges to provide each juror with a copy of all the jury instructions. After all, why should jurors have to pass a single copy when a few dollars can provide copies all around? And where is it written that jury instructions must only be oral? Permitting the jury to ask written questions. When it comes to issues of scientific evidence, lawyers and judges collaborate to understand and narrow the issues before the court. They ask each other questions to clarify misunderstandings prior to trial, and will confer even during the trial. Yet, once the trial begins, jurors traditionally are not permitted to ask questions. It is time to end this nonsensical practice. Jury questions should be written and given to court personnel before the witness leaves the courtroom. Counsel should be given the opportunity to object in a sidebar, or outside the hearing of the jury, and the jury should be instructed about the limitations on questions that can be asked. In Arizona, there have been no reports of problems with this type of procedure after thousands of trials over the last four years. A study reported in the March-April 1996 issue of Judicature found that jury questions helped jurors understand the facts and issues, that jurors did not ask inappropriate questions, and that jurors did not draw inappropriate inferences when their questions, due to counsel's objection, for example, were not asked.15 As the comments to the ABA Standards noted, state and federal courts have overwhelmingly recognized that it is within the sound discretion of the trial judge to allow juror questioning of witnesses. We encourage judges and lawyers to experiment with jury questions in complex cases. The empirical evidence, and our own experience, reveals that the fears and concerns about jury questions are unfounded. As two Arizona attorneys recently wrote, "Our experience [with juror questions] reinforces for us the effectiveness of juror questions in keeping the jury engaged and in improving the quality of our own trial presentations. The jurors' questions revealed areas of confusion or concern, enabling us to adjust our presentation accordingly."16 Juror discussion during civil trials. Perhaps one of the most controversial Arizona reforms at the time of its adoption, and still controversial today, is allowing jurors in civil cases to discuss the evidence prior to final deliberation. In Arizona, jurors are carefully instructed by the trial judge that they may discuss the case, so long as all members of the jury are present and they reserve judgment until final deliberations. The general consensus of the Arizona bench and bar is that this reform has been a success. In fact, the Committee on the More Effective Use of Jurors, in its second report to the Arizona Supreme Court (in June, 1998), recommended that the rules be expanded to allow pre-deliberation discussions during criminal trials. As of this writing, however, the supreme court has not adopted that recommendation. Traditionally, the view has been that permitting jurors to discuss the evidence early in the trial will lead them to make up their minds before hearing both sides. Recent studies suggest that this is not true.17 In fact, some studies have gone so far as to say that requiring jurors to refrain from discussing evidence actually hinders their ability to process information.18 Pre-deliberation discussion can help improve juror comprehension, improve memory recall, and relieve the tension created by a forced atmosphere of silence with regard to the evidence presented at trial.19 Social scientists report that jurors naturally tend to actively process information as it is received. Therefore, it is not surprising to find that studies show that anywhere from 11 to 44 percent of jurors discuss the evidence among themselves during the trial despite judicial admonitions to avoid such discussion.20 Explicitly allowing pre-deliberation discussions, then, is really an acknowledgment of what often occurs naturally. Perhaps surprising to some, Arizona's experience has shown that when one individual juror makes a preliminary judgment during pre-deliberation discussions, that judgment is often tested or challenged by the entire group.21 In United States v. Wexler (1987) Judge Ditter aptly explained that "jurors are concerned, responsible, conscientious citizens who take most seriously the job at hand." Like Judge Ditter, we believe the jurors are more interested in doing justice than in justifying their own loosely based preliminary conclusions, which are frequently subject to modification as a result of group discussions. A recent study of jury discussions during Arizona trials found that jurors overwhelmingly support this reform and report that it has positive effects.22 Specifically, jurors said that discussions improved comprehension of evidence, that all jurors' views were considered, and evidence was remembered accurately. Additionally, only a very low percentage of participants in the study said that trial discussions encouraged jurors to make up their minds early on. The study also found that, among judges, lawyers, and jurors, support for this reform increases with experience. Permitting pre-deliberation discussion, more than any other reform, challenges the legal profession's traditional notions of jury behavior, but it is time to recognize the need for juries to have better tools in dealing with complex evidentiary issues. Independent court appointed or stipulated experts. Unlike fingerprint or ballistic evidence, where it is easier to understand the samples juries are asked to compare, genetic evidence requires juries to sit through conflicting scientific interpretations from expert witnesses presented by the opposing parties. Early presentation of independent experts, either court appointed or stipulated, can help solve many of the problems presented by genetic evidence. Recent surveys suggest that judges favor appointing independent experts in complex cases. However, statistics show that the actual use of court appointed experts is relatively low.23 This situation is unfortunate because there are many advantages to be realized by the use of independent experts. For example, a case involving the admissibility of DNA evidence using a particular type of analysis was recently before the Arizona Superior Court. Both parties agreed to the appointment of a neutral court expert to testify about the procedures used in this analytial method. Substantial saving, in time and money, were realized by the appointment of the court expert. Judicial economy and fairness demand the use of innovative techniques in dealing with admittedly complex scientific issues. In most jurisdictions trial judges have inherent authority to appoint experts as technical advisors to assist the court. In fact, judges may appoint expert witnesses for testimonial purposes under Rule 706 of the Federal Rules of Evidence and similar provisions in force in most states. However, the use of court appointed experts to serve as a jury tutor on the basics of, for example, DNA evidence, is an under-utilized tool.24 Pre-recorded video "lectures" may be another avenue to explore when considering how to educate jurors on issues of "common" scientific knowledge. The basic building blocks of DNA and the basic methods of DNA testing could be simplified and presented to the jury in such a fashion as to make it much less intimidating.25 Many lawyers may argue that "dueling experts" is the model courts should adhere to, based on the adversarial nature of our justice system. However, a recent study found that jurors do not rely on cross-examination of expert witnesses designed to point out flawed scientific methodology.26 The authors suggest that this is because jurors do not believe lawyers are sincere in their attempts to educate jurors, but rather see cross-examination as the lawyer's attempt to undermine the expert through any means possible. Independent experts present an opportunity to not only improve juror comprehension and performance, but also decrease the substantial costs of expert witnesses, and increase judicial economy. The adversarial nature of the trial may be diminished, but that is actually a benefit, not a cost, according to independent experts considering jury reactions to lawyer cross-examination of opposing party witnesses. It is the judge's responsibility to be proactive in ensuring that the trial is a search for the truth, and that it is not about lawyers setting up roadblocks to that search. Allow a dialogue between jurors, lawyers, and the judge during deliberations. In place of the traditional "pep talk" judges often give to deadlocked juries, Arizona explicitly provides for an opportunity for further instruction by the judge and argument by the parties. Why should the opportunity to educate jurors further stop once deliberations begin? Allowing additional evidence, argument by counsel, or providing further instruction is not problematic, legally or pragmatically. Of course, judges must be careful not to influence jurors and need to limit further inquiries only to those issues that confuse or divide the jury. Once again, there are many cases approving the judge's inherent authority to reopen a case for additional evidence or argument where the jury needs further admissible evidence to reach a verdict, or to determine if a deadlock is unavoidable.27 Opening the courtroom to more creative learning. Increasingly, the Human Genome Project's Ethical, Legal and Social Implications Program is sensitizing the judicial and legal community about the changing rule of the law in light of new genetic discoveries and testing methods. Primers reviewing DNA and genome science have been written, memorable cartoon drawings simplify sophisticated concepts,28 and video background resources explaining genetics in meaningful non-scientific ways are growing in number. Further, difficult concepts can be reduced to plain English and conveyed to juries through innovative technologies, including live, videotaped, or interactive Internet-based testimony. These approaches can easily be presented while simultaneously ensuring that complex scientific evidence is afforded the utmost of seriousness. Educating the jury early in the trial, by using court appointed experts, better written jury instructions, jury notebooks, and basic adult education techniques, will provide a foundation for later testimony of experts presented by the lawyers. Jurors who have been tutored early about complex scientific issues will be in a better position to judge both the content and character of dueling experts. Two central participants in the courtroom are the ultimate beneficiaries of reform-oriented jury approaches when heavy doses of scientific evidence are the subject of an unfolding courtroom drama: jurors, and more importantly, litigants. Contemporary behavioral research, and Arizona's jury reform experience, substantiate that comprehension and understanding are significantly enhanced when information is actively processed. Most courts already possess the tools to implement the educational techniques discussed above. Whether through system-wide jury reform or the efforts of individual trial judges and trial lawyers, a more jury-centered trial will not only allow jurors to actively and intelligently participate in the fact-finding and decision-making process, but also give the litigants a better truth-finding forum. Robert D. Myers is Presiding Judge of the Arizona Superior Court in Maricopa County. Ronald S. Reinstein is Associate Presiding Judge of the Arizona Superior Court in Maricopa County. Gordon M. Griller is court administrator, Arizona Superior Court in Maricopa County and a member of the Board of Directors of the American Judicature Society. The authors wish to thank Timothy D. Keller, a law researcher for Judge Robert D. Myers, and Richard Teenstra, assistant director of the Maricopa County Superior Court Law Library, for their assistance. 1. Department of Energy, Office of Biological and Environmental Research, Life Sciences Division, Human Genome Research: An Introduction (visited Sept. 2, 1999) http://www.science.doe.gov/. 2. Denno, Legal Implications of Genetics and Crime Research, in Bock and Goode, eds., Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour 235 (Chichester, N.Y.: Wiley, 1996). 3. See Arizona Supreme Court Orders, Nos. R-94-0031, R-92-004 (1995). 4. See Adler, The Jury: Trial and Error in the American Courtroom (New York: Times Books, 1994); Jury Comprehension in Complex Cases: Report of a Special Committee of the ABA Litgation Section (Chicago: American Bar Association, 1989). 5. For a review of criticisms of civil jury competencies and the jury research literature, see Lempert, Civil Juries and Complex Cases: Taking Stock after Twelve Years, in Litan, ed., Verdict: Assessing the Civil Jury System 181-247 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993); Vidmar, The Performance of the American Civil Jury: An Empirical Perspective, 40 Ariz. L. Rev. 849 (1998); Cecil, Hans and Wiggins, Citizen Comprehension of Difficult Issues: Lessons from Civil Jury Trials, 40 Am. U. L. Rev. 727 (1991). 6. Hans, Hannaford and Munsterman, The Arizona Jury Reform Permitting Civil Jury Trial Discussions: The Views of Trial Participants, Judges, and Jurors, 32 U. Mich. J.L. Reform 349 (1999). 7. See Dann, "Learning Lessons" and "Speaking Rights": Creating Educated and Democratic Juries, 68 Ind. L.J. 1229 (1993). 8. Cecil, Hans and Wiggins, supra n. 5, at 765. 9. Jurors: The Power of 12, Report of the Arizona Supreme Court Committee On More Effective Use of Juries (November 1994). 10. Hans, Hannaford and Munsterman, supra n. 6, at 371-372. 11. For a review of state jury reform efforts, see Munsterman, A brief history of state jury reform efforts, 79 Judicature 216 (1996); Murphy, et al, Managing Notorious Trials (Williamsburg, Va.: National Center for State Courts, 1998); Enhancing the Jury System: A Guidebook for Jury Reform (Chicago: American Judicature Society, 1999). 12. de Tocqueville, Democracy in America 295-296 (Vintage ed. 1945). 13. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm. Inc., 509 U. S. 579 (1993). 14. Hans, Hannaford and Munsterman, supra n. 6. 15. Heuer and Penrod, Increasing juror participation in trials through note taking and question asking, 79 Judicature 256, 260-261 (1996). 16. Cabot and Coleman, Arizona's 1995 Jury Reform Can be Deemed a Success, Arizona Journal, July 12, 1999, at 6. 17. See Hans, Hannaford and Munsterman, supra n. 6; Hannaford, Hans and Munsterman, "Permitting Jury Discussions During Trial: Impact of the Arizona Reform" 9 (1998) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the authors). 18. Chilton and Henley, Improving the Jury System, Jury Instructions: Helping Jurors Understand the Evidence and the Law, §II, PLRI Reports (Spring 1996) http://www.uchastings.edu/plri/spr96tex/juryinst.html. 19. Hans, Hannaford and Munsterman, supra n. 6; Hannaford, Hans and Munsterman, supra n. 17; Chilton and Henley, supra n. 18. 20. Chilton and Henley, supra n. 18. 21. Myers and Griller, Educating Jurors Means Better Trials: Jury Reform in Arizona, 36 Judges J. 13-17, 51 (Fall 1997). 22. Hans, Hannaford and Munsterman, supra n. 6. 23. Sanders, Scientifically Complex Cases, Trial by Jury, and the Erosion of Adversarial Processes, 48 DePaul L. Rev. 355, 378-379 (1998). 24. The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence 169-171 (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, 1996). 25. For examples of excellent illustrations and explanations, see Hoagland and Dotson, The Way Life Works (New York: Time Books, 1995). 26. Kovera, McAuliff and Hebert, Reasoning About Scientific Evidence: Effects of Juror Gender and Evidence Quality on Juror Decisions in a Hostile Work Environment Case, 84 J. of Applied Psychology 362, 372-373 (1999). 27. Myers and Griller, supra n. 21, at 16-17. 28. See Hoagland and Dotson, supra n. 25. |The online presentation of this publication is a special feature of the Human Genome Project Information Web site.|

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|Research Home | Pavements Home| |This report is an archived publication and may contain dated technical, contact, and link information| Publication Number: FHWA-RD-98-085 From the public's perspective, the most important basic purpose of a roadway pavement is to provide a smooth safe ride. For a pavement to accomplish this purpose it must be durable, and it is the responsibility of pavement engineers to ensure that pavements are designed and constructed in such a way that they achieve this durability. Pavement researchers are continually looking for ways that will allow engineers to design and construct pavements that provide a smooth safe ride for the longest amount of time and for the least cost. Pavements historically have been constructed from a combination of locally available natural materials, including natural soils, select soils such as natural gravel, and processed material such as quarried stone. Pavements are constructed in layers with the weaker or least durable materials at the bottom and the stronger or most durable materials at the top. The top layers are normally bound together with some sort of binder. Commonly used binders include hydraulic cements and bituminous cements. The most widely used of the bituminous cements is asphalt, a petroleum product refined from crude oil. What makes asphalt desirable for pavement construction is its tendency to stick to the granular material used in the upper pavement layers and thus to keep this material in place. In addition, when asphalt is heated, it becomes very fluid and can be mixed with gravel or rock, making it an easy material to process in the mass quantities required for pavement construction. If a layer of asphalt bound gravel or rock is thick enough, it takes on structural characteristics of its own and contributes to the overall durability of the pavement. Pavement engineers and researchers discovered long ago that the durability of a pavement is dependent on how it is used. Heavy wheel loads, many wheel loads, or a combination of both will shorten the service life of a pavement. Thicker pavement layers were found to counteract the effects of heavier or more numerous wheel loads. Pavement researchers developed mathematical relationships to calculate the thickness required for specific accumulations of expected wheel loads. Recently developed relationships tend to relate to the specific mechanical properties of the materials used in pavement construction and to how much strain these materials can tolerate while remaining intact. Asphalt has some unique properties that relate to the mechanical properties of an asphalt bound layer of gravel or rock. Asphalt is a liquid, albeit a very stiff liquid under normal ambient temperatures. When an asphalt material is deformed slightly, and for a very short period of time, it tends to return to its original shape. If the deformation is larger or if it occurs over a longer period of time, the asphalt does not fully return to its original shape. The amount of force needed to deform asphalt increases when the asphalt is cooled and decreases when it is warmed. In short, we have a material that deforms if loaded excessively or for too long, and how much or how long it takes to deform depends on its temperature. Another property of asphalt is that, although it is a liquid, it can crack if loaded too much, too quickly or too many times. Additionally, it may lose its bond to the gravel or rock under the same circumstances. All of these factors make asphalt a difficult material to model. One of the mechanical properties of a blend of asphalt and gravel is its modulus, or stiffness. The particular modulus that pavement engineers are most interested in is the amount of recoverable deformation that occurs due to a load. This is sometimes termed the resilient modulus. Another property is the amount of un-recovered (plastic) deformation due to that same load. A special case of the resilient modulus is the dynamic modulus, a measure of the deformation due to an applied load, plus a measure of the time delay between load application and deformation. Asphalt also does not deform simultaneously to a load being applied, an effect known as hysteresis. Rather, it begins to deform when the load is applied and continues to deform over some period of time, although usually a fairly short amount of time. All of these stiffness properties of asphalt are very dependent on temperature. The stiffness of the asphalt layer in turn controls the amount of bending, or deflection, that will occur in a pavement when a load is applied. There are two types of deflections that are relevant to pavement analysis: A pavement engineer or researcher, will measure the deflection with an FWD, analyze the deflection data, usually by backcalculation, to determine a resilient modulus for the asphaltic bound layers, and then use this result to predict how much deflection a truck axle load will generate. The temperature of the asphalt must be taken into account in both cases so that deflections or modulus can be adjusted as needed. With the trend toward mechanistic-empirical design methods, methods to adjust the pavement response for temperature are needed. One such method was developed from the Long Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) program. Within LTPP, the seasonal monitoring program (SMP) was initiated to measure pavement deflections and corresponding pavement temperatures on over 40 pavement test sections throughout the United States and Canada. The testing is conducted on half of the sections for one year, then on the other half the following year. The sections are also instrumented to measure in-pavement temperatures and moisture contents. The FWD tests were conducted at two-year intervals at the same positions within the test sections to minimize the spatial effects (variation in test results that are due to variation in the pavement in both longitudinal and transverse directions). The SMP provides the largest dataset of deflections and related pavement temperatures currently available to researchers. To illustrate the effect that pavement temperatures have on deflections, Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the variation in deflection response to in-pavement temperatures measured at test site locations in Nebraska and Colorado. Figure 1 shows the change that occurs over the course of a few hours at the same point within the same day. Notice that the temperatures effect the deflections close to the load and not away from the load. This is because the top asphalt layer is sensitive to temperature and the underlying unbound materials such the aggregate base and subgrade soil are not. It may be argued that deflections furthest away from the load plate do not change because temperatures do not vary as much, or as quickly in those lower layers, but it is known from independent measurements that those materials are not temperature sensitive. Note that the graph shows a symmetric deflection basin for illustration purposes only. The measurements were only made at the right side of the ordinate. If deflection sensors had been placed on both sides of the load plate, the basin would have been shown to be asymmetric because pavements are not exactly uniform in all directions. Figure 1. Variations in Deflection due to Temperature in Nebraska Figure 2 shows the variation in deflections at a single spot on a test site in Colorado over the course of a year. The deflection is plotted against the temperature measured at the mid-depth of the asphalt pavement. Although this shows a strong relationship between temperature and deflection, other seasonal effects are reflected in this plot also. It can be seen that temperature alone explains 88 percent of the variation in the deflections. The remaining 12 percent of the variation is due to seasonal effects and random error. The seasonal effects at other locations or other pavements will be similar. Figure 2. Variations in Deflection due to Temperature at One Location in Colorado Figure 3 shows the combined effect of temperature and season at a location on a Nebraska test site. The deflections now show that only the outer sensor measurement remained unchanged, indicating that the seasonal effect was not evident in that sensor but did show up at the intermediate sensors. It is still evident that temperature was responsible for most of the observed changes in deflection. Figure 3. Temperature and Seasonal Effects in Nebraska Figure 4 shows the backcalculated moduli for the 160 mm asphalt layer at the same location shown in Figure 3. The trend-line shows that temperature changes explain nearly 98 percent of the variation in the backcalculated moduli. The backcalculated moduli are from 18 different measurements taken from this specific point over the course of a year. If the asphalt moduli are converted to logarithms and plotted against the temperature, the plot becomes linear as shown in Figure 5. Figure 4. Variation in Backcalculated Moduli at a Location in Nebraska Figure 5. Variation in the Log of the Backcalculated Moduli at a Location in Nebraska The SMP, described in the previous section, provided a large amount of data that was used by Lukanen, Stubstad, and Briggs1 to develop empirical regression models for predicting in-depth pavement temperatures from surface temperatures, the time of day when the surface temperature measurement was made, and the average air temperature of the day before. With the same data, Lukanen et al developed empirical regression models that related measured deflections, deflection basin shape factors, or backcalculated moduli to the temperature of the asphalt at mid-depth. These models may be used to adjust measured deflections, deflection basin factors, or backcalculated moduli to those values expected at different temperatures. The BELLS model is used to increase productivity and (arguably) accuracy during testing in the field. An FWD equipped with infrared (IR) sensors records surface temperatures at every test location, accounting for the effects of varying shade levels and color over the pavement surface. Temperature measurements taken in-depth at a fixed location on the test site cannot account for such variations. The surface temperatures can be input into the appropriate BELLS model to calculate the in-depth temperature for each test. Once the in-depth temperatures are calculated, the deflections, basin shape factor, or backcalculated modulus at any other temperature can be predicted by using the models developed and presented within the Lukanen et al report. The ability to measure deflections under any temperature and then adjust the results for all other temperatures greatly increases the usefulness of deflection testing. Without this ability, deflection test productivity would be extremely limited since it would always have to be performed at the specific pavement temperature of interest. Evaluation of the structural capacity of an asphalt pavement typically involves the measurement of pavement deflections under a load with an FWD. At the same time that the deflections are measured, the temperature of the asphalt surface is commonly measured with an IR thermometer mounted on the FWD. If the FWD does not have such a thermometer, surface temperatures can be measured manually with a hand held instrument, or with a surface contact thermometer. Alternatively, a small hole may be drilled to allow measurement of the asphalt temperature at the desired depth directly. The procedure described here deals with using surface temperature measurements to estimate the temperature at some depth within the asphalt using the BELLS equations. Once the temperature at depth is estimated, the deflection measurements, or the backcalculated asphalt moduli can be adjusted to the deflection or moduli expected at any other temperature. Detailed descriptions of using BELLS to estimate mid-depth temperatures and to adjust deflection responses for the effects of temperature follow. Topics: research, infrastructure, pavements and materials Keywords: research, infrastructure, pavements and materials TRT Terms: Pavements, Asphalt--United States--Temperature, Pavements, Asphalt--Performance--United States, Long-Term Pavement Performance Program (U.S.), Adjustment factors, Asphalt pavements, Backcalculation

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(Swans - March 28, 2011) The terrible earthquake and tsunami that hit Japan have caused not only massive devastation and the loss of thousands of lives over a wide area, but they also caused major problems at several nuclear power plants, particularly at Fukushima. It is these nuclear problems that have tended to dominate discussions in the news media. The radioactive plumes from the Fukushima plant have so far caused slightly raised levels of radioactivity across a wide area. Nevertheless, dangerous levels have been essentially confined to workers at the site. The threatened meltdown of spent fuel rods in underwater storage at the plant is entirely due to the complete loss of electrical power in the area. This loss of electrical power eliminated the pumping of cooling water to the storage ponds and elsewhere in the plant. This allowed the heat generated by the fuel rods to raise the temperature sufficiently to boil the radioactive ponds dry. The continued heating threatened not simply the release of radioactivity to the atmosphere, but also the loss of integrity of the ponds' structures. This could release the melted nuclear material to an uncontrolled, and possibly uncontrollable, area around the ponds, and would potentially threaten any further rehabilitation of the plant. Certainly, some elements in the rods such as iodine, strontium, and caesium would be emitted to the atmosphere, but considering the known effects of the 1986 complete meltdown at Chernobyl, the expected resulting deaths would be far less than those already caused by the earthquake and tsunami themselves. And, anyway, hope still remains of avoiding the meltdown. It is necessary to emphasize that damage at the plant was entirely due to the unforeseen strength of the tsunami, which poured over the insufficient sea defences, putting out of action all electrical mains and backup power, with consequent failure of all the cooling water pumps, the development of fires in the plant, and the overheating of the spent rods in the storage ponds. It is supremely evident that the design of the plant coped very well with an earthquake of a severity greater than had been designed for, but was overwhelmed by the height of the tsunami. If similar provision for resistance to a severe earthquake was considered and implemented in the design and construction of the nuclear plants in California, then the dismal scenario forecast by Alexander Cockburn (1) is far from the reality of this industry. Widespread reports of radioactivity in water and the atmosphere of what is described as thrice normal levels sounds far more threatening than it is in practice. It has never been properly explained to the public that acceptable levels of radioactivity are set at a level at the most 1/100th the lowest accepted no effect level for human health. This is a level of the kind that has widespread use in the control and assessment of the dangers to human health of substantially all pollutants known to be dangerous at high levels, including food additives and the like, as well as radioactivity. Nevertheless, public concern exists, and it becomes necessary to discuss whether governments should abandon nuclear energy as a source of electrical power. Available energy sources Current energy sources used in the United Kingdom are approximately 39% coal; 36% gas; 22% nuclear; 2% hydro & pumped storage, 1 to 2%; and wind 1 to 2%. (2) Similar figures for the United States are 1% petroleum, 17% natural gas, 51% coal, 9% renewable, and 21% nuclear. Usages in other developed countries are broadly similar, with France being notable for its concentration on hydro and nuclear. Costings for the United Kingdom are not readily available to me, but costings predicted in the United States for 2016 show anticipated cost per megawatt hour as approximately: coal (various technologies) $65 to $93, gas (various technologies) $17 to $46, nuclear $90, hydro $52, wind (onshore) $84, wind (offshore) $210, solar $195 to $260. (3) What is remarkable about these figures are the relatively low cost of coal, and the relatively high cost of the newer renewables, wind and solar. Coal is, and seems likely to remain for at least decades, the major fuel for electricity supply in most countries. Wind power sources are highly subject to weather variability; and solar power is only operative during daylight hours, and is similarly subject to variability of cloud cover. Accordingly, both these sources require equivalent back up from power plants powered with conventional or nuclear fuels. Neither can be considered as practical alternatives to conventional plants. Realism about Energy Energy is, undoubtedly, fundamental to all modern society. With a steady and reliable source of electrical energy all things are possible. For anyone living in the Western world, where a reliable and continuous source of electrical power is taken for granted, it is very hard to understand the difficulties of development, or even of everyday living, that faces millions in much of the rest of the world. Just try to remember the difficulties you found during the last power failure you experienced; which, if you live in one of the leading economies, probably lasted for only a few minutes, or hours, not for weeks or months, and you will realise how crucial is a reliable power supply. Until a means of large-scale storage of electricity at far above the megawatt-hour level is found, renewables can only make a relatively minor, and always unreliable, contribution to world energy supplies. The really important thing to understand is that renewables cannot produce the reliable electrical power we need, and we shall remain for a considerable period reliant on coal, gas, oil, and nuclear power for our main and reliable energy needs. Nuclear waste is considered waste because it is not sufficiently high in radioactivity to be useful for concentration as fuel and yet is dangerous to humans in quantity. There are at present only two basic ways of getting rid of it, either to hide it deep underground in cement (or lead) encasements, or spread it around! Widely distributed as small particles in the atmosphere or in the oceans, the total quantity of radiation would be insignificant compared to the size of the earth and its background radioactivity, to which it would cause no significant increase. The radioactivity of the waste is per mass relatively low, but it is also of long half-life, so will remain at substantially the same level for perhaps centuries or longer, and that is why it is so dangerous bulked into a small place. The troubles with the second method are two-fold. The technical problems are: what chemical compounds of the radioactive elements to choose for the dispersal, and then how to spread it so that it is really fully dispersed around the world. The third problem is one of public relations. Whatever is proposed cannot seem to calm the inordinate fear of radioactivity that grips the populace. Unfortunately, few seem capable of understanding the quip of the old sage Paracelsus that "the poison is in the dose." Certainly there has not, so far, been any public relations attempt to explain it. It is perfectly feasible that a third method, involving inhibition of the radioactivity, may become available in the future as a result of further understanding of nuclear physics as a result of experiments at the Large Hadron Collider resulting in further understanding of the controlling features of quantum mechanics in nuclear physics. As one who was early, well before the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, against the use of atomic energy for military instead of peaceful (power) uses, I fear that the one thing our campaigns have left is this apparently all-pervading fear (akin to panic) of radioactivity. In practice radioactivity is a part of reality for which we know extremely well how to check on dangers, and how to use for benefit. Fear of radioactivity is understandable, because it cannot be seen or felt. Local radioactivity is readily detectable and measured with electronic instruments based on the Geiger counter. Nevertheless, it is completely out of the individual's personal control. Yet the current background of radioactivity everywhere is barely affected by all the radioactive fallout introduced to the atmosphere since 1945, and is mainly due to the radioactivity of the earth itself, together with the constant bombardment of the earth by so-called cosmic rays originating from the far corners of the universe. I am no expert in inorganic chemistry, being more used to dealing with biological materials, an area in which low radioactivity materials have been so beneficial in experimentation, and in medicine. So, though I would, in principal, prefer the second method (dilution) to the first method (localised hiding), I have no real idea of how to carry it out in practice. To enlarge on my reference above to Paracelsus, this is the pet name of the wonderfully-named Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheimm, who was a famous physician, alchemist, and astrologer of the early 16th century. He was probably the first to recognise that there are many substances very well known to the lay public that can be medicine at small doses, while causing illness at larger doses. One example group consists of the vitamins, unknown in his day, but now known to be so necessary in small amounts in the daily diet, despite being able to cause medical problems at higher doses. It is a finding of exceedingly wide applicability. Radioactivity can be both a cause and a cure for cancer. It all depends on the dose. Of course, it is up to government agencies and the nuclear power industry itself, to contain radioactivity within acceptable limits for human health. It does seem that at least part of the public relations problem of nuclear power resides in the common perception that governments, and by extension their public servants, cannot be trusted to tell the truth. Nevertheless nuclear power has served well, with remarkably few accidents involving fatalities or injuries to either the public or its workforce. Indeed, in so far as its immediate and associated workforce is concerned, its record is probably better than that of all the other power sources considered. As experience and development continues, nuclear energy holds out the best prospect of a truly environmentally benign and reliable provider of electrical power. It must be supported until, in the possibly distant future, its fission reaction method can be superseded by the hopeful paragon of the fusion reaction. It is time to rid ourselves of the influence of the jeremiads who constantly exaggerate dangers and ignore the benefits of every new development in science and technology. If you find Paddy Apling's work valuable, please consider Feel free to insert a link to this work on your Web site or to disseminate its URL on your favorite lists, quoting the first paragraph or providing a summary. However, DO NOT steal, scavenge, or repost this work on the Web or any electronic media. Inlining, mirroring, and framing are expressly prohibited. Pulp re-publishing is welcome -- please contact the publisher. This material is copyrighted, © Edward Apling 2011. All rights reserved. Have your say Do you wish to share your opinion? We invite your comments. E-mail the Editor. Please include your full name, address and phone number (the city, state/country where you reside is paramount information). When/if we publish your opinion we will only include your name, city, state, and country. About the Author Paddy Apling is a retired British scientist. His bio reads with many acronyms: "BSc MChemA CChem FRSC FIFST MRSPH Lecturer in Food Science, University of Reading, 1962-1986 Professional Member, AACC International Professional Member, Institute of Food Technology (USA) Member, Society of Chemical Industry." Put it in simpler terms, he is a fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Institute of Food Science & Technology, qualified for appointment as Public Analyst, retired from University of Reading (1962-86). Apling maintains his own Blog at http://apling.freeservers.com/. To learn more about him, please read Louis Proyect's recollection of his meeting with Paddy in Manhattan, January 2009. (back) 3. Levelized energy cost chart 1, 2011 DOE report.gif Source: Energy Information Adninstration, December 2010, DOE/EIA -- 0383(2) (back)

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By Gerald Forbes While the South Burbank pool is being cited as an example of the economic advantages of unitization,1 it is an interesting fact that the first two decades of oil development in the Osage Reservation contained similar features of community interest and concerted control. Between the years 1896 and 1916 the petroleum of the Osage Reservation was developed under a single contract, known as the Foster Lease, the only enduring and successful "blanket" lease in Mid-Continent's history. The Foster Lease undoubtedly was a monopoly,2 but just as certainly it was an instrument of conservation. The former Osage Reservation, the present Oklahoma county by that name, contains about one and a half million acres that were bought from the Cherokees, preparatory to moving the Osages from Kansas in 1872. This territory is bounded by the ninety-sixth meridian on the east, the Arkansas River and the former Creek Nation on the south and west, and Kansas on the north.3 It was nearly twenty years after the Osages had bought the land that the possibility of producing petroleum began to be investigated. The American Civil War had interrupted the beginning of the oil industry in Kansas, but in the final decade of the century the production of petroleum became an established industry in that state. In 1895 the oil production of Kansas was 44,430 barrels.4 Among those persons interested, in the oil industry was Henry Foster, who had moved to Independence, Kansas, from Rhode Island. Foster suspected the presence of petroleum beneath the land of the Osages. In 1895 he applied to the Secretary of the De- 1John J. Arthur, "Unitization vs. Competition," The Oil Weekly, V. 83, No. 2, September 21, 1936, pp. 22-26; The Oil Weekly, V. 82, No. 13, September 7, 1936, p. 51. 2Kate P. Burwell, "Richest People in the World," Sturm's Oklahoma Magazine, II, No. 4, pp. 89-93; United States Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1905, p. 885. 4United States Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1889-90, 355; University Geological Survey of Kansas, IX, Special Report on Oil and Gas, 1908, pp. 21-23. partment of the Interior for a lease of the Osage Reservation. Henry Foster died before the contract was consummated, but his brother, Edwin B. Foster, assumed his interests and obligations. The lease finally was signed, March 16, 1896, by Edwin B. Foster and the Osage National Council, with James Bigheart, principal chief of the Osages, Saucy Chief, president of the Council, and several other Indians writing their names or making their "X's."5 The terms of the contract, which soon became known as a "blanket lease," conferred on Foster the exclusive right of producing oil in the entire Osage Reservation. The term was for ten years. Foster, in turn, agreed to pay a royalty of ten per cent of all crude petroleum removed from the ground and fifty dollars a year for each gas well, as long as it was used. The royalty was to be based on the market value at the place of production, and was to be paid to the National Treasurer of the Osage Nation. Foster further agreed to settle the royalty accounts between the fifth and tenth days of January, April, July, and October.6 Even at this early period there was dissention, and in less than a month a protest was filed with the Secretary of the Interior. The leading protestant was Saucy Chief, who had placed his "X" on the original Foster Lease. The protest was not attested and not clearly genuine. It declared that a full council had not been present when the leasing had been discussed and that the contract did not represent the wishes of a majority of the Osage Tribe. An investigation followed, and the Osage Agent reported that two white men had taken about fifty Indians across the Arkansas River to Cleveland, Oklahoma Territory, where the Osages had been induced with whiskey to sign a protest to the Foster Lease.7 Edwin B. Foster and the heirs of Henry Foster, having organized the Phoenix Oil Company, arranged with McBride and 5Osage Indian Archives, Pawhuska, Oklahoma, D. M. Browning to Henry Foster, January 24, 1896; Hines, E. P., Osage County, in Snider, L. C., Oil and Gas in the Mid-Continent Field, p. 208; Kappler, Charles J., Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties, III, 1913, p. 137. 6Exact copy of the original lease—Mining Lease, Osage Agency, Oklahoma Territory, 1896, for Prospecting and Mining for Oil and Gas upon the Osage Reservation, Oklahoma Territory. 7Osage Indian Archives, D. M. Browning to U. S. Indian Inspector Duncan, April 6, 1896; D. M. Browning to Acting Agent Freeman, June 13, 1896. Bloom, drillers of Independence, Kansas, to put down a well three or four miles south of Chautauqua Springs, Kansas, likely near the present town of Boulanger, Oklahoma.8 This well was shallow but it produced about fifty barrels of oil daily, not enough at that time to be commercially valuable, so it was capped. The rumor that the well was an excellent one became current. It was rumored that this first Osage well had been closed to permit the owners to acquire leases cheaply in the Oklahoma Territory. The first Osage well was drilled in 1897. It was in 1899 that the Osage Oil Company, another Foster concern, drilled on the eastern side of the Osage Reservation near Bartlesville, a town in the Cherokee Nation. The first well of the Osage Oil Company showed prospects of petroleum and the second well was a good producer. Several dry or nearly dry holes were drilled, but the seventh well of the group was the best producer in the entire Kansas-Indian Territory oil field.9 By 1900 Foster had done little to develop the petroleum industry in the Osage Reservation, but in that year arrangements were completed for subleasing the land in large blocks. The entire reservation was divided into tracts half a mile wide and three miles east to west. These rectangles were numbered consecutively and those in the eastern part of the Reservation were offered to sublessees on a bonus and royalty basis. The sublessees were required to pay the Foster interests a one-eighth (later one-sixth) royalty and a bonus of one to five dollars an acre.10 The next year the Foster interests were consolidated in the Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Company (usually called the I. T. I. O.) which was incorporated at Trenton, New Jersey, with a capitalization of three million dollars. This new company was authorized to own and control all the rights and properties of the Osage and Phoenix Oil Companies.11 It was the I. T. I. O. that handled the subleasing 8Hines, loc. cit. p. 208; Hutchison, L.L., Preliminary Report on Rock Asphalt, Asphalite, Petroleum and Natural Gas in Oklahoma, Oklahoma Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 2, 1911, p. 167; Tidal Topics, III, Tidal Oil Company, 1919, p. 15. 11The Tulsa Democrat, Tulsa, Indian Territory, December 27, 1901, The Osage Journal, January 2, 1902. of the Osage Reservation, and buyers of drilling rights were sought in New York. The first well drilled by a sublessee was financed by the Almeda Oil Company on Lot 40. The Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Company announced that it planned to drill wells itself at the rate of one every twenty days, that the Standard Oil Company would buy the crude oil production at its refinery at Neodesha, Kansas, for eighty-eight cents a barrel, and that leases had been sold to New York and St. Louis companies covering rights on about six thousand acres of land. The I. T. I. O. further called attention to the quality of the crude oil which caused it to yield a high percentage of kerosene. (The name of the company itself calls attention to the fact that gasoline then was not of first importance.) The average depth of the wells was thirteen hundred feet, which made them relatively inexpensive to drill.12 Drilling in the Osage Reservation was comparatively rapid after the system of subleasing had been perfected. During 1902 the rail shipments of crude oil to the Neodesha refinery amounted to 37,000 barrels, which was the production of thirteen wells, six of which had been drilled in 1902. By January, 1903, thirty wells had been completed by the I. T. I. O. and its sublessees. Seventeen of the thirty wells produced oil, two gas, and eleven were dry holes. A year later 361 wells had been completed, and 243 were producing oil, twenty-one gas, and ninety-seven were dry. By the beginning of 1906 there had been 783 wells drilled—544 producing oil, forty-one gas, and 198 were dry. The oil production was: 1903—56,905 barrels; 1904—652,479 barrels; 1905—3,421,478 barrels; 1906—5,219,106 barrels. The average daily production of the Osage wells in 1905 was about 15,000 barrels. In 1905 there were 687,000 acres of the Osage Reservation under the control of the sublessees.13 That year the I. T. I. O. announced that it had disbursed $2,686,627 in connection with the "blanket lease." By the terms of the contract with Foster, the Osages were to receive one-tenth royalty (later changed to one-eighth) while the I. T. I. O. Company required one-eighth (later changed to one- 13United States Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1905, p. 855; 1906, p. 858; 1914, pp. 1009-1010; Tidal Topics, III, p. 15. sixth) royalty of its sublessees, making a profit of one-fortieth (later one-twenty-fourth) in addition to rentals and bonuses. There were less than twenty-five hundred members of the Osage tribe on the official rolls. The rolls contained Indians on the list January 1, 1906, and all children born to them by July, 1907, and those children of white fathers who had not been enrolled previously. There was no distinction between males and females, age, or degree of Indian blood. The equal share which each member of the tribe received from the communal mineral receipts was known as a headright. Headrights, it was provided by law, could be inherited, subdivided or consolidated, and as time passed different members of the tribe did not receive equal shares, as was the case at the time of the Osage allotment. This allotment differed from that of the other Oklahoma tribes, for it provided that only the surface of the land be held in severalty while the minerals of the subsurface remained communal property. As the sublessees of the I. T. I. O. developed the oil industry, the royalties of the Osage tribe mounted and were divided into headright payments.14 The days of the quarterly payments at Pawhuska, seat of the Osage agency, were colorful. On the first and second days of the payments, the full bloods received their monies; then the mixed-bloods were paid on the following two or three days. By 1906 the quarterly payment period kept force of eight men busy for four or five days. The merchants and professional men of Pawhuska who had extended credit to the Indians were on hand to collect their bills before the Osages had spent their money elsewhere. The amount of the payment depended on the number of barrels of oil taken from the ground, the number of gas wells being used, and the market price of petroleum. Accurate figures on the receipts from oil and gas are difficult to acquire, for the Osages also received payments for grazing permits, pipe line damages, and other revenues. Between July 1, 1904, and May 13, 1905, a total of $108,567 was paid to the Osages as oil and gas royalties.15 14United States Statutes At Large, XXXIV, p. 540; Kappler, op. cit., p. 256; United States Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1906, p. 855; Daniel, L. H. "The Osage Nation," The Texaco Star, V. Nos. 7-8, pp. 10-14. Congress began considering the renewal of the Foster Lease in 1905, although it did not expire until March, 1906. Several of the tribal leaders went to Washington to watch the action of Congress, and there were some who wished to prevent renewal of the contract.16 There were oil operators who called attention to the profits they believed the I. T. I. O. company was making and objected that one firm should have such a monopoly. After an investigation, Congress compromised by renewing the Foster Lease and all the subleases made by the I. T. I. O. on a total area of six hundred and eighty thousand acres on the eastern side of the Reservation. All the original conditions of the Foster Lease were to apply for another decade, with the exception that gas well royalty was increased from fifty to one hundred dollars for each well. The status of the western half of the Reservation was left undetermined until 1912. The renewal with reduced acreage left the Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Company with only 2,060 acres that had not been subleased, and caused that firm to lease from its own sublessees.17 Before 1904 the Osage oil was transported by railroad, but in that year the Department of the Interior approved two applications for pipelines to move the crude petroleum. The amount of damages to be paid the Osages puzzled the Federal officials, for there was no precedent for laying pipelines across Indian lands. The Prairie Oil and Gas Company wanted to lay a line to the refinery at Neodesha, while Guffey and Galey sought to pipe gas to Tulsa.18 Damages were fixed at ten cents a rod. In 1905 the Prairie constructed the "Cleveland discharge" line, which connected the Osage wells near Cleveland, Oklahoma Territory, with the trunk line to Kansas. Another outlet for the Osage petroleum appeared with the construction of a refinery by the Uncle Sam Oil Company at Cherryvale, Kansas. The disagreements of the Uncle Sam and the 17"History of twenty-three Years of Oil and Gas Development in the Osage," "National Petroleum News," V. No. 11, pp. 66-68; Kappler, op. cit., p. 137; Osage Indian Archives, Memorandum, p. 1; Osage Indian Archives, C. F. Larrabee to Frank Frantz, June 7, 1905; Hines, E.P., loc. cit., p. 208; Department of the Interior, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Annual Report, I, p. 307. 18The Osage Journal, March 18, 1905; The Cherokee Advocate, Tahlequah, Indian Territory, April 4, 1903. Standard companies were dragged through the courts for years.19 In 1910 the Gulf Pipe Line Company became a buyer of Osage oil, since inadequate transportation facilities had resulted in 1909 in a decrease of production.20 Drilling and production received no more setbacks until 1915, when little drilling was done because of the uncertainty resulting from the struggle over the second renewal of the Foster Lease. The disposition of the mineral rights in the western half of the Osage county (Oklahoma became a state in 1907) became a pressing question in 1911. A committee of Osages urged the National Council to lease the western land on terms that would be more profitable to the Indians. Royalties of one-third and one-sixth were suggested. Since the Osages were interested in farming and ranching, as well as oil, it was argued that no company should be permitted to drill for oil without the "written consent" of the allottee on whose land the well was desired. After revising some of the suggestions of the committee, the Osage National Council went on record as favoring sealed bids for leases. Sealed bids would prevent leasing except at specific times, and then the lease would go to the highest bidder.21 While this discussion was current among the Indians, some oil operators met at Tulsa and decided on a plan for leasing the western side of Osage County. They proposed the organization of a large company of independent operators, each of whom would be on an equal cooperative footing. Such a company, the oil men believed, would be financially able to contract for the entire unleased acreage of Osage lands. They believed this company could deal pleasantly with the Department of the Interior. The financing of this huge company was expected to be comparatively simple, and it was argued that such a concern would be able to dictate favorable terms to crude oil buyers and thereby gain a profitable 19Osage Indian Archives, C.F. Larrabee to Frank Frantz, January 12, and January 14, 1905; The Muskogee Times Democrat, Muskogee, Indian Territory, January 8, 1907. 21The Osage Journal, January 5, May 25, August 17, September 14, and October 19, 1911; Senate Document 487, 62 Congress, 2 Sess. price for the petroleum. Among the leaders of this plan were P. J. White, Harry Sinclair, E. R. Kemp, and David Gunsberg.22 Samuel Adams, Assistant Secretary of the Department of the Interior asked those who were interested in leasing Osage land to communicate with him.23 The Osage National Council went to Washington to confer with Adams. The proponents of the giant organization of independent producers sent representatives. Many oil men favored neither the plan of the independents nor that of the Osage Council, so a mass meeting was called at Tulsa to protest the organization of the giant cooperative firm. Some believed that the Osage oil long had been a menace to the price of petroleum, and they did not look kindly on any plan to further the production. They suggested that a plan be adopted to discover whether any oil existed in the western side of the Osage County. Several operators believed that all the oil of the Osages had been discovered. Another group, led by E. W. Marland and F. A. Gillespie, opposed any plan involving one big lease. They favored leasing the western side of the county in blocks as small as 160 acres.24 In May, 1912, the Osage National Council directed the principal chief to sign four leases that would cover virtually the entire western part of the county. In these leases were several ideas which the Osages desired, including the "written consent clause," the maintenance by the leasing companies of offices at Pawhuska, and the retention in the county of all the gas. (It was believed that the retention of the gas in the county would induce industries to come.) The leases were issued to four men, one of whom was H. H. Tucker of the Uncle Sam Oil Company, who was reported to be an adopted member of the Osage tribe. The Secretary of the Department of the Interior refused to accept these leases because no provision was made for the supervision of the Federal government. He also frowned on the "written consent clause."25 Despite the fact that Assistant Secretary Adams had said that he would not recognize their election, Bacon Rind, as Principal 25The Osage Journal, March 14 and May 23, 1912; The Tulsa World, March 16, May 25 and June 19, 1912. Chief, and Red Eagle, as Assistant Chief, celebrated their election in July of that year (1912).26 Under the guidance of Bacon Rind and Red Eagle, the Osage National Council joined the Uncle Sam Oil Company in publicly presenting a petition to President Taft asking that the entire unleased portion of the Osage lands be leased to Tucker's company. The Department of the Interior concluded the opposition among the Indians by promptly removing from office both Bacon Rind and Red Eagle, as well as the entire National Council. Tucker responded with a final threat to President Taft that the twelve thousand stockholders of the Uncle Sam Oil Company would remember the refusal of the president to override the decision of the Department of the Interior. He vowed that the stockholders would use their influence to prevent Taft's reelection in November.27 The final decision of the Department of the Interior, issued July 13, 1912, involved elements of several of the plans suggested for the disposal of the west side mineral rights. The land was to be leased in tracts varying from three hundred to 5,120 acres, but no person was to have more than 25,000 acres. The United States Agent at Pawhuska was required periodically to advertise specific tracts for leasing on sealed bids. A person wishing to lease a tract was required to request in writing that the land be offered for bidding. Each bid was to be accompanied by a certified check for ten per cent of the bonus and the first year's rental. All leases were to endure for ten years from the date of approval by the Department of the Interior, providing no lease extended beyond April 8, 1931. The royalty on gas was fixed at one-sixth of the market value at the well, while on petroleum it was set at one-sixth of the gross production at the actual market value. Heretofore the royalty on oil had been one-eighth. Oil men who had been paying one-eighth royalty on oil produced on the land of the Five Tribes objected to giving one-sixth to the Osages, but that was the share which the I. T. I. O. had been receiving from its sublessees. A compromise was reached on the "written consent clause" whereby cultivated lands and homesteads were protected from oil prospec- tors. Producers strongly condemned the new regulations and the Osage National Council.28 The conflict over leasing the west side of the county hardly had ended before it was time for the renewal of the Foster Lease on the east side of the Osage Reservation. The I. T. I. O. minimized the profit it received from the Foster Lease, but in June, 1914, a renewal of the lease was asked. The request of the I. T. I. O. was supported by the company's sublessees. The next month the Osage National Council requested that no blanket lease be approved for the land then held by the I. T. I. O. The leasing company issued a financial statement to show the benefits that it had brought the Osages. The statement said that the I. T. I. O. had received over two million dollars in seventeen years, but that more than a million dollars had been paid to the Indians. The company cited the fact that it had furnished more than one hundred thousand dollars worth of gas free to operating companies. The statement of the I. T. I. O. indicated that the company had spent more in developing the Osage petroleum than it had received from the sublessees.29 When 1915 opened it was clear that some decision must be made regarding the Foster Lease. Secretary Lane of the Department of the Interior called a public hearing at Washington to discuss the lease. Members of the Osage National Council, officials of the Indian administration, and oil operators attended.30 Charles N. Haskell, first governor of Oklahoma, appeared for P. J. White and Harry Sinclair, and declared that the decision would affect the entire Mid-Continent. He asserted that the I. T. I. O. would develop the oil industry in an orderly manner, but that if the district were thrown open to competitive drilling there would be a 28Oklahoma Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 19, Part 1, Petroleum and Natural Gas in Oklahoma, 1915, p. 32; Department of the Interior, Regulations to Govern the Leasing of Lands in the Osage Reservation, Oklahoma, for Oil Gas, and Mining Purposes, 1912, pp. 1-4. 29Estimate of Profit and Loss under the Leases and Subleases of the Indian Territory Illuminating Oil Company in the Osage Reservation, compiled by Charles F. Leech, (nd) Osage Indian Archives. 30The Oil and Gas Journal, February 11, 1915, p. 2; Osage Indian Archives, Cato Sells to J. George Wright, February 10, 1915, The Osage Journal, February 11, 1915. flood of oil that would swamp the marketing facilities. Charles Owen, in a letter that was made a part of the record, took the stand that if the I. T. I. O. were to be protected for the pioneer development, its lease should be renewed where it actually had put down wells, not subleased the land to other companies. Some sublessees objected to the policy of the I. T. I. O. in separating the oil and gas rights, for they argued that they had found the gas, but now that a market was available the I. T. I. O. held it. (By the Foster Lease, the I. T. I. O. owned all gas discovered.) The Osage National Council demanded that leases be made directly with the operating companies without the I. T. I. O. as an intermediary.31 The hearing was concluded in June and the Department of the Interior refused to renew the Foster Lease, deciding to eliminate the I. T. I. O. except as a producing company. The new regulations provided that the east side of the county be broken up into quarter-section units combined in such a way that none would exceed an aggregate of 4,800 acres, except in such units where producing wells were capable of averaging twenty-five barrels a day on July 1, 1915. These units were to be offered at public auction for lease by the Osages under the supervision of the Department of the Interior. Oil and gas rights still were to be kept separately. The royalty on oil was fixed at one-sixth, except on quarter-sections where the average daily production equalled or exceeded one hundred barrels daily. There the royalty was one-fifth. Former sublessees of the I. T. I. O. were allowed to keep those quarter-sections they then were developing provided there would not be a total exceeding 4,800 acres.32 In general these rules were much the same as those governing the oil leases in the lands of the Five Civilized Tribes. March 16, 1916, the Foster Lease expired, ending the only successful blanket lease of the lands of an Indian tribe. The lease 31Osage Indian Archives, J. George Wright to Cato Sells, March 2, 1915, Stenographer's Minutes of Hearing Before Cato Sells, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in the Matter of the so-called Foster Lease on Oil and Gas Property Owned by the Osage Indians of Oklahoma, Washington, March, 1915, pp. 675-680, 682-683, 686-687, 692-694-703, 710-711, 715, 730; The Osage Journal, May 15, 1915. was a monopoly, but it had good features for all concerned. The Osage lands continued to produce an increasing volume of oil until 1923, whereas the immense deposits in the Creek Nation (Glenn Pool, Cushing Pool, Okmulgee County) were dissipated very rapidly. In the Osage area there was a tendency to avoid competitive drilling because of the large leases. The Osage gas was conserved, thereby retaining much of the natural pressure. Gross overproduction never was one of the evils found in the district. The Osages themselves certainly benefited under the Foster Lease, although their individual wealth generally was over-estimated.

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Significance and Use Sediment provides habitat for many aquatic organisms and is a major repository for many of the more persistent chemicals that are introduced into surface waters. In the aquatic environment, most anthropogenic chemicals and waste materials including toxic organic and inorganic chemicals eventually accumulate in sediment. Mounting evidences exists of environmental degradation in areas where USEPA Water Quality Criteria (WQC; Stephan et al.(67)) are not exceeded, yet organisms in or near sediments are adversely affected Chapman, 1989 (68). The WQC were developed to protect organisms in the water column and were not directed toward protecting organisms in sediment. Concentrations of contaminants in sediment may be several orders of magnitude higher than in the overlying water; however, whole sediment concentrations have not been strongly correlated to bioavailability Burton, 1991(69). Partitioning or sorption of a compound between water and sediment may depend on many factors including: aqueous solubility, pH, redox, affinity for sediment organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon, grain size of the sediment, sediment mineral constituents (oxides of iron, manganese, and aluminum), and the quantity of acid volatile sulfides in sediment Di Toro et al. 1991(70) Giesy et al. 1988 (71). Although certain chemicals are highly sorbed to sediment, these compounds may still be available to the biota. Chemicals in sediments may be directly toxic to aquatic life or can be a source of chemicals for bioaccumulation in the food chain. The objective of a sediment test is to determine whether chemicals in sediment are harmful to or are bioaccumulated by benthic organisms. The tests can be used to measure interactive toxic effects of complex chemical mixtures in sediment. Furthermore, knowledge of specific pathways of interactions among sediments and test organisms is not necessary to conduct the tests Kemp et al. 1988, (72). Sediment tests can be used to: (1) determine the relationship between toxic effects and bioavailability, (2) investigate interactions among chemicals, (3) compare the sensitivities of different organisms, (4) determine spatial and temporal distribution of contamination, (5) evaluate hazards of dredged material, (6) measure toxicity as part of product licensing or safety testing, (7) rank areas for clean up, and (8) estimate the effectiveness of remediation or management practices. A variety of methods have been developed for assessing the toxicity of chemicals in sediments using amphipods, midges, polychaetes, oligochaetes, mayflies, or cladocerans (Test Method E 1706, Guide E 1525, Guide E 1850; Annex A1, Annex A2; USEPA, 2000 (73), EPA 1994b, (74), Environment Canada 1997a, (75), Enviroment Canada 1997b,(76)). Several endpoints are suggested in these methods to measure potential effects of contaminants in sediment including survival, growth, behavior, or reproduction; however, survival of test organisms in 10-day exposures is the endpoint most commonly reported. These short-term exposures that only measure effects on survival can be used to identify high levels of contamination in sediments, but may not be able to identify moderate levels of contamination in sediments (USEPA USEPA, 2000 (73); Sibley et al.1996, (77); Sibley et al.1997a, (78); Sibley et al.1997b, (79); Benoit et al.1997, (80); Ingersoll et al.1998, (81)). Sublethal endpoints in sediment tests might also prove to be better estimates of responses of benthic communities to contaminants in the field, Kembel et al. 1994 (82). Insufficient information is available to determine if the long-term test conducted with Leptocheirus plumulosus (Annex A2) is more sensitive than 10-d toxicity tests conducted with this or other species. The decision to conduct short-term or long-term toxicity tests depends on the goal of the assessment. In some instances, sufficient information may be gained by measuring sublethal endpoints in 10-day tests. In other instances, the 10-day tests could be used to screen samples for toxicity before long-term tests are conducted. While the long-term tests are needed to determine direct effects on reproduction, measurement of growth in these toxicity tests may serve as an indirect estimate of reproductive effects of contaminants associated with sediments (Annex A1). Use of sublethal endpoints for assessment of contaminant risk is not unique to toxicity testing with sediments. Numerous regulatory programs require the use of sublethal endpoints in the decision-making process (Pittinger and Adams, 1997, (83)) including: (1) Water Quality Criteria (and State Standards); (2) National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) effluent monitoring (including chemical-specific limits and sublethal endpoints in toxicity tests); (3) Federal Insecticide, Rodenticide and Fungicide Act (FIFRA) and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA, tiered assessment includes several sublethal endpoints with fish and aquatic invertebrates); (4) Superfund (Comprehensive Environmental Responses, Compensation and Liability Act; CERCLA); (5) Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, sublethal toxicity testing with fish and invertebrates); (6) European Economic Community (EC, sublethal toxicity testing with fish and invertebrates); and (7) the Paris Commission (behavioral endpoints). Results of toxicity tests on sediments spiked at different concentrations of chemicals can be used to establish cause and effect relationships between chemicals and biological responses. Results of toxicity tests with test materials spiked into sediments at different concentrations may be reported in terms of an LC50 (median lethal concentration), an EC50 (median effect concentration), an IC50 (inhibition concentration), or as a NOEC (no observed effect concentration) or LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration). However, spiked sediment may not be representative of chemicals associated with sediment in the field. Mixing time Stemmer et al. 1990b, (84), aging ( Landrum et al. 1989,(85), Word et al. 1987, (86), Landrum et al., 1992,(87)), and the chemical form of the material can affect responses of test organisms in spiked sediment tests. Evaluating effect concentrations for chemicals in sediment requires knowledge of factors controlling their bioavailability. Similar concentrations of a chemical in units of mass of chemical per mass of sediment dry weight often exhibit a range in toxicity in different sediments Di Toro et al. 1990, (88) Di Toro et al. 1991,(70). Effect concentrations of chemicals in sediment have been correlated to interstitial water concentrations, and effect concentrations in interstitial water are often similar to effect concentrations in water-only exposures. The bioavailability of nonionic organic compounds in sediment is often inversely correlated with the organic carbon concentration. Whatever the route of exposure, these correlations of effect concentrations to interstitial water concentrations indicate that predicted or measured concentrations in interstitial water can be used to quantify the exposure concentration to an organism. Therefore, information on partitioning of chemicals between solid and liquid phases of sediment is useful for establishing effect concentrations Di Toro et al. 1991, (70). Field surveys can be designed to provide either a qualitative reconnaissance of the distribution of sediment contamination or a quantitative statistical comparison of contamination among sites. Surveys of sediment toxicity are usually part of more comprehensive analyses of biological, chemical, geological, and hydrographic data. Statistical correlations may be improved and sampling costs may be reduced if subsamples are taken simultaneously for sediment tests, chemical analyses, and benthic community structure. Table 2 lists several approaches the USEPA has considered for the assessment of sediment quality USEPA, 1992, (89). These approaches include: (1) equilibrium partitioning, (2) tissue residues, (3) interstitial water toxicity, (4) whole-sediment toxicity and sediment-spiking tests, (5) benthic community structure, (6) effect ranges (for example, effect range median, ERM), and (7) sediment quality triad (see USEPA, 1989a, 1990a, 1990b and 1992b, (90, 91, 92, 93 and Wenning and Ingersoll (2002 (94)) for a critique of these methods). The sediment assessment approaches listed in Table 2 can be classified as numeric (for example, equilibrium partitioning), descriptive (for example, whole-sediment toxicity tests), or a combination of numeric and descriptive approaches (for example, ERM, USEPA, 1992c, (95). Numeric methods can be used to derive chemical-specific sediment quality guidelines (SQGs). Descriptive methods such as toxicity tests with field-collected sediment cannot be used alone to develop numerical SQGs for individual chemicals. Although each approach can be used to make site-specific decisions, no one single approach can adequately address sediment quality. Overall, an integration of several methods using the weight of evidence is the most desirable approach for assessing the effects of contaminants associated with sediment, (Long et al. 1991(96) MacDonald et al. 1996 (97) Ingersoll et al. 1996 (98) Ingersoll et al. 1997 (99), Wenning and Ingersoll 2002 (94)). Hazard evaluations integrating data from laboratory exposures, chemical analyses, and benthic community assessments (the sediment quality triad) provide strong complementary evidence of the degree of pollution-induced degradation in aquatic communities (Burton, 1991 (69), Chapman 1992, 1997 (100, 101).) Regulatory Applications—Test Method E 1706 provides information on the regulatory applications of sediment toxicity tests. The USEPA Environmental Monitoring Management Council (EMMC) recommended the use of performance-based methods in developing standards, (Williams, 1993 (102). Performance-based methods were defined by EMMC as a monitoring approach which permits the use of appropriate methods that meet preestablished demonstrated performance standards (11.2). The USEPA Office of Water, Office of Science and Technology, and Office of Research and Development held a workshop to provide an opportunity for experts in the field of sediment toxicology and staff from the USEPA Regional and Headquarters Program offices to discuss the development of standard freshwater, estuarine, and marine sediment testing procedures (USEPA, 1992a, 1994a (89, 103)). Workgroup participants arrived at a consensus on several culturing and testing methods. In developing guidance for culturing test organisms to be included in the USEPA methods manual for sediment tests, it was agreed that no one method should be required to culture organisms. However, the consensus at the workshop was that success of a test depends on the health of the cultures. Therefore, having healthy test organisms of known quality and age for testing was determined to be the key consideration relative to culturing methods. A performance-based criteria approach was selected in USEPA, 2000 (73) as the preferred method through which individual laboratories could use unique culturing methods rather than requiring use of one culturing method. This standard recommends the use of performance-based criteria to allow each laboratory to optimize culture methods and minimize effects of test organism health on the reliability and comparability of test results. See Annex A1 and Annex A2 for a listing of performance criteria for culturing or testing. 1.1 This test method covers procedures for testing estuarine or marine organisms in the laboratory to evaluate the toxicity of contaminants associated with whole sediments. Sediments may be collected from the field or spiked with compounds in the laboratory. General guidance is presented in Sections 1-15 for conducting sediment toxicity tests with estuarine or marine amphipods. Specific guidance for conducting 10-d sediment toxicity tests with estuarine or marine amphipods is outlined in Annex A1 and specific guidance for conducting 28-d sediment toxicity tests with Leptocheirus plumulosus is outlined in Annex A2. 1.2 Procedures are described for testing estuarine or marine amphipod crustaceans in 10-d laboratory exposures to evaluate the toxicity of contaminants associated with whole sediments (Annex A1; USEPA 1994a (1)). Sediments may be collected from the field or spiked with compounds in the laboratory. A toxicity method is outlined for four species of estuarine or marine sediment-burrowing amphipods found within United States coastal waters. The species are Ampelisca abdita, a marine species that inhabits marine and mesohaline portions of the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and San Francisco Bay; Eohaustorius estuarius, a Pacific coast estuarine species; Leptocheirus plumulosus, an Atlantic coast estuarine species; and Rhepoxynius abronius, a Pacific coast marine species. Generally, the method described may be applied to all four species, although acclimation procedures and some test conditions (that is, temperature and salinity) will be species-specific (Sections 12 and Annex A1). The toxicity test is conducted in 1-L glass chambers containing 175 mL of sediment and 775 mL of overlying seawater. Exposure is static (that is, water is not renewed), and the animals are not fed over the 10-d exposure period. The endpoint in the toxicity test is survival with reburial of surviving amphipods as an additional measurement that can be used as an endpoint for some of the test species (for R. abronius and E. estuarius). Performance criteria established for this test include the average survival of amphipods in negative control treatment must be greater than or equal to 90 %. Procedures are described for use with sediments with pore-water salinity ranging from >0 o/ooto fully marine. 1.3 A procedure is also described for determining the chronic toxicity of contaminants associated with whole sediments with the amphipod Leptocheirus plumulosus in laboratory exposures (Annex A2; USEPA-USACE 2001(2)). The toxicity test is conducted for 28 d in 1-L glass chambers containing 175 mL of sediment and about 775 mL of overlying water. Test temperature is 25° ± 2°C, and the recommended overlying water salinity is 5 o/oo ± 2 o/oo(for test sediment with pore water at 1 o/oo to 10 o/oo) or 20 o/oo ± 2 o/oo (for test sediment with pore water >10 o/oo). Four hundred millilitres of overlying water is renewed three times per week, at which times test organisms are fed. The endpoints in the toxicity test are survival, growth, and reproduction of amphipods. Performance criteria established for this test include the average survival of amphipods in negative control treatment must be greater than or equal to 80 % and there must be measurable growth and reproduction in all replicates of the negative control treatment. This test is applicable for use with sediments from oligohaline to fully marine environments, with a silt content greater than 5 % and a clay content less than 85 %. 1.4 A salinity of 5 or 20 o/oo is recommended for routine application of 28-d test with L. plumulosus (Annex A2; USEPA-USACE 2001 (2)) and a salinity of 20 o/oois recommended for routine application of the 10-d test with E. estuarius or L. plumulosus (Annex A1). However, the salinity of the overlying water for tests with these two species can be adjusted to a specific salinity of interest (for example, salinity representative of site of interest or the objective of the study may be to evaluate the influence of salinity on the bioavailability of chemicals in sediment). More importantly, the salinity tested must be within the tolerance range of the test organisms (as outlined in Annex A1 and Annex A2). If tests are conducted with procedures different from those described in 1.3 or in Table A1.1 (for example, different salinity, lighting, temperature, feeding conditions), additional tests are required to determine comparability of results (1.10). If there is not a need to make comparisons among studies, then the test could be conducted just at a selected salinity for the sediment of interest. 1.5 Future revisions of this standard may include additional annexes describing whole-sediment toxicity tests with other groups of estuarine or marine invertebrates (for example, information presented in Guide E 1611 on sediment testing with polychaetes could be added as an annex to future revisions to this standard). Future editions to this standard may also include methods for conducting the toxicity tests in smaller chambers with less sediment (Ho et al. 2000 (3), Ferretti et al. 2002 (4)). 1.6 Procedures outlined in this standard are based primarily on procedures described in the USEPA (1994a (1)), USEPA-USACE (2001(2)), Test Method E 1706, and Guides E 1391, E 1525, E 1688, Environment Canada (1992 (5)), DeWitt et al. (1992a (6); 1997a (7)), Emery et al. (1997 (8)), and Emery and Moore (1996 (9)), Swartz et al. (1985 (10)), DeWitt et al. (1989 (11)), Scott and Redmond (1989 (12)), and Schlekat et al. (1992 (13)). 1.7 Additional sediment toxicity research and methods development are now in progress to (1) refine sediment spiking procedures, (2) refine sediment dilution procedures, (3) refine sediment Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE) procedures, (4) produce additional data on confirmation of responses in laboratory tests with natural populations of benthic organisms (that is, field validation studies), and (5) evaluate relative sensitivity of endpoints measured in 10- and 28-d toxicity tests using estuarine or marine amphipods. This information will be described in future editions of this standard. 1.8 Although standard procedures are described in Annex A2 of this standard for conducting chronic sediment tests with L. plumulosus, further investigation of certain issues could aid in the interpretation of test results. Some of these issues include further investigation to evaluate the relative toxicological sensitivity of the lethal and sublethal endpoints to a wide variety of chemicals spiked in sediment and to mixtures of chemicals in sediments from contamination gradients in the field (USEPA-USACE 2001 (2)). Additional research is needed to evaluate the ability of the lethal and sublethal endpoints to estimate the responses of populations and communities of benthic invertebrates to contaminated sediments. Research is also needed to link the toxicity test endpoints to a field-validated population model of L. plumulosus that would then generate estimates of population-level responses of the amphipod to test sediments and thereby provide additional ecologically relevant interpretive guidance for the laboratory toxicity test. 1.9 This standard outlines specific test methods for evaluating the toxicity of sediments with A. abdita, E. estuarius, L. plumulosus, and R. abronius. While standard procedures are described in this standard, further investigation of certain issues could aid in the interpretation of test results. Some of these issues include the effect of shipping on organism sensitivity, additional performance criteria for organism health, sensitivity of various populations of the same test species, and confirmation of responses in laboratory tests with natural benthos populations. 1.10 General procedures described in this standard might be useful for conducting tests with other estuarine or marine organisms (for example, Corophium spp., Grandidierella japonica, Lepidactylus dytiscus, Streblospio benedicti), although modifications may be necessary. Results of tests, even those with the same species, using procedures different from those described in the test method may not be comparable and using these different procedures may alter bioavailability. Comparison of results obtained using modified versions of these procedures might provide useful information concerning new concepts and procedures for conducting sediment tests with aquatic organisms. If tests are conducted with procedures different from those described in this test method, additional tests are required to determine comparability of results. General procedures described in this test method might be useful for conducting tests with other aquatic organisms; however, modifications may be necessary. 1.11 Selection of Toxicity Testing Organisms: 1.11.1 The choice of a test organism has a major influence on the relevance, success, and interpretation of a test. Furthermore, no one organism is best suited for all sediments. The following criteria were considered when selecting test organisms to be described in this standard (Table 1 and Guide E 1525). Ideally, a test organism should: (1) have a toxicological database demonstrating relative sensitivity to a range of contaminants of interest in sediment, (2) have a database for interlaboratory comparisons of procedures (for example, round-robin studies), (3) be in direct contact with sediment, (4) be readily available from culture or through field collection, (5) be easily maintained in the laboratory, (6) be easily identified, (7) be ecologically or economically important, (8) have a broad geographical distribution, be indigenous (either present or historical) to the site being evaluated, or have a niche similar to organisms of concern (for example, similar feeding guild or behavior to the indigenous organisms), (9) be tolerant of a broad range of sediment physico-chemical characteristics (for example, grain size), and (10) be compatible with selected exposure methods and endpoints (Guide E 1525). Methods utilizing selected organisms should also be (11) peer reviewed (for example, journal articles) and (12) confirmed with responses with natural populations of benthic organisms. 1.11.2 Of these criteria (Table 1), a database demonstrating relative sensitivity to contaminants, contact with sediment, ease of culture in the laboratory or availability for field-collection, ease of handling in the laboratory, tolerance to varying sediment physico-chemical characteristics, and confirmation with responses with natural benthic populations were the primary criteria used for selecting A. abdita, E. estuarius, L. plumulosus, and R. abronius for the current edition of this standard for 10-d sediment tests (Annex A1). The species chosen for this method are intimately associated with sediment, due to their tube- dwelling or free-burrowing, and sediment ingesting nature. Amphipods have been used extensively to test the toxicity of marine, estuarine, and freshwater sediments (Swartz et al., 1985 (10); DeWitt et al., 1989 (11); Scott and Redmond, 1989 (12); DeWitt et al., 1992a (6); Schlekat et al., 1992 (13)). The selection of test species for this standard followed the consensus of experts in the field of sediment toxicology who participated in a workshop entitled “Testing Issues for Freshwater and Marine Sediments”. The workshop was sponsored by USEPA Office of Water, Office of Science and Technology, and Office of Research and Development, and was held in Washington, D.C. from 16-18 September 1992 (USEPA, 1992 (14)). Of the candidate species discussed at the workshop, A. abdita, E. estuarius, L. plumulosus, and R. abronius best fulfilled the selection criteria, and presented the availability of a combination of one estuarine and one marine species each for both the Atlantic (the estuarine L. plumulosus and the marine A. abdita) and Pacific (the estuarine E. estuarius and the marine R. abronius) coasts. Ampelisca abdita is also native to portions of the Gulf of Mexico and San Francisco Bay. Many other organisms that might be appropriate for sediment testing do not now meet these selection criteria because little emphasis has been placed on developing standardized testing procedures for benthic organisms. For example, a fifth species, Grandidierella japonica was not selected because workshop participants felt that the use of this species was not sufficiently broad to warrant standardization of the method. Environment Canada (1992 (5)) has recommended the use of the following amphipod species for sediment toxicity testing: Amphiporeia virginiana, Corophium volutator, Eohaustorius washingtonianus, Foxiphalus xiximeus, and Leptocheirus pinguis. A database similar to those available for A. abdita, E. estuarius, L. plumulosus, and R. abronius must be developed in order for these and other organisms to be included in future editions of this standard. 1.11.3 The primary criterion used for selecting L. plumulosus for chronic testing of sediments was that this species is found in both oligohaline and mesohaline regions of estuaries on the East Coast of the United States and is tolerant to a wide range of sediment grain size distribution (USEPA-USACE 2001 (2), Annex Annex A2). This species is easily cultured in the laboratory and has a relatively short generation time (that is, about 24 d at 23°C, DeWitt et al. 1992a (6)) that makes this species adaptable to chronic testing (Section 12). 1.11.4 An important consideration in the selection of specific species for test method development is the existence of information concerning relative sensitivity of the organisms both to single chemicals and complex mixtures. Several studies have evaluated the sensitivities of A. abdita, E. estuarius, L. plumulosus, or R. abronius, either relative to one another, or to other commonly tested estuarine or marine species. For example, the sensitivity of marine amphipods was compared to other species that were used in generating saltwater Water Quality Criteria. Seven amphipod genera, including Ampelisca abdita and Rhepoxynius abronius, were among the test species used to generate saltwater Water Quality Criteria for 12 chemicals. Acute amphipod toxicity data from 4-d water-only tests for each of the 12 chemicals was compared to data for (1) all other species, (2) other benthic species, and (3) other infaunal species. Amphipods were generally of median sensitivity for each comparison. The average percentile rank of amphipods among all species tested was 57 %; among all benthic species, 56 %; and, among all infaunal species, 54 %. Thus, amphipods are not uniquely sensitive relative to all species, benthic species, or even infaunal species (USEPA 1994a (1)). Additional research may be warranted to develop tests using species that are consistently more sensitive than amphipods, thereby offering protection to less sensitive groups. 1.11.5 Williams et al. (1986 (15)) compared the sensitivity of the R. abronius 10-d whole sediment test, the oyster embryo (Crassostrea gigas) 48-h abnormality test, and the bacterium (Vibrio fisheri) 1-h luminescence inhibition test (that is, the Microtox test) to sediments collected from 46 contaminated sites in Commencement Bay, WA. Rhepoxynius abronius were exposed to whole sediment, while the oyster and bacterium tests were conducted with sediment elutriates and extracts, respectfully. Microtox was the most sensitive test, with 63 % of the sites eliciting significant inhibition of luminescence. Significant mortality of R. abronius was observed in 40 % of test sediments, and oyster abnormality occurred in 35 % of sediment elutriates. Complete concordance (that is, sediments that were either toxic or not-toxic in all three tests) was observed in 41 % of the sediments. Possible sources for the lack of concordance at other sites include interspecific differences in sensitivity among test organisms, heterogeneity in contaminant types associated with test sediments, and differences in routes of exposure inherent in each toxicity test. These results highlight the importance of using multiple assays when performing sediment assessments. 1.11.6 Several studies have compared the sensitivity of combinations of the four amphipods to sediment contaminants. For example, there are several comparisons between A. abdita and R. abronius, between E. estuarius and R. abronius, and between A. abdita and L. plumulosus. There are fewer examples of direct comparisons between E. estuarius and L. plumulosus, and no examples comparing L. plumulosus and R. abronius. There is some overlap in relative sensitivity from comparison to comparison within each species combination, which appears to indicate that all four species are within the same range of relative sensitivity to contaminated sediments. 220.127.116.11 Word et al. (1989 (16)) compared the sensitivity of A. abdita and R. abronius to contaminated sediments in a series of experiments. Both species were tested at 15°C. Experiments were designed to compare the response of the organism rather than to provide a comparison of the sensitivity of the methods (that is, Ampelisca abdita would normally be tested at 20°C). Sediments collected from Oakland Harbor, CA, were used for the comparisons. Twenty-six sediments were tested in one comparison, while 5 were tested in the other. Analysis of results using Kruskal Wallace rank sum test for both experiments demonstrated that R. abronius exhibited greater sensitivity to the sediments than A. abdita at 15°C. Long and Buchman (1989 (17)) also compared the sensitivity of A. abdita and R. abronius to sediments from Oakland Harbor, CA. They also determined that A. abdita showed less sensitivity than R. abronius, but they also showed that A. abdita was less sensitive to sediment grain size factors than R. abronius. 18.104.22.168 DeWitt et al. (1989 (11)) compared the sensitivity of E. estuarius and R. abronius to sediment spiked with fluoranthene and field-collected sediment from industrial waterways in Puget Sound, WA, in 10-d tests, and to aqueous cadmium (CdCl2) in a 4-d water-only test. The sensitivity of E. estuarius was from two (to spiked-spiked sediment) to seven (to one Puget Sound, WA, sediment) times less sensitive than R. abronius in sediment tests, and ten times less sensitive to CdCl2 in the water-only test. These results are supported by the findings of Pastorok and Becker (1990 (18)) who found the acute sensitivity of E. estuarius and R. abronius to be generally comparable to each other, and both were more sensitive than Neanthes arenaceodentata (survival and biomass endpoints), Panope generosa (survival), and Dendraster excentricus (survival). 22.214.171.124 Leptocheirus plumulosus was as sensitive as the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca to an artificially created gradient of sediment contamination when the latter was acclimated to oligohaline salinity (that is, 6 o/oo; McGee et al., 1993 (19)). DeWitt et al. (1992b (20)) compared the sensitivity of L. plumulosus with three other amphipod species, two mollusks, and one polychaete to highly contaminated sediment collected from Baltimore Harbor, MD, that was serially diluted with clean sediment. Leptocheirus plumulosus was more sensitive than the amphipods Hyalella azteca and Lepidactylus dytiscus and exhibited equal sensitivity with E. estuarius. Schlekat et al. (1995 (21)) describe the results of an interlaboratory comparison of 10-d tests with A. abdita, L. plumulosus and E. estuarius using dilutions of sediments collected from Black Rock Harbor, CT. There was strong agreement among species and laboratories in the ranking of sediment toxicity and the ability to discriminate between toxic and non-toxic sediments. 126.96.36.199 Hartwell et al. (2000 (22)) evaluated the response of Leptocheirus plumulosus (10-d survival or growth) to the response of the amphipod Lepidactylus dytiscus (10-d survival or growth), the polychaete Streblospio benedicti (10-d survival or growth), and lettuce germination (Lactuca sativa in 3-d exposure) and observed that L. plumulosus was relatively insensitive compared to the response of either L. dytiscus or S. benedicti in exposures to 4 sediments with elevated metal concentrations. 188.8.131.52 Ammonia is a naturally occurring compound in marine sediment that results from the degradation of organic debris. Interstitial ammonia concentrations in test sediment can range from <1 mg/L to in excess of 400 mg/L (Word et al., 1997 (23)). Some benthic infauna show toxicity to ammonia at concentrations of about 20 mg/L (Kohn et al., 1994 (24)). Based on water-only and spiked-sediment experiments with ammonia, threshold limits for test initiation and termination have been established for the L. plumulosus chronic test. Smaller (younger) individuals are more sensitive to ammonia than larger (older) individuals (DeWitt et al., 1997a (7), b (25). Results of a 28-d test indicated that neonates can tolerate very high levels of pore-water ammonia (>300 mg/L total ammonia) for short periods of time with no apparent long-term effects (Moore et al., 1997 (26)). It is not surprising L. plumulosus has a high tolerance for ammonia given that these amphipods are often found in organic rich sediments in which diagenesis can result in elevated pore-water ammonia concentrations. Insensitivity to ammonia by L. plumulosus should not be construed as an indicator of the sensitivity of the L. plumulosus sediment toxicity test to other chemicals of concern. 1.11.7 Limited comparative data is available for concurrent water-only exposures of all four species in single-chemical tests. Studies that do exist generally show that no one species is consistently the most sensitive. 184.108.40.206 The relative sensitivity of the four amphipod species to ammonia was determined in ten-d water only toxicity tests in order to aid interpretation of results of tests on sediments where this toxicant is present (USEPA 1994a (1)). These tests were static exposures that were generally conducted under conditions (for example, salinity, photoperiod) similar to those used for standard 10-d sediment tests. Departures from standard conditions included the absence of sediment and a test temperature of 20°C for L. plumulosus, rather than 25°C as dictated in this standard. Sensitivity to total ammonia increased with increasing pH for all four species. The rank sensitivity was R. abronius = A. abdita > E. estuarius > L. plumulosus. A similar study by Kohn et al. (1994 (24)) showed a similar but slightly different relative sensitivity to ammonia with A. abdita > R. abronius = L. plumulosus > E. estuarius. 220.127.116.11 Cadmium chloride has been a common reference toxicant for all four species in 4-d exposures. DeWitt et al. (1992a (6)) reports the rank sensitivity as R. abronius > A. abdita > L. plumulosus > E. estuarius at a common temperature and salinity of 15°C and 28 o/oo. A series of 4-d exposures to cadmium that were conducted at species-specific temperatures and salinities showed the following rank sensitivity: A. abdita = L. plumulosus = R. abronius > E. estuarius (USEPA 1994a (1)). 18.104.22.168 Relative species sensitivity frequently varies among contaminants; consequently, a battery of tests including organisms representing different trophic levels may be needed to assess sediment quality (Craig, 1984 (27); Williams et al. 1986 (15); Long et al., 1990 (28); Ingersoll et al., 1990 (29); Burton and Ingersoll, 1994 (31)). For example, Reish (1988 (32)) reported the relative toxicity of six metals (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, and zinc) to crustaceans, polychaetes, pelecypods, and fishes and concluded that no one species or group of test organisms was the most sensitive to all of the metals. 1.11.8 The sensitivity of an organism is related to route of exposure and biochemical response to contaminants. Sediment-dwelling organisms can receive exposure from three primary sources: interstitial water, sediment particles, and overlying water. Food type, feeding rate, assimilation efficiency, and clearance rate will control the dose of contaminants from sediment. Benthic invertebrates often selectively consume different particle sizes (Harkey et al. 1994 (33)) or particles with higher organic carbon concentrations which may have higher contaminant concentrations. Grazers and other collector-gatherers that feed on aufwuchs and detritus may receive most of their body burden directly from materials attached to sediment or from actual sediment ingestion. In some amphipods (Landrum, 1989 (34)) and clams (Boese et al., 1990 (35)) uptake through the gut can exceed uptake across the gills for certain hydrophobic compounds. Organisms in direct contact with sediment may also accumulate contaminants by direct adsorption to the body wall or by absorption through the integument (Knezovich et al. 1987 (36)). 1.11.9 Despite the potential complexities in estimating the dose that an animal receives from sediment, the toxicity and bioaccumulation of many contaminants in sediment such as Kepone®, fluoranthene, organochlorines, and metals have been correlated with either the concentration of these chemicals in interstitial water or in the case of non-ionic organic chemicals, concentrations in sediment on an organic carbon normalized basis (Di Toro et al. 1990 (37); Di Toro et al. 1991(38)). The relative importance of whole sediment and interstitial water routes of exposure depends on the test organism and the specific contaminant (Knezovich et al. 1987 (36)). Because benthic communities contain a diversity of organisms, many combinations of exposure routes may be important. Therefore, behavior and feeding habits of a test organism can influence its ability to accumulate contaminants from sediment and should be considered when selecting test organisms for sediment testing. 1.11.10 The use of A. abdita, E. estuarius, R. abronius, and L. plumulosus in laboratory toxicity studies has been field validated with natural populations of benthic organisms (Swartz et al. 1994 (39) and Anderson et al. 2001 (40) for E. estuarius, Swartz et al. 1982 (43) and Anderson et al. 2001 (40) for R. abronius, McGee et al. 1999 (41)and McGee and Fisher 1999 (42) for L. plumulosus). 22.214.171.124 Data from USEPA Office of Research and Development's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment program were examined to evaluate the relationship between survival of Ampelisca abdita in sediment toxicity tests and the presence of amphipods, particularly ampeliscids, in field samples. Over 200 sediment samples from two years of sampling in the Virginian Province (Cape Cod, MA, to Cape Henry, VA) were available for comparing synchronous measurements of A. abdita survival in toxicity tests to benthic community enumeration. Although species of this genus were among the more frequently occurring taxa in these samples, ampeliscids were totally absent from stations that exhibited A. abdita test survival <60 % of that in control samples. Additionally, ampeliscids were found in very low densities at stations with amphipod test survival between 60 and 80 % (USEPA 1994a (1)). These data indicate that tests with 2. Referenced Documents (purchase separately) The documents listed below are referenced within the subject standard but are not provided as part of the standard. D1129 Terminology Relating to Water D4447 Guide for Disposal of Laboratory Chemicals and Samples E29 Practice for Using Significant Digits in Test Data to Determine Conformance with Specifications E105 Practice for Probability Sampling of Materials E122 Practice for Calculating Sample Size to Estimate, With Specified Precision, the Average for a Characteristic of a Lot or Process E141 Practice for Acceptance of Evidence Based on the Results of Probability Sampling E177 Practice for Use of the Terms Precision and Bias in ASTM Test Methods E178 Practice for Dealing With Outlying Observations E456 Terminology Relating to Quality and Statistics E691 Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a Test Method E729 Guide for Conducting Acute Toxicity Tests on Test Materials with Fishes, Macroinvertebrates, and Amphibians E943 Terminology Relating to Biological Effects and Environmental Fate E1241 Guide for Conducting Early Life-Stage Toxicity Tests with Fishes E1325 Terminology Relating to Design of Experiments E1391 Guide for Collection, Storage, Characterization, and Manipulation of Sediments for Toxicological Testing and for Selection of Samplers Used to Collect Benthic Invertebrates E1402 Guide for Sampling Design E1525 Guide for Designing Biological Tests with Sediments E1611 Guide for Conducting Sediment Toxicity Tests with Polychaetous Annelids E1688 Guide for Determination of the Bioaccumulation of Sediment-Associated Contaminants by Benthic Invertebrates E1706 Test Method for Measuring the Toxicity of Sediment-Associated Contaminants with Freshwater Invertebrates E1847 Practice for Statistical Analysis of Toxicity Tests Conducted Under ASTM Guidelines E1850 Guide for Selection of Resident Species as Test Organisms for Aquatic and Sediment Toxicity Tests Ampelisca abdita; amphipod; bioavailability; chronic; Eohaustorius estuarius; estuarine; invertebrates; Leptocheirus plumulosus; marine; Rhepoxynius abronius; sediment; toxicity; Acidity, alkalinity, pH--chemicals; Acute toxicity tests; Ampelisca abdita; Amphipods/Amphibia; Aqueous environments; Benthic macroinvertebrates (collecting); Biological data analysis--sediments; Bivalve molluscs; Chemical analysis--water applications; Contamination--environmental; Corophium; Crustacea; EC50 test; Eohaustorius estuarius; Estuarine environments; Field testing--environmental materials/applications; Geochemical characteristics; Grandidierella japonica; Leptocheirus Plumuulosus; Marine environments; Median lethal dose; Polychaetes; Reference toxicants; Rhepoxynium abronius; Saltwater; Seawater (natural/synthetic); Sediment toxicity testing; Static tests--environmental materials/applications; Ten-day testing; Toxicity/toxicology--water environments ASTM International is a member of CrossRef. 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Water reuse can be defined as the use of reclaimed water for a direct beneficial purpose. The use of reclaimed water for irrigation and other purposes has been employed as a water conservation practice in Florida, California, Texas, Arizona, and other states for many years. Reclaimed water, also known as recycled water, is water recovered from domestic, municipal, and industrial wastewater treatment plants that has been treated to standards that allow safe reuse. Properly reclaimed water is typically safe for most uses except human consumption. Wastewater is not reclaimed water. Wastewater is untreated liquid industrial waste and/or domestic sewage from residential dwellings, commercial buildings, and industrial facilities. Gray water, or untreated wastewater from bathing or washing, is one form of wastewater. Wastewater may be land applied, but this is considered to be land treatment rather than water reuse. The demand for fresh water in Virginia is growing as the state’s population increases. This demand can potentially exceed supply during times of even moderate drought. In recent years, the normal seasonal droughts that have occurred in Virginia have caused local and state government to enact water conservation ordinances. These ordinances limit the use of potable water (water suitable for human consumption) for such things as car washing and landscape irrigation. The potential for developing new sources of potable water is limited. Conservation measures, such as irrigating with reclaimed water, are one way to help ensure existing water supplies are utilized as efficiently as possible. The environmental benefits of using reclaimed water include: Reclaimed water typically comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants, although some industries (e.g., food processors) also generate water that may be suitable for nonpotable uses. (Figure 1). During primary treatment at a wastewater treatment plant, inorganic and organic suspended solids are removed from plant influent by screening, and settling. The decanted effluent from the primary treatment process is then subjected to secondary treatment, which involves biological decomposition of organic material and settling to further separate water from solids. If a wastewater treatment plant is not equipped to perform advanced treatment, water is disinfected and discharged to natural water bodies following secondary treatment. Advanced or tertiary treatment consists of further removal of suspended and dissolved solids, including nutrients, and disinfection. Advanced treatment can include: Water that has undergone advanced treatment is disinfected prior to being released or reused. Reclaimed water often requires greater treatment than effluent that is discharged to local streams or rivers because users will typically have more direct contact with undiluted reclaimed water than undiluted effluent. For an interactive diagram of a wastewater treatment system with more information on treatment processes, please see www.wef.org/apps/gowithflow/theflow.htm. Although the primary focus of this publication is on the use of reclaimed water for agricultural, municipal, and residential irrigation, reclaimed water can be used for many other purposes. Non-irrigation uses for reclaimed water include: Intentional indirect potable reuse means that reclaimed water is discharged to a water body where it is then purposefully used as a raw water supply for another water treatment plant. This occurs unintentionally in most rivers, since downstream water treatment plants use treated water discharged by upstream wastewater treatment plants. Direct potable reuse refers to the use of reclaimed water for drinking directly after treatment, and, to date, has only been implemented in Africa (U.S. EPA, 2004). Examples of non-irrigation permitted water reuse projects in Virginia are: The turfgrass and ornamental horticulture industries have grown as Virginia becomes more urbanized. The acreage devoted to high-value specialty crops that benefit from irrigation, such as fruits and vegetables, is also increasing. As demand for potable water increases, maintaining turf, landscape plants, and crops will require the utilization of previously underutilized water sources. The regulation of reclaimed water production and use encourages both the supply of and the demand for reclaimed water. The benefits to suppliers of reclaimed water include greater public awareness and demand for reclaimed water and clear guidelines for reclaimed water production. Benefits to end users include increased public acceptance of the use of reclaimed water and a subsequent decrease in the demand for fresh water. There are no federal regulations governing reclaimed water use, but the U.S. EPA (2004) has established guidelines to encourage states to develop their own regulations. The primary purpose of federal guidelines and state regulations is to protect human health and water quality. To reduce disease risks to acceptable levels, reclaimed water must meet certain disinfection standards by either reducing the concentrations of constituents that may affect public health and/or limiting human contact with reclaimed water. The U.S. EPA (2004) recommends that water intended for reuse should: Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is an indicator of the presence of reactive organic matter in water. Total suspended solids (TSS) or turbidity (measured in nephelometric turbidity units, or NTUs) are measures of the amount of organic and inorganic particulate matter in water. Some other parameters often measured as indicators of disinfection efficiency include: The recommended values for each of these indicators depend on the intended use of the reclaimed water (Table 1). Table 1. Summary of U.S. EPA guidelines for water reuse for irrigation (Adapted from U.S. EPA, 2004). Monitoring for specific pathogens and microconstituents may become a part of the standard testing protocol as the use of reclaimed water for indirect potable reuse applications increases. Pathogens of particular concern include enteric viruses and the protozoan parasites Giardia and Cryptosporidium, whose monitoring is required by the state of Florida for water reuse projects. Microconstituents include organic chemicals, such as pharmaceutically active substances, personal care products, endocrine disrupting compounds, and previously unregulated inorganic elements whose toxicity may be re-assessed or newly evaluated. Fish, amphibians, and birds have been found to develop reproductive system abnormalities upon direct or indirect exposure to a variety of endocrine disrupting compounds. Such microconstituents may have the potential to cause reproduction system abnormalities and immune system malfunctioning in other wildlife and humans at higher concentrations. The impacts of the extremely low concentrations of these compounds found in wastewater effluent or reclaimed water are unknown. To date, there is no evidence that microconstituents cause human health effects at environmentally relevant concentrations. Some possible options for the removal of microconstituents from wastewater are treatment with ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and UV light. These methods can destroy some microconstituents via advanced oxidation, but the endocrine disruption activity of the by-products created during oxidation may also be of concern. No illnesses have been directly associated with the use of properly treated reclaimed water in the U.S. (U.S. EPA, 2004). The U.S. EPA recommends, however, that ongoing research and additional monitoring for Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and microconstituents be conducted to understand changes in reclaimed water quality. State regulations need not agree with U.S. EPA guidelines and are often more stringent. In Virginia, water reuse means direct beneficial reuse, indirect potable reuse, or a controlled use in accordance with the Water Reclamation and Reuse Regulation (9 VAC 25-740-10 et seq.; available at the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality website www.deq.virginia.gov/programs/homepage.html under Water Reuse and Reclamation.) The Virginia Water Regulation and Reuse Regulation establishes legal requirements for the reclamation and treatment of water that is to be reused. These require ments are designed to protect both water quality and public health, while encouraging the use of reclaimed water. The Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, Water Quality Division has oversight over the Virginia Water Reclamation and Reuse Regulation. The primary determinants of how reclaimed water of varying quality can be used are based on treatment processes to which the water has been subjected and on quantitative chemical, physical, and biological standards. Reclaimed water suitable for reuse in Virginia is categorized as either Level 1 or Level 2 (Table 2). The minimum standard requirements for reclaimed water for specific uses are summarized in Table 3. Table 2. Minimum standards for treatment of Level 1 and Level 2 reclaimed water. (Summarized from Virginia Water Reclamation and Reuse Regulations: 9 VAC 25-740-10 et seq.) Table 3. Minimum treatment requirements for irrigation and landscape-related reuse of reclaimed water in Virginia. (Summarized from Virginia Water Reclamation and Reuse Regulations: 9 VAC 25-740-10 et seq.) Water quality must be considered when using reclaimed water for irrigation. The following properties are critical to plant and soil health and environmental quality. Salinity, or salt concentration, is probably the most important consideration in determining whether water is suitable for reuse (U.S. EPA, 2004). Water salinity is the sum of all elemental ions (e.g., sodium, calcium, chloride, boron, sulfate, nitrate) and is usually measured by determining the electrical conductivity (EC, units = dS/m) or total dissolved solids (TDS, units = mg/L) concentration of the water. Water with a TDS concentration of 640 mg/L will typically have an EC of approximately 1 dS/m. Salts in reclaimed water come from: Most reclaimed water from urban areas is slightly saline (TDS ≤ 1280 mg/L or EC ≤ 2 dS/m). High salt concentrations reduce water uptake in plants by lowering the osmotic potential of the soil. For instance, residential use of water adds approx 200-400 mg/L dissolved salts (Lazarova et al., 2004a). Plants differ in their sensitivity to salt levels so the salinity of the particular reclaimed water source should be measured so that appropriate crops and/or application rates can be selected. Most turfgrasses can tolerate water with 200-800 mg/L soluble salts, but salt levels above 2,000 mg/L may be toxic (Harivandi, 2004). For further information on managing turfgrasses when irrigating with saline water, see Carrow and Duncan (1998). Many other crop and landscape plants are more sensitive to high soluble-salt levels than turfgrasses, and should be managed accordingly. See Wu and Dodge (2005) for a list of landscape plants with their relative salt tolerance and Maas (1987) for information on salt-tolerant crops. Specific dissolved ions may also affect irrigation water quality. For example, irrigation water with a high concentration of sodium (Na) ions may cause dispersion of soil aggregates and sealing of soil pores. This is a particular problem in golf course irrigation (Sheikh, 2004) since soil compaction is already a concern due to persistent foot and vehicular traffic. The Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), which measures the ratio of sodium to other ions, is used to evaluate the potential effect of irrigation water on soil structure. For more information on how to assess and interpret SAR levels, please see Harivandi (1999). High levels of sodium can also be directly toxic to plants both through root uptake and by accumulation in plant leaves following sprinkler irrigation. The specific concentration of sodium that is considered to be toxic will vary with plant species and the type of irrigation system. Turfgrasses are generally more tolerant to sodium than most ornamental plant species. Although boron (B) and chlorine (Cl) are necessary at low levels for plant growth, dissolved boron and chloride ions can cause toxicity problems at high concentrations. Specific toxic concentrations will vary depending on plant species and type of irrigation method used. Levels of boron as low as 1 to 2 mg/L in irrigation water can cause leaf burn on ornamental plants, but turfgrasses can often tolerate levels as high as 10 mg/L (Harivandi, 1999). Very salt-sensitive landscape plants such as crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia sp.), azalea (Rhododendron sp.), and Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) may be damaged by overhead irrigation with reclaimed water containing chloride levels over 100 mg/L, but most turfgrasses are relatively tolerant to chloride if they are mowed frequently (Harivandi, 1999; Crook, 2005). Reclaimed water typically contains more nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) than drinking water. The amounts of N and P provided by the reclaimed water can be calculated as the product of the estimated irrigation volume and the N and P concentration in the water. To prevent N and P leaching into groundwater, the Virginia Water Reclamation and Reuse Regulation requires that a nutrient management plan be written for bulk use of reclaimed water not treated to achieve biological nutrient removal (BNR), which the regulation defines as treatment that achieves an annual average of 8.0 mg/L total N and 1.0 mg/L total P. Water that has been subjected to BNR treatment processes contains such low concentrations of N and P that the reclaimed water can be applied at rates sufficient to supply a crop’s water needs without risk of surface or ground water contamination. The Virginia Water Reclamation and Reuse Regulations require that irrigation with reclaimed water shall be limited to supplemental irrigation. Supplemental irrigation is defined as that amount of water which, in combination with rainfall, meets the water demands of the irrigated vegetation to maximize production or optimize growth. Irrigation rates for reclaimed water are site- and crop-specific, and will depend on the following factors (U.S. EPA, 2004; Lazarova et al., 2004b). 1. First, seasonal irrigation demands must be determined. These can be predicted with:• an evapotranspiration estimate for the particular crop being grown • determination of the period of plant growth • average annual precipitation data • data for soil permeability and water holding capacity Methods for calculating such irrigation requirements can be found in the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Engineering Handbook at www.info.usda.gov/CED/ftp/CED/neh-15.htm (USDA-NRCS, 2003) and in Reed et al. (1995). These calculations are more complicated for landscape plantings than for agricultural crops or turf because landscape plantings consist of many different species with different requirements. 2. The properties of the specific reclaimed water to be used, as detailed in the section above, must be taken into account since these may limit the total amount of water that can be applied per season. 3. The availability of the reclaimed water should also be quantified, including:• the total amount available • the time of year when available • availability of water storage facilities for the nongrowing season • delivery rate and type Water reuse is actively promoted by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection since Florida law requires that the use of potable water for irrigation be limited. In 2005, 462 Florida golf courses, covering over 56,000 acres of land, were irrigated with reclaimed water. Reclaimed water was also used to irrigate 201,465 residences, 572 parks, and 251 schools. St. Petersburg is home to one of the largest dual distribution systems in the world. (A dual distribution system is one where pipes carrying reclaimed water are separate from those carrying potable water.) In existence since the 1970s, this network provides reclaimed water to residences, golf courses, parks, schools, and commercial areas for landscape irrigation, and to commercial and industrial customers for cooling and other applications. For more information, see Crook (2005) and Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2006). The town of Cary is the first city in the state of North Carolina to institute a dual distribution system. The system has been in operation since 2001 and can provide up to 1 million gallons of reclaimed water daily for irrigating and cooling. The reclaimed water has undergone advanced treatment and meets North Carolina water quality rules. To date, there are over 400 residential and industrial users. For more information, see www.townofcary.org/depts/pwdept/reclaimhome.htm. The Bayberry Hills Golf Course expansion is one of numerous water reuse projects in Massachusetts. It was initiated in 2001 as an addition to an existing golf course of seven holes irrigated with reclaimed water. These seven holes use approximately 18 million gallons of water per year, and water reuse was necessary since Yarmouth’s water supply was already operating at capacity during summer months. The reused water undergoes secondary treatment followed by ozone treatment, filtration, and UV disinfection. There are provisions for water storage during the nongrowing season. The water reuse project has reduced the nitrogen needed for golf course fertilization. For more information on this and other reuse projects in the state of Massachusetts, see www.mapc.org/regional_planning/MAPC_Water_Reuse_Report_2005.pdf. For further information on irrigation of golf courses with reclaimed water, see United States Golf Association (1994). The Southeast Farm in Tallahassee, Florida, has been irrigating with reclaimed water since 1966. The farm is a cooperative between the city of Tallahassee, which supplies water, and farmers who contract acreage. Until 1980, the farm was limited to 20 acres of land for hay production, but has expanded since then to 2,163 acres. The irrigation water receives secondary treatment. The crops grown are corn (Zea mays L. subsp. Mays), soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr], bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers], and rye (Secale cereale L.). In recent years, however, elevated nitrate levels have been found in the waters of Wakulla Springs State Park south of Tallahassee, which is one of the largest and deepest freshwater springs in the world. This has apparently resulted in excessive growth of algae and exotic aquatic plant species, causing reduced clarity and changes in the spring’s ecosystem. Dye studies have confirmed that at least a portion of the nitrate comes from the Southeast Farm’s irrigated fields, although studies are on-going. As a result, in June 2006, the city of Tallahassee removed all cattle from Southeast Farm, eliminated regular use of nitrogen fertilizer on the farm, and implemented a comprehensive nutrient management plan for the farm. For more information, see www.talgov.com/you/water/pdf/sefarm.pdf or U.S. EPA (2004). Water Conserv II has been in existence since 1986, and is the first project permitted by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection for crops for human consumption. Over 3,000 acres of citrus groves are irrigated with reclaimed water, in addition to nurseries, residential landscaping, a sand mine, and the Orange County National Golf Center. No problems have resulted from the irrigation. The reclaimed water provides adequate boron and phosphorus and maintains soil at correct pH for citrus growth. The adequate supply of water permits citrus growers to maintain optimum moisture levels for high yields and ample water for freeze protection, which requires more than eight times as much water as normal irrigation. Although Water Conserv II had historically provided reclaimed water to citrus growers for no charge, the project recently began charging for water. It’s unclear if citrus growers will continue to irrigate with reclaimed water, or whether Water Conserv II’s emphasis will change to providing reclaimed water for residential, industrial, and landscape customers. For more information, see www.waterconservii.com/ or U.S. EPA (2004). This publication was reviewed by Adria Bordas, Bobby Clark, Erik Ervin, and Gary Felton. A draft version was reviewed by Bob Angelotti, Marcia Degen, Karen Harr, George Kennedy, Valerie Rourke, and Terry Wagner. Any opinions, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors. www.watereuse.org/: WateReuse Association. “The WateReuse Association is a non-profit organization whose mission is to advance the beneficial and efficient use of water resources through education, sound science, and technology using reclamation, recycling, reuse, and desalination for the benefit of our members, the public, and the environment.” Page contains links to water reuse projects (mostly in the western U.S.), and other useful links. www.cvco.org/science/vwea/navbuttons/Glossary-11-01.pdf: Virginia Water Environment Association’s Virginia Water Reuse Glossary. www.hrsd.com/waterreuse.htm: Hampton Roads (Virginia) Sanitation District water reuse page. Description of industrial water reuse project, research reports, FAQ’s, and glossary of water reuse jargon. www.floridadep.org/water/reuse/index.htm: Florida Department of Environmental Protection water re-use page. Links to many water reuse-related resources on site, including general education/information materials, and Florida-specific links on water reuse policy, regulations, and projects. www.gaepd.org/Files_PDF/techguide/wpb/reuse.pdf: Georgia Department of Natural Resources Environmental Protection Division’s “Guidelines for Water Reclamation and Urban Water Re-Use (2002). www.mass.gov/dep/water/wastewater/wrfaqs.htm: Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection FAQ on water reuse. www.bcua.org/WPC_VT_WasteWaterReUse.htm: Bergen County (New Jersey) Utilities Authority. Describes reuse of wastewater effluent re-use in cooling towers and for sewer cleaning. www.owasa.org/pages/WaterReuse/questionsandanswers.html: FAQ about Orange Water and SewerAuthority’s (Carrboro, NC) water reuse project for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Carrow, R.N. and R.R. Duncan. 1998. Salt-affected turfgrass sites: Assessment and management. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. Crook, James. 2005. St. Petersburg, Florida, dual water system: A case study. Water conservation, reuse, and recycling: Proceedings of an Iranian-American workshop. The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. 2005 reuse inventory. FDEP, Tallahassee, FL. Available on-line at www.floridadep.org/water/reuse/inventory.htm. Harivandi, M. Ali. 1999. Interpreting turfgrass irrigation water test results. Publication 8009. University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oakland, Calif. Available on-line at anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8009.pdf. Harivandi, M. Ali. 2004. Evaluating recycled waters for golf course irrigation. U.S. Golf Association Green Section Record 42(6): 25-29. Available on-line at turf.lib.msu.edu/2000s/2004/041125.pdf. Landschoot, Peter. 2007. Irrigation water quality guidelines for turfgrass sites. Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cooperative Extension. Penn State University, State College, Pa. Available on-line at turfgrassmanagement.psu.edu/irrigation_water_quality_for_turfgrass_sites.cfm. Lazarova, Valentina and Takashi Asano. 2004. Challenges of sustainable irrigation with recycled water. p. 1-30. In Valentina Lazarova and Bahri (ed.). Water reuse for irrigation: agriculture, landscapes, and turf grass. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. Lazarova, Valentina, Herman Bouwer, and Akica Bahri. 2004a. Water quality considerations. p. 31-60. In Valentina Lazarova and Akica Bahri (ed.). Water reuse for irrigation: agriculture, landscapes, and turf grass. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. Lazarova, Valentina, Ioannis Papadopoulous, and Akica Bahri. 2004b. Code of successful agronomic practices. p. 103-150. In Valentina Lazarova and Akica Bahri (ed.). Water reuse for irrigation: agriculture, landscapes, and turf grass. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. Maas, E.V. 1987. Salt tolerance of plants. p. 57–75. In B.R. Christie (ed.) CRC handbook of plant science in agriculture, Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. Metropolitan Area Planning Council. 2005. Once is not enough: A guide to water reuse in Massachusetts. MAPC, Boston, Mass. Available on-line at www.mapc.org/regional_planning/MAPC_Water_Reuse_Report_2005.pdf. Reed, Sherwood C., Ronald W. Crites, and E. Joe Middlebrooks. 1995. Natural systems for waste management and treatment. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, N.Y. Sheikh, Bahman. 2004. Code of practices for landscape and golf course irrigation. In Valentina Lazarova and Akica Bahri (ed.). Water reuse for irrigation: agriculture, landscapes, and turf grass. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. USDA-NRCS. 2003. Irrigation water requirements. Section 15, Chapter 2. p. 2-i-2-284. In Part 623 National Engineering Handbook. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Available on-line at www.info.usda.gov/CED/ftp/CED/neh-15.htm. U.S. EPA. 2003. National primary drinking water standards. EPA 816-F-03-016. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. U.S. EPA. 2004. Guidelines for water reuse. EPA 645-R-04-108. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Available on-line at www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/pubs/625r04108/625r04108.pdf. United States Golf Association. 1994. Wastewater reuse for golf course irrigation. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Mich. 294 p. VAAWW-VWEA. 2000. A Virginia water reuse glossary. Virginia Section, American Water Works Association and Virginia Water Environment Federation. Available on-line at www.cvco.org/science/vwea/navbuttons/Glossary-11-01.pdf. Wu, Lin, and Linda Dodge. 2005. Landscape plant salt tolerance guide for recycled water irrigation. Slosson Research Endowment for Ornamental Horticulture, Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Calif. Available on-line at ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/filelibrary/5505/20091.pdf. Reviewed by Greg Evanylo, Extension Specialist, Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences Virginia Cooperative Extension materials are available for public use, re-print, or citation without further permission, provided the use includes credit to the author and to Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, and Virginia State University. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Alan L. Grant, Dean, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences; Edwin J. Jones, Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; Jewel E. Hairston, Administrator, 1890 Extension Program, Virginia State, Petersburg. May 1, 2009

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What took Mother Nature thousands of years to create, recent humanity has taken for granted and has selfishly destroyed. In the last 75 years, modern U.S. economic agricultural practices have nearly eradicated all of the naturally occurring organically (carbon containing) complexed trace minerals, poly-electrolytes and metalo-enzymes from our diet. Two-time Nobel prize winner and renowned scientist Linus Pauling categorically stated to the 74th Congress of the U.S. that, "Every ailment, every sickness and every disease can be traced back to an organic trace mineral deficiency." Without a doubt, organic trace minerals are "the gift of life" and cellular function becomes impossible without them. The 74th Congress, 2nd session, of the United States declared that 99 percent of Americans are deficient in 100 percent organically complexed trace minerals. Why? Because our foods no longer contain adequate amounts of critical, essential, and life sustaining organic trace minerals, poly-electrolytes and metalo-enzymes! Dr. Charles Northern in Senate Document 264 indicated that, when an organic soil-based bed is destroyed, plants and crops harvested in that soil lack virtually all of the critical organic trace minerals and more. There is enormous scientific evidence proving organic trace minerals and fulvic acid are both critically necessary to maintain health, promote healing and prevent illnesses and disease. Further, they may be the solution to the world’s health problems and may even be the key to preservation of life on earth for many centuries to come. Lastly, they are proving indispensable to every organ, gland and muscle in the body. Without them, life cannot exist because they are both the stimulus (neuro-electrical catalyst) and the "spark" that single-handedly produces all life functions. What is fulvic acid? Where does it come from and how does it work? Fulvic acid is a humic substance or extract. It is the end product of nature’s humification process, which is the ultimate breakdown and recycling of once-living plant matter. Fulvic acid contains all the phytochemical protective substances, amino acid peptides, nucleic acids, poly-saccharides and muco-polysaccharides from the original living and organic (carbon containing) plant matter. Thus, fulvic acid is highly concentrated, refined, transformed, and enhanced over hundreds of years by the actions of innumerable and microscopic organically complexed plants. This humification process does not break down the original phytochemical protective components and prevents them from turning back into their basic mineral elements and micro-structures. Even the smallest strands of RNA, DNA, and organic plant photosynthetic materials still remain intact. Over time, the original components become organically complexed and enriched with organic and carbonaceous materials. In addition, because fulvic acid is so highly refined and so naturally chelated (i.e., ultra tiny and low molecular weight) by nature itself, it consists of 100 percent organically complexed and ultra tiny molecules which can easily penetrate human tissue and cells. It is highly bio-active on the cellular level, providing innumerable bio-chemical and metabolic detoxification functions. The short term health benefits and long term clinical results are scientifically phenomenal and medically outstanding. Fulvic acid is one of nature’s most precious forms of protection and defense for plants, animals and, possibly, man. Unquestionably, it is tied very closely with immune system functions and has exceptionally powerful antioxidant qualities. What scientific facts do we know about fulvic acid and its vast applications? Because fulvic acid is naturally chelated and organically complexed by nature itself, it has been entirely and perhaps wrongly misunderstood and overlooked by most of medicine and science. We believe nearly every pharmaceutical drug, herbal extract, health supplement and therapeutic substance from nature can, somehow, be traced to the functions and the actual chemical makeup of fulvic acid. We also believe the DNA of every living and extinct species of organism on Earth—be it plant, animal or microbe—has eventually become a component of fulvic acid. The original life-giving, protective, and healing components from plants (phytochemicals) do not disintegrate during nature’s fulvic acid production process; rather, they become highly concentrated. Many species of plants, particularly microscopic plants, seem to be involved in the fulvic acid production process. Fulvic acid production appears to be the end result of nature’s perfect recycling process, and may provide a steady increase in health to subsequent generations of living organisms. Modern agricultural practices appear to have completely broken nature’s recycling process, resulting in progressively deteriorating crops yielding hollow foods and, subsequently, affecting our health. In fact, the use and consumption of a homeostatic balanced amount of fulvic acid on a regular basis could possibly reverse the steady chronic cycle of deteriorating health. Based on medical research, what are the known health benefits of fulvic acid? There are many beneficial therapeutic uses of fulvic acid. Below are findings from some of the latest medical research. 1. Anti-inflammatory agent: Fulvic acid seems to inhibit an enzyme secreted from an infected area, and regulates the level of the trace elements zinc and copper, activating a super-oxide called dismutates. Free radicals generated in the infected area are dismutated, utilized, and eliminated by this agent. 2. Stimulates blood circulation and enhances blood coagulation: Many diseases are caused by circulation malfunction in the capillary blood system. A therapeutic effect of fulvic acid seems to be is its ability to restore and improve blood circulation in the capillary system. Fulvic acid also appears to serve as a blood coagulant when there is bleeding or blood seeping from the vascular bed. 3. Digestive tract ulcers: Another healing effect of fulvic acid is its ability to stimulate blood circulation in the stomach wall and inhibit excessive secretion of acid. It also seems to stimulate the secretion of the glands in the stomach that have the ability to protect the stomach inner wall, thereby potentially preventing and healing stomach ulcers. 4. Immunology: There are indications that, with injection of fulvic acid into the abdominal region, the size of thymus in experimental animals increased, together with indications of macrophage activation. A dosage of 5 mg/kg of fulvic acid when injected into the abdominal cavity appears to be beneficial. 5. Endocrinology: Fulvic acid appears to regulate abnormal thyroid hormone secretion because it is able to regulate cyclic nucleotides at the cellular level. 6. Anti-cancer: In general, fulvic acid does not seem to kill cancer cells directly. However, it serves as a regulating agent in the immune system and can be used therapeutically in conjunction with other anti-cancer medicines. Further research may show that humic acids can also be used to resuscitate some of our soils, and possibly our food sources. Until this can be accomplished, good quality nutritional supplements containing fulvic acid remain our best defense against food devoid of life-sustaining organically complexed minerals and nutrients. Dr. Drucker has a Master’s of Science in Natural Health and a Doctorate in Naturopathy. He is a highly respected doctor in the field of natural health and the CEO of Drucker Labs, which manufactures and distributes health, wellness and nutritional products. These products use a breakthrough technology called intraCELL™ V, which yields unique carbon-bond organic microcomplexed structures that are highly bio-available and extremely effective.

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Basindra Village, Ratlam District, Madhya Pradesh, is watered by the perennial Jhamand River. The river flows about 100 ft below the village and was once its only source of water. The 2-3 handpumps installed here in the 1970’s by the Public Health and Engineering Department (PHED) used to run dry in the summer. When the river would shrink in the summer, people would dig holes in the riverbed to procure water for their daily needs. Today the village has 13 handpumps and 2 tubewells. Groundwater therefore, is heavily relied upon for meeting daily water needs. This however, is not a daunting prospect for this village at least in the current scenario, for recharge measure have been taken in the form of an earthen dam, a solid weir and a check dam, all built on the Jhamand. “These structures don’t just recharge groundwater in this area, but also ensure that the river never dries up” informs Bhandari, a PHED engineer. PHED believes that the river has been made perennial by the dam even as they see that the river has actually shrunk because of it. The Dholavar earthen dam is over a kilometre long and manages to amass a large amount of water in the reservoir it creates. The dam has a live storage capacity of about 50 million cubic meters, submerging 600 ha of land. The riverbed on the other side of the dam is totally dry for a distance, till it is revived again by groundwater accrual. The multi-purpose dam has been supplying water to Ratlam city since 1984 (about 5 mld) and canal irrigation to neighbouring villages. While currently seeming like a solution, one wonders what the adverse effects of this structure could be in the long-run, on the riverine ecology. The impact canal irrigation and all-year-round agriculture is having on the soil is already visible, “we never needed artificial fertilisers before, now they are a necessity, the soil seems tired” observed Juvan Singh, an elderly citizen of the village. Other than impacts in the immediate environment, dams of this size typically have severe downstream impacts as well. Basindra has piped water supply today, brought to the village from 2 tubewells. The dugwell this village possessed, has typically fallen out of use, with the introduction of handpumps and tubewells. With an electricity-run motor now providing water in people’s houses, consumption has obviously increased. This, they say is not a problem as the reservoir has enough water. Since only about 35 families have opted for individual tap connections, the panchayat is not able to collect enough funds for the operation and maintenance of the scheme. In fact, the funds collected through community contribution (Rs.30/month/family) are not enough even to pay the electricity charges of the motor. “With the river and the handpumps close by, people don’t feel the need to spend money on piped water supply” says Anankuar, an elderly woman of the village. “Due to constant power cuts, we never have water in our taps anyway” she mournfully adds. Rowty village, close by, is plagued with similar problems. Although electricity problems persist, here 80% of the people have individual tap connections. The only ones who don’t are the tribals, typically living in hamlets in the outskirts of the village, where pipes don’t reach. The charges for this facility are Rs.40/month/family, with an initial contribution of Rs.500. Till the 1980’s Rowty was sufficiently watered by 3 dugwells, 1 baori (stepwell) and a seasonal stream. Gradually with climate change, deforestation etc, rainfall began to reduce, but the population pressure kept mounting. “We used to have a good monsoon every year back in the day, the dugwell and baori used to last us the entire year” reminisced a group of villagers. “In 1978 PHED started a pipeline system from the baori, connected to public standposts, but in 1984-85 water scarcity became acute, that’s when we built a stop-dam on the seasonal stream and an overhead tank along with individual tap connections” explained Bhandari. While these measures took care of the problem temporarily, in the 1990’s scarcity rose its ugly head once again as the sources kept drying up. The PHED then decided to build dykes and check dams in the watershed of the village, for recharging groundwater. Tubewells were also drilled, but the water they yielded suffered from bad quality. The handpumps wouldn’t just have bad quality water, but also run dry in the lean season. It was in the late 1990’s when the panchayat demanded water from the Jhamand, through long distance pipes. And only in 2006 was this scheme launched. It is managed by the panchayat, which apart from community contributions, also uses its own funds from other sources to run the system. With the introduction of tap water, the baori and dugwells have been rendered useless and fallen into a dilapidated condition. While the PHED boasts of these two villages as success stories, it is essential to identify the loopholes. It is commendable that piped water supply has been taken seriously here, as opposed to most other villages, where water isn’t available even in public standposts and handpumps. However, the engineers themselves acknowledge that they do not factor in the electricity problem and therefore end up designing unrealistic schemes which are successful only on paper. They assert that designing schemes with lower consumption of electricity is possible, but they never consider it. Technically therefore, they have 24 x 7 water supply, but the ground reality speaks a different language. The other point to ponder over is the environmental short-sightedness displayed by their schemes. PHED needs a drastic shift in its approach while designing drinking water schemes. The focus continues to remain on groundwater extraction by way of tubewells, ignoring dugwells and throwing traditional systems into disuse. The sustainability of the source or of the system is almost never considered. Even though they have now begun to make recharge structures to insure against falling water tables, simpler and less energy-intensive techniques are not considered. Many a times, their recharge structures involve dams, solid-weirs etc, which are ecologically myopic in nature and prove to be disastrous for the environment in the long-run. It is an imperative that the PHED tries to revive traditional and indigenous wisdom that is culture and geography specific, and apply technology to that, so as to make it relevant to modern times. Moreover, PHED has not bothered to involve the community in either of these cases. Villagers are hardly ever consulted before designing a scheme. Their opinions or needs simply don’t matter. If at all any interaction takes place between the village community and the PHED prior to the installation of a water supply scheme, it is one-sided, in the form of information-education-communication (IEC). In these two villages, no IEC activity was undertaken, neither were the locals consulted at any stage of planning or implementation. For this reason, the Village Water and Sanitation Committee (VWSC) continues to lie defunct and it is the panchayat that runs the show. In the former example of Basindra, the scheme was not demand-driven and is running into losses. “PHED schemes are not demand driven but politics driven” the engineers themselves claim. “Where water will be supplied and where it wont is not a matter of need at all, it is based on politics between panchayats, the PHED and MLAs” they discuss amongst each other. When villagers refuse to pay for the installed scheme, PHED engineers lash out at them with hostility, failing to draw a connection between their own observation that they don’t need it and their refusal to pay. The point that squarely drives home is the compelling need for structural and systemic change within the governmental edifice, and more specifically, within the PHED. Under the new guidelines for provision of drinking water in villages, issued by the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS), PHED engineers are expected to involve communities in their schemes right from the planning stage. While very much in line with the participatory governance rhetoric, this idea has few takers as it is designed by those sitting in Delhi, far removed from ground-realities. Policies such as these are issued in a top-down manner by central departments, much in contradiction to what they ask of the engineers at the village level. Community participation is a bottom-up process that involves consistent investment of time and effort by the engineers. It is not a one-day event or a one-visit job. Involving villagers in the planning, implementation and operation processes of a drinking water scheme entails gaining ground within all sections of the community, winning their trust, dealing with caste and gender issues, local politics and becoming aware of all the minute details of the problems they face. Mobilising the people and sustaining their confidence is a long drawn process that does not terminate once the scheme has been installed, for that is just the beginning, and running the scheme successfully henceforth requires much cooperation from the villagers. However, this is not something the PHED engineers feel they are equipped to do. “We are expected to do IEC activities among other aspects of community participation, but neither do we have the skill nor the time for such activities” they claim. “I have over 600 villages under me, how can I undertake a two-year process of community mobilisation for each one of them?” exclaims a sub-engineer from Ratlam district. Another sub-engineer threw light on the loopholes in their planning process, “we are asked to design schemes overnight, how can we ensure people’s involvement in this manner? Our schemes therefore do not factor in local issues – geographical or social, and are unrealistic, thereby causing their own failure.” What these statements elucidate is a desperate need to bring in structural changes so as to enable PHED to respond to these local problems, which the central department often turns a blind eye to. It is clear that many of the engineers are well aware of their limitations and weaknesses, one of them being their inability to involve communities for the reasons stated above. Lack of skill, time and manpower, as well as bureaucratic procedures are only some the barriers. The need of the hour isn’t just to convey the importance of bottom-up planning and participatory governance, but to bring about systemic changes within government bodies to make them more responsive towards current realities. Government bodies, whether the PHED, the municipalities, the development authorities or any other, cannot consist solely of engineers, but will have to have a wing of social scientists who have the skill that engineers lack to work at the village level, with the people. Whether socially blind or ecologically short-sighted, the PHED interventions require a massive shift from being top-down, technocratic schemes to demand-driven, sustainable and people-managed system. What is needed is not a just a scheme but an entire system.

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Products marketed for infants or billed as "microwave safe" release toxic doses of the chemical bisphenol A when heated, an analysis by the Journal Sentinel has found. The newspaper had the containers of 10 items tested in a lab - products that were heated in a microwave or conventional oven. Bisphenol A, or BPA, was found to be leaching from all of them. The amounts detected were at levels that scientists have found cause neurological and developmental damage in laboratory animals. The problems include genital defects, behavioral changes and abnormal development of mammary glands. The changes to the mammary glands were identical to those observed in women at higher risk for breast cancer. The newspaper's test results raise new questions about the chemical and the safety of an entire inventory of plastic products labeled as "microwave safe." BPA is a key ingredient in common household plastics, including baby bottles and storage containers. It has been found in 93% of Americans tested. The newspaper tests also revealed that BPA, commonly thought to be found only in hard, clear plastic and in the lining of metal food cans, is present in frozen food trays, microwaveable soup containers and plastic baby food packaging. Food companies advise parents worried about BPA to avoid microwaving food in plastic containers, especially those with the recycling No. 7 stamped on the bottom. But the Journal Sentinel's testing found BPA leaching from containers with different recycling numbers, including Nos. 1, 2 and 5. "There is no such thing as safe microwaveable plastic," said Frederick vom Saal, a University of Missouri researcher who oversaw the newspaper's testing. The American Chemistry Council disputed the findings, saying publishing the results amounts to a "serious disservice by drawing a conclusion about product safety that simply cannot be drawn from either this study or the overall body of scientific research." Food company officials say the doses detected in the tests are so low that they are insignificant to human health. "These levels are EXTREMELY low," wrote John Faulkner, director of brand communications for Campbell Soup Co. Tests of the company's Just Heat & Enjoy tomato soup showed its container leached some of the lowest levels of BPA found. "In fact, you might just be able to find similar levels in plain old tap water due to 'background' levels. We are talking 40 to 60 parts per trillion (ppt). What is 40 to 60 ppt? 40 to 60 seconds in 32,000 years!" But the Journal Sentinel identified several peer-reviewed studies that found harm to animals at levels similar to those detected in the newspaper's tests - in some cases, as low as 25 parts per trillion. Scientists with an expertise in BPA say the findings are cause for concern, especially considering how vulnerable a baby's development is and how even tiny amounts of BPA can trigger cell damage. Harm done during this critical window of development is irreparable and can be devastating, they say. "This is stuff that shouldn't be in our babies' and infants' bodies," said Patricia Hunt, a professor at Washington State University who pioneered studies linking BPA to cancer. Scientists say BPA and other chemicals that disrupt the endocrine system do not act like other toxins that become more potent as their doses increase. BPA behaves like a hormone. It mimics estrogen with effects that are ultra-potent. Even tiny amounts can trigger cell change. Nira Ben-Jonathan, a professor at the University of Cincinnati whose studies found that BPA interferes with chemotherapy, said the chemical's effects might not be immediately obvious, but can be devastating over time. "They used to say DDT was safe, too," Ben-Jonathan said. The Journal Sentinel's tests were done to determine the prevalence of BPA in a typical modern diet for babies and small children. Based on the test results, the newspaper then estimated the amount of BPA a child might consume and compared it with low-dose amounts of BPA used by researchers in animal studies. In what is believed to be the first analysis of its kind by a newspaper, the Journal Sentinel found that an average 1-month-old girl is exposed to the same amount of BPA that caused mammary gland changes in mice. Those same changes in humans can lead to breast cancer. The label "microwave safe" is stamped on thousands of products sold across the country. But that is not an official designation regulated by the government. Companies are able to place it on their products without any official testing by the Food and Drug Administration. BPA makes its way into food from plastic packaging when those containers are heated. In the Journal Sentinel's tests, the highest amounts of leaching were found in two items: a can of Enfamil liquid infant formula and a Rubbermaid plastic food-storage container. The lowest levels, trace amounts, were found to be leaching from disposable frozen-food containers. Hunt, the Washington State University scientist, called the levels found leaching from the plastic food-storage containers "real doozies." It is likely that the newspaper's tests underestimated the amounts of BPA that normally would be leaching from reusable products, BPA experts say. All products the newspaper had tested were new. Studies show that as products age and are repeatedly heated and washed, they are more likely to leach higher amounts of BPA. "You can't see this happening," vom Saal said. "You can't taste it, you can't smell it, but you are getting dosed at a higher and higher amount." Also, testers did not examine the food in those containers for BPA levels. They replaced food with a mixture of water and alcohol, a standard laboratory practice that makes measuring easier and more accurate. But that also eliminates other variables that are in the food, such as fats and acids that are more likely to encourage BPA to leach. BPA's effects also can be magnified by other chemicals in the plastic. This has been proved in one experiment after another, said vom Saal, who has become a vocal critic of the chemical industry. While BPA is potentially dangerous to all humans, scientists are especially concerned about how the chemical affects fetuses and newborns, whose systems are not developed. Babies up to age 12 months or so can't metabolize BPA as efficiently as adults. But no one is more exposed to BPA than a newborn. A newborn's small size means that he or she gets a more concentrated dose of the chemical. Many products that contain BPA - such as baby bottles, infant formula, some pacifiers and toys - are marketed for mothers and newborns. Exposure for babies can be exaggerated by the fact that many have diets exclusively made up of liquid baby formula from cans lined with BPA. Babies who drink liquid formula from bottles made with BPA are effectively getting a super-dose of the chemical, said Hunt, the Washington State University scientist. The U.S. surgeon general has advised that breast milk is the healthiest food for newborns, though BPA has been found in breast milk, too. Less than one-third of babies are breastfed until they are 3 months old, and just one in 10 is exclusively breastfed to 6 months, a 2004 study by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found. Gail McCarver, a physician at the Medical College of Wisconsin who led the National Toxicology Program's investigation of BPA earlier this year, declined to be interviewed for this article. But McCarver said at an FDA hearing in September that she is particularly concerned about premature babies who are exposed to plastic tubing in hospitals. The government should be protecting the smallest, most vulnerable baby, not just the average child, she said. Four million babies are born in the United States each year, and roughly 500,000 are born prematurely. Christina Deppoleto, 36, of Hartland says she does her best to protect her 18-month-old son, Carson. Deppoleto, interviewed recently at the Milwaukee County Zoo, said she was troubled to hear about the newspaper's test results - especially findings that showed BPA to be leaching from "microwave safe" containers. "I try to be a good consumer and a good parent," she said. "But you have to be able to trust the labels." Reviewing scientific studies The newspaper examined all the published literature on BPA spanning two decades. A total of 21 studies have looked at effects on mammals at doses that were similar to the amounts found leaching from the products. All but four concluded that BPA caused damage to animals. In one 2006 study, pregnant mice were exposed to BPA from the eighth day of pregnancy to the 16th, a period critical for the development of neurons that regulate sexual behavior. Scientists found the female offspring had fewer such neurons than usual. Their activity levels dropped and mirrored that of their brothers. In another experiment, newborn mice were fed BPA at doses common in human diets. They were found to have changes in the patterns of their mammary glands at the time of puberty. They had more ducts and duct extensions, more developed fat areas and additional cell changes associated with a more mature gland. The consequences of this early alteration in breast tissue development are likely to increase vulnerability to breast cancer later in life, the scientists found. Animals tested were fed BPA through pumps under the skin that regularly administered the chemical. Some critics say that method exaggerates the chemical's effects. But others say it is an acceptable method because newborns are constantly feeding. Scientists also add that the Journal Sentinel analysis of how much BPA a baby might ingest is just a small window into a child's typical day of exposure. Studies have shown the chemical can be absorbed through the skin. And babies also put items other than food in their mouths, including pacifiers and toys that might contain the chemical. The findings have disturbed and angered parents and consumer advocates who say the government needs to do a better job of protecting people from potentially harmful chemicals. "The safety of this compound is in major question, and our government is not taking steps to address this," said Urvashi Rangan, senior analyst for Consumers Union, a watchdog group that regularly tests products. "Consumers shouldn't have to be the guinea pigs here." Canada has declared BPA a toxin and is moving to ban it from baby bottles, infant formula and other children's products. But U.S. regulators have been conflicted. The National Toxicology Program has expressed concern about the chemical for fetuses, newborns and young children. But the FDA has declared it to be safe. That assessment, however, was found to be flawed, and the FDA since has reopened its examination. The conflict has further heightened consumer anxiety about how much BPA, if any, is safe. Bradley Kirschner, a pediatrician at Children's Hospital of Wisconsin and the father of three young girls, said his patients are increasingly concerned about the chemical. "If an entire country is banning it, that makes it hard to ignore," he said. Parents are confused, he said. And he is not certain how to advise them. "If you ask, 'Should a baby sleep on his back?' I can tell you what to do," he said. "But this is muddy." Kirschner said he would like a more definitive answer from U.S. regulators about whether BPA is safe. Increasingly, consumer groups are calling for BPA to be banned. Last month, the consumer watchdog Environmental Working Group sent letters to infant formula makers, asking them to stop packaging their products in containers made with BPA. The attorneys general in New Jersey, Connecticut and Delaware sent letters to 11 companies that make baby bottles and baby formula containers, asking that they voluntarily stop using BPA. Six U.S. senators have called for a federal ban on the chemical, and more than 35 lawsuits have been filed in recent years against companies using BPA, claiming the chemical has caused physical harm. Companies are beginning to proactively back away from BPA. In April, after Canada's announcement of a ban, several corporations said they would stop producing and selling certain products made with BPA. The companies and retailers include Nalgene, Wal-Mart, Toys "R" Us, Playtex and CVS pharmacies. But plenty of products designed for heating food still contain BPA. Many companies that use BPA now include safety information about the chemical on their Web sites. But those sites maintain that BPA is safe at low doses. Their claims are based largely on studies that were paid for by the chemical industry. Jackie Chesney, a grandmother from Spring Grove, Ill., said she assumes a certain level of safety in products that are allowed to be sold. "You should think the things you are using would be safe," Chesney said as she strolled through the Milwaukee County Zoo with her daughter and grandchildren. Chesney said things have changed a lot since her children were small. There is so much more plastic these days, and food is more likely to be individually wrapped, she said. The proliferation of plastic worries her. "Yes, it's handy and convenient," she said. "But at what cost?"

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- About Us - Global Vision - News and Events - Ways to Help Genetic Causes of Mental Retardation What is genetics? Genetics is "the science that studies the principles and mechanics of heredity, or the means by which traits are passed from parents to offspring" (Glanze, 1996). Through genetics a number of specific disorders have been identified as being genetically caused. One example is fragile X syndrome, a common genetic cause of mental retardation, which is caused by the presence of a single non-working gene (called the FMR-1 gene) on a child's X chromosome. Genetics originated in the mid-19th century when Gregor Mendel discovered over a ten year period of experimenting with pea plants that certain traits are inherited. His discoveries provided the foundation for the science of genetics. Mendel's findings continue to spur the work and hopes of scientists to uncover the mystery behind how our genes work and what they can reveal to us about the possibility of having certain diseases and conditions. The scientific field of genetics can help families affected by genetic disorders to have a better understanding about heredity, what causes various genetic disorders to occur, and what possible prevention strategies can be used to decrease the incidence of genetic disorders. Can a person's genes cause mental retardation? Some genetic disorders are associated with mental retardation, chronic health problems and developmental delay. Because of the complexity of the human body, there are no easy answers to the question of what causes mental retardation. Mental retardation is attributable to any condition that impairs development of the brain before birth, during birth or in the childhood years (The Arc, 1993). As many as 50 percent of people with mental retardation have been found to possess more than one causal factor (AAMR, 1992). Some research has determined that in 75 percent of children with mild mental retardation the cause is unknown (Kozma & Stock, 1993). The field of genetics has important implications for people with mental retardation. Over 350 inborn errors of metabolism have been identified, most of which lead to mental retardation (Scriver, 1995). Yet, the possibility of being born with mental retardation or developing the condition later in life can be caused by multiple factors unrelated to our genetic make-up. It is caused not only by the genotype (or genetic make-up) of the individual, but also by the possible influences of environmental factors. Those factors can range from drug use or nutritional deficiencies to poverty and cultural deprivation. How often is mental retardation inherited? Since the brain is such a complex organ, there are a number of genes involved in its development. Consequently, there are a number of genetic causes of mental retardation. Most identifiable causes of severe mental retardation (defined as an IQ of 50 or less) originate from genetic disorders. Up to 60 percent of severe mental retardation can be attributed to genetic causes making it the most common cause in cases of severe mental retardation (Moser, 1995). People with mild mental retardation (defined as an IQ between 50 and 70-75) are not as likely to inherit mental retardation due to their genetic make-up as are people with severe mental retardation. People with mild mental retardation are more likely to have the condition due to environmental factors, such as nutritional state, personal health habits, socioeconomic level, access to health care and exposure to pollutants and chemicals, rather than acquiring the condition genetically (Nelson-Anderson & Waters, 1995). Two of the most common genetically transmitted forms of mental retardation include Down syndrome (a chromosomal disorder) and fragile X syndrome (a single-gene disorder). What causes genetic disorders? Over 7,000 genetic disorders have been identified and catalogued, with up to five new disorders being discovered every year (McKusick, 1994). Genetic disorders are typically broken down into three types: Chromosomal, single-gene and multifactorial. Chromosomal disorders affect approximately 7 out of every 1,000 infants. The disorder results when a person has too many or too few chromosomes, or when there is a change in the structure of a chromosome. Half of all first-trimester miscarriages or spontaneous abortions occur as a result of a chromosome abnormality. If the child is born, he or she usually has multiple birth defects and mental retardation. Most chromosomal disorders happen sporadically. They are not necessarily inherited (even though they are considered to be genetic disorders). In order for a genetic condition to be inherited, the disease-causing gene must be present within one of the parent's genetic code. In most chromosomal disorders, each of the parent's genes are normal. However, during cell division an error in separation, recombination or distribution of chromosomes occurs. Examples of chromosomal disorders include Down syndrome, Trisomy 13, Trisomy 18 and Cri du chat. Single-gene disorders (sometimes called inborn errors of metabolism or Mendelian disorders) are caused by non-working genes. Disorders of metabolism occur when cells are unable to produce proteins or enzymes needed to change certain chemicals into others, or to carry substances from one place to another. The cell's inability to carry out these vital internal functions often results in mental retardation. Approximately 1 in 5,000 children are born with defective enzymes resulting in inborn errors of metabolism (Batshaw, 1992). Although many conditions are generally referred to as "genetic disorders," single-gene disorders are the most easy to identify as true genetic disorders since they are caused by a mutation (or a change) within a single gene or gene pair. Combinations of multiple gene and environmental factors leading to mental retardation are called multifactorial disorders. They are inherited but do not share the same inheritance patterns typically found in single-gene disorders. It is unclear exactly why they occur. Their inheritance patterns are usually much more complex than those of single gene disorders because their existence depends on the simultaneous presence of heredity and environmental factors. For example, weight and intelligence are traits inherited in this way (Batshaw, 1992). Other common disorders, including cancer and hypertension, are examples of health problems caused by the environment and heredity. Multifactorial disorders are very common and cause a majority of birth defects. Examples of multifactorial disorders include heart disease, diabetes, spina bifida, anencephaly, cleft lip and cleft palate, clubfoot and congenital heart defects. How are genetic disorders inherited? Genetic disorders can be inherited in much the same way a person can inherit other characteristics such as eye and hair color, height and intelligence. Children inherit genetic or hereditary information by obtaining genes from each parent. There are three common types or modes of inheritance: dominant, recessive and X-linked (or sex-linked). Dominant inheritance occurs when one parent has a dominant, disease-causing gene which causes abnormalities even if coupled with a healthy gene from the other parent. Dominant inheritance means that each child has a 50 percent chance of inheriting the disease-causing gene. An example of dominant inheritance associated with mental retardation is tuberous sclerosis. Recessive inheritance occurs when both parents carry a disease-causing gene but outwardly show no signs of disease. Parents of children with recessive conditions are called "carriers" since each parent carries one copy of a disease gene. They show no symptoms of having a disease gene and remain unaware of having the gene until having an affected child. When parents who are carriers give birth, each child has a 25 percent chance of inheriting both disease genes and being affected. Each child also has a 25 percent chance of inheriting two healthy genes and not being affected, and a 50 percent chance of being a carrier of the disorder, like their parents. Examples of disorders which are inherited recessively and are also associated with mental retardation include phenylketonuria (PKU) and galactosemia. X-linked or sex-linked inheritance affects those genes located on the X chromosome and can be either X-linked recessive or X-linked dominant. The X-linked recessive disorder, which is much more common compared to X-linked dominant inheritance, is referred to as a sex-linked disorder since it involves genes located on the X chromosome. It occurs when an unaffected mother carries a disease-causing gene on at least one of her X chromosomes. Since females have two X chromosomes, they are usually unaffected carriers because the X chromosome that does not have the disease-causing gene compensates for the X chromosome that does. Therefore, they are less likely than males to show any symptoms of the disorder unless both X chromosomes have the disease-causing gene. If a mother has a female child, the child has a 50 percent chance to inherit the disease gene and be a carrier and pass the disease gene on to her sons (March of Dimes, 1995). On the other hand, if a mother has a male child, he has a 50 percent chance of inheriting the disease-causing gene since he has only one X chromosome. Consequently, males cannot be carriers of X-linked recessive disorders. If a male inherits an X-linked recessive disorder, he is affected. Some examples of X-linked inheritance associated with mental retardation include fragile X syndrome, Hunter syndrome, Lesch Nyhan syndrome and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Can genetic disorders which cause mental retardation be fixed? In the past, only a few genetic disorders could be detected and treated early enough to prevent disease. However, the Human Genome Project, an international project among scientists to identify all the 60,000 to 100,000 genes within the human body, is significantly increasing our ability to discover more effective therapies and prevent inherited disease (National Center for Human Genome Research, 1995). As more disease-causing genes are identified, scientists can begin developing genetic therapies to alter or replace a defective gene. However, the development of gene therapies is still in the infancy stage. Gene therapy (also called somatic-cell gene therapy) is a procedure in which "healthy genes" are inserted into individuals to cure or treat an inherited disease or illness. Although there is a role for gene therapy in the prevention of mental retardation, it will most likely benefit only those people who have single-gene disorders, such as Lesch-Nyhan disease, Gaucher disease and phenylketonuria (PKU) that cause severe mental retardation (Moser, 1995). Gene therapy is far less likely to provide treatment of mild mental retardation which accounts for 87 percent of all cases of mental retardation (The Arc, 1993). - AAMR (1992). Mental retardation: Definition, classification, and systems of supports, 9th edition. - Batshaw, M.L. & Perret, Y.M. (1992). Children with disabilities: A medical primer (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. - Glanze, W. (Ed.). (1996). The signet Mosby medical encyclopedia (revised edition). New York: Penguin Books Ltd. - Kozma, C. & Stock, J. (1992). "What is mental retardation." In Smith, R.S. Children with Mental Retardation: A Parent's Guide. Maryland: Woodbine House. - March of Dimes (1995). Birth defects. (Publication No. 09-026-00). White Plains, New York: Author. - McKusick, V.A. (1994). Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Catalogs of Human Genes and Genetic Disorders. (Eleventh edition). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. - Moser, H. G. (1995) A role for gene therapy in mental retardation. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews: Gene Therapy, 1, 4-6. - National Center for Human Genome Research, National Institutes of Health. (1995). The Human Genome Project: From Maps to Medicine (NIH Publication No. 95-3897). Bethesda, MD. - Scriver, C. R. (1995). The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. (Seventh edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Radiation Exposure from CT Scans GIST Support International asked questions about radiation exposure from CT exams to Donald P. Frush, MD of Duke University Medical Center. At Duke Dr. Frush is a Professor of Radiology, a Pediatrics Faculty member, as well as Chief of the Medical Physics Graduate Program, Division of Pediatric Radiology. Dr. Frush’s research interests are predominantly involved with pediatric body multidetector CT, including techniques, assessment of image quality, and radiation dosimetry. Dr. Frush has published very widely and has served as a guest editor and invited reviewer for numerous medical journals. He is currently the associate editor (North American) of the journal Pediatric Radiology. Here are Dr. Frush's responses to our questions. 1. What is the radiation dose from CT scans of the chest/abdomen/pelvis? How does this compare to chest X-rays and to normal daily-life annual background radiation? Radiation dose from CT scans of the chest, abdomen, or pelvis varies depending on the individual patient, and the technique used. In general, in adults, most abdomen CTs are performed at approximately 10 mSv. The dose is less for a chest CT. The doses should be the same-to-less, if size adjusted, for children. Head CT doses are generally less than about 2-4 mSv. As a rough approximation, one abdomen pelvis CT in an adult is equal to 100-250 chest x-rays. The average background radiation (just from living…) that individuals get is about 3-3.5 mSv per year. 2.What is the risk to health from quarterly CT scans of the chest/abdomen/pelvis over many years? The risk of low-level radiation, such as that used in CT, is unknown. There are established scientific data that show that doses > 100-200 mSv have a significant association with the risk of developing cancer but we do not know for sure about doses, such as from infrequent CT, which are under that amount. The risk is either zero or very small. In general, radiologists and healthcare providers should assume that any unnecessary amount of radiation should be avoided and that the benefit of the CT examination (for example the probability of detection of recurrent tumor, or the satisfaction of knowing that there is no recurrence) outweigh the risks (small, at most with CT examinations). In general, the dose of CT (or any medical radiation, such as an x-ray) is cumulative. That is, 4 examinations at 5.0 mSv each done over three years is the equivalent of 20 mSv of dose (4x5=20). This is accumulated over the lifetime. Similarly, if quarterly abdominal CT scans (at 10 mSv each) were given for 5 years, the cumulative dose would be 4x10x5 mSv = 200 mSv. 3. What is the latency period for development of radiation-induced cancers? The latency for development of solid tumors can be more than a decade. 4. Is sensitivity to radiation exposure greater in growing children and adolescents in whom tissues are still developing? When discussing a potential risk of CT scan, the radiation dose risk is higher for children than young adults. While there is no agreed upon age cut-off where the potential risk is zero, generally the younger the patient (i.e. under 30 years of age) the risk is higher due to potential accumulation of multiple CT examinations over a longer lifetime and increase radiation sensitivity of developing tissues, particularly in children. Sensitivity for children is 2-10 times that for adults; most favor the lower part of the range. 5. What strategies exist for minimizing the radiation dose in CT scans by altering the technique or settings? There are multiple strategies for minimizing radiation risks. First, when imaging is necessary, imaging evaluation considerations should be those that have the least amount of risk, including radiation. For example, if MR imaging (or sonography) will answer the question, then these should be performed. MR may not be the best evaluation, for example if lung parenchyma needs to be assessed. The decision about the type of frequency of examinations needs to come from a discussion between the individual patient and the healthcare team caring for the patient. When a CT is indicated, only as much radiation as is necessary for evaluation should be used. For example, protocols should based on patient size in the pediatric population. Only the necessary region should be scanned, and repeat scans through the area during the CT examination (multiphase examinations) should be minimized in frequency. Additional technical considerations for certain regions need to be considered, such as slightly lower dose to the chest as opposed to the abdomen during CT examinations. 6. Can MRI yield equally useful images to monitor growth or shrinkage or density change of existing tumors, and to detect new metastases in the liver and peritoneum? Are there any disadvantages of MRI? MR examination of the abdomen and pelvis is often an excellent modality for detecting solid organ tumors, as well as tumors elsewhere in the abdomen. The decision about whether this type of study needs to be performed versus a CT, again, needs to be arrived at through discussions between the healthcare team and the patient.

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Extremely obese women may not need to gain as much weight during pregnancy as current guidelines suggest, according to a new study presented today at the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine annual meeting. Severely obese women who gained less than the recommended amount of weight during the second and third trimester of pregnancy suffered no ill effects, nor did their babies. In contrast, obese and non-obese women who gained less weight in the second and third trimester had undesirable outcomes, including a higher likelihood of delivering a baby that is small for gestational age – smaller than the usual weight for the number of weeks of pregnancy. "The study suggests that even the recommended amounts of weight gain might be more than is needed for the most obese women," said Eva Pressman, M.D., director of Maternal Fetal Medicine at the University of Rochester Medical Center. In 2009, the Institute of Medicine released new guidelines for how much weight a woman should gain during pregnancy, taking into account changes in the population, particularly the increase in the number of women of childbearing age who are overweight and obese. "At some point, there may be even more tailored guidelines than what exists right now for women with different levels of obesity," said Danielle Durie, M.D., M.P.H, lead study author from the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the Medical Center. The study sought to determine the impact of weight gain outside recommended ranges during the second and third trimester of pregnancy on women and their babies. Women were grouped according to pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) as underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obese classes I, II, and III. Obese classes II and III include women considered severely and morbidly obese. Gaining less weight than recommended in the second and third trimester was associated with increased likelihood of having a baby that is small for gestational age in all BMI groups except obese class II and III. Gaining more weight than recommended in the second and third trimester was associated with increased likelihood of having a baby that is large for gestational age in all BMI groups. Newborns that are very large or very small may experience problems during delivery and afterwards. Small babies may have decreased oxygen levels, low blood sugar and difficulty maintaining a normal body temperature. Large babies often make delivery more difficult and may result in the need for a cesarean delivery, which increases the risk of infection, respiratory complications, the need for additional surgeries and results in longer recovery times for the mother. In addition to weight gain rates outside the recommended ranges, increasing BMI alone was associated with negative outcomes for mothers and newborns as well. For all BMI groups above normal weight, the likelihood of cesarean delivery, induction of labor and gestational diabetes increased. The study included 73,977 women who gave birth to a single child in the Finger Lakes Region of New York between January 2004 and December 2008. Of the study participants, 4 percent were underweight, 48 percent normal weight, 24 percent overweight and 24 percent obese (13 percent class I, 6 percent class II and 5 percent class III). Researchers from Rochester also reported that overweight and obese women undergoing labor induction may benefit from higher doses of oxytocin, a medication used to induce labor by causing contractions. They tested the effectiveness of two oxytocin protocols – one including a lower dose every 45 minutes and another using a slightly higher dose every half hour – in women based on BMI. Overweight and obese women administered the lower, less frequent dose were less likely to deliver vaginally – the preferred method of delivery – than overweight and obese women administered the higher, more frequent dose. "If you give more oxytocin to overweight and obese patients they may be more likely to delivery vaginally, which is what we want, as opposed to having a cesarean section, which can introduce more complications," according to Pressman, an author of the study. "The study is important because the effect of BMI on induction has not been well described before." The oxytocin protocols tested in the study are relatively standard and were used to induce labor in nearly 500 women who delivered at the University of Rochester Medical Center between October 2007 and September 2008. Study participants were induced for a variety of reasons, including going a week or more past the estimated due date, when there is no longer any benefit to the fetus from remaining inside the womb. In addition to Pressman and Durie, David Hackney, M.D., and Nigel Campbell, M.D., also participated in the oxytocin research. Christopher Glantz, M.D., M.P.H, and Loralei Thornburg, M.D., contributed to the research on weight gain during the second and third trimester of pregnancy. Both studies were funded by the University of Rochester Medical Center. AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system.

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Submitted by brad on Fri, 2009-06-12 13:49. Our world has not rid itself of atrocity and genocide. What can modern high-tech do to help? In Bosnia, we used bombs. In Rwanda, we did next to nothing. In Darfur, very little. Here’s a proposal that seems expensive at first, but is in fact vastly cheaper than the military solutions people have either tried or been afraid to try. It’s the sunlight principle. First, we would mass-produce a special video recording “phone” using the standard parts and tools of the cell phone industry. It would be small, light, and rechargeable from a car lighter plug, or possibly more slowly through a small solar cell on the back. It would cost a few hundred dollars to make, so that relief forces could airdrop tens or even hundreds of thousands of them over an area where atrocity is taking place. (If they are $400/pop, even 100,000 of them is 40 million dollars, a drop in the bucket compared to the cost of military operations.) They could also be smuggled in by relief workers on a smaller scale, or launched over borders in a pinch. Enough of them so that there are so many that anybody performing an atrocity will have to worry that there is a good chance that somebody hiding in bushes or in a house is recording it, and recording their face. This fear alone would reduce what took place. Once the devices had recorded a video, they would need to upload it. It seems likely that in these situations the domestic cell system would not be available, or would be shut down to stop video uploads. However, that might not be true, and a version that uses existing cell systems might make sense, and be cheaper because the hardware is off the shelf. It is more likely that some other independent system would be used, based on the same technology but with slightly different protocols. The anti-atrocity team would send aircraft over the area. These might be manned aircraft (presuming air superiority) or they might be very light, autonomous UAVs of the sort that already are getting cheap in price. These UAVs can be small, and not that high-powered, because they don’t need to do that much transmitting — just a beacon and a few commands and ACKs. The cameras on the ground will do the transmitting. In fact, the UAVs could quite possibly be balloons, again within the budget of aid organizations, not just nations. read more » Submitted by brad on Sat, 2009-04-18 19:37. My prior post about USB charging hubs in hotel rooms brought up the issue of security, as was the case for my hope for a world with bluetooth keyboards scattered around. Is it possible to design our computers to let them connect to untrusted devices? Clearly to a degree, in that an ethernet connection is generally always untrusted. But USB was designed to be fully trusted, and that limits it. Perhaps in the future, an OS can be designed to understand the difference between trusted and untrusted devices connected (wired or wirelessly) to a computer or phone. This might involve a different physical interface, or using the same physical interface, but a secure protocol by which devices can be identified (and then recognized when plugged in again) and tagged once as trusted the first time they are plugged in. For example, an unknown keyboard is a risky thing to plug in. It could watch you type and remember passwords, or it could simply send fake keys to your computer to get it to install trojan software completely taking it over. But we might allow an untrusted keyboard to type plain text into our word processors or E-mail applications. However, we would have to switch to the trusted keyboard (which might just be a touch-screen keyboard on a phone or tablet) for anything dangerous, including of course entry of passwords, URLs and commands that go beyond text entry. Would this be tolerable, constantly switching like this, or would we just get used to it? We would want to mount the inferior keyboard very close to our comfy but untrusted one. A mouse has the same issues. We might allow an untrusted mouse to move the pointer within a text entry window and to go to a set of menus that can’t do anything harmful on the machine, but would it drive us crazy to have to move to a different pointer to move out of the application? Alas, an untrusted mouse can (particularly if it waits until you are not looking) run applications, even bring up the on-screen keyboard most OSs have for the disabled, and then do anything with your computer. It’s easier to trust output devices, like a printer. In fact, the main danger with plugging in an unknown USB printer is that a really nasty one might pretend to be a keyboard or CD-Rom to infect you. A peripheral bus that allows a device to only be an output device would be safer. Of course an untrusted printer could still record what you print. An untrusted screen is a challenge. While mostly safe, one can imagine attacks. An untrusted screen might somehow get you to go to a special web-site. There, it might display something else, perhaps logins for a bank or other site so that it might capture the keys. Attacks here are difficult but not impossible, if I can control what you see. It might be important to have the trusted screen nearby somehow helping you to be sure the untrusted screen is being good. This is a much more involved attack than the simple attacks one can do by pretending to be a keyboard. An untrusted disk (including a USB thumb drive) is actually today’s biggest risk. People pass around thumb drives all the time, and they can pretend to be auto-run CD-roms. In addition, we often copy files from them, and double click on files on them, which is risky. The OS should never allow code to auto-run from an untrusted disk, and should warn if files are double-clicked from them. Of course, even then you are not safe from traps inside the files themselves, even if the disk is just being a disk. Many companies try to establish very tight firewalls but it’s all for naught if they allow people to plug external drives and thumbsticks into the computers. Certain types of files (such as photos) are going to be safer than others (like executables and word processor files with macros or scripts.) Digital cameras, which often look like drives, are a must, and can probably be trusted to hand over jpegs and other image and video files. A network connection is one of the things you can safely plug in. After all, a network connection should always be viewed as hostile, even one behind a firewall. There is a risk in declaring a device trusted, for example, such as your home keyboard. It might be compromised later, and there is not much you can do about that. A common trick today is to install a key-logger in somebody’s keyboard to snoop on them. This is done not just by police but by suspicious spouses and corporate spies. Short of tamper-proof hardware and encryption, this is a difficult problem. For now, that’s too much cost to add to consumer devices. Still, it sure would be nice to be able to go to a hotel and use their keyboard, mouse and monitor. It might be worth putting up with having to constantly switch back to get full sized input devices on computers that are trying to get smaller and smaller. But it would also require rewriting of a lot of software, since no program could be allowed to take input from an untrusted device unless it has been modified to understand such a protocol. For example, your e-mail program would need to be modified to declare that a text input box allows untrusted input. This gets harder in web browsing — each web page would need to have to declare, in its input boxes, whether untrusted input was allowed. As a starter, however, the computer could come with a simple “clipboard editor” which brings up a box in which one can type and edit with untrusted input devices. Then, one could copy the edited text to the OS clipboard and, using the trusted mouse or keyboard, paste it into any application of choice. You could always get back to the special editing windows using the untrusted keyboard and mouse, you would have to use the trusted ones to leave that window. Cumbersome, but not as cumbersome as typing a long e-mail on an iPhone screen. Submitted by brad on Thu, 2009-03-05 00:35. I’m looking at you Ubuntu. For some time now, the standard form for distributing a free OS (ie. Linux, *BSD) has been as a CD-ROM or DVD ISO file. You burn it to a CD, and you can boot and install from that, and also use the disk as a live CD. There are a variety of pages with instructions on how to convert such an ISO into a bootable flash drive, and scripts and programs for linux and even for windows — for those installing linux on a windows box. And these are great and I used one to make a bootable Ubuntu stick on my last install. And wow! It’s such a much nicer, faster experience compared to using CD that it’s silly to use CD on any system that can boot from a USB drive, and that’s most modern systems. With a zero seek time, it is much nicer. So I now advocate going the other way. Give me a flash image I can dd to my flash drive, and a tool to turn that into an ISO if I need an ISO. This has a number of useful advantages: - I always want to try the live CD before installing, to make sure the hardware works in the new release. In fact, I even do that before upgrading most of the time. - Of course, you don’t have old obsolete CDs lying around. - Jumping to 1 gigabyte allows putting more on the distribution, including some important things that are missing these days, such as drivers and mdadm (the RAID control program.) - Because flash is a dynamic medium, the install can be set up so that the user can, after copying the base distro, add files to the flash drive, such as important drivers — whatever they choose. An automatic script could even examine a machine and pull down new stuff that’s needed. - You get a much faster and easier to use “rescue stick.” - It’s easier to carry around. - No need for an “alternate install” and perhaps easier as well to have the upgrader use the USB stick as a cache of packages during upgrades. - At this point these things are really cheap. People give them away. You could sell them. This technique would also work for general external USB drives, or even plain old internal hard drives temporarily connected to a new machine being built if boot from USB is not practical. Great and really fast for eSata. - Using filesystems designed not to wear out flash, the live stick can have a writable partition for /tmp, installed packages and modifications (with some security risk if you run untrusted code.) Submitted by brad on Sat, 2009-02-14 19:34. Product recalls have been around for a while. You get a notice in the mail. You either go into a dealer at some point, any point, for service, or you swap the product via the mail. Nicer recalls mail you a new product first and then you send in the old one, or sign a form saying you destroyed it. All well and good. Some recalls are done as “hidden warranties.” They are never announced, but if you go into the dealer with a problem they just fix it for free, long after the regular warranty, or fix it while working on something else. These usually are for items that don’t involve safety or high liability. Today I had my first run-in with a recall of a connected electronic product. I purchased an “EyeFi” card for my sweetie for valentines day. This is an SD memory card with an wifi transmitter in it. You take pictures, and it stores them until it encounters a wifi network it knows. It then uploads the photos to your computer or to photo sharing sites. All sounds very nice. When she put in the card and tried to initialize it, up popped a screen. “This card has a defect. Please give us your address and we’ll mail you a new one, and you can mail back the old one, and we’ll give you a credit in our store for your trouble.” All fine, but the product refused to let her register and use the product. We can’t even use the product for a few days to try it out (knowing it may lose photos.) What if I wanted to try it out to see if I was going to return it to the store. No luck. I could return it to the store as-is, but that’s work and may just get another one on the recall list. This shows us the new dimension of the electronic recall. The product was remotely disabled to avoid liability for the company. We had no option to say, “Let us use the card until the new one arrives, we agree that it might fail or lose pictures.” For people who already had the card, I don’t know if it shut them down (possibly leaving them with no card) or let them continue with it. You have to agree on the form that you will not use the card any more. This can really put a damper on a gift, when it refuses to even let you do a test the day you get it. With electronic recall, all instances of a product can be shut down. This is similar to problems that people have had with automatic “upgrades” that actually remove features (like adding more DRM) or which fix you jailbreaking your iPhone. You don’t own the product any more. Companies are very worried about liability. They will “do the safe thing” which is shut their product down rather than let you take a risk. With other recalls, things happened on your schedule. You were even able to just decide not to do the recall. The company showed it had tried its best to convince you to do it, and could feel satisfied for having tried. This is one of the risks I list in my essays on robocars. If a software flaw is found in a robocar (or any other product with physical risk) there will be pressure to “recall” the software and shut down people’s cars. Perhaps in extreme cases while they are driving on the street! The liability of being able to shut down the cars and not doing so once you are aware of a risk could result in huge punitive damages under the current legal system. So you play it safe. But if people find their car shutting down because of some very slight risk, they will start wondering if they even want a car that can do that. Or even a memory card. Only with public pressure will we get the right to say, “I will take my own responsibility. You’ve informed me, I will decide when to take the product offline to get it fixed.” Submitted by brad on Mon, 2008-09-29 22:40. Most of us have had to stand in a long will-call line to pick up tickets. We probably even paid a ticket “service fee” for the privilege. Some places are helping by having online printable tickets with a bar code. However, that requires that they have networked bar code readers at the gate which can detect things like duplicate bar codes, and people seem to rather have giant lines and many staff rather than get such machines. Can we do it better? Well, for starters, it would be nice if tickets could be sent not as a printable bar code, but as a message to my cell phone. Perhaps a text message with coded string, which I could then display to a camera which does OCR of it. Same as a bar code, but I can actually get it while I am on the road and don’t have a printer. And I’m less likely to forget it. Or let’s go a bit further and have a downloadable ticket application on the phone. The ticket application would use bluetooth and a deliberately short range reader. I would go up to the reader, and push a button on the cell phone, and it would talk over bluetooth with the ticket scanner and authenticate the use of my ticket. The scanner would then show a symbol or colour and my phone would show that symbol/colour to confirm to the gate staff that it was my phone that synced. (Otherwise it might have been the guy in line behind me.) The scanner would be just an ordinary laptop with bluetooth. You might be able to get away with just one (saving the need for networking) because it would be very fast. People would just walk by holding up their phones, and the gatekeeper would look at the screen of the laptop (hidden) and the screen of the phone, and as long as they matched wave through the number of people it shows on the laptop screen. Alternately you could put the bluetooth antenna in a little faraday box to be sure it doesn’t talk to any other phone but the one in the box. Put phone in box, light goes on, take phone out and proceed. One reason many will-calls are slow is they ask you to show ID, often your photo-ID or the credit card used to purchase the item. But here’s an interesting idea. When I purchase the ticket online, let me offer an image file with a photo. It could be my photo, or it could be the photo of the person I am buying the tickets for. It could be 3 photos if any one of those 3 people can pick up the ticket. You do not need to provide your real name, just the photo. The will call system would then inkjet print the photos on the outside of the envelope containing your tickets. You do need some form of name or code, so the agent can find the envelope, or type the name in the computer to see the records. When the agent gets the envelope, identification will be easy. Look at the photo on the envelope, and see if it’s the person at the ticket window. If so, hand it over, and you’re done! No need to get out cards or hand them back and forth. A great company to implement this would be paypal. I could pay with paypal, not revealing my name (just an E-mail address) and paypal could have a photo stored, and forward it on to the ticket seller if I check the box to do this. The ticket seller never knows my name, just my picture. You may think it’s scary for people to get your picture, but in fact it’s scarier to give them your name. They can collect and share data with you under your name. Your picture is not very useful for this, at least not yet, and if you like you can use one of many different pictures each time — you can’t keep using different names if you need to show ID. This could still be done with credit cards. Many credit cards offer a “virtual credit card number” system which will generate one-time card numbers for online transactions. They could set these up so you don’t have to offer a real name or address, just the photo. When picking up the item, all you need is your face. This doesn’t work if it’s an over-21 venue, alas. They still want photo ID, but they only need to look at it, they don’t have to record the name. It would be more interesting if one could design a system so that people can find their own ticket envelopes. The guard would let you into the room with the ticket envelopes, and let you find yours, and then you can leave by showing your face is on the envelope. The problem is, what if you also palmed somebody else’s envelope and then claimed yours, or said you couldn’t find yours? That needs a pretty watchful guard which doesn’t really save on staff as we’re hoping. It might be possible to have the tickets in a series of closed boxes. You know your box number (it was given to you, or you selected it in advance) so you get your box and bring it to the gate person, who opens it and pulls out your ticket for you, confirming your face. Then the box is closed and returned. Make opening the boxes very noisy. I also thought that for Burning Man, which apparently had a will-call problem this year, you could just require all people fetching their ticket be naked. For those not willing, they could do regular will-call where the ticket agent finds the envelope. :-) I’ve noted before that, absent the need of the TSA to know all our names, this is how boarding passes should work. You buy a ticket, provide a photo of the person who is to fly, and the gate agent just looks to see if the face on the screen is the person flying, no need to get out ID, or tell the airline your name. Submitted by brad on Tue, 2008-05-27 20:49. Hard disks fail. If you prepared properly, you have a backup, or you swap out disks when they first start reporting problems. If you prepare really well you have offsite backup (which is getting easier and easier to do over the internet.) One way to protect yourself from disk failures is RAID, especially RAID-5. With RAID, several disks act together as one. The simplest protecting RAID, RAID-1, just has 2 disks which work in parallel, known as mirroring. Everything you write is copied to both. If one fails, you still have the other, with all your data. It’s good, but twice as expensive. RAID-5 is cleverer. It uses 3 or more disks, and uses error correction techniques so that you can store, for example, 2 disks worth of data on 3 disks. So it’s only 50% more expensive. RAID-5 can be done with many more disks — for example with 5 disks you get 4 disks worth of data, and it’s only 25% more expensive. However, having 5 disks is beyond most systems and has its own secret risk — if 2 of the 5 disks fail at once — and this does happen — you lose all 4 disks worth of data, not just 2 disks worth. (RAID-6 for really large arrays of disks, survives 2 failures but not 3.) Now most people who put in RAID do it for more than data protection. After all, good sysadmins are doing regular backups. They do it because with RAID, the computer doesn’t even stop when a disk fails. You connect up a new disk live to the computer (which you can do with some systems) and it is recreated from the working disks, and you never miss a beat. This is pretty important with a major server. But RAID has value to those who are not in the 99.99% uptime community. Those who are not good at doing manual backups, but who want to be protected from the inevitable disk failures. Today it is hard to set up, or expensive, or both. There are some external boxes like the “readynas” that make it reasonably easy for external disks, but they don’t have the bandwidth to be your full time disks. RAID-5 on old IDE systems was hard, they usually could truly talk to only 2 disks at a time. The new SATA bus is much better, as many motherboards have 4 connectors, though soon one will be required by blu-ray drives. read more » Submitted by brad on Thu, 2008-05-15 13:56. Recently we at the EFF have been trying to fight new rulings about the power of U.S. customs. Right now, it’s been ruled they can search your laptop, taking a complete copy of your drive, even if they don’t have the normally required reasons to suspect you of a crime. The simple fact that you’re crossing the border gives them extraordinary power. We would like to see that changed, but until then what can be done? You can use various software to encrypt your hard drive — there are free packages like truecrypt, and many laptops come with this as an option — but most people find having to enter a password every time you boot to be a pain. And customs can threaten to detain you until you give them the password. There are some tricks you can pull, like having a special inner-drive with a second password that they don’t even know to ask about. You can put your most private data there. But again, people don’t use systems with complex UIs unless they feel really motivated. What we need is a system that is effectively transparent most of the time. However, you could take special actions when going through customs or otherwise having your laptop be out of your control. read more » Submitted by brad on Sat, 2008-05-10 18:46. It seems that half the programs I try and install under Windows want to have a “daemon” process with them, which is to say a portion of the program that is always running and which gets a little task-tray icon from which it can be controlled. Usually they want to also be run at boot time. In Windows parlance this is called a service. There are too many of them, and they don’t all need to be there. Microsoft noticed this, and started having Windows detect if task tray icons were too static. If they are it hides them. This doesn’t work very well — they even hide their own icon for removing hardware, which of course is going to be static most of the time. And of course some programs now play games to make their icons appear non-static so they will stay visible. A pointless arms race. All these daemons eat up memory, and some of them eat up CPU. They tend to slow the boot of the machine too. And usually not to do very much — mostly to wait for some event, like being clicked, or hardware being plugged in, or an OS/internet event. And the worst of them on their menu don’t even have a way to shut them down. I would like to see the creation of a master deaemon/service program. This program would be running all the time, and it would provide a basic scripting language to perform daemon functions. Programs that just need a simple daemon, with a menu or waiting for events, would be strongly encouraged to prepare it in this scripting language, and install it through the master daemon. That way they take up a few kilobytes, not megabytes, and don’t take long to load. The scripting language should be able to react at least in a basic way to all the OS hooks, events and callbacks. It need not do much with them — mainly it would run a real module of the program that would have had a daemon. If the events are fast and furious and don’t pause, this program could stay resident and become a real daemon. But having a stand alone program would be discouraged, certainly for boring purposes like checking for updates, overseeing other programs and waiting for events. The master program itself could get regular updates, as features are added to it as needed by would-be daemons. Unix started with this philosophy. Most internet servers are started up by inetd, which listens on all the server ports you tell it, and fires up a server if somebody tries to connect. Only programs with very frequent requests, like E-mail and web serving, are supposed to keep something constantly running. The problem is, every software package is convinced it’s the most important program on the system, and that the user mostly runs nothing but that program. So they act like they own the place. We need a way to only let them do that if they truly need it. Submitted by brad on Fri, 2008-05-09 00:14. I’m scanning my documents on an ADF document scanner now, and it’s largely pretty impressive, but I’m surprised at some things the system won’t do. Double page feeding is the bane of document scanning. To prevent it, many scanners offer methods of double feed detection, including ultrasonic detection of double thickness and detection when one page is suddenly longer than all the others (because it’s really two.) There are a number of other tricks they could do, I think. I think a paper feeder that used air suction or gecko-foot van-der-waals force pluckers on both sides of a page to try to pull the sides in two different directions could help not just detect, but eliminate such feeds. However, the most the double feed detectors do is signal an exception to stop the scan. Which means work re-feeding and a need to stand by. However, many documents have page numbers. And we’re going to OCR them and the OCR engine is pretty good at detecting page numbers (mostly out of desire to remove them.) However, it seems to me a good approach would be to look for gaps in the page numbers, especially combined with the other results of a double feed. Then don’t stop the scan, just keep going, and report to the operator which pages need to be scanned again. Those would be scanned, their number extracted, and they would be inserted in the right place in the final document. Of course, it’s not perfect. Sometimes page numbers are not put on blank pages, and some documents number only within chapters. So you might not catch everything, but you could catch a lot of stuff. Operators could quickly discern the page numbering scheme (though I think the OCR could do this too) to guide the effort. I’m seeking a maximum convenience workflow. I think to do that the best plan is to have several scanners going, and the OCR after the fact in the background. That way there’s always something for the operator to do — fixing bad feeds, loading new documents, naming them — for maximum throughput. Though I also would hope the OCR software could do better at naming the documents for you, or at least suggesting names. Perhaps it can, the manual for Omnipage is pretty sparse. While some higher end scanners do have the scanner figure out the size of the page (at least the length) I am not sure why it isn’t a trivial feature for all ADF scanners to do this. My $100 Strobe sheetfed scanner does it. That my $6,000 (retail) FI-5650 needs extra software seems odd to me. Submitted by brad on Tue, 2008-05-06 16:25. PCs can go into standby mode (just enough power to preserve the RAM and do wake-on-lan) and into hibernate mode (where they write out the RAM to disk, shut down entirely and restore from disk later) as well as fully shut down. Standby mode comes back up very fast, and should be routinely used on desktops. In fact, non-server PCs should consider doing it as a sort of screen saver since the restart can be so quick. It’s also popular on laptops but does drain the battery in a few days keeping the RAM alive. Many laptops will wake up briefly to hibernate if left in standby so long that the battery gets low, which is good. How about this option: Write the ram contents out to disk, but also keep the ram alive. When the user wants to restart, they can restart instantly, unless something happened to the ram. If there was a power flicker or other trouble, notice the ram is bad and restart from disk. Usually you don’t care too much about the extra time needed to write out to disk when suspending, other than for psychological reasons where you want to be really sure the computer is off before leaving it. It’s when you come back to the computer that you want instant-on. In fact, since RAM doesn’t actually fail all that quickly, you might even find you can restore from RAM after a brief power flicker. In that case, you would want to store a checksum for all blocks of RAM, and restore any from disk that don’t match the checksum. To go further, one could also hibernate to newer generations of fast flash memory. Flash memory is getting quite cheap, and while older generations aren’t that quick, they seek instantaneously. This allows you to reboot a machine with its memory “paged out” to flash, and swap in pages at random as they are needed. This would allow a special sort of hybrid restore: - Predict in advance which pages are highly used, and which are enough to get the most basic functions of the OS up. Write them out to a special contiguous block of hibernation disk. Then write out the rest, to disk and flash. - When turning on again, read this block of contiguous disk and go “live.” Any pages needed can then be paged in from the flash memory as needed, or if the flash wasn’t big enough, unlikely pages can come from disk. - In the background, restore the rest of the pages from the faster disk. Eventually you are fully back to ram. This would allow users to get a fairly fast restore, even from full-off hibernation. If they click on a rarely used program that was in ram, it might be slow as stuff pages in, but still not as bad as waiting for the whole restore. Submitted by brad on Thu, 2008-02-21 12:44. A big trend in systems operation these days is the use of virtual machines — software systems which emulate a standalone machine so you can run a guest operating system as a program on top of another (host) OS. This has become particularly popular for companies selling web hosting. They take one fast machine and run many VMs on it, so that each customer has the illusion of a standalone machine, on which they can do anything. It’s also used for security testing and honeypots. The virtual hosting is great. Typical web activity is “bursty.” You would like to run at a low level most of the time, but occasionally burst to higher capacity. A good VM environment will do that well. A dedicated machine has you pay for full capacity all the time when you only need it rarely. Cloud computing goes beyond this. However, the main limit to a virtual machine’s capacity is memory. Virtual host vendors price their machines mostly on how much RAM they get. And a virtual host with twice the RAM often costs twice as much. This is all based on the machine’s physical ram. A typical vendor might take a machine with 4gb, keep 256mb for the host and then sell 15 virtual machines with 256mb of ram. They will also let you “burst” your ram, either into spare capacity or into what the other customers are not using at the time, but if you do this for too long they will just randomly kill processes on your machine, so you don’t want to depend on this. The problem is when they give you 256MB of ram, that’s what you get. A dedicated linux server with 256mb of ram will actually run fairly well, because it uses paging to disk. The server loads many programs, but a lot of the memory used for these programs (particularly the code) is used rarely, if ever, and swaps out to disk. So your 256mb holds the most important pages of ram. If you have more than 256mb of important, regularly used ram, you’ll thrash (but not die) and know you need to buy more. The virtual machines, however, don’t give you swap space. Everything stays in ram. And the host doesn’t swap it either, because that would not be fair. If one VM were regularly swapping to disk, this would slow the whole system down for everybody. One could build a fair allocation for that but I have not heard of it. In addition, another big memory saving is lost — shared memory. In a typical system, when two processes use the same shared library or same program, this is loaded into memory only once. It’s read-only so you don’t need to have two copies. But on a big virtual machine, we have 15 copies of all the standard stuff — 15 kernels, 15 MYSQL servers, 15 web servers, 15 of just about everything. It’s very wasteful. So I wonder if it might be possible to do one of the following: - Design the VM so that all binaries and shared libraries can be mounted from a special read-only filesystem which is actually on the host. This would be an overlay filesystem so that individual virtual machines could change it if need be. The guest kernel, however, would be able to load pages from these files, and they would be shared with any other virtual machine loading the same file. - Write a daemon that regularly uses spare CPU to scan the pages of each virtual machine, hashing them. When two pages turn out to be identical, release one and have both VMs use the common copy. Mark it so that if one writes to it, a duplicate is created again. When new programs start it would take extra RAM, but within a few minutes the memory would be shared. These techniques require either a very clever virtualizer or modified guests, but their savings are so worthwhile that everybody would want to do it this way on any highly loaded virtual machine. Of course, that goes against the concept of “run anything you like” and makes it “run what you like, but certain standard systems are much cheaper.” This, and allowing some form of fair swapping, could cause a serious increase in the performance and cost of VMs. Submitted by brad on Tue, 2008-02-19 21:11. If you have read my articles on power you know I yearn for the days when we get smart power so we have have universal supplies that power everything. This hit home when we got a new Thinkpad Z61 model, which uses a new power adapter which provides 20 volts at 4.5 amps and uses a new, quite rare power tip which is 8mm in diameter. For almost a decade, thinkpads used 16.5 volts and used a fairly standard 5.5mm plug. It go so that some companies standardized on Thinkpads and put cheap 16 volt TP power supplies in all the conference rooms, allowing employees to just bring their laptops in with no hassle. Lenovo pissed off their customers with this move. I have perhaps 5 older power supplies, including one each at two desks, one that stays in the laptop bag for travel, one downstairs and one running an older ThinkPad. They are no good to me on the new computer. Lenovo says they knew this would annoy people, and did it because they needed more power in their laptops, but could not increase the current in the older plug. I’m not quite sure why they need more power — the newer processors are actually lower wattage — but they did. Here’s something they could have done to make it better. read more » Submitted by brad on Sat, 2008-01-12 16:33. I’ve written before about both the desire for universal dc power and more simply universal laptop power at meeting room desks. Today I want to report we’re getting a lot closer. A new generation of cheap “buck and boost” ICs which can handle more serious wattages with good efficiency has come to the market. This means cheap DC to DC conversion, both increasing and decreasing voltages. More and more equipment is now able to take a serious range of input voltages, and also to generate them. Being able to use any voltage is important for battery powered devices, since batteries start out with a high voltage (higher than the one they are rated for) and drop over their time to around 2/3s of that before they are viewed as depleted. (With some batteries, heavy depletion can really hurt their life. Some are more able to handle it.) With a simple buck converter chip, at a cost of about 10-15% of the energy, you get a constant voltage out to matter what the battery is putting out. This means more reliable power and also the ability to use the full capacity of the battery, if you need it and it won’t cause too much damage. These same chips are in universal laptop supplies. Most of these supplies use special magic tips which fit the device they are powering and also tell the supply what voltage and current it needs. read more » Submitted by brad on Tue, 2007-11-13 13:20. Ok, I haven't had a new laptop in a while so perhaps this already happens, but I'm now carrying more devices that can charge off the USB power, including my cell phone. It's only 2.5 watts, but it's good enough for many purposes. However, my laptops, and desktops, do not provide USB power when in standby or off. So how about a physical or soft switch to enable that? Or even a smart mode in the US that lets you list what devices you want to keep powered and which ones you don't? (This would probably keep all devices powered if any one such device is connected, unless you had individual power control for each plug.) This would only be when on AC power of course, not on battery unless explicitly asked for as an emergency need. To get really smart a protocol could be developed where the computer can ask the USB device if it needs power. A fully charged device that plans to sleep would say no. A device needing charge could say yes. Of course, you only want to do this if the power supply can efficiently generate 5 volts. Some PC power supplies are not efficient at low loads and so may not be a good choice for this, and smaller power supplies should be used. Submitted by brad on Tue, 2007-07-10 00:42. For much of history, we’ve used removable media for backup. We’ve used tapes of various types, floppy disks, disk cartridges, and burnable optical disks. We take the removable media and keep a copy offsite if we’re good, but otherwise they sit for a few decades until they can’t be read, either because they degraded or we can’t find a reader for the medium any more. But I now declare this era over. Disk drives are so cheap — 25 cents/gb and falling, that it no longer makes sense to do backups to anything but hard disks. We may use external USB drives that are removable, but at this point our backups are not offline, they are online. Thanks to the internet, I even do offsite backup to live storage. I sync up over the internet at night, and if I get too many changes (like after an OS install, or a new crop of photos) I write the changes to a removable hard disk and carry it over to the offsite hard disk. Of course, these hard drives will fail, perhaps even faster than CD-roms or floppies. But the key factor is that the storage is online rather than offline, and each new disk is 2 to 3 times larger than the one it replaced. What this means is that as we change out our disks, we just copy our old online archives to our new online disk. By constantly moving the data to newer and newer media — and storing it redundantly with online, offsite backup, the data are protected from the death that removable media eventually suffer. So long as disks keep getting bigger and cheaper, we won’t lose anything, except by beng lazy. And soon, our systems will get more automated at this, so it’s hard to set up a computer that isn’t backed up online and remotely. We may still lose things because we lose encryption keys, but it won’t be for media. Thus, oddly, the period of the latter part of the 20th century will be a sort of “dark ages” to future data archaeologists. Those disks will be lost. The media may be around, but you will have to do a lot of work to recover them — manual work. However, data from the early 21st onward will be there unless it was actively deleted or encrypted. Of course this has good and bad consequences. Good for historians. Perhaps not so good for privacy. Submitted by brad on Tue, 2007-07-03 15:15. Hotels are now commonly sporting flat widescreen TVs, usually LCD HDTVs at the 720p resolution, which is 1280 x 720 or similar. Some of these TVs have VGA ports or HDMI (DVI) ports, or they have HDTV analog component video (which is found on some laptops but not too many.) While 720p resolution is not as good as the screens on many laptops, it makes a world of difference on a PDA. As our phone/PDA devices become more like the iPhone, it would be very interesting to see hotels guarantee that their room offers the combination of: - A bluetooth keyboard (with USB and mini-USB as a backup) - A similar optical mouse - A means to get video into the HDTV - Of course, wireless internet - Our dreamed of universal DC power jack (or possibly inductive charging.) Tiny devices like the iPhone won’t sport VGA or even component video out 7 pin connectors, though they might do HDMI. It’s also not out of the question to go a step further and do a remote screen protocol like VNC over the wireless ethernet or bluetooth. This would engender a world where you carry a tiny device like the iPhone, which is all touchscreen for when you are using it in the mobile environment. However, when you sit down in your hotel room (or a few other places) you could use it like a full computer with a full screen and keyboard. (There are also quite compact real-key bluetooth keyboards and mice which travelers could also bring. Indeed, since the iPhone depends on a multitouch interface, an ordinary mouse might not be enough for it, but you could always use its screen for such pointing, effectively using the device as the touchpad.) Such stations need not simply be in hotels. Smaller displays (which are now quite cheap) could also be present at workstations on conference tables or meeting rooms, or even for rent in public. Of course rental PCs in public are very common at internet cafes and airport kiosks, but using our own device is more tuned to our needs and more secure (though using a rented keyboard presents security risks.) One could even imagine stations like these randomly scattered around cities behind walls. Many retailers today are putting HDTV flat panels in their windows instead of signs, and this will become a more popular trend. Imagine being able to borrow (for free or for a rental fee) such screens for a short time to do a serious round of web surfing on your portable device with high resolution, and local wifi bandwidth. Such a screen could not provide you with a keyboard or mouse easily, but the surfing experience would be much better than the typical mobile device surfing experience, even the iPhone model of seeing a blurry, full-size web page and using multitouch to zoom in on the relevant parts. Using a protocol like vnc could provide a good surfing experience for pedestrians. Cars are also more commonly becoming equipped with screens, and they are another place we like to do mobile surfing. While the car’s computer should let you surf directly, there is merit in being able to use that screen as a temporary large screen for one’s mobile device. Until we either get really good VR glasses or bright tiny projectors, screen size is going to be an issue in mobile devices. A world full of larger screens that can be grabbed for a few minutes use may be a good answer. Submitted by brad on Fri, 2007-06-08 14:43. For many of us, E-mail has become our most fundamental tool. It is not just the way we communicate with friends and colleagues, it is the way that a large chunk of the tasks on our “to do” lists and calendars arrive. Of course, many E-mail programs like Outlook come integrated with a calendar program and a to-do list, but the integration is marginal at best. (Integration with the contact manager/address book is usually the top priority.) If you’re like me you have a nasty habit. You leave messages in your inbox that you need to deal with if you can’t resolve them with a quick reply when you read them. And then those messages often drift down in the box, off the first screen. As a result, they are dealt with much later or not at all. With luck the person mails you again to remind you of the pending task. There are many time management systems and philosophies out there, of course. A common theme is to manage your to-do list and calendar well, and to understand what you will do and not do, and when you will do it if not right away. I think it’s time to integrate our time management concepts with our E-mail. To realize that a large number of emails or threads are also a task, and should be bound together with the time manager’s concept of a task. For example, one way to “file” an E-mail would be to the calendar or a day oriented to-do list. You might take an E-mail and say, “I need 20 minutes to do this by Friday” or “I’ll do this after my meeting with the boss tomorrow.” The task would be tied to the E-mail. Most often, the tasks would not be tied to a specific time the way calendar entries are, but would just be given a rough block of time within a rough window of hours or days. It would be useful to add these “when to do it” attributes to E-mails, because now delegating a task to somebody else can be as simple as forwarding the E-mail-message-as-task to them. In fact, because, as I have noted, I like calendars with free-form input (ie. saying “Lunch with Peter 1pm tomorrow” and having the calender understand exactly what to do with it) it makes sense to consider the E-mail window as a primary means of input to the calendar. For example, one might add calendar entries by emailing them to a special address that is processed by the calendar. (That’s a useful idea for any calendar, even one not tied at all to the E-mail program.) One should also be able to assign tasks to places (a concept from the “Getting Things Done” book I have had recommended to me.) In this case, items that will be done when one is shopping, or going out to a specific meeting, could be synced or sent appropriately to one’s mobile device, but all with the E-mail metaphor. Because there are different philosophies of time management, all with their fans, one monolithic e-mail/time/calendar/todo program may not be the perfect answer. A plug-in architecture that lets time managers integrate nicely with E-mail could be a better way to do it. Some of these concepts apply to the shared calendar concepts I wrote about last month. Submitted by brad on Mon, 2007-06-04 11:01. Here’s a new approach to linux adoption. Create a linux distro which converts a Windows machine to linux, marketed as a way to solve many of your virus/malware/phishing woes. Yes, for a long time linux distros have installed themselves on top of a windows machine dual-boot. And there are distros that can run in a VM on windows, or look windows like, but here’s a set of steps to go much further, thanks to how cheap disk space is today. read more » - Yes, the distro keeps the Windows install around dual boot, but it also builds a virtual machine so it can be run under linux. Of course hardware drivers differ when running under a VM, so this is non-trivial, and Windows XP and later will claim they are stolen if they wake up in different hardware. You may have to call Microsoft, which they may eventually try to stop. - Look through the Windows copy and see what apps are installed. For apps that migrate well to linux, either because they have equivalents or run at silver or gold level under Wine, move them into linux. Extract their settings and files and move those into the linux environment. Of course this is easiest to do when you have something like Firefox as the browser, but IE settings and bookmarks can also be imported. - Examine the windows registry for other OS settings, desktop behaviours etc. Import them into a windows-like linux desktop. Ideally when it boots up, the user will see it looking and feeling a lot like their windows environment. - Using remote window protocols, it’s possible to run windows programs in a virtual machine with their window on the X desktop. Try this for some apps, though understand some things like inter-program communication may not do as well. - Next, offer programs directly in the virtual machine as another desktop. Put the windows programs on the windows-like “start” menu, but have them fire up the program in the virtual machine, or possibly even fire up the VM as needed. Again, memory is getting very cheap. - Strongly encourage the Windows VM be operated in a checkpointing manner, where it is regularly reverted to a base state, if this is possible. - The linux box, sitting outside the windows VM, can examine its TCP traffic to check for possible infections or strange traffic to unusual sites. A database like the siteadvisor one can help spot these unusual things, and encourage restoring the windows box back to a safe checkpoint. Submitted by brad on Sun, 2007-04-15 16:45. The use of virtual machines is getting very popular in the web hosting world. Particularly exciting to many people is Amazon.com’s EC2 — which means Elastic Compute Cloud. It’s a large pool of virtual machines that you can rent by the hour. I know people planning on basing whole companies on this system, because they can build an application that scales up by adding more virtual machines on demand. It’s decently priced and a lot cheaper than building it yourself in most cases. In many ways, something like EC2 would be great for all those web sites which deal with the “slashdot” effect. I hope to see web hosters, servers and web applications just naturally allow scaling through the addition of extra machines. This typically means either some round-robin-DNS, or a master server that does redirects to a pool of servers, or a master cache that processes the data from a pool of servers, or a few other methods. Dealing with persistent state that can’t be kept in cookies requires a shared database among all the servers, which may make the database the limiting factor. Rumours suggest Amazon will release an SQL interface to their internal storage system which presumably is highly scalable, solving that problem. As noted, this would be great for small to medium web sites. They can mostly run on a single server, but if they ever see a giant burst of traffic, for example by being linked to from a highly popular site, they can in minutes bring up extra servers to share the load. I’ve suggested this approach for the Battlestar Galactica Wiki I’ve been using — normally their load is modest, but while the show is on, each week, predictably, they get such a huge load of traffic when the show actually airs that they have to lock the wiki down. They have tried to solve this the old fashioned way — buying bigger servers — but that’s a waste when they really just need one day a week, 22 weeks a year, of high capacity. However, I digress. What I really want to talk about is using such systems to get access to all sorts of platforms. As I’ve noted before, linux is a huge mishmash of platforms. There are many revisions of Ubuntu, Fedora, SuSE, Debian, Gentoo and many others out there. Not just the current release, but all the past releases, in both stable, testing and unstable branches. On top of that there are many versions of the BSD variants. read more » Submitted by brad on Sun, 2007-03-04 19:50. Most of us, when we travel, put appointments we will have while on the road into our calendars. And we usually enter them in local time. ie. if I have a 1pm appointment in New York, I set it for 1pm not 10am in my Pacific home time zone. While some calendar programs let you specify the time zone for an event, most people don't, and many people also don't change the time zone when they cross a border, at least not right away. (I presume that some cell phone PDAs pick up the new time from the cell network and import it into the PDA, if the network provides that.) Many PDAs don't really even let you set the time zone, just the time. Here's an idea that's simple for the user. Most people put their flights into their calendars. In fact, most of the airline web sites now let you download your flight details right into your calendar. Those flight details include flight times and the airport codes. So the calendar software should notice the flight, look up the destination airport code, and trigger a time zone change during the flight. This would also let the flight duration look correct in the calendar view window, though it would mean some "days" would be longer than others, and hours would repeat or be missing in the display. You could also manually enter magic entries like "TZ to PST" or similar which the calendar could understand as a command to change the zone at that time. Of course, I could go on many long rants about the things lacking from current calendar software, and perhaps at some point I will, but this one struck me as interesting because, in the downloaded case, the UI for the user is close to invisible, and I always like that. It becomes important when we start importing our "presence" from our calendar, or get alerts from our devices about events, we don't want these things to trigger in the wrong time zone.

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The Kalevala is a curious creature that evades easy categorisation. At its most basic level it is a united, flowing, epic poem assembled in its final form in 1849 by Elias Lönnrot. Only 3% of the work is thought to be of his own invention, however. Taking a step back it is built on a collection of Finnish folk poetry that was originally penned sometime in the 1600s over a vast area of Finland. The poetry was originally performed in song and is consequently fairly rigid in form and meter (for any music or literature geeks - specifically the trochaic tetrameter). These 17th century songs are not nearly the beginning of the material. They reflect much older oral traditions, which are evident in many of the themes the Kalevala expresses. The oldest deal with the creation of the Earth and are notoriously difficult to date, although some speculate a figure of about 3000 years ago. Of particular fascination to me, is the amount of lyrics in the saga dedicated to beer. An interesting and frequently quoted figure, albeit overstated, is that nearly 400 lines in the Kalevala deal with beer, while but 200 deal with creation. In the 13th poem we have the retelling of the origin of beer. This poem has proved an important but hotly contested source in trying to nail down the elusive place or time when hops began to be used in the brewing process. Based largely on the premise that the lore in the Kalevala come from much earlier oral traditions, some have proposed that the Scandinavians were the first to grow hops specifically for beer. [For more on this debate see Ian S. Hornsey, A History of Beer and Brewing, London: Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004. Pps. 303-14] “Takes the golden grains of barley, Taking six of barley-kernels, Taking seven tips of hop-fruit, Filling seven cups with water, On the fire she sets the caldron, Boils the barley, hops, and water, Lets them steep, and seethe, and bubble Brewing thus the beer delicious, In the hottest days of summer, On the foggy promontory, On the island forest-covered; Poured it into birch-wood barrels, Into hogsheads made of oak-wood.” Thus far so good, but the beer does not ferment. So growing troubled she queries, “What will bring the effervescence, Who will add the needed factor, That the beer may foam and sparkle, May ferment and be delightful?” Enlisting the help of Kalevatar, the magical maiden, they conjure creatures to fetch ingredients to ferment the beer. The first is a snow-white squirrel which is sent into the forests of the mountains to retrieve cones from a fir tree. Sadly, when they “Laid them in the beer for ferment, But it brought no effervescence, And the beer was cold and lifeless.” The second creature, a golden-breasted marten, was sent on the unenviable mission of fetching foam from the mouths of bears in battle (presumed to contain yeast). The marten returns successful and unscathed, yet the foam “brought no effervescence, Did not make the liquor sparkle.” Finally a honey-bee is summoned and is instructed to fly to an island in the ocean, and to collect the sweetened juices from the flowering grass beside a sleeping maid. Upon the bees return, the pollen is added to the birch-wood barrels, and the fermentation takes off in earnest, overflowing the barrels and runs in streams into Pahjola. Osmata is distraught, believing she has failed and that the wedding feast will be a failure. But the birds in the trees assure her that the beer is good, and so she barrels some more and the feast is a great success. Thus, the Finnish origin of beer: “Great indeed the reputation Of the ancient beer of Kalew, Said to make the feeble hardy, Famed to dry the tears of women, Famed to cheer the broken-hearted, Make the aged young and supple, Make the timid brave and mighty, Make the brave men ever braver, Fill the heart with joy and gladness, Fill the mind with wisdom-sayings, Fill the tongue with ancient legends, Only makes the fool more foolish." And for Lord of the Rings fans - Tolkien stated that the Kalevala saga was one of his sources that inspired the Silmarillion. You’ll find that several characters and events in the book are readily identifiable in the epic. * All quotes from the Kalevala are taken from John Martin Crawford’s 1888 English translation.

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Teach Them to Land First Jason Nunn MS, CSCS Plyometrics have been a part of most athletic development programs for many years. It has become quite commonplace for coaches to implement these sort of hops, jumps, and triple jump variations during the speed and acceleration development periods of their programs. These sorts of drills have been proven time and again to improve both starting strength and elastic strength in athletes. In most of the beginning literature from the Soviets, the thought was that an athlete must be able to squat two and a half times their own bodyweight to be able to perform plyometrics. However, in most athletic programs, this simply will not work. Most athletes today will not have the time to develop this type of strength. Honestly, this would limit most athletes from being able to perform this type of exercise. For example, Hossein Rezzazadeh weighs three hundred and sixty pounds, can clean and jerk five hundred and eighty pounds and squat eight hundred and sixty pounds (raw I might add). Yet, by these rules, he cannot do plyometrics. Sorry Mr. Rezzazadeh, I know you can clean and jerk a house, but you can’t do box Jumps. Given this, I do not think an old way of measuring strength is applicable to today’s athlete. Rather than just looking at squatting strength, let’s look at their relative and functional strength. By relative strength, I mean the ratio of an athlete’s strength to their bodyweight, and by functional strength, I mean the ability of an athlete to “stick” a landing without a valgus of the knees (adduction of the knee relative to the hip and ankle) and collapsing the core (excessive forward lean). Excessive Forward Lean It is my opinion that many strength coaches tend to put the carriage before the horse. That is, they are in such a great hurry to get their athletes “stronger”, that they neglect any type of progression or injury prevention in their periodization scheme. Most of all athletic injuries occur during deceleration and in the transverse plane. That means that most of the athletes are trying to simultaneously stop and turn at the same time when they are injured. This is the most common in females, due to the natural angle of their hips. Let’s break this down a little bit and discuss the excessive forward lean and torso vertical stability and torso rotational stability first. Then, we’ll look at the valgus knee issue. Excessive Forward Lean In training the core (anything between the hips and the chest) it is important to remember that the primary responsibility of these muscle groups is lumbar spine stability, not mobility. This is key when addressing the excessive forward lean. Most times, the excessive forward lean is due to having a weak core. If the athlete’s core is not strong enough to absorb the force of the landing, the core will collapse causing them to buckle forward. To prevent this from happening, you must first focus on the isometric strengthening of the core musculature (pelvic floor, transverse abdominus, diaphragm, internal and external obliques, erector spinae, and rectus abdominus). Here are some exercises to incorporate into your program to do so: Pull the naval in towards the spine and squeeze the gultes Keep the hips even with the shoulders. Side Bridge with Glute Activation Press the knee firmly into the ground. Bent Knee Bridge Hold each of these 6 – 30 seconds depending on the athlete’s strength level. Like stated earlier, valgus knees are the adduction of the knees in relation to the hip and ankle. This is a very dangerous position that can lead to many knee injuries, as well as, several other hip and low back problems throughout the kinetic chain. For most athletes, this is just a simple matter of re-learning the motor pattern. If this is the case, the easiest way to do this is doing a drill I call “Landing Mechanics”. (Very creative, I know) This is a drill that I incorporate at the end of my dynamic warm up. Frontal Landing x 5 Starting Position Landing Position Have the athlete start on a bench or plyo box that is about knee height and fall into a good landing position. If you’ve done the following drills for a couple weeks and the athlete is still exhibiting the same valgus knees, this may be a sign that there are bigger problems that may need some extra attention. A little corrective exercise training may be order. First off, let’s look at the problem. The knees are moving inward. Let’s take the Janda approach and look at which muscles are locked long (weak) and which opposing muscles are locked short (tight). I think that Gray Cook put it best when he said, “The knee is a slave to the hip and the ankle. For dysfunction in the knee, look either a foot north or a foot south, you will find your problem.” Possible Tight Areas IT – Band Tensor Fasciae Latae Outer Head of the Gastrocnemeus Possible Weak Areas Vastus Medialis (VMO) Corrective Exercise Training for the Valgus Knees Now that we’ve identified which muscles are tight and which ones are weak, let’s look at how to fix the situation. First, we will start with lengthening the short muscles by: IT – Band Start with the roller at the greater trochanter and work your way towards the lesser trochanter. Hold each tender spot thirty seconds. Roll from the head of the fibula to the lateral malleolus. Hold each tender spot thirty seconds. Be sure that the arch of the back foot does not collapse Squeeze the glutes and keep the shoulders back. Following the foam rolling and static stretching, you will implement a comprehensive dynamic warmup. Then, you will be able to incorporate the core above mentioned isometric core exercises, as well as, the following: Lateral Tube Walks Begin with a mini band just above the knees and the feet just a little wider than hip width. Then, while maintaining core stability, step out just wider than shoulder width. Then, step back to starting stance. Do this 10x to the right and 10x to the left. Begin with one leg bent just past 90 degrees at the knee and the other pointed straight up. Press the heal of the foot into the ground, squeeze the glute, and press the hips up as high as possible. Repeat 10x each leg. Athletes get injured for three reasons. They either aren’t strong enough, aren’t flexible enough, or by contact. If the athlete gets hit by a car, you can’t help that, but you may be able to fix the other two! By spending a little time working on preventative maintenance, the coach greatly reduces the risk of injury to their athletes. Janda V. Muscles and cervicogenic pain syndromes. In: Grant R., editor.Physical therapy of the cervical and thoracic spine. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1988. p. 153-66. Meyer, G.D., et. Al., Neuromuscular Training Improves Performance and Movement Biomechanics. J. Strength Cond. Res. 19:51 – 60. 2005 Rodger, Robb, Kids Jump Down. Sbcoachescollege.com Jason Nunn is a Personal Trainer and Sports Performance Coach in Indianapolis, Indiana. He is the Owner of Nunn’s Performance Training, LLC. He works with clients of all levels from weekend warriors to division I athletes. Check out http://www.nunnstronger.com for more info.

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LETTER TO THE EDITOR: Remember American frontiers To the Times: Absorbing its Western frontier gave 19th century America a core task. In 1890 the Census Bureau, which tracked frontier settlement, declared the job done. Yet the American frontier persists, its needs largely invisible. Today’s task is to recognize its survival and ensure its people and places get fair treatment. The 19th century census defined the frontier by population density. A place with under six people per square mile was frontier -- a figure New York State already exceeded (barely) in 1790, the census’ first year. Anywhere over that density was settled land. In its reporting, the census mapped a north-south line separating the two zones that steadily moved westward. The 1880 line mostly ran along the 98th meridian and bulged west in Nebraska halfway across the state. But the 1890 census found no clear edge: settlement mission accomplished. Contemporary understandings of progress meant the frontier would be sure to fill. The great historian Frederick Jackson Turner used the census’ technical demographic decision about the frontier line’s disappearance to begin his hugely influential 1893 essay, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History.” His declaration that the frontier was closed or quickly closing soon became a vital part of the American creed. Yet the American frontier stayed mostly intact after 1890. Most of the land from the country’s midsection to the Sierra-Cascades still has less than six people per square mile. Nearly all of Alaska and parts of the Appalachian Mountains and the North Woods from Maine to Minnesota also remain at frontier density. This vast remnant frontier has never drawn the national attention the pre-1890 one got. The New Mexico-based National Center for Frontier Communities (on whose board we serve) estimates that the frontier has approximately 5.6 million people, about 1.8 percent of the population on 46.7 percent of the land area. The NCFC definition, which depends on both density and distance from metropolitan areas, shows that people living in small, remote places with poor transportation and communication links to the rest of the country are disproportionately poor and elderly. Many Americans visit the frontier. It has the country’s best outdoor adventure and ecotourism — glorious national parks and inspiriting fly-fishing. All of us depend on its agriculture, energy, mining, and timber. But in important ways it remains invisible, not truly seen, its special needs overlooked. In some moods Americans romanticize the frontier as the last bastion of community-minded neighborliness, with a rural can-do spirit once exemplified by barn-raising. But that model does not serve the surviving American frontier. Many essential services urban/suburban Americans take for granted are costly and hard to deliver in isolated Western desert, plains, mountain, or forest settings that may have five-month winters or 115 degree summers. Frontier communities have trouble attracting or retaining doctors, nurses, teachers, and clergy. Their few professionals suffer from limited equipment, scant back-up, and meager pay. Frontier places need telemedicine, yet their broadband capacity and cell reception are frequently spotty. Frontier places often lack the resources for adequate law enforcement and fire protection, which have to cover vast areas with bad, hard-to-navigate roads. The frontier is a prime spot for meth labs, supremacist groups, and militias. It has space for waste-disposal services, but few resources to ensure safe disposal. Continued... Many frontier tourist and second-home areas experience big seasonal population swings that increase demands on their small public sectors. They must handle upticks in accidents or illnesses, rescue lost or overconfident hikers, and restrain hard-partying groups. They must satisfy visitors who put money into the local economy, but often less than they take from it. Longer-term population swings — say, for energy boomtowns -- also strain local resources and finances. Housing, health, library, school, water, road, electric, and waste services must suddenly accommodate transients and newcomers. Frontier communities tend to have a small tax base, but many lack control of it because often they are tiny enclaves amid vast federal land holdings like national forests and parks. They must rely on a complex federal in-lieu of payment system with rates set in Washington. Frontier communities have difficulty seeking public- or private-sector funds. They have small staffs, few grant-writing skills, and some lack the computer capacity to submit their applications as demanded. Simple obstacles hold frontier communities back. The barriers are not deliberate. Americans mostly assume the frontier vanished. Therefore it cannot have distinctive issues or needs that demand unorthodox responses. Frontier justice once meant gunslingers and local lawmen, vigilantes and posses. It was often rough, terrible. Today we need a new kind of frontier justice, fairer national treatment for a vital but overlooked American place. DEBORAH E. POPPER City University of New York’s College of Staten Island and Graduate Center FRANK J. POPPER Princeton University Continued... Location, ST | website.com - Boy struck and killed by pickup truck Chester; 2nd badly injured (4098) - Upper Darby man charged with rape after ex found video on phone (3678) - Drugs, weapons seized by cops in Upland after two traffic stops (2812) - U.D. woman enters signed confession in Bonner track mischief (2226) - A day later, Merion proves just as tough for visitors (With Video) (1868) - Ryan Howard starts to heat up; Dom Brown wins it with single in 9th (1102) - Editorial: No defense for a history of sexual abuse (771) - Eagles' Jackson needs action to back talk (87) - Upper Chichester eyeing cameras for Johnson Avenue trouble spot (8) - Party on the 10th: Merion gives Golf View Road residents an easy excuse to have fun (7) - Slain Prospect Park mom remembered as 'kind, loving person' (With Video Slideshow) (5) - Bruce Johnston Jr., son of notorious Chesco crime lord, still running afoul of law (5) - World War II veterans honored in Springfield (5) - In the Community: Scott Spangler, Dave Brown making difference through soccer (5) Recent Activity on Facebook Phil Heron uses this site to turn back the curtain a bit on the great mystery involved in creating a newspaper and his other general thoughts on life and the news. Your daily wake up call with updated traffic, weather and few fun things to get you through the morning. Presenting Chester City's news and views to Delco Times web visitors who want to know more of what's going on in the City besides the stories they read in the paper. Promotes family friendly events and activities held in and around Delco on a weekly basis. Cliff Wilson served as chairman of the Delaware County Democratic Party for 16 years (1994-2010). He will write on politics and other issues he feels strongly about. Offers timely health advice for pets, behavioral tricks of the trade, follow-up success stories, and more. Updated regularly by ACDC's all-volunteer staff that includes long-time foster parents and pet owners who have years of experience. Kent Davidson covers local politics, events, and goings-on in the borough of Media, PA.

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Photo by Mjmonty. Often, our New Year’s resolutions are us promising ourselves we’ll form good habits this year: whether it’s something big like “I’m going to eat better” or “I’m going to keep my computer backed up” to “I’m going to actually start flossing every day”. So often, though, these habits end up dying off pretty quickly. Here are a few ways to make sure your resolutions become habits and don’t become another resolution in the garbage. Make Sure Your Life Is In Order Photo by Magic Madzik. While there’s a certain charm to the “no better time than now” idea behind forming good habits, the fact of the matter is that your willpower is limited. Psychology Today recommends waiting until your life is in order (at least somewhat) before forming a new habit. If stressed, working on some other form of personal growth, or otherwise not in a normal daily routine, you’ll find it much harder to keep up with a good habit. Focus On One Good Habit We won’t sugarcoat it for you: forming good habits can be tough. Habits are something that are deeply ingrained in our behaviour, which is why quitting a bad habit is so hard. Similarly, starting up a good habit is going to take a lot of work and conditioning before it becomes something automatic. If you try to take on too much at once, you are probably setting yourself up for failure. So focus on just one good habit for now—even if it’s a small one—and move on to the others later. Work Yourself Into It Gradually While your goal may be to end up doing something every day (like, say, exercising), it’s unlikely that you’re going to be able to reach that goal right out of the gate. It’s going to take time and willpower to condition yourself, so don’t beat yourself up if you miss days at the beginning. Start ramping up that good habit gradually for more successful habit forming. Part of this is setting goals for yourself. If you can set a different goal, say, each week, you can motivate yourself without getting overwhelmed. Try exercising just two or three days the first week, then set a slightly higher goal for the next week, and so on. As you get more used to the act of exercising during the day, it’ll become easier for you to work toward your end goal of working out every day. Piggyback It With Other, Already-Formed Habits Or Routines eHow notes that a really great way to help yourself remember to do certain things is to “piggyback” them with other habits or routines you already have. Say you want to start flossing daily. Flossing is one of those habits that we neglect more often because we forget, rather than us just being lazy. Put the floss in a conspicuous place by your toothbrush, and every time you brush your teeth, grab the floss and do a quick run-through. Similarly, if you want to start taking vitamins, stick the bottle in your coffee mug so every time you go to make your coffee in the morning, you can pop your multivitamin for the day. Get An Accountability Buddy Photo by Lululemon Athletica. We’ve talked about this before, and it’s an oldie but a goodie: get a buddy to help you stay accountable. Motivating yourself to go to the gym every day or start eating better can be difficult when you’re on your own, but if you have someone else around with whom you can exercise or eat with often, you’re more likely to keep up with those activities. Stick With It For 21 Days When you decide on that final goal, it can seem a bit overwhelming (“I want to exercise every day…for the rest of my life“). Once you turn a resolution into a habit, though, things are going to get a lot easier, and research shows it shouldn’t take that long. It takes about 21 days for a habit to form, so as long as you keep up your motivation, set your gradual goals, and kept up that resolution for three or four weeks, the hard part’s probably over. That habit’s now ingrained in your brain to the point where remembering it and being motivated to do it has become automatic instead of something you need to force yourself to do. This doesn’t mean quit trying after 21 days, of course—it’ll still probably take a bit of work—but if you’re feeling discouraged at any point in the process, it’s a good thing to aim for, knowing that in just a few weeks it’ll be a bit less difficult. We’ve all tried to form good habits in the past, and while these are some great tips for starting out, they certainly aren’t the only strategies in the habit-former’s arsenal. If you’ve successfully formed a good habit in the past, share with us what worked for you (and what didn’t) in the comments.

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Morris Frank & Buddy made history in 1928 when they arrived in New York City as the first dog guide team in the United States. Frank stepped off the curb to cross West Street, astounding the throng of reporters when he and Buddy safely reached the other side. This European drawing depicts a man being led by a dog guide in 1639. Other clues exist that suggest that the use of dogs to lead people who are blind began as early as 79 A.D After reading an article by Dorothy Harrison Eustis, Morris Frank wrote Mrs. Eustis and asked that she train him with a dog guide. In return, he traveled across North America, spreading the word about these specially trained dogs. Eustis and Frank founded The Seeing Eye. A Seeing Eye instructor follows behind two female students as their dogs lead them across a busy street. The streets of Morristown have served as The Seeing Eye's extended classroom since 1931. Shepherd puppies await a ride in one of the school's earliest puppy vans. Today, about 800 volunteer families raise Seeing Eye puppies in conjunction with 4-H Clubs in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and parts of Delaware and New York. The Seeing Eye's main campus is about 90 acres, situated just outside the Morristown, N.J., town limits. It overlooks the historic Washington Valley and includes an administrative building, student boarding and dining facilities, kennels, and a canine health center. Instructor Georges Debetaz, one of the school's first instructors, was with The Seeing Eye for 43 years. His statue, on the front lawn of the main campus, also honors all those who trained thousands of dogs and their owners over the past eight decades. A one-third mile walking path provides a relaxing place to unwind, for students, staff, and dogs. The campus overlooks the bucolic Washington Valley, which replicates the rural settings of some students home towns. Just minutes away, downtown Morristown reproduces the busy streets, frequent construction projects, and tempting smells of city life. Instructors spend four months training about 10 dogs at a time, then spend the fifth month instructing in-class students in the use of those dogs. Dogs must learn intelligent disobedience, which means that they must disobey any command that would lead to danger. Here, an instructor follows behind a student as he and his Seeing Eye dog practice working around an obstacle on the sidewalk. Seeing Eye dogs learn five basic commands: "forward," "left," "right," "hup-up" to quicken the pace, and "pfui" to correct a mistake. After introducing a dog to these commands and to the harness for a few days on campus, the instructor begins in "real-world" settings. One day each year, every puppy-raising volunteer is invited to The Seeing Eye to watch training demonstrations, pictured here, and learn more about the school's programs. It's just a small way to say "thanks" for all our puppy raisers do! With basic skills mastered, dogs are ready to learn more about traffic. Seeing Eye instructors drive cars in controlled situations to teach dogs the danger of traffic and the tools to respond to it, as well as to teach students how to interpret their dogs' reactions to nearby traffic. The Breeding Station in Chester, N.J., houses about 60 adult dogs, especially selected for breeding based on factors such as family history, health, temperament, breed, and size. The kennel design is based on interconnected geometric pavilions so that the dogs can see each other and see people enter the room. This litter of Labrador retrievers catches a snooze in between playtime. Once they're a little older, staff members and volunteers entertain and socialize the puppies in special playrooms equipped with toys designed to build confidence and knowledge. This mom and her pup thrive in a sun-filled pavilion where all the dogs have access to private outdoor areas. Throughout the Breeding Station, special care is taken to guard against introduction of germs or contaminants. Breeding Station employees enjoy a visit by television celebrity Betty White. About 640 puppies are born each year at the facility, which opened in 2002. The Seeing Eye breeds and trains, from left, yellow Labs, German shepherds, black Labs, golden retrievers, and chocolate Labs. We also breed and train Lab/golden crosses and occasionally train boxers. When puppies reach the age of about 7 weeks, like these three golden retriever pups, they leave the Breeding Station to spend the next 15 to 17 months of their lives with volunteer puppy raisers. Before conception even occurs, throughout training, and until the end of its working career, a Seeing Eye dog has been directed to its special destiny with the benefit of science. The Seeing Eye continues to lead the way in its research in canine genetics, breeding, disease control, and behavior. This playful German shepherd puppy might someday become the perfect half of a dog guide team. Variations in temperament, size, strength, stride, and energy are characteristics that must be closely matched to create a successful partnership. Exposure to all types of settings and situations, as this puppy enjoying a professional baseball game can attest, ensures that dogs entering formal training have the best chance of success. Puppy-raising clubs plan frequent outings so that as adults the dogs are calm and confident under a variety of circumstances. When puppies return to The Seeing Eye for formal training, the importance of playtime does not diminish. Play yards in the kennels are equipped with lots of toys and are staffed by people who spend their days in constant interaction with dogs. A teenager gets his first experience traveling with a dog guide after first walking the same route with his cane. Several times a year, The Seeing Eye Seminar for Youth hosts teens who are beginning to investigate whether or not travel with a dog guide is right for them. Global Positioning Systems open up the world to the blind. This graduate wears equipment that verbally tells him his exact location. Seeing Eye instructors work with graduates to help them maintain the safety of the team while learning to integrate GPS into their travels. A sculpture of The Seeing Eye's co-founder Morris Frank and his dog Buddy now stands in downtown Morristown. In 2005, current President Jim Kutsch, left, unveiled the statue as sculptor J. Seward Johnson and former President Kenneth Rosenthal looked on.

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Note: This website is no longer being updated and is being maintained for archive purposes by the Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Please see About the Project for further details. The Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station (Estação Ecológica Juréia-Itatins) (EEJI) occupies portions of the municipalities Peruíbe, Itariri, Miracatu and Iguape in the valley of the Ribeira de Iguape River, 210 km south-west of the city São Paulo. The EEJI has roughly the shape of an inverted triangle 90 km wide and 45 km from north to south (Map 53). It is crossed by the Una do Prelado River, a black-water river that winds north-eastward more or less parallel to the Atlantic coast for 80 km, isolating the Serra da Juréia. To the north-east the region is delimited by the Paranapu massif, a buttress of the Serra dos Itatins. The Serra da Juréia (which means prominent point in Tupi-Guaraní) is an inselberg connected to the rest of the mainland by a plain of alluvial sands, which formed during a post-glacial submersion by the sea. This is known as the Cananéia Transgression, which took place some 5100 years ago when the sea was c. 3 m above its present level (Por and Imperatriz-Fonseca 1984). For long periods the Una do Prelado River and its principal tributary the Cacunduva River were for much of their length turned into saltwater gulfs, which cut off the Serra da Juréia from the mainland. Evidence of this insular past includes the occurrence of "sambaquis" deposits of shells and other debris left by prehistoric indigenous populations c. 30 km inland from the estuary of the Una. The isolation brought about by the Cananéia Transgression and the fact that the forests on the flanks and top of this massif are even now separated from the body of the Atlantic forest by the alluvial plains, may be interpreted as conditions suitable for speciation. The Serra da Juréia is a Precambrian horst. The Juréia massif covers an area of 58 km² and reaches elevations of 400-800 m. It is divided by a depression occupied by the Verde River, whose clear water and steep southern course are fed by the waterfalls of Juréia. The eastern face of the massif falls abruptly to the ocean, forming a steeply sloping coastline. The Una do Prelado River rises in the region of Banhado Grande south-west of the Serra da Juréia and is formed almost exclusively by rainwater; it is nutrient poor though rich in humic substances, with a pH of 3.7 (Por 1986; Por et al. 1984). The Una runs over a low plain (up to 4 m above sea-level) and is influenced by the tides over almost its entire course. In times of drought, seawater penetrates as far as 30 km into the estuary. The salinity of the waters of the Una and Cacunduva rivers is regulated entirely by rainfall and tides. Mangrove swamps extend as far as c. 5 km inland from the estuary. The watercourses that arise on the Serra da Juréia contain clear nutrient-poor water with a pH of 5-6.5. There are springs in the natural campo, but most of the streams are intermittent and come from rainfall. During periods of intense rain, small waterfalls may turn into large cataracts. The hydrological wealth of the region results from two principal factors lithology and climate. The Ribeira lowland (Baixada do Ribeira) is characterized by average annual temperatures of c. 21°-22°C and the higher elevations with c. 17°-18°C. Relative humidity is above 80% and the average annual rainfall is c. 2200 mm (Camargo, Pinto and Troppmair 1972). High rainfall is due to the influence of two air masses: the Tropical Atlantic Mass originates in the South Atlantic and is active throughout the year, directly influencing the distribution and quantity of rainfall; the Polar Atlantic Mass arises in Patagonia and is more limited in its effect but still of great importance, causing abrupt drops in temperature that may cause frost at the higher elevations (Tôha 1985). On the tops of the mountains the climate has favoured the formation of soils, which have an average depth of 2-3 m. On the slopes, which may be as steep as 35°, the soils are shallower and in the absence of vegetation are soon eroded. In the lowlands between the mountains lie the alluvial soils that result from recent sedimentation. The nature of the mountain soils hinders the infiltration of water to deeper layers; thus the water table does not lie deep, and water surfaces as a large number of springs and watercourses. The vegetation of the region varies according to altitude and soil. There are five main types: open campo, forest, scrub, herbaceous restinga vegetation, and mangrove (Eiten 1970). The open "campo" vegetation, which covers the tops of the mountains at elevations over 300 m, is grass-herb-subshrub fields with scattered low to medium-tall xeromorphic shrubs. The forest formation includes a series of evergreen tropical forest types covering the slopes and base of the mountains (Coutinho 1962). The three most important types are: (1) a moist tall forest on the seaward slope of the Serra do Mar; (2) littoral tall forest, a low-altitude forest on alluvial and lacustrine clays (and occasionally sands) of the inner part of the littoral plain; and (3) restinga forest, a low to medium-tall forest, with a composition very different from the slopes of the Serra do Mar. The other formations that occur in the "restinga", a littoral sandy plain c. 40 km in extent (Silva and Leito-Filho 1982), are: (1) restinga closed scrub, a low to tall and very dense evergreen scrub forest; (2) restinga open scrub ("nhundu"), composed of evergreen shrubs and low twisted trees; and (3) herbaceous beach vegetation, closed to sparse evergreen grass-herb fields covering the low dunes and beaches (Hueck 1955). The mangrove vegetation is an evergreen low forest, or low to tall and closed scrub, of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa and Hibiscus pernambucensis, usually with distinct boundaries between it and the restinga forest. The flora of Brazil's Atlantic Coast forest is incompletely known, with new species and even new genera being discovered. Random samples of the moist forest indicate significant endemism, which has been estimated as 53.5% among tree species (Mori et al. 1983) and 37.5% in non-arborescent families - or 74.4% including Bromeliaceae. Endemism of palms is a rather high 64%, with 49 species endemic to the Atlantic coastal forests; 11 are considered threatened. Endemism for bamboo genera has been estimated at 40.9%; the region has been a refuge for various primitive species of bambusoid grasses and some woody groups (Soderstrom and Calderón 1974). The isolation of the Atlantic forest from Amazonia took place in the late Tertiary, which explains why this region has many plant species in common with the Amazon, but also many endemics. A Flora of the Serra da Juréia is in preparation. Preliminary results on the slope forest indicate the presence of 76 families of dicotyledons, 21 of monocotyledons and 14 of ferns and fern allies; c. 500-600 species are estimated for the region. The canopy varies in height from 20-30 m, with emergents reaching 35 m. The families most numerous in tree species are Myrtaceae (18 spp.), Leguminosae (16), Melastomataceae (10) and Annonaceae (9). The shrub layer varies in height from 2 m to 5 m, and is distinguished by many species of Rubiaceae (15), Acanthaceae (9), Piperaceae (5), Rutaceae (5) and Myrtaceae (5). The tree and shrub layers also contain a wide diversity of lianas, creepers and epiphytes. Among the epiphytes, most of the species are in Orchidaceae, Bromeliaceae, Araceae and Gesneriaceae or ferns, whereas most lianas and vines are in Compositae, Malpighiaceae and Bignoniaceae. Results of a three-year inventory programme confirm the wealth of the flora and a number of facts point to the importance of its conservation: the occurrence of rare species (known from few specimens), such as Passiflora watsoniana and Piper bowei; the occurrence of species with disjunct distributions, such as Loreya spruceana (Melastomataceae), known from the Amazon region; a large number of saprophytes of the families Orchidaceae, Burmanniaceae, Gentianaceae, and Triuridaceae (so uncommon in herbarium collections); and the discovery of new species - Anthurium jureianum (Araceae) and others not yet described in Sinningia (Gesneriaceae), Merostachys (Poaceae - Bambusoideae), Sorocea (Moraceae) and Barbacenia (Velloziaceae). The region includes important reserves of timber, such as Ocotea spp., Nectandra spp. ("canelas, niúva, sassafrás"), Macrosamanea pedicellaris ("timboúva"), Hymenaea courbaril ("jatobá"), Cariniana estrellensis ("jequitibá"), Cabralea canjerana ("canjerana"), Tabebuia cassinoides ("caxeta"); fibres, such as Eriotheca pentaphylla ("ouvira"), Bactris setosa ("tucum"), Hibiscus pernambucensis; and edible plants, such as Euterpe edulis (palm heart), Psidium cattleianum ("araçá"), Rheedia gardneriana ("bacupari"). These resources were traditionally used by local people, but this usage is now prohibited by environmental legislation. Most of the inhabitants in the region ("caiçaras") have a rich pharmacopoeia based mostly on medicinal plants. Species used include Psidium guajava ("goiaba"), P. cattleianum and Solanum inaequale ("quina-branca") for diarrhoea; Renealmia petasites ("capitiu") for malaria; Rheedia pachiptera ("bálsamo") and Struthanthus spp. ("enxertinho") for external wounds; Aphelandra ornata ("erva-de-lagarto") for snake bite; and Casearia sylvestris ("erva-de-macaco") and Bactris sp. ("tucum-branco") for bruises (Born, Diniz and Rossi 1989). Studies begun during the last four years will certainly reveal more species with medicinal properties. Social and environmental values Despite its status as an Ecological Station, Juréia is inhabited by 365 families of caiçaras, the descendants of an old Amerindian-European mixture, who are grouped in 22 villages or live in widely isolated huts along the beaches and rivers (Por and Imperatriz-Fonseca 1984). There is just one small fishing community, at the mouth of the Una do Prelado River. The government of São Paulo State has a plan for management of the station, to make possible the maintenance of the communities with minimal disturbance to the environment, and intends to eradicate almost all banana plantations and insure forest regeneration. Geographical isolation has helped to allow persistence of sites of historical interest, such as the Caminho do Imperador (Imperial Highway), which was opened in 1545 at the behest of the Governor General of the province to link the townships of Cananéia and Iguape with São Vicente. The road is still used by local people, mostly for religious pilgrimages. The region has been used for ecological tourism on account of its scenic beauty and the presence of several threatened species of animals and plants. Routine tourism occurs at only a few sites such as Cachoeira do Paraíso, yet brings a considerable number of people to the region each year. The Serra da Juréia is particularly useful for research on speciation because of its natural isolation from the rest of the Atlantic forest. In the long run, the greatest economic value of the Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station may be the preservation of a good sample of Atlantic forest biodiversity, allowing for studies and sustainable exploitation of indigenous species in the future. Other uses include the academic training of scientists and environmental education through ecological tourism. The forest has undergone relatively few disturbances, mainly from agriculture (banana plantations) developed in the lowlands more intensively in the past, before establishment of the Ecological Station. Despite its isolation, hunting and logging do occur. Nowadays the area is threatened mostly by palm-heart gatherers. The natural conservation of the region can be explained by its isolation. The mountains of the Juréia-Itatins massif make access to c. 40 km of restinga impossible by road. The area has thus been preserved over the years. On 8 April 1958, State Decree No. 31,650 created Serra dos Itatins Reserva Florestal Estadual (State Forest Reserve). On 28 January 1963, SD No. 41,538 turned the area of the Serra dos Itatins over to the Guaraní Amerindians. In 1979 the Secretaria Especial do Meio Ambiente (an agency of the federal government) was granted an area in the Juréia massif, where a Biological Reserve was created. In 1980 the president signed a decree whereby 236 km² of Juréia were disappropriated and could not be used for construction of two nuclear power plants (Iguape I and II); in 1985 the idea of constructing the power plants and the area were abandoned by the federal government. On 20 January 1986, the state government of São Paulo created the Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station by SD No. 24,646. On 28 April 1987, the government approved Law No. 5649, whereby the EEJI actual area of 792 km² was defined (indigenous and other lands were excluded). The region is now an official ecological sanctuary. Juréia provides protection for example for timber species and palmito palm, and dozens of rare and threatened mammal and bird species, including spider monkey, jaguar, otter, capybara and tinamou. Map 53. Juréia-Itatins Ecological Station, South-eastern Brazil (CPD Site SA17) Born, G.C.C., Diniz, P.S.N.B. and Rossi, L. (1989). Levantamento etnofarmacológico e etnobotânico nas comunidades da Cachoeira do Guilherme e parte do Rio Comprido (sítio Ribeirão Branco sítio Morrote de Fora) da Estação Ecológica de Juréia-Itatins, Iguape, São Paulo. Secretaria do Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, São Paulo. 94 pp. Camargo, J.C.G., Pinto, S.A.F. and Troppmair, H. (1972). Estudo fitogeográfico e ecológico da bacia hidrográfica paulista do Rio da Ribeira. Biogeografia, Inst. Geogr., Univ. So Paulo 5: 1-30. Capobianco, J.P. (1988). Juréia. Horizonte Geográfico 1(2): 30-39. Coutinho, L.M. (1962). Contribuiço ao conhecimento da mata pluvial tropical. Bol. Fac. Filos. Ciênc. Letr., Univ. So Paulo 257, Botânica 18: 12-19. Eiten, G. (1970). A vegetação do estado de São Paulo. Bol. Inst. Bot. 7: 11-47. Hueck, K. (1955). Plantas e formaço organogênica das dunas do litoral paulista. Parte 1. Instituto de Botânica, Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado de São Paulo. 130 pp. Mori, S.A., Boom, B.M., Carvalho, A.M. de and Santos, T.S. dos (1983). Southern Bahian moist forests. Bot. Rev. 49: 155-232. Por, F.D. (1986). Stream type diversity in the Atlantic lowland of the Juréia area (subtropical Brazil). Hydrobiologia 131: 39-45. Por, F.D. and Imperatriz-Fonseca, V.L. (1984). The Juréia Ecological Reserve, São Paulo, Brazil facts and plans. Environm. Conserv. 11: 67-70. Por, F.D., Shimizu, G.Y., Almeida-Por, M.S., Tôha, F.A.L. and Rocha Oliveira, I. (1984). The blackwater river estuary of Rio Una do Prelado (São Paulo, Brazil): preliminary hydrobiological data. Rev. Hydrobiol. Trop. 17: 245-258. Silva, A.F. da and Leitão Filho, H.F. (1982). Composição florística e estrutura de um trecho da Mata Atlântica de encosta no município de Ubatuba (São Paulo, Brasil). Revista Brasil. Bot. 5: 43-52. Soderstrom, T.R. and Calderón, C.E. (1974). Primitive forest grasses and evolution of the Bambusoideae. Biotropica 6: 141-153. Tôha, F.A.L. (1985). Ecologia de zoopláncton do estuário do Rio Una do Prelado (São Paulo, Brasil). Ph.D. thesis, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo. This Data Sheet was written by Dra. Maria Candida H. Mamede, Dra. Inês Cordeiro and Lucia Rossi (Secretaria de Estado do Meio Ambiente, Instituto de Botânica, Caixa Postal 4005, 01061-970 São Paulo, SP, Brazil). North | Middle | South Botany Home Page | Smithsonian Home Page

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Many of you have probably heard about asteroid 2005 YU55, the massive rocky body that tomorrow night will collide with Earth in a ball of flames pass the planet safely, albeit closer than any asteroid in the last 35 years. And while astronomers are certain we'll be spared this time, the brush with such a massive rock raises important questions about so-called near-Earth objects like asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. So without further ado, here are ten things you probably didn't know about our solar system's more minor bodies. 10. The difference between asteroids, comets, meteoroids, meteors and meteorites Let's just get this out of the way, shall we? According to NASA's Near Earth Object (NEO) Program, a large, rocky body in orbit around the Sun is referred to as either an asteroid or a minor planet. Asteroids are thought to have been created in the "warmer" solar system, i.e. within Jupiter's orbit. Comets, on the other hand, are believed to have formed in the cold, outer solar system — beyond the orbit of our solar system's outermost planets. Comets and asteroids also differ in composition, the most notable difference being the comet's possession of an icy nucleus, which, when subjected to the relatively warmer temperatures of the inner solar system, begins to vaporize, creating a distinctive glow called a "coma," and a long, bright tail of dust and debris. There are other features that distinguish asteroids and comets, but recent findings continue to blur the lines between the two. Smaller Sun-orbiting particles, thought to originate from comets and asteroids, are known as meteoroids. When a meteoroid enters Earth's atmosphere, it usually vaporizes, becoming a meteor in the process (aka a "shooting star"). If a meteoroid is large enough to make it through Earth's atmo and make landfall without vaporizing completely, it's no longer a meteor, but a meteorite. The same goes for asteroids. (For more info, see NASA's NEO FAQ page, which is also the source of the handy chart featured here.) 9. Meteoroids: there's a lot of them Seeing as a meteoroid can be classified as pretty much anything bigger than a speck of dust and smaller than an asteroid, it makes sense that there would be quite a few of them orbiting the Sun and burning up in Earth's atmo at any given moment. The International Space Station, for example is the most heavily shielded spacecraft ever to occupy Earth's orbit. Why? To keep its astronauts and equipment safe from meteoroids. It's estimated that 100,000 of the buggers will make contact with the ISS over the course of its 20-year stint in space, and while the majority of these wont measure larger than a centimeter across, medium size particles (between 1cm and 10cm across) still pose a grave threat to the space station and its crew, and call for impressive sounding defensive measures like "multi-layered hypervelocity Whipple shields." (For more info on the safety measures employed on the International Space Station, see this informational sheet prepared by NASA's Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Protection program.) 8. Your odds of getting smacked by a meteorite They're slim, even if Earth is constantly being bombarded by meteoroids. The fact is that most of them simply don't survive long enough once breaking atmo to attain meteorite status, and those that do have barely any chance of actually hitting anybody. Such an event is only confirmed to have happened once, when Annie Hodges of Sylacauga, Alabama (pictured here) was struck in the hip by an eight pound meteorite after it crashed through her roof and bounced off a radio. Several studies have attempted to calculate the likelihood of a meteorite actually hitting a human target, taking into consideration everything from the average time a person spends outside to the amount of Earth's surface that the average person takes up. One of the most commonly cited figures is from a paper published in Nature in 1985, that calculates the rate of impacts to humans as .005 per year, or once every 180 years. 7. Why you need a telescope to spot 2005 YU55 YU55 is what's known as a C-type — or "carbonaceous" — asteroid, meaning it is especially rich in carbon. The composition of C-type asteroids makes them extremely dark (think darker than charcoal), and therefore difficult to spot with anything weaker than a telescope with at least a 6" mirror. (For those of you with scopes with this much imaging power, be sure to check our instructional on how to spot 2005 YU55 tomorrow night.) 6. 2005 YU55 could help us learn more about Panspermia Panspermia is the hypothesis that the building blocks for life are found throughout the universe, and are carried around on asteroids, comets and the like. If you've ever heard someone say that life on Earth may have come from space, they were probably talking about Panspermia (or the related astrobiological hypothesis of exogenesis). According to Dan Yeomans, manager of NASA's Near-Earth Object Program, the 2005 YU55 flyby presents a unique opportunity to learn about C-type asteroids, without which, Yeoman speculates, humans probably wouldn't exist. Since we rarely get an opportunity to see an asteroid so close (the last time we saw an asteroid like this so close to home was over 30 years ago), astronomers and astrophysicists the world over will be observing the asteroid to learn as much as possible about its composition. Objects like 2005 YU55 play an important part in the Panspermia hypothesis for their role in bringing carbon-based materials to a young Earth. If astronomers were to observe evidence that 2005 YU55 also harbors other organic materials (or even frozen water — see the note above about blurring the lines between asteroids and comets), it would go a long way in supporting the Panspermia hypothesis. 5. Getting hit by 2005 YU55 would suck Ok, so you almost definitely knew this, but just how much would it suck, exactly? After all, Yoemans says that the NASA's Near-Earth Object program is "extremely confident, 100 percent confident" that 2005 YU55 will not make contact with Earth, but that doesn't mean we can't speculate over how catastrophic it would be were the asteroid actually to hit us. Well, according to Jay Melosh, professor of Earth and atmospheric sciences at Purdue University, if 2005 YU55 were to hit the planet, it would likely produce a crater about 4 miles wide and 1700 feet deep, generating 7+ magnitude earthquakes and, depending on where it struck, devastating tsunami waves (for more info see Impact: Earth! which is based on Melosh's calculations). Again, will this actually happen? No. But observing the asteroid will help us be better prepared for when one does plot a course for Earth. As Yoeman says, "this [asteroid] is not a threat... But it is an opportunity." 4. Speaking of catastrophic Earth-asteroid impacts, aren't we about due for one of those? Maybe, but it's not likely. Some of you may have heard about an asteroid named Apophis. Astronomers believe Apophis to be 885 feet across, and estimate that on April 13, 2029, the asteroid will fly within 20,000 miles of Earth's surface — that's closer than the orbit of many of the planet's satellites. Astronomers are confident that Apophis will spare us on its 2029 flyby, but say that there is a 1/250,000 chance that it will pass through a "gravitational keyhole" that would set the asteroid on course for a future planetary impact exactly 7 years later. Could it happen? Yes. Is it likely? No. ...But it could totally happen. 3. But Michael Bay told me we could deflect an incoming asteroid with nuclear weapons... we can do that, right? Actually, yes. Back in 2007, NASA issued a report claiming that the best way to deflect asteroids and other near Earth objects away from Earth was with the use of nuclear devices... in space. Except NASA wouldn't do it by planting it in the asteroid's core, ala Armageddon, they'd do it by triggering the explosion in the vicinity of the asteroid. The power of the explosion would amounts to a nuclear-bomb-sized "nudge" capable of throwing the Asteroid off-course and preventing a collision with Earth. 2. We can even "finesse" an asteroid off a collision course with Earth. That is to say, WITHOUT the use of nuclear explosions... ...because some people think the idea of "weaponizing" space isn't such a good idea, chief among them being the group of astronauts and scientists comprising The B612 Foundation (The Little Prince, anyone?). One of the methods of deflection proposed by The B612 Foundation is to launch a probe of significant mass (weighing 1—2 tons, but depending upon the size of the asteroid) and "parking" it in space — not on the asteroid, but near it. The gravity of the asteroid would pull on the probe, but the mass of the probe would be just enough to pull ever so slightly on the asteroid, as well. If we were to move the probe very slowly with jet propulsion, we could, in theory, gently tug on the asteroid, "finessing" it into a safe orbit. (For more details on this approach, check out this brilliant TED talk on asteroids and the technologies we can use to deflect them away from Earth, delivered earlier this year by Bad Astronomy's Phil Plait at TEDxBoulder. 1. We have found almost all of the asteroids that pose a threat to Earth. We think. Recent findings from NASA's WISE satellite indicate that there are actually far fewer asteroids and near-Earth objects threatening life on Earth than we once thought. What's more, the so called "Near-Earth Asteroid Census" found that 90 percent of NEOs have now been mapped, which should allow us to keep an eye on them in the event one decides to make a bee-line for Earth.

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Methyl bromide is an important part of ornamental production. The combination of methyl bromide and chloropicrin has long been used to control weeds, nematodes and plant pathogens like Pythium. The majority of this fumigant is used for strawberries, fruit trees and vegetables in Florida and California, but there is a substantial amount of the product used in floriculture production. Some industries have found acceptable alternatives over the past five years and no longer use methyl bromide. Floriculture has been struggling to find an acceptable alternative. The production of field-grown cut flowers, some in-ground shade house flowers and caladiums rely on availability of methyl bromide (MBr) for economically acceptable crops. I have even met a few greenhouse growers who still use soil as a part of their potting medium and fumigate the resulting blend with MBr before use. The California Cut Flower Commission (CCFC) took the lead in funding research on MBr alternatives in ornamental production in the early 1990s. Research has involved everything from alternative fumigants; solarization; treatment of soil with steam, microwaves or UV rays; soil fertility; and amendment with green manures and biological agents. Current alternative fumigants are 1, 3-D (Telone), chloropicrin and metam sodium (Vapam), which can be applied alone and in combination. In some cases, application through drip irrigation systems has been developed with excellent results. In addition, the use of granular Basamid has been researched extensively, often in conjunction with Telone or chloropicrin. Much of the new research sponsored by the California Cut Flower industry has concentrated on weed control. Research on Fusarium wilt fungi (on mini-carnations and bulbs such as Dutch iris) and nematodes is also ongoing. Some of the key crops in these trials have been ranunculus, gladiolus, callas lilies, delphiniums and stock. Although MBr is used in saran houses in both California and Florida, the bulk of the product is used in field production, and therefore, much of the research has been done in the field. In the early 1990s, a group of scientists at the University of California, led by Dr. Jim Sims (UC-Riverside) started extensive research into the use of methyl iodide (MI) as a replacement for MBr. Their results were very encouraging, but it was not until 1999 that Arvesta (formerly Tomen-Agro) began to develop MI as a new product. Arvesta has continued research into MI (trade name will be Midas), and a label was submitted to the EPA a little over a year ago. The initial label will include bulbs and ornamentals, as well as tomatoes, peppers and strawberries. Midas is a liquid at room temperature, making it a little safer to handle than MBr (gaseous at room temperature). It also has a much shorter half-life than MBr and is unlikely to damage the ozone layer since it falls apart before it can reach the ozone. Midas can be applied through a drip irrigation system, making it more flexible in use patterns than MBr. It has much the same spectrum of activity -- works on weeds, nematodes and fungal pathogens and appears to remain in the soil longer than MBr, again because it is a liquid at room temperature. When fields are planted too quickly after pulling the plastic used in Midas application, some toxicity has been reported. Many other alternatives are being researched at this time, including sodium azide. This poison as been around for at least 50 years but has no agricultural uses at this time. In fact, development of sodium azide was probably curtailed when MBr became widely available in the 1970s. Under some conditions, sodium azide explodes, which can obviously be a problem with its usage. Presently, there are two companies developing a liquid sodium azide. The first is American Pacific, which is working with Auburn University. The second is Cal-Agri Products. Trials with these newer experimental formulations have had mixed results in both California and Florida, but research continues. An annual MBr alternatives meeting provides a forum for the many USDA, university and private researchers to exchange ideas, report results and learn the latest in the political arena. For 2003, the meeting will be held in San Diego in November and will rotate to Orlando the following year. Over the past two years, Chase Research Gardens has been helping out with some MBr alternative trials for cut flower production. Many of the trials we visited in 2001 and 2002 were conducted by Dr. Clyde Elmore, a recently retired weed scientist from the University of California-Davis. Clyde has been conducting trials at The Flower Fields (Carlsbad, Calif.) in cooperation with Mellano and Company. One of the trials was designed to evaluate Iodomethane (Midas) in a 50:50 combination with chloropicrin. Treatments were shank applied and tarped. Two rates were compared to a MBr/chloropicrin standard at 350 lbs per acre and an untreated control. We have also rated the trials periodically, and some of the results from this year's trials are presented in Figure 1, left. Compared to the tarped-only control, plant vigor (rated on a scale from 1 [dead] to 5 [excellent]) was better for all fumigated plots on both the March 18 and the April 4 evaluations. The degree of flowering was also evaluated and looked identical to vigor for the April 4 rating. All fumigant treatments were very effective in killing last year's white flower seed, compared to the tarped-only control. Those that did grow were on bed ends where the fumigant concentration was apparently too low for 100-percent kill. On April 22, 2003, the Pythium severity of each plot was rated using the following scale: 1 = none, 2 = few plants with wilting or stunting, 3 = up to 25 percent of plants dead and/or showing wilting and stunting, 4 = 26-50 percent of plants showing wilting and stunting or dead and missing, and 5 = more than 75 percent of plants in plots missing or showing wilting and stunting. Disease was moderate in the control plot, but both Midas/chloropicrin (300 lbs.) and MBr/chloropicrin (350 lbs.) had little if any disease apparent. However, the higher rate of Midas/chloropicrin showed slight disease or at least what appears to be disease. It is possible that the wilting and yellowing typical of Pythium are due to some other factor in this Dr. Elmore has been working with Glad-A-Way (one of the world's largest producers of gladiolus) in Santa Maria, Calif., as well. Last fall a trial was run using Midas and chloropicrin (33:67, 50:50 and 67:33) applied at 300 lbs. per acre compared to MBr and chloropicrin in a 50:50 mix applied at 350 lbs. per acre and an untreated control. Dr. Elmore's weed data showed excellent results with Midas when it was used at 50 or 67 percent of the fumigant mix but slightly reduced control when used at only 33 percent. The ability of these mixtures to kill cormlets from previous crops was also shown. The image above shows an untreated area with many cormlets (new gladiolus propagules) growing between the rows. The other image above shows the ability of Midas and chloropicrin to kill these weed cormlets when used at 50 or 67 percent of the fumigant mix. A second gladiolus trial at the same site, compared Vapam and Basamid combined with Inline (a mixture of 1, 3-D and chloropicrin) to an untreated control and to an experimental formulation of sodium azide. Sodium azide was very effective in killing many of the weeds that were present but not as effective in killing the cormlets (40-percent kill). All three of the commercial alternatives were very effective in weed control, as well as cormlet eradication. Other similar trials showed the benefit of adding Inline treatments to either Vapam or Basamid to reduce weeds. One final set of trials has recently been completed by Dr. Elmore working with Ano Nuevo Flowers (located just north of Santa Cruz, Calif.). One of his trials at this site evaluated a 50:50 mixture of Midas and chloropicrin used at 100, 200 or 300 lbs. per acre. These treatments were compared to an untreated but tarped control. In addition, a virtually impermeable film (VIF) was compared to the normal high density (HD) plastic. Along with weed count data, Dr. Elmore calculated the costs of hand weeding each treatment. Figure 3, page 45 shows that under the HD plastic 300 lbs. per acre of Midas:chloropicrin was needed to achieve the same level of control as 200 lbs. per acre under the VIF. These data are critical to our success in using Midas once it is legal. Dr. Husein Ajwa (chemist, University of California-Davis) has been instrumental in setting up several drip applied trials with Dr. Elmore. This year's trial at The Flower Fields included the same treatments described above and also accounted for occurrence of white flowers and weeds (see Figure 2, page 45). Applications were made late fall 2002. We again rated vigor on March 18 and April 4. All drip applied products significantly reduced the severity of Pythium compared to the control. Chloropicrin (300 lbs.) and both Inline treatments (at 150 and 300 lbs.) showed no signs of Pythium at this rating. The 150-lb. chloropicrin rate and the Midas/chloropicrin treatments had very few diseased plants. Sodium azide had an overall rating of about 2 (slight disease) that was mainly affected by a single replicate with higher than average disease expression (for that treatment). This may have been due to differences in application efficiency, soil conditions or even distribution of the naturally occurring Pythium inoculum. The Vapam treatment was less effective than the others at this rating. All drip-applied products reduced the number of white flowers that grew from last year's crop. In many treatments, the white flowers were on bed shoulders, indicating that the products had not reached the entire bed as applied. Lowest counts of white flowers occurred in Metam, Midas/chloropicrin and the 300-lb. rate of chloropicrin. At this point, it appears that there will be a number of alternatives for MBr for control of weeds and diseases on cut flowers. Products such as Vapam, Basamid, Telone and Inline can each be valuable tools, especially when used in conjunction with each other. Although Midas looks like a very good product, we cannot use it yet, and learning the correct application ratio (with chloropicrin) and rate per acre will be critical to insure a safe and successful fumigation. I have not covered many of the truly experimental products that are being researched at this time. They are in various stages of development, and none look to be as promising yet as Midas. I want to thank the California Cut Flower Commission and the Society of American Florists (on behalf of the Florida growers) for the opportunity to work on this critical topic with them. As the deadline approaches for complete Methyl Bromide phase-out, more research is proving the efficacy of replacements.

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Forest and illegal logging News (update April 2011) - 15-17/03/2011 Fifth negotiation session with Liberia - 15-17/02/2011 First negotiation session with DRC - 19/01/11 Consents of the European Parliament to the conclusion of the FLEGT agreements with Congo and with Cameroon - 12-14/01/11 FLEGT 6th Annual Coordination meeting (Final Report , Final Projects Handbook ) - 21/12/10 Initialing of the FLEGT agreement with the Central African Republic - 24/09/10 1st round of negotiations with Gabon Illegal logging – issues A major problem for many timber-producing developing countries, illegal logging: - causes environmental damage - costs governments billions of dollars in lost revenue - promotes corruption - undermines the rule of law and good governance - and in some places has financed armed conflict. Consumer countries contribute to these problems by importing timber and wood products without ensuring they are legally sourced. In recent years, however, producer and consumer countries alike have paid increasing attention to illegal logging. EU response – FLEGT action plan The FLEGT action plan – adopted in 2003 – combines measures in producer and consumer countries to facilitate trade in legal timber and eliminate illegal timber trading with the EU, through measures such as: - support for timber–producing countries - activities to promote trade in legal timber - promoting ethical public procurement policies FLEGT licensed timber and EU Member State Procurement Policies - support for private-sector initiatives to promote corporate social responsibility - safeguards for financing and investment - use of existing legislative instruments or adoption of new laws to support the plan - addressing the problem of conflict timber. Commission action: voluntary partnership agreements (VPAs) A VPA is a WTO-compatible trade agreement between a producer country and the EU to work together to stop illegal logging. Although voluntary, VPAs are legally-binding on the 2 parties, once agreed. Goals of VPAs - policy and legal reform - governance and transparency - capacity building - improve control, track & verify legal compliance - better capture revenues and rents - secure & improve market share VPAs incorporate a national legality assurance system that: - defines what constitutes legal timber - verifies compliance with this definition - traces products from forest to export - licenses exports, to provide assurance to markets - independently checks all elements of the system In each country, the VPA will need to take account of the inherent national differences in forest governance issues, forest-related legislation, the nature of forest and land rights, the nature of timber trade, current forest sector initiatives and the capacity to implement agreements. In some developing countries, meeting these commitments will require considerable institutional strengthening and capacity building. VPAs will identify areas where there is a need for technical and financial assistance. Series of briefing notes explain the EU's expectations for Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPAs): - What is a Voluntary Partnership Agreement ? The European Union approach - briefing nr 3 (2009) - Forest Law, Enforcement and Trade : the European Union approach – briefing nr 2 (2008) - What is FLEGT? - What is legal timber? - A timber legality assurance system - Control of the supply chain - Legality assurance systems: requirements for verification - Voluntary Partnership Agreements - Guidelines for independent monitoring Countries with VPAs - Ghana ( latest press release, September 2008 / Ghana VPA, November 2009 / VPA July 2011) - Republic of Congo ( latest press release, May 2009 ) - Cameroon ( Conclusions of negotiations - 6 May 2010 , Information note ) - Central African Republic ( Information Note ) The agreements are being ratified and the legality assurance systems developed. First FLEGT licence expected by 2011. Countries currently negotiating - Liberia: The 5th negotiation session, March 2011 - Republic Democratic of Congo ( Signed joint declaration / First negotiation session 15-17/02/2011 , Negotiation roadmap ) - Gabon: Summary of the 1st negotiation session / Common declaration for FLEGT negotiations opening Lessons learnt from negotiations - Negotiations provide a platform to address difficult forest governance issues, clarify legal framework and improve technical systems - Time-bound, output-oriented stakeholder engagement helps foster understanding between stakeholders and make major, practical changes to VPAs - Bilateral negotiation dynamic can help build country ownership of results - EU regulation 2173/2005 for FLEGT licensing scheme (OJ L347 of 30 December 2005 ) - Implementation rules - FLEGT licensing of timber imports to EU (2008) Due diligence for timber products Action is needed to tackle timber trade with countries that have not signed VPAs, since the FLEGT licensing scheme doesn’t deal directly with this. To further support FLEGT, the Commission and EU governments have examined other options. A public consultation canvassed views on how to combat illegal logging and especially prevent the EU being a market for such timber. A new regulation (2010) The European Parliament and the Council have adopted a new regulation: Regulation (EU) No 995/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 October 2010 laying down the obligations of operators who place timber and timber products on the market. (OJ L295/23 of 12 November 2010 ) This regulation introduces 3 obligations: - Prohibition of placing illegal timber on the EU market - Use of Due Diligence systems to ascertain that products are legal - Apply traceability systems Timber from VPA countries will be considered legal, and traders will not have to implement specific due diligence measures. This provides an incentive for timber-producing countries to sign VPAs. Regional forest law enforcement Regional initiatives have led to ministerial declarations in: There are also regional processes in: - Central Africa (COMIFAC) and (OFAC) - Caribbean and Latin America (Puembo initiative) - East Africa (2005 - EAC protocol on Environment and natural resources management article 11 ) Those processes have created political support for forest governance reform initiatives linking producer and consumer countries, and in some cases have led to voluntary partnership agreements. Regional timber studies - Central Africa - cross-border timber flows in COMIFAC (2008) ( Summary , full report annexes ) - West Africa - timber flows between Guinea and Nigeria (2008) ( final report Commission action: support to FLEGT projects Activities to implement the FLEGT action plan are financed through: European Development Fund - FLEGT-related projects or support programmes under national indicative programmes (in Ghana, Cameroon, Congo, Indonesia...) - FLEGT support project for ACP countries (managed by FAO) EU environment and natural resources programme (development aid) - EFI FLEGT facility (European Forest Institute) - Numerous forest governance pilot projects with NGOs and private associations (covering advocacy and capacity building, support for private sector, support for FLEGT processes, research and analytical forest governance projects) 6th annual coordination meeting 12-14/01/2011 - European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument FLEGT & climate change (REDD) Tropical deforestation and forest degradation are responsible for almost 20% of global carbon emissions. In the framework of the Climate negotiations, REDD stands for "reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation". Some REDD actions support necessary policy and governance reforms. Sources of additional information on external websites:

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From Sustainable Development To Green Economy – What Does This Mean For Women? FRIDAY FILE: Twenty years after the first United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) that took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 it is clear that governments have failed to implement development models that are socially just and environmentally sustainable. It is in the context of revision of the of sustainable development framework that Rio+20 will take place. This article is part of a series of Friday Files to explore some of the issues and debates related to the AWID 2012 Forum theme and draw the connections between women’s rights issues and economic power. For more information related to the planet and ecological health click here. By Diana Aguiar In 1983 in response to the growing evidence of an ecological crisis, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly created the World Commission on Environment and Development to analyze the environmental situation and its relationship with development. In 1987 it presented recommendations for action in a report called “Our Common Future”, better known as the Brundtland Report. This report later became the basis for the negotiations of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) that took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Also known as the Earth Summit, UNCSD was a landmark UN conference of the 1990s, and a key process in shaping the international order in the post-Cold War era. Agenda 21, the resulting document of the Earth Summit, became the reference to the debate on sustainable development. From Sustainable Development to Green Economy Arguably one of the most important issues at stake now (as was the case then) is the question of the (in) compatibility of a development model based on growth with the goal of environmental sustainability. With over 50 years of international cooperation for development, the idea of development, together with human rights, has become one of the defining values of our times. It is the basis of policies and political agendas and has been used to justify revolutions and market conservatism alike. However, with the increasing prevalence of ecological disasters, such as those related to climate change, and growing scarcity of resources, the limits of the planet to sustain a development model based on growth were apparent then and continue to be so now. The Brundtland Report established “sustainable development” as one of the key concepts in terms of reenergizing the idea of development. Sustainable development was defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" and was based on "interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars" of economic development, social development, and environmental protection. However, critics argued that the report failed to acknowledge the need to rethink the logic of capital accumulation inherent in a model of development that has growth as the key objective. This model of development is based on the assumption that growth will naturally trickle down, ultimately reducing poverty. But accumulated experience has shown that – left only to the market – growth will not result in increased social, gender or race equality. In addition economic growth has often been based on the overconsumption of a few and the underconsumption of the majority. Instead of thinking of redistribution, this mainstream development model places the level of consumption by the elite as the goal for all, when we know this is unsustainable given the limited resources of our planet. In this framework, economic growth remains the goal, even though overproduction failed to lessen inequalities, has not led to redistribution, has further depleted natural resources and increased pollution, waste, etc. and global warming; leading our planet to a deadlock. Twenty years later, with clear shortcomings in the “sustainable” nature of the model, the Rio+20 process is again failing to recognize the limits of unrestricted faith in economic growth as the means for development. In fact, a new concept is being put forward as an answer to the environment/development-as-growth dilemma: Green Economy. What is Green Economy? The concept of green economy has created a lot of buzz, although many argue the concept is still “under construction”. According to its defenders, such as the EU, the US and UN agencies, it does not replace sustainable development, but is rather a means to achieve it. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has put a lot of effort in defining green economy in its 600 page report titled “Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication”. It defines “green economy [a]s one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive." An analysis by the Transnational Institute states, that “according to the UNEP, through a transition to the green economy it will be possible to re-launch the global economy with rates of growth far higher than the current model. It will be possible to create more and better employment, reduce poverty, reach greater levels of equality, meet the millennium objectives, and all in a sustainable way, recognizing the value of nature and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This would reduce pressure on the natural environment, allowing it to recover, while, at the same time, creating new and profitable areas of investment that will enable global capital to escape from the crisis and increase its profits.” If it sounds too good to be true that’s because it is. UNEP’s report on the green economy is based on the rejection of what it calls a myth of the dilemma between economic progress and environmental sustainability. It says that current multiples crises (financial, food, water, energy, environment and economic recession) were caused by “misallocation of capital” towards economic activities that are carbon intensive as opposed to “renewable energy, energy efficiency, public transportation, sustainable agriculture, ecosystem and biodiversity protection, and land and water conservation”. This misallocation of capital is seen as a “market failure” due to “faulty information” and inadequate public policies to incorporate the environmental costs of economic activities. The answer, they propose is “adequate” policies to increase access to information to markets to raise incentives to redirect allocation of capital from “brown investments” to “green investments and green innovations”. The report insists on the idea that a green economy will actually allow for higher growth rates, as long as markets perceive “green investments” as financially profitable, thus placing environmental sustainability under the neoliberal value of profit maximization. This is the logic behind one of the main (and much critiqued) instruments of the new “green deal”: carbon markets and the market-based Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+). But these arguments fail to recognize that decisions made by transnational corporations are often based on short-term profit maximization, not on lack of information regarding “green investments”. As Rio+20 draws closer, and the green economy framework is defined in those terms, it is likely that we will see an outcome document that only reinforces the contradictions of current mainstream model of development based on unrestricted faith on growth as the means to reach social and gender equality and environmental sustainability. Women’s and social movements engagement in Rio+20 Given what is at stake, Rio+20 has become the key process for social movements in 2012. The Women’s Major Group (WMG) has been the formal women’s platform following the official negotiations processes. In the most recent Rio+20 Intersessional, Anita Nayar from DAWN delivered the address from the WMG, raising the lack of reference to women in the current inter-governmental process, in contrast to 1992 UNCSD’s Agenda 21, which noted that gender must be cross-cutting. The WMG’s submission also argues for the need to “realize that limitless economic growth does not equate with wellbeing or sustainability” and therefore, there is the need for indicators that would lead to the recognition of “the unequal and unfair burden that women carry in sustaining collective well-being”, as well as recovering the consensus that “the major cause of the continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable patterns of consumption and production, particularly in industrialized countries, which are a matter of grave concern and aggravate poverty and imbalances”. Furthermore, the WMG called for a “universal social protection floor” and the monitoring, regulating and holding accountable of corporations for “their ecologically and socially unsustainable practices”. The local committee organizing the Rio+20 People’s Summit is leading broad-based mobilizations by social movements. The Thematic Social Forum that took place in Porto Alegre from 24-29 January 2012 was a key moment for linking the various struggles of resistance to the neoliberal market-based model of development occurring throughout the world - from the Arab Spring, Indignados movements, Occupy Wall Street, mobilizations against Free Trade Agreements, against G20 agreements, and broadly the resistances to false market solutions (from REDD+ to biofuels and GMOs, etc.) to ecological crises. In January 2012, the zero draft of the negotiating text came out. It reflects the fears of social movements in terms of how little it provides for overcoming the failed development model. The negotiations are on course until the actual Conference in June and civil society has to move forward to do advocacy on the possible outcome document. - Let’s reinvent the world Group of Reflection and Support to the WSF Process (GRAPFSM). - Thematic Social Forum: Capitalist Crisis, Social and Environmental Justice. - Women’s major group position paper in preparation of the “Rio+20” United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development 2012. A Gender Perspective on the "Green Economy": Equitable, healthy and decent jobs and livelihoods. UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, p16 Edgardo Lander, “The Green Economy: the Wolf in Sheep’s clothing”. Transnational Institute (TNI), 2011, p4 Ibid p5

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The Landsat program is the longest running enterprise for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space. The first Landsat satellite was launched in 1972; the most recent, Landsat 7, was launched on April 15, 1999. The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the United States and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research and applications in agriculture, cartography, geology, forestry, regional planning, surveillance, education and national security. Landsat 7 data has eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from 15 to 60 meters. The initial centerline for the primary layout of the MSS was drawn by Jim Kodak, the opto-mechanical design engineer who designed the Pioneer spacecraft optical camera, the first instrument to leave the solar system. The program was called the Earth Resources Observation Satellites Program when it was initiated in 1966, but the name was changed to Landsat in 1975. In 1979, Presidential Directive 54 under President of the United States Jimmy Carter transferred Landsat operations from NASA to NOAA, recommended development of long term operational system with four additional satellites beyond Landsat 3, and recommended transition to private sector operation of Landsat. This occurred in 1985 when the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT), a partnership of Hughes Aircraft and RCA, was selected by NOAA to operate the Landsat system under a ten year contract. EOSAT operated Landsats 4 and 5, had exclusive rights to market Landsat data, and was to build Landsats 6 and 7. In 1989, this transition had not been fully completed when NOAA's funding for the Landsat program ran out and NOAA directed that Landsats 4 and 5 be shut down, but an act of the United States Congress provided emergency funding for the rest of the year. Funding ran out again in 1990 and once again Congress provided emergency funding to NOAA for six more months of operations, requesting that agencies that used Landsat data provide the funding for the other six months of the upcoming year. The same funding problem and solution was repeated in 1991. In 1992, various efforts were made to finally procure funding for follow on Landsats and continued operations, but by the end of the year EOSAT ceased processing Landsat data. Landsat 6 was finally launched on October 5 1993, but was lost in a launch failure. Processing of Landsat 4 and 5 data was resumed by EOSAT in 1994. NASA finally launched Landsat 7 on April 15, 1999. The value of the Landsat program was recognized by Congress in October 1992 when it passed the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act (Public Law 102-555) authorizing the procurement of Landsat 7 and assuring the continued availability of Landsat digital data and images, at the lowest possible cost, to traditional and new users of the data. The Multi-Spectral-Scanner had a 9" fused silica dinner-plate mirror epoxy bonded to three invar tangent bars mounted to base of a Ni/ Au brazed Invar frame in a serreuire truss that was arranged with four "Hobbs-Links" (conceived by Dr. Gregg Hobbs) crossing at mid truss. This construct ensured the secondary mirror would simply oscillate about the primary optic axis to maintain focus despite vibration inherent from the Be scan mirror. This engineering solution allowed the US to develop LANDSAT at least five years ahead of French SPOT which first used CCD arrays to stare without need for a scanner. The MSS FPA, or Focal Plane Array consisted of 24 square optical fibers extruded down to .0002"square fiber tips in a 4x6 array to be scanned across the Nimbus spacecraft path in a +/-6 degree scan as the satellite was in a 10:30 polar orbit, hence it had to be launched from Vandenburg AFB. The fiber optic bundle was embedded in a fiber optic plate to be terminated at a relay optic device that transmitted fiber end signal on into six photodiodes and 18 photomultiplier tubes that were arrayed across a thick aluminum tool plate, with sensor weight balanced vs the telescope on opposite side. This main plate was assembled on a frame, then attached to the silver-loaded magnesium housing with helicoil fasteners. Key to MSS success was the scan monitor mounted on the underbelly of the Mg housing. It consisted of a diode source & sensor mounted at ends of four flat mirrors that were tilted so that it took 14 bounces for a beam to reflect length of the three mirrors from source to sender striking Be scan mirror seven times as it reflected seven times off the flat mirrors. It only sensed three positions, both ends of scan & the mid scan, but that was all that was required to determine where MSS was pointed and electronics scanning could be calibrated to display a map. NOAA, EOSAT ink remote sensing accord. (Earth Observation Satellite Company, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) Feb 11, 1991; *SATELLITE SPOTLIGHT: NOAA, eosat INK REMOTE SENSING ACCORD* The Earth Observation Satellite Co. (eosat) and the...

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Tongueless Frogs, AglossaDavid Cannatella This tree diagram shows the relationships between several groups of organisms. The root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the Tree of Life. The basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree. This ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups, which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right. You can click on the root to travel down the Tree of Life all the way to the root of all Life, and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the Tree of Life all the way to individual species.close box Pipids are highly aquatic frogs that rarely if ever venture out of water. They have several adaptations to aquatic life, including the loss of the tongue (tongues are not generally useful for feeding in water), and the presence of lateral line organs, which are used to detect wave motion in water (these are present in most groups of fishes). The group is sometimes called the Aglossa. Pipid frogs are found in Africa, South America, and just get into Panama. Some species in South America, such as the Surinam Toad (Pipa pipa) are extremely flattened and look like roadkills. Females of the genus Pipa have an elaborate mating behavior, in which eggs are deposited on the back of the female, and the skin swells up around the eggs to encase them in pockets in which the embryos develop. In some species the eggs hatch out as tadpoles, but in others fully formed froglets emerge from the mother's back. Tadpoles (when present) lack beaks and denticles, and have paired spiracles (if spiracles are present). This is the Orton type 1 tadpole, also found in Rhinophrynidae. There is much diversity in larval morphology and ecology in pipids. Tadpoles of Xenopus and Silurana are extremely efficient filter feeders. Tadpoles of Hymenochirus are carnivorous, eating larger prey items. In some species of Pipa the eggs (embedded in the mother's back) hatch out as tadpoles, but other species have direct development, in which froglets emerge. The genus Xenopus (African Clawed frogs) has undergone drastic evolution in chromosome number, producing tetraploid (4n), and octoploid (8n), and even dodecaploid (12n) species. These higher levels of ploidy may have resulted from hybridization of between species. One species, Xenopus laevis, is widely used as a lab animal in molecular and developmental biology. The Dwarf Clawed Frogs (Hymenochirus) are very small, about 20-30 mm, and are widely sold in aquarium stores. The call of many pipid frogs is a clicking sound, which in Xenopus borealis is produced by forcefully pulling apart the large arytenoid cartilages of the larynx (voice-box), thus producing a "pop" by implosion. The definition of the name Pipidae is problematic because of the relationships of Mesozoic and Tertiary taxa to living pipids (Báez, 1981). Báez' cladogram placed †Thoraciliacus, †Cordicephalus, †Saltenia, and †Eoxenopoides outside of the living Pipidae. She used two synapomorphies for Pipidae (including the aforementioned taxa): the absence of a quadratojugal and the absence of mentomeckelian bones. The first of these is also present in the closely related †Palaeobatrachidae, and may be diagnostic of a larger clade. Although mentomeckelians are reported in palaeobatrachids, the examination of †Palaeobatrachus fossils and figures in Spinar (1972) has not convinced Cannatella of their presence. Cannatella and Trueb (1988a) diagnosed the living Pipidae by a large number of synapomorphies including presence of an epipubis cartilage, an unpaired epipubic muscle, absence of a quadratojugal, free ribs in the larvae, a fused articulation between the coccyx and sacrum, a short, stocky scapula, elongate septomaxillary bones, ossified pubis, a single, median palatal opening of the eustachian tube, lateral line organs in the adults, and absence of a tongue. Several of these characters are present in fossil taxa, and thus may be diagnostic of larger clades. Several others cannot be assessed in fossils. By ignoring the fossils, Cannatella and Trueb (1988a) produced a diagnosis for the family that was misleading. Relationships within the living Pipidae were discussed by Báez (1981), Cannatella and de Sá (1993), Cannatella and Trueb (1988a,b), and de Sá and Hillis (1990). To ensure stability, Ford and Cannatella (1993) defined the node-based name Pipidae to be the most recent common ancestor of living pipids (Xenopus, Silurana, Hymenochirus, Pseudhymenochirus, and Pipa) and all of its descendants. Taxa considered to be fossil "pipids" (†Thoraciliacus, †Cordicephalus, †Saltenia, †Shomronella, and †Eoxenopoides) are assigned only to the level of Pipimorpha. Báez, A. M. 1981. Redescription and relationships of Saltenia ibanezi, a Late Cretaceous pipid frog from northwestern Argentina. Ameghiniana 18(3-4):127-154. Cannatella, D. C., and R. O. de Sa. 1993. Xenopus laevis as a model organism. Syst. Biol. 42(4):476-507. Cannatella, D. C., and L. Trueb. 1988a. Evolution of pipoid frogs: Intergeneric relationships of the aquatic frog family Pipidae (Anura). Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 94:1-38. Cannatella, D. C., and L. Trueb. 1988b. Evolution of pipoid frogs: morphology and phylogenetic relationships of Pseudhymenochirus. J. Herpetol. 22:439-456. de Sá, R. O., and D. M. Hillis. 1990. Phylogenetic relationships of the pipid frogs Xenopus and Silurana: an integration of ribosomal DNA and morphology. Mol. Biol. Evol. 7(4):365-376. Ford, L. S., and D. C. Cannatella. 1993. The major clades of frogs. Herp. Monogr. 7:94-117. Spinar, Z. V. 1972. Tertiary frogs from central Europe. W. Junk, The Hague. University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA Correspondence regarding this page should be directed to David Cannatella at Page copyright © 1995 David Cannatella Page: Tree of Life Pipidae. Tongueless Frogs, Aglossa. Authored by David Cannatella. The TEXT of this page is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License - Version 3.0. Note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license, and they may or may not be available for reuse. Click on an image or a media link to access the media data window, which provides the relevant licensing information. For the general terms and conditions of ToL material reuse and redistribution, please see the Tree of Life Copyright Policies. Citing this page: Cannatella, David. 1995. Pipidae. Tongueless Frogs, Aglossa. Version 01 January 1995 (under construction). http://tolweb.org/Pipidae/16986/1995.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/

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Point wand at target Summons an object from a distance - "And then he heard it, speeding through the air behind him; he turned and saw his Firebolt hurtling towards him around the edge of the woods, soaring into the enclosure, and stopping dead in mid-air beside him, waiting for him to mount." - —The Firebolt, under influence of this spell.[src] Casting and effects The Summoning Charm could not be used on buildings. In addition, it did not work on most living things, and those few on which it did were generally not considered worth Summoning, such as flobberworms. The farther the desired object was from the caster, the harder it was to Summon. However, there was apparently some controversy over this claim, as Hermione Granger stated that it did not matter how far away the object was — so long as the caster had it clearly in mind, they should be able to Summon it with ease. There were counterspells that could be placed on objects to keep them from being Summoned. Most wizarding goods sold as of the 20th century and early 21st century came pre-enchanted with anti-theft spells to keep them from being Summoned by anyone but their rightful owners. |Molly Weasley||1994||Molly Weasley used several Summoning Charms to find many different magical sweets Fred and George Weasley were trying to sneak out of the house to the Quidditch World Cup in 1994.| |1994||Hermione Granger taught the charm to Harry Potter, who later used it in the First Task of the Triwizard Tournament to Summon his broom to him to outmaneuver the Hungarian Horntail.| |Barty Crouch Jr.| (disguised as Alastor Moody) |1995||Barty Crouch Jr. used the Summoning Charm to take the Marauders Map away from Severus Snape before he could read it.| |Harry Potter||24 June, 1995||Harry Potter used this charm to Summon the Triwizard Cup, which had been made a Portkey, in order to escape Lord Voldemort and his Death Eaters in 1995.| |1996||During the Battle of the Department of Mysteries Hermione Granger used it to retrieve wands, and Ron Weasley Summoned a brain in a tank to himself while under the effects of a disorienting curse.| |Death Eaters||1996||During the Battle of the Department of Mysteries, Death Eaters attempting to pull the prophecy sphere from Harry's hands.| |Harry Potter||1997||Harry Potter Summoned Madam Rosmerta's brooms to himself and Albus Dumbledore to get back to Hogwarts in 1997.| |Hermione Granger||1997||Hermione Granger Summoned books about Horcruxes from the Headmaster's office in 1997.| |Harry Potter||31 July, 1997| |Fred Weasley||August 1997||Fred Summoned hairs from a Muggle boy in Ottery St. Catchpole in order to help Harry disguise himself for the wedding using Polyjuice Potion.| |Harry Potter||1997||Harry Potter attempts to Summon his wand back after his wand was knocked off by Nagini.| |Harry Potter||1994||Harry Potter tried to cast the charm while Hermione Granger was teaching him how to use it in preparation for the first task of the Triwizard Tournament.| |Harry Potter||Summer of 1995||Harry Potter tried to cast the charm wandlessly to retrieve his wand after Dudley hit him when they were attacked in 1995 by two Dementors sent by Dolores Umbridge.| |Death Eaters||1996||The Death Eaters tried to cast the charm on the prophecy during the Battle of the Department of Mysteries, but Harry managed to hold on to it.| |Harry Potter||1996||Harry Potter tried to cast the charm nonverbally and wandlessly to retrieve his wand after Draco Malfoy hit him with a Full Body-Bind Curse in 1996.| |Harry Potter||1997||Harry Potter tried the Charm to Summon Salazar Slytherin's fake locket in the Horcrux cave in 1997.| |Harry Potter||27 July, 1997||He tried it to Summon Hedwig and Rubeus Hagrid during the Battle of the Seven Potters.| |1997||Hermione Granger tried the Summoning Charm to Summon Salazar Slytherin's Locket in Regulus Black's bedroom at 12 Grimmauld Place. Harry also tried Summoning the locket while he was in Dolores Umbridge's office while they were infiltrating the Ministry of Magic.| |Harry Potter||24 December, 1997||Harry tried to Summon his wand after it had been knocked out of his hand during his fight with Nagini at Godric's Hollow.| |Harry Potter||1 May, 1998||Harry tried to Summon Helga Hufflepuff's Cup when he was in the Lestrange Vault at Gringotts Wizarding Bank during the break-in, but he was unsuccessful because the vault was bewitched.| |Hermione Granger||1998||Hermione Granger tried to use a Summoning Charm to Summon Rowena Ravenclaw's Diadem in the Room of Requirement and Helga Hufflepuff's Cup in the Lestrange Vault, but the protections on the Horcruxes made this impossible.| |A Death Eater||1998||A Death Eater tried the charm to Summon Harry's Cloak of Invisibility.| The Latin word accio means "I call" or "I summon". In the Hungarian translation, the spell is called "Invito", possibly from the word "to invite". Behind the scenes - In the 2006 short film The Queen's Handbag, Harry Potter and Ron Weasley both use the charm in an attempt to retrieve Queen Elizabeth II's handbag, which has been lost. They are unsuccessful and Hermione suggests they're too far away from it, suggesting the charm may have a maximum range. However, in Goblet of Fire, Hermione stated that distance didn't matter, as long as the caster was concentrating hard enough. Also, the short film's canonicity is uncertain, so it is unlikely this applies to mainstream continuity. - In the console and PC versions of LEGO Harry Potter: Years 1-4, it can be bought at Wiseacre's Wizarding Equipment in Diagon Alley. - In the handheld versions of LEGO Harry Potter: Years 1-4, Accio can move an object in any direction, not just towards the caster. In some cases, it moves an object directly away from the caster, working more like its opposite. - When Hermione Summoned Secrets of the Darkest Art from Dumbledore's office, she simply said "Accio Horcrux books", instead of the specific book name, meaning that this spell can function even when the item's description is not detailed. - According to Wonderbook, the hand motion is thus: - Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (First appearance) - Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (film) - Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (video game) - Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix - Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (video game) - Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince - Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (video game) - Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1 - The Queen's Handbag - LEGO Harry Potter: Years 1-4 - Harry Potter Trading Card Game - Wonderbook: Book of Spells Notes and references - ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 See this video. - ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Wonderbook: Book of Spells - ↑ Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Chapter 20 - ↑ Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Chapter 10 - ↑ Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Chapter 26 - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix - ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince - ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows |Professors: Filius Flitwick| |Textbooks: The Standard Book of Spells · Achievements in Charming · Quintessence: A Quest| |Charmbook writers and charm developers: Miranda Goshawk · Scarpin · Felix Summerbee · Randolph Keitch · Basil Horton · Mnemone Radford · Elliot Smethwyck · Jarleth Hobart · Delfina Crimp · Orabella Nuttley · Levina Monkstanley · Fred Weasley · George Weasley| |Charms studied at Hogwarts: Levitation Charm · Fire-Making Charm · Softening Charm · Skurge · Aresto Momentum · Cheering Charm · Freezing Spell · Seize and Pull Charm · Summoning Charm · Banishing Charm · Silencing Charm · Mending Charm · Reductor Curse · Colour Change Charm · Growth Charm · Water-Making Spell · Locomotion Charm · Vinegar into Wine · Bird-Conjuring Charm|

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AN EDUCATOR'S GUIDE: MEETING THE NEEDS OF THE EHLERS-DANLOS CHILD A PARENT'S GUIDE: HELPING YOUR CHILD SUCCEED AT SCHOOL The material in this guide has been prepared to help educators better understand and provide for the needs of the Ehlers-Danlos student. Each person with Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome is affected differently; therefore, the needs will be different for every student. The information has been compiled from a variety of resources including parents,administrators, teachers, guidance counselors and special education teachers. My sincere thanks to those who helped in this effort by sharing and providing personal and professional information. |Peggy Rocha Snuggs | |Ehlers-Danlos National Foundation | |November, 2003 | Before leaving the Board at the end of 2004, Peggy Rocha Snuggs was Director at Large for Children's Projects & Education, Board of Directors, Ehlers-Danlos National Foundation. She is an educator in the public school system in Tampa, Florida, and the mother of an EDS child. Many teachers and schools have contacted the Ehlers-Danlos National Foundation with questions about EDS, ranging from basic concerns for the safety of the student, to questions about accommodations to meet the needs of the EDS child. This booklet was prepared to answer some of the questions asked most commonly by school personnel. Additional information on medical aspects of this syndrome is available from the Ehlers-Danlos National Foundation, or at www.ednf.org Introduction to EDS What is Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (EDS) The Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (EDS) is a heterogeneous group of heritable connective tissue disorders affecting approximately 1 in 5,000 to 10,000 men and women of all ethnic backgrounds. EDS is named for two physicians (Ehlers and Danlos) who described the forms of the condition in the early 1900s. At least six forms of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome have been described, which are not graduations in severity, but represent distinct disorders which "run-true" in a family. EDS is characterized by hyperextenisve skin, hypermobile joints, easy bruisability of the skin, and a bleeding diathesis. There are six major types of EDS, which are classified according to their different manifestation of signs and symptoms. Individuals with EDS have a defect in their connective tissue, the tissue which provides support to many parts of the body such as the skin, muscles and ligaments. The fragile skin and unstable joints found in EDS are the result of faulty collagen, the protein which acts as a "glue" in the body, adding strength and elasticity to connective tissue. What medical problems are associated with EDS? Due to the different types of EDS, and the varying degree of severity between individuals with EDS, it is difficult to generalize. However, most often, the manifestations are skin and joint related and may include: Soft velvet-like skin; variable hyperextensibility (stretchiness); fragile skin that tears or bruises easily (bruising may be severe); severe scarring; slow and poor wound healing; and fleshy lesions (molluscoid pseudotumors) associated with scars over pressure areas. Joint hypermobility; loose/unstable joints which are prone to frequent dislocations and/or subluxions; joint pain; hyperextensive joints (they move beyond the joint's normal range); early onset of osteoarthritis. Chronic, early onset, debilitating musculoskeletal pain; arterial/intestinal/uterine fragility or rupture (usually associated with Vascular Type of EDS); scoliosis; poor muscle tone; mitral valve prolapse; gum disease and vision problems. Medical Emergencies at School What medical emergencies may arise? It is wise to make all school staff, including lunchroom supervisors, nurses, and office, aware that a medical emergency may occur and to outline a basic plan of action. It is important to have a prepared, parent approved plan ahead on file. Current and updated parent contact information should be available at all times. These often occur due to the loose ligaments and commonly affect the knees, shoulders and hips, but may affect the fingers and wrists or other joints as well. Activity may cause the joint to lock or overextend. A physician may prescribe bracing to stabilize joints, or surgical repair of joints. Ice packs should be kept on hand. Occupational therapists and or physical therapists can help students learn how to strengthen their muscles and teach them how to properly use and preserve their joints. Cuts/lacerations may occur and may vary from minor to major wounds. Gaping wounds should be handled with care. Scarring is not uncommon. Proper repair of these wounds by a physician may be necessary. Excessive bleeding may occur with any cut. Severe bruising is also common. Excessive sun exposure should be avoided and sunscreen is recommended for outdoor activities. Vascular Type of EDS: The EDNF has prepared a CD-ROM and 20 page handbook to educate emergency room physicians and other health care professionals about the vascular type of EDS. This CD-Rom contains suggestions on life-saving surgical and postoperative techniques. In a trauma situation, time is of the essence. It would be beneficial for a school to retain a copy to accompany the child to the emergency room if it should become necessary. The CD-ROM is available from the EDNF shopping cart. To acquire a copy, please go to Shop at EDNF. Some children with EDS may complain of severe gastro pain and frequent stomach aches. A family plan, as well as a school plan for dealing with chronic stomach pain should be addressed with the parent and the teachers. STEPS FOR ACADEMIC SUCCESS Step 1: Providing a Safe Classroom/Physical Environment Although each person is affected differently by Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, the need for a safe environment at school is important to avoid injury. When possible, carpeted areas are preferable to slippery floors, and avoiding the use of stairs in favor of elevators. An evaluation of appropriate seating by a school based occupational therapist should be considered. Step 2: Providing Appropriate Physical Education - Sports, and Elective Classes It is important, for emotional well-being that students with EDS try to lead as normal a life as possible. This includes playing with other children and participating as much as possible in physical activity. Students with EDS will have different needs or restrictions concerning physical education and sports. Where there is only mild hypermobility and the skin is not fragile, physical education and sports may be allowed with an adapted program. When guiding students to his/her choices of electives and activities, it is helpful to consider whether the activity could cause stress to joints or possible injury. Common sense should prevail when designing sport programs. Contact sports or activities that require vigorous exertion, heavy lifting, blows to the head or chest or excessive strain on joints and ligaments may not be the best choice. Sports such as swimming & golf may be a more logical alternative if done at an easy pace with opportunity for resting. Certain musical instruments may stress some joints, where others may be more acceptable. Each activity should be accessed based on individual student abilities and restrictions. Most students with EDS do not want to appear different. A student may experience all or some if the following which would affect their success in physical activities: impaired mobility, weak hand control, and/or poor coordination. Being forced to participate in physical education classes may cause the EDS child to become disheartened and embarrassed. Asking the child to sit on the sidelines and watch may cause the child to feel isolated and different. Ideally, alternative classes should be available if physical education classes are not recommended. Some schools allow health/related classes to be substituted for physical education credits, and some waiver the credit altogether in favor of a more suitable elective. Step 3: Cognitive Profiles and Providing Testing Accommodations There is no evidence to indicate that EDS in itself, causes learning difficulties. Premature birth is a complication associated with EDS and these children may experience the delays often associated with it. There are some speech and hearing and visual problems associated with EDS that medical specialist in the field can diagnose. Formal IQ and performance testing can provide useful information. However, careful interpretation of formal evaluations should be made to assure that any occurrence of verbal-performance discrepancy, with performance scores being lower than verbal scores, is not due to motor problems instead of learning disability. Teachers should be aware of potential difficulties due to hand-wrist hypermobility which are associated with reduced scores on performance tests. Students may need extra time or may require alternate forms of assess-ing performance that requires less motor input. Wrist or finger splints, large or padded pens or pencils or pencil grips may be helpful. Some students may need additional testing accommodations such as oral evaluations. Step 4: Consideration for Chronic Absences Due to frequent absences, the EDS child may need additional time, additional tutorials, and other child-specific accommodations. In some cases, at-home instructions may need to be provided for long term recoveries. Allowing special pupil assignment to a school closer to parent's home or work is a viable consideration. Some schools post homework and class work assignments on a website for students who are absent. If the school has such a site, parents should be made aware of it. Some schools offer incentive grade points or exam exemptions based on attendance. The EDS child should not be penalized for EDS related absences. Step 5: Providing Teacher Support in the Classroom The inability to participate in some peer activities, the need for special accommodations, and the sense of "feeling different" may lead to frustration and isolation. Helping the EDS child feel accepted is something a teacher can help with. Addressing these issues by frequent discussions with the child about his or her feelings, identifying and encouraging development of other talents, and inclusion in activities that are not restricted are positive ways to help. Many EDS children feel comfortable talking about EDS, and may be willing to discuss or report on EDS in class. Some however are embarrassed and choose not to discuss their condition. Step 6: Meeting the Needs of the EDS Child In making plans to meet the needs of the EDS child, a 504 Plan or ESE program should be addressed. A physical therapist and occupational therapist would be beneficial in evaluating and planning for accessibility and adaptation needs in the school. Below is a list of some accommodation that other EDS students have found to be beneficial. Physical education/sports needs: - Modified physical education - Alternative health related credit in lieu of PE. - Restrict contact sports - Restrict weight bearing activities on arms, wrists (such as handstands, cartwheels) etc. - Limit exposure to the sun. - Allow storage of ice packs/gel packs - Allow doctor note permitting use of nonprescription pain medications - Rest periods in the middle of the day for fatigue - Two sets of text books: one for home, one for school - Priority seating - Allow use of a chair instead of floor for circle time - Adjusted chair /table height - Use of elevators - Allow passes for frequent bathroom breaks - Book bag on wheels - Help with note taking - Extra time to get to and from class (leave before the bell) - Stretching or walking to relieve stress - Extended time for tests and assignments - Extra time on timed/standardized tests - Eliminate handwriting grade in favor of grades for content and effort - Lockers: assign locker at eye level, allow digital lock instead of combination locks or alternative to standard locker such as a "safe" place to store belongings. - Copies of worksheets that allow fill in blanks or underlining in lieu of rewriting existing questions/sentences. - Chair with arms for upper body support - Height adjustments on chairs/desks - Pad for chair seat or back - Pencil grips - Pad for sitting on the floor - Use of computers with ergonomic keyboards or Alpha Smart Many parents and teachers have contacted the Ehlers-Danlos National Foundation with questions about EDS, ranging from basic concerns for the safety of the student, to questions about accommodations to meet the needs of the EDS child. This booklet was prepared to answer some of the questions asked most commonly by both parents and teachers. Additional information on medical aspects of this syndrome is available from the Ehlers-Danlos National Foundation, or at www.ednf.org. Meeting the Needs of the EDS Child It is wise to make all school staff, including lunchroom supervisors, nurses, and office, aware that a medical emergency may occur and to outline the basic plan of action. Although most children are accustomed to dealing with the problem and may give valuable advice at the time of the accident or injury, it is best to have a prepared/parent approved plan ahead of time. Always provide current updated parent contact information. In making plans to meet the needs of the EDS child, a 504 Plan or ESE program should be addressed. A physical and occupational therapist would be beneficial in evaluating and planning for accessibility and adaptation needs in the school. Below is a list of some accommodation that other EDS students have found to be beneficial. Physical education/sports needs: Modified physical education Alternative health related credit in lieu of PE. Restrict contact sports Restrict weight bearing activities on arms, wrists (such as hand-stands, cartwheels) etc. Limit exposure to the sun. Allow storage of ice packs/gel packs Allow doctor note permitting use of non-prescription pain medications Rest periods in the middle of the day for fatigue Two sets of text books: one for home, one for school Allow use of a chair instead of floor for circle time Adjusted chair /table height Use of elevators Allow passes for frequent bathroom breaks Book bag on wheels Help with note taking Extra time to get to and from class (leave before the bell) Stretching or walking to relieve stress Extended time for tests and assignments Extra time on timed/standardized tests Eliminate handwriting grade in favor of grades for content and effort Lockers: assign locker at eye level, allow digital lock instead of combination locks or alternative to standard locker such as a "safe" place to store belongings. Copies of worksheets that allow fill in blanks or underlining in lieu of rewriting existing questions/sentences. Chair with arms for upper body support Height adjustments on chairs/desks Pad for chair seat or back Pad for sitting on the floor Use of computers with ergonomic keyboards or Alpha Smart School Site Interventions You and your child have certain rights under the Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. (See document Appendix # 2). All students who are considered exceptional under the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) are also considered disabled under section 504. However, all 504 disabled students are not considered exceptional under IDEA. (See Appendices #3 for explanation of differences) In most districts, those children considered disabled under the IDEA, will have goals and objectives written in an Individual Education Plan (IEP). These often are written to include accommodations. A 504 plan is different than an IEP, as it addresses the accommodations needed instead of long and short term goals. Each school district handles these plans a little differently as far as referral method or request for services. Generally, it is the Guidance department who manages these cases. Knowing your rights is important, but having a good working relationship with school personnel and teachers is often more important. Go into all meeting with an attitude of cooperation. Being combative, intimidating, or demanding is not productive. Litigation takes a long time and your child's needs are immediate. The ideal situation is one where parents/teachers/schools are working together, not pulling apart. Solving your child's individual problems may require a new or unique approach. If the plan, as written, does not meet your child's needs, or if the needs change over time, be aware that you may request additional meetings to change the 504 plan or the IEP. You are your child's advocate, which means you are their voice. Ask you child what he/she needs most. Include the child in the plans. During meetings and discussions about your child's needs, keep your child as the center of discussion. When or if the topic sways to other focuses, draw the conversation back to the child and meeting his/her needs. Stick to the facts as you discuss EDS. Discuss options, and be open to new ideas for meeting your child's needs. When discussion is finished, ask for action. Below are helpful suggestions from parents who have already been where you are going. Be aware that asking the school for special considerations does not mean they must provide all the items you are requesting. For example, if the school allows your child to use a rolling backpack or to store therapeutic ice packs in the refrigerator, you will most likely be providing the items. · Check with your school system to see what programs are already in place at your school or in your system. · Ask your doctor to provide a letter of diagnosis and suggestions for the school. · Ask about 504 plans at your school, as well as occupational and physical therapy and evaluations. · Make appointments with the school guidance counselor, school nurse and the individual teachers BEFORE problems arise. Make a plan for emergencies to be posted with the nurse/teacher. · Try to educate the school ahead of time about EDS. Provide information on EDS for inclusion in the Cumulative Record. Provide an EDNF CD-ROM. · Do not assume that teachers know about your child's needs. You should be sure they are aware of the information each year. · If you or your child are comfortable presenting information, ask to do so for the teachers/faculty or students. · Make a list of the problems your child is having. What are some of the solutions you believe might help? · Be clear about the things your child should not do. Things he/she should do. · Be a creative problem solver. Think of ways to "make it happen". · Bring a list of possible suggestions with you to your meetings. Prioritize those that are important "all of the time", and those that "may" be needed some of the time. This list and plan can be revised at your request anytime during the year or as needs change. · Be prepared to discuss: - Accident/emergency plan - Physical Therapy needs - Assistive devises / braces/ wheelchair needs - Assistive technology needs - Occupational Therapy needs - Speech/Language needs - Class modifications and interventions/accommodations needs - Physical needs in room/hallways - Assignments/class work needs - Organization needs - Special considerations Appendix # 1. Definitions and Terms The following are definitions or words often used by people who work with exceptional children. The definitions are meant to help or guide you and are simplified for easier understanding and use. Different school districts and educators may use these words in somewhat different ways. You should feel free to ask for definitions of words and abbreviations being used when discussing or describing your child. Different states have specific Boards of Education rules and requirements for eligibility for services and programs. Academic - Having to do with subjects such as reading, writing, math, social studies, and science. Accommodation - Learning to do things differently from other students because of a handicap, impairment, or disability. Assessment - A way of collecting information about a student's special learning needs, strengths, and interests. This could include observing the student, looking at records, or evaluations and tests. Disability - A problem or condition which makes it hard for a student to learn or do things in the same ways as most other students. A disability may be short-term or permanent. Exceptional Student - A student who has special learning needs as described in state and local school board rules. This includes students with handicaps, a disability, or impairment, as well as those who are gifted. Exceptionality - A special learning need. Exceptionalities include handicaps, disabilities, or impairments. Gifted is also included as an exceptionality. Free appropriate Public Education - The words used in the federal law, the Education of the Handicapped Act, to describe an exceptional student's right to a special education which will meet his individual special learning needs, at no cost to his parents. Handicap - A problem or condition which makes it hard for a student to learn or do things in the same ways as most of the students. A handicap may be short-term or permanent. Homebound or Hospitalized - A kind of exceptional student education program for a student who must stay at home or in a hospital for a period of time because of a severe illness, injury, or health problem. In order to be eligible for such a program in most districts, a child must meet certain listed requirements to quality. Impairment - A problem or condition which makes it hard for a student to learn or do things in the same ways as most other students. An impairment may be short-term or permanent. Individual Education Plan ( IEP) - A written plan which describes an exceptional student's special individual learning needs and the exceptional education programs and services which will be given the student under IDEAS. Least Restrictive Environment - Part of the federal law and state laws that deals with determining a handicapped child's placement. This includes that, to the maximum extent appropriate, handicapped children are educated with children who are not handicapped, an that the removal of the child from the regular school environment occurs only when the handicap is such that the child cannot be satisfactorily educated in regular classes with the use of aids and services. In choosing a child's placement in the least restrictive environment, possible harmful effects of the child and the quality of services he needs are considered. Motor - Use of large and small muscles to move different parts of the body. Examples of motor skills are walking, holding and moving a pencil, or opening a door. Occupational Therapy (OT) - Treatment for an exceptional student which helps him to develop mental or physical well-being in areas of daily living such as self-care and prevocational skills, etc. This treatment is given by a licensed occupational therapist. In order to be eligible for "occupational therapy" programs and services, a student usually must meet requirements. Physically Impaired - A kind of disability or exceptionality. The physically impaired student is one who has a severe illness, condition, or disability which makes it hard for him to learn in the same ways as other students his age. In order to be eligible for "physically impaired" programs and services, a student must meet requirements. Physical Therapy (PT) - Treatment for an exceptional student which helps to maintain or improve his use of bones, joints, muscles, and nerves. This treatment is given by a licensed physical therapist. In order to be eligible for "physical therapy" programs and services, a student usually must meet requirements. Sensory - Having to do with the use of the senses of hearing, seeing, touching (feeling) smelling or tasting as a part of learning. An example of a sensory skill is being able to see the differences between letters of the alphabet. Speech-Language - Having to do with a student's ability to speak (talk), write, listen, or read. This includes understanding others and making himself understood. An example of a speech-language skill is being able to put words together into a good sentence. Speech-Language Impaired - A kind of handicap or exceptionality. The speech or language impaired student is one who has problems talking so that he can be understood, sharing ideas, expressing needs, or understanding what others are saying. IN order to be eligible for "speech language" programs and services, a student usually must meet requirements. Appendix #2. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 is civil rights legislation that protects the civil and constitutional rights of persons with disabilities. The law states that "No otherwise qualified disabled individual in the United States… shall, solely by reason of his disability, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." Students determined qualified under Section 504 cannot be discriminated against based on their disability. Students are considered disabled under Section 504 if they: (1) have a physical or mental impairment tat substantially limits one or more major life activities (learning or schooling is considered a major life activity), (2) have a record of such an impairment, or (3) are regarded as having such an impairment. All students who are considered exceptional under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) are also considered disabled under Section 504. However, all 504 disabled students are not considered exceptional under IDEA. Some examples of types of discrimination that 504 prohibits are: 1. Denial of opportunity to participate in or benefit from a service, educational program, or activity which is afforded to students who are not disabled. 2. Provisions of opportunity to participate in or to benefit from service, educational program, or activity which is not equal to that afforded to others. 3. Provision of aids, benefits or services that are not as effective as those provided to others. 4. Provision of different or separate benefits or services unless such action is necessary to be effective. 5. Selecting a site or location which effectively excludes persons with disabilities or subjects them to discrimination. Appendix #3. Differences Between IDEA Disabilities and 504 Handicaps Most students are educated in regular or General Education. This is where students achieve through a general education program in the regular classroom. 504 Handicaps allow for education and achievement through a general education instructional program with modifications recorded in a 504 plan. IDEA Disabilities allow for education and achievement through Exceptional Student Education (ESE) instructional programs as documented in an Individual Education Plan (IEP). Below are some of the differences: What is it? IDEA - Individuals with Disabilities Act previously called Education for Handicapped Children Act or 94-142 504 - Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. IDEA - Disabilities (eligible) 504 - Handicaps (qualifies) Who is protected? IDEA - Students who meet qualifying conditions for 13 categories. 504 - Students who meet the definition of a physical, mental impairment which substantially limit a major life activity (including learning). IDEA - Disabling condition results in a need for Exceptional Student Education. 504 - Handicapping condition requires an education as effective as that provided other non handicapped students. Duty to Provide A Free Appropriate Education. Both require the provision of a free appropriate education to students covered under them. IDEA - Requires the district to develop IEPs. "Appropriate education" means a program designed to provide "educational benefit". 504 - Requires a district to develop a 504 Plan. "Appropriate" means an education comparable to the education provided to non handicapped students, requiring that reasonable modifications be made. IDEA - If a student is eligible under IDEA; the district receives additional funding (FTE) to provide special services. 504 - If a student qualifies under 504, the district receives no additional funds. 504 provides protection from discrimination, not special education services. The regulations are very similar for IDEA and 504. IDEA - Consent is required before an initial evaluation is conducted. Provides for independent evaluations. Reevaluation must be conducted every so many years (usually 3). 504 - Only notice, not consent, is required. Independent evaluations are not required. Requires periodic reevaluations. Both require notice to the parent or guardian with respect to identification, evaluation, and/or placement. IDEA - Compliance is monitored by the State's Bureau of Education for Exceptional Students Division for Public School in that particular State Department of Education. Complaints resolved by that same Bureau. 504 - Enforced by the US Office of Civil Rights Complaints resolved by that same office. Types of Disabilities and Handicaps Listed below are examples of some usual types of eligible IDEA disabilities and 504 qualified handicaps: IDEA - mental retardation, hearing impairments including deafness, speech or language impairments, visual impairments including blindness, serious emotional disturbances, orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, specific learning disabilities 504 - asthma, allergies, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD/ADHD), behavioral difficulties, cancer, diabetes, drug addiction, epilepsy, heart disease, hemophilia, HIV, Sickle-Cell Anemia, Tuberculosis, other diseases/disorders and physical handicaps. Appendix # 4. RIGHTS OF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES (IDEA & 504 PLAN) TO ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY The following is taken form the Advocacy Center for Persons with Disabilities fact sheet 11/97. This fact sheet is not intended as a substitute for legal advice. The 1997 Amendments to the IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) require that the need for assistive technology be considered at the IEP meeting. By becoming familiar with the right to assistive technology, parents and student will be better prepared to advocate for needed assistive technology in the IEP, and also in the 504 Plan (equal access to all school programs), thereby promoting enhanced learning and functioning in inclusive environments. What is Assistive Technology? Assistive technology (AT) includes devices and services as well as training that help an individual to select and utilize a device or aid. AT devices are items, pieces of equipment or system (both off -the-shelf and customized) used to increase, maintain or improve the functional capabilities of students with disabilities. Assistive technology services include evaluation, maintenance or repair and training for students, professionals or families. AT devices or aids include, but are not limited to the following: · Augmentative communication devices, including talking computers · Assistive listening devices, including hearing aids, personal hearing aids, personal FM units, closed-caption TVs and teletype machines(TDDs) · Specially adapted learning games, toys and recreation equipment · Computer-assisted instruction, drawing software · Electronic tools (scanners with speech synthesizers, tape recorders, word processors) · Curriculum and textbook adaptations (e.g. audio format, large print format, Braille) · Copies of overheads, transparencies and notes · Adaptation of the learning environment, such a special desks, modified learning stations, computer touch screens or different computer keyboards · Adaptive mobility devices for driver's education · Orthotics such as hand braces to facilitate writing skills

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Once state-of-the-art mental healthcare facilities, Kirkbride buildings have long been relics of an obsolete therapeutic method known as Moral Treatment. In the latter half of the 19th century, these massive structures were conceived as ideal sanctuaries for the mentally ill and as an active participent in their recovery. Careful attention was given to every detail of their design to promote a healthy environment and convey a sense of respectable decorum. Placed in secluded areas within expansive grounds, many of these insane asylums seemed almost palace-like from the outside. But growing populations and insufficient funding led to unfortunate conditions, spoiling their idealistic promise. Within decades of their first conception, new treatment methods and hospital design concepts emerged and the Kirkbride plan was eventually discarded. Many existing Kirkbride buildings maintained a central place in the institutions which began within their walls, but by the end of the 20th century most had been completely abandoned or demolished. A few have managed to survive into the 21st century intact and still in use, but many that survive sit abandoned and decaying—their mysterious grandeur intensified by their derelict condition. More... Dr. Thomas Story Kirkbride was a founding member of the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (AMSAII)—forerunner of the American Psychiatric Association—serving first as secretary, then later as president. Through this association and in his writings, Kirkbride promoted a standardized method of asylum construction and mental health treatment, popularly known as the Kirkbride Plan, which significantly influenced the entire American asylum community during his lifetime. More... Latest Blog Entries 10 Mar 2013 -- Christian VanAntwerpen had an idea recently to photograph “every inch” of the Fergus Falls, Minnesota, Kirkbride for posterity, and is now working to make his idea a reality. Christian has gathered a group of about forty photographers and cinematographers who plan to photograph the entire building together this year... read more Abandoned Asylums of New England 28 Feb 2013 -- John Gray is publishing a new edition of his Abandoned Asylums of New England photography book. The original version was self-published and came out a little over ten years ago... read more Help Save the Athens Kirkbride 13 Feb 2013 -- Please help the Athens County Historical Society and Museum save the Athens Kirkbride by signing this online petition. Ohio University (current owner of the former Athens State Hospital site now known as The Ridges) is set to tear down an historic building at the site next month... read more Hudson River Cameo in New Soundgarden Video 21 Jan 2013 -- A friend of mine recently posted photos from a Soundgarden show on Instagram. She was excited to see photos of the Hudson River State Hospital Kirkbride appear on the screen behind the band while they played their new song Been Away Too Long... read more Colliers International’s Fergus Falls Website 02 Oct 2012 -- Colliers International has launched a website as part of their campaign to find a developer for the Fergus Falls Kirkbride: Historic Campus Opportunity. It’ll be interesting to see if Colliers is successful... read more The Danvers Room 17 Aug 2012 -- The New York Times published an article Tuesday about John Archer’s eclectic house in Danvers, Massachusetts: Scrap Mansion. For those who don’t know, John Archer probably did more than anyone to try keeping the Danvers State Hospital Kirkbride intact... read more Prints of Kirkbride buildings are now available. Added a Saint Elizabeths Hospital page. Added an Harrisburg State Hospital page. Added chapters 51-60 to Kirkbride's book. Added a Cherokee State Hospital page. Expanded the Weston State Hospital gallery. - Athens State Hospital Architect: Levi T. Scofield Location: Athens, Ohio - Buffalo State Hospital Architect: Henry Hobson Richardson Location: Buffalo, New York - Cherokee State Hospital Architect: Henry F. Liebbe Location: Cherokee, Iowa - Clarinda State Hospital Architect: Foster & Liebbe Location: Clarinda, Iowa - Danvers State Hospital Architect: Nathaniel J. Bradlee Location: Danvers, Massachusetts - Dixmont State Hospital Architect: J.R. Kerr Location: Dixmont Township, Pennsylvania - Fergus Falls State Hospital Architect: Warren Dunnell Location: Fergus Falls, Minnesota - Greystone Park State Hospital Architect: Samuel Sloan Location: Morristown, New Jersey - Hudson River State Hospital Architect: Frederick Clarke Withers Location: Poughkeepsie, New York - Independence State Hospital Architect: Stephen Vaughn Shipman Location: Independence, Iowa - Northampton State Hospital Architect: Jonathan Preston Location: Northampton, Massachusetts - Saint Elizabeths Hospital Architect: Thomas U. Walters Location: Washington, DC - Taunton State Hospital Architect: Elbridge Boyden Location: Taunton, Massachusetts - Traverse City State Hospital Architect: Gordon W. Lloyd Location: Traverse City, Michigan - Weston State Hospital Architect: R. Snowden Andrews Location: Weston, West Virginia - Worcester State Hospital Architect: George Dutton Rand Location: Worcester, Massachusetts - Photo Prints Prints of selected Kirkbride photographs on this site are available for purchase in 8x10 and 11x14 formats. Please note that in some instances these buildings are off-limits to the general public and permission must be obtained if you wish to access the property and/or take photographs.

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HIRING A GARDENER Know what you are paying for and what impact it has on the environment. Gardeners frequently state that they would adopt environmentally preferable lawn care practices if their customers didn’t insist on "business as usual". Language barriers can create challenges communicating with your gardener. Read over the checklist and mark those practices that you would like your gardener to follow. Keeping your yard healthy will not only save you money, but will protect your family’s health and the environment. Make sure that you and your gardener understand that when debris enters the storm drains, it flows to the creeks where it decomposes, dropping oxygen levels in the water too low for fish to survive. Sediment from our yards usually accompanies the debris, which cause the creeks to be over silted, greatly impacting the environmental health of our waterways. Inquire if the gardener is a licensed landscape contractor. Often, when gardeners are licensed, their license no. is displayed on their business card and on their vehicle. When serious pest infestations do occur, call a licensed pest control operator and inquire if their practices are less-toxic. Ensure that your gardener is knowledgeable in pest identification and disease diagnosis as well as Integrated Pest Management. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a decision-making process that encourages people to use environmentally compatible techniques and products. IPM recognizes that pests are part of our eco-system, but seeks to prevent damage from pest populations reaching unacceptable levels. Regular monitoring and record-keeping of pest populations becomes a valuable reference to establish your own personal tolerance level. Once a pest infestation reaches beyond that threshold, a decision can be made as to which means of control will be used: cultural (modification of plant care activities, i.e., water, plant placement and pruning), physical (picking the pests off the plants by hand), mechanical (use of a weed-block or sticky traps), biological (use of beneficial insects to prey on harmful insects) or chemical (use of least toxic pesticides where serious damage would be done). When applying pesticides, please know that ‘the label is the law’, which means it is unlawful and environmentally unsound to use the pesticide in any manner other than how it is stated on the label. Pesticides are labeled either Caution, Warning or Danger. Even with Caution-labeled pesticides, there are safety practices users should follow. Quick Tips for Designing your lawn and garden: - If you have a yard that is being re-designed or hasn’t been landscape yet, you have an opportunity to be well-informed about the best foundation for your garden. - Select plants that grow well in our local environment while considering growth patterns and maintenance requirements to help your garden achieve and retain its optimal health... in other words, use the right plant in its right place. - Healthy plants have the most resistance to pest infestation. Looking at the plants and noting any changes in their condition will provide an opportunity to address any problems before the situation is serious. - Minimize annual flowers, which require as much water as a lawn and must be replaced 3-4 times each year. - Choose California native and Mediterranean-climate plants first. They are drought tolerant and hardy in this area. Quick Tips for Lawn Choice and Care: - Consider lawn alternatives that can handle some foot traffic: Caraway-Scented Thyme, (which doesn’t require any mowing), Woolly Yarrow, Mother of Thyme, O’Connor’s Legume or Garden Chamomile. - Plant Tall Fescue, Dwarf Tall Fescue, Red Fescue and Perennial Ryegrass. These are preferred grasses in the Bay Area that require fewer inputs of water, fertilizer, mowing, pesticide and maintenance time and are referred to as ‘cool season’ grasses. - Where you have an existing lawn, familiarize yourself with what soil and grass type you have. Know the potential problems and pests of your grass. Learn what time of year to monitor for those pests. When treatment is called for, select the least-toxic method as a preventive measure, rather than waiting until the problem requires a more aggressive treatment. - Consider some of the following and give your gardener clear instructions on how to maintain your lawn. These will help build fertile soil and vigorous, deep-rooted lawns. A healthy lawn can resist disease and drought damage, and out-compete most weeds without reliance on chemicals. It is when a lawn (or any tree or plant) becomes unhealthy, that it is prone to attacks by pests. - Use a mulching mower that leaves grass clippings on the lawn which provides free fertilizer, keeps refuse charges down and helps lawn grow greener and denser. - In fall and spring, aeration of the lawn by hand or with a power aerator eliminates thatch build up and allows water to penetrate to the root zone. Another option when there is an advanced pest infestation or disease on an annual or perennial, is to remove and replace the plant. It may be that the environmental cost of applying chemicals in this situation is greater than a removal and replacement. Analyze if the plant was in its preferred location, with proper soil, moisture and sun. Checklist for your gardener, if your landscaper or gardener also designs and chooses your plants: - Analyze and prepare soil for planting using appropriate amendments, tillage and grading. - Design and plan the garden based on how it will be used, water efficiency, ease of maintenance and low waste. - Design and install the irrigation system to efficiently water desired plants, minimizing weeds, waste, and costs. - Use the right plant in the right place. Plants will be their healthiest when placed in their preferred environment. Consider the sun exposure and shade received, amount of irrigation needed, and pruning practices. - Plant insectary plants - those that attract beneficial insects to your yard to prey on the harmful insects. - Maintain the perennial lawn without seeding with annual grass, retaining the drought tolerant, lower-maintenance perennial grass lawn. - Set mower height up to 2 - 2.5" on perennial tall fescues (1.5" on annual or bentgrass lawns) to increase drought tolerance and discourage invasive weedy grasses. - Aerate the soil by simply inserting a 6" garden fork every 4" and levering to loosen the soil. To eliminate thatch accumulation, avoid over-watering or over-fertilizing. - Avoid pesticides or weed killers on the lawn. Studies have shown that commonly used chemicals - quick-release fertilizers, pesticides and weed-&-feed products - can kill beneficial soil organisms and contribute to soil compaction, thatch build up and lawn disease. These same chemicals harm human health, pets, wildlife and the creeks, rivers and Bay. - Do not apply fertilizer on perennial lawns (no more than 2x/year for annual lawns, and slow-release fertilizers only). Over-fertilized lawns, blue green in color, are unhealthy and prone to thatch build-up, pest infestation and drought damage. - Use a rake or industrial-duty broom to clean up yard debris, pathways and sidewalks. Leaf blowers cause air and noise pollution, offer less control over the debris and require the same amount of time to do the same job by broom. Definitely don’t allow any area to be cleaned by hosing down method. Make it clear to your gardener to avoid any debris entering storm drains! - Control weeds with layers of mulch, biodegradable fabric, cultivation and water management to prevent nutrient loss and waste generation. - Water lawn deeply and evenly at a rate appropriate for the grass variety, climate and season. - Utilize a water-conserving irrigation schedule, delivering water to the root zones and not exceeding the amount needed by the plants. Watering in the morning avoids (when the sun and wind are low) the high-evaporation rates between 10am-4pm. For detailed information about irrigation schedules for your landscape, call the City of Santa Rosa Water Conservation Information Line @ 543.3985. - Store fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides and oils out of the way of rain or irrigation, as even the residues on the containers can be washed off and into storm drain system and flow to nearby creeks. - Place yard clippings in a compost pile and monitor it so that it effectively breaks down and can be used again in your yard. Or, place it in yard debris bins for pick up or ask your gardener to haul it away as part of their service. Composting provides high quality soil and helps keep refuse fees down.

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An interesting article about ancient Greek homosexuality. Its interesting- I can't vouch for its accuracy as this is a subject on which I'm woefully ignorant but have always been partly intrigued by given the many references in Plato to the practise. It turns out as you would expect that homosexuality in Greece evolved over the years- particularly by the end of the Athenian democracy you had people who were as the author suggests what we would recognise as homosexuals. Homosexuality for some men was a stage in development between asexual youth and the marriage bed- but others seemed to delight more in the company of men than of women. Its an interesting subject and if anyone knows more please enlighten me as to whether the assessment in the article is right or not. November 10, 2007 November 09, 2007 The first Emperor of China is a historical character and his legacy defines in many ways what China is today. He originally was not Emperor of China, but the Prince of a powerful western Kingdom Qin. During his reign as King of Qin, he conquered the other kingdoms which constituted ancient China. The King of Qin became an emperor in 221BC over a vast landmass, stretching perhaps over a third of what is modern China today. His power was extensive- Chinese histories credit him with an almost totalitarian ideology, an aim of unification which stretched to the elimination of any possible rival, including the massacre of 460 scholars and the destruction of older feudal patterns of service and government. He brought in a single currency and connected together the walls that previous Chinese governments had constructed to the north, to build the first defensive Great Wall. The Emperor's dynasty lasted a very short time- within years of his death in 210BC, his son the second Emperor was killed and chaos descended before the rise of the Han Emperors beggining in 202BC. The Emperor though left much behind him. The Han reigned to some extent in conformity with his principles especially of unity- and the shape of the currency that he had originally drafted remained the same right up until the early 20th Century. Much of our account of his acheivement comes from the Han historian, Sima Qian, who was born in 145BC and whose histories cover the whole of Chinese history from its mythical origins to his own lifetime. Sima Qian was hostile to the Qin Emperor partly because his dynasty replaced that of the Qin, and his history is not a history as we would recognise it in modern terms. Sima Qian writes fables and chronicles and treatises on subjects, the past for him is a set of exempla and a set of dates. He doesn't dwell as we might like him to on subjects relevant to us, but rather has the preoccupations of a Han civil servant: so his book tells us of stories about assassins, stories about how to govern and how not to govern, chronicles of dates and all from a perspective that denegrates the Qin. Despite that Sima Qian is one of the great historians of the ancient world- his name deserves to be up there with the great classical historians. However we are incredibly lucky when it comes to the Qin Emperor, for in the mid-1970s a peasant in China came across a stupendous find. In the soil his spade hit a terracotta head, and archaeologists coming across to work on the site found not one but thousands of terracotta bodies and artefacts scattered in the soil. Having reconstructed what the site must have been, they worked out that these terracotta bodies constituted a seperate state that the Qin Emperor hoped to rule in his afterlife. At the British Museum in London at the moment, some of those finds are being exhibited. You see all sorts of people that the Emperor required in his afterlife: he has strong men, acrobats, musicians, civil servants, soldiers of all types and even a royal charioteer. Some of these artefacts bring to life stories from Sima Qian's accounts. For example on the Emperor's death, his senior civil servant Li Si kept the Imperial demise secret. He did so by maintaining the illusion that the Emperor was still alive giving orders from his Imperial chariot- and to some extent when one sees the chariot, one can imagine how that worked. The Emperor closeted and secretive and Li Si and a couple of others conspicuously running in and out to receive orders. The terracotta army itself is shown in all its glory. It is incredible what the craftsmen (probably conscripted) could do. The skill with which the faces in particular are rendered is stunning- the visual impressiveness of what you see makes you reel back, considering that these are faces looking straight at you from thousands of years ago. The picture in particular of a fiery Turkish looking light infantryman stayed in my mind all of last night. The Museum have organised the exhibition in a very proffessional way- first they show you some Qin artefacts and describe the role of the Qin Emperor in Chinese history, avoiding much of the detail but trying to give a non-sinologist a good understanding of what this man was and what he represents. Then you proceed to see the terracotta army and court itself- which is a stunning experience and having it put in context before you see it, it becomes more impressive. The Emperor constructed this army to protect him in his afterlife- it appears they were stationed on the only open access route to his tomb in order to guard it. His tomb itself has never been opened and apart from Sima Qian's fantastic descriptions and some scientific work above the site on concentrations of metals found underneath, noone knows what is there. What we have though is these soldiers- we know they were painted and so their rather mundane colours today aren't as impressive as the gaudy way they were decorated- we know that irises for instance were painted in the eyes and we can tell all this thanks to chemical analysis of the surface of the statues. They are beautifully vibrant and vital. Each has its own character and facial expression, beard and overall look. China is one of the hardest societies I have ever tried to understand. I have only been there once- but that's once more than most Westerners. Reading its literature and looking at its art is a very foreign experience in the way that reading Islamic literature or even Indian literature is not. Through accidents of history, China seems like another region of the earth from Europe. But its an increasingly powerful and important place- from films by great directors like Zhang Yimou to its economic importance, China is not merely an object of curious interest for the West, it is a place we have to understand. This exhibition therefore is a wonderful opportunity to learn something about China and the way that it was created and its history. The terracotta warriors are so impressive that they are a reminder of the grandeur of Chinese civilisation. They are also an incentive because of their beauty to try and understand more about the culture from which they sprang, seeing their beauty inspired me to buy translated fragments from Sima Qian's history. An exhibition like this is precisely the thing that the world's museums should increasingly engage in- if there is to be dialogue between our cultures then this is a wonderful way of expressing it and I hope some British treasures make their way temporarily to Beijing. The Museum's exhibition reminds one of the importance of Chinese civilisation and the importance of cultivating an understanding of it. It also reminded me very visibly of the difficulties of historical research. There is so much that we do not know and will never know about the first Emperor. The history that we have is fragmented and written long after the Emperor's death. We have these artefacts but with many of them we are not sure of their use- and we have not yet seen inside the tomb of the Emperor to see what clues lie there. One thing I do regret about the museum's exhibition is that there was not more outside or inside from historians of the era, Chinese and Western, discussing the Emperor. There wasn't even a good academic biography for sale- an unpardonable lapse! Another gap was that the First Emperor's attitude to religion was left untouched. We were invited to see the army as a simplistic guard for the afterlife or as a manifestation of the Emperor's meglamania: but I would have liked to see something more about what Chinese people of that time beleived about the afterlife and how that connected to what the Emperor did. One interesting question that wasn't touched upon was why none of his successors made this kind of tomb- it could be that they did and the tombs are lost waiting a farmer to discover them, it could be that his example discredited the practice, it could be that beliefs had shifted, it could be that this is one of many such tombs, leaving the exhibition I was none the wiser. One felt like screaming for more information. But having said that, that is possibly the churlish attitude to take. The exhibition is wonderful- the fact that these statues have left China must have been a great diplomatic acheivement and the museum has arranged them suitably well. The First Emperor is one of those figures whose actions had momentous consequences spreading out through time, doubling and redoubling until his creation, a unified China, became one of the great powers of a globalised world in the 20th Century. Seeing the terracotta warriors, seeing the artefacts he collected around himself in his afterlife, one gets a sense of the immense power that he wielded, the creative wills that bent to his commanding will and the strength of his shortlived imperium. November 08, 2007 to race cars. Lord Drayson has fallen on his sword in order to join the Le Mans race. I have to say that I have no idea about Drayson's record as a minister but as soon as I saw this, I rejoiced, long live the politicians for whom the hinterland matters more than the greasy pole! November 07, 2007 Mark Steyn has a way of shocking me by producing some really good articles at times- I think he does this out of spite, he knows that I don't like some of his work and he wants me to be spinning in confusion unsure whether to like or dislike him. Sorry my sense of humour got the better of me tonight! Anyway today Steyn has produced I think an excellent article about popular music and the need for a canon. It is really a wonderful defence of learning for the sake of appreciation. Basically Steyn's point is that you can't understand why the Beatles are great unless you understand why Bach is great. The two go together- to understand the one is to understand the other. He makes a point about the way that in order to understand something's greatness, you have to be able to see it in its context, to see what developed around it, why that move was important. Its crucial that Picasso could paint landscapes and had been trained because then his other paintings developed a meaning, its vital that Duke Ellington could play the classic solos because then he could use them in his own work. I agree completely with him: one of the wonders of artistic knowledge is the way that it supports itself. Every time I watch a new film, or read a new book (those being the two art forms I know) they tell me something about all those previous artworks I've seen and watched. And there is a strict heirarchy of knowledge in art- I would listen to Martin Scorsese for hours on film if I could because he has watched everything, and has interesting ideas about all of what he has seen. Music is something sadly on which I'm not able to comment. One of the most illuminating moments of my life was sitting with a friend who understood music in a jazz bar in Prague. He described to me the way that what I saw as a cool sound, was actually the product of a complex interweaving of notes, a lattice of harmonies. Suddenly I saw music for a moment as this beautiful structure, which people played with, understood and manipulated- suddenly it became more than a simple nice tune, it became art, something I cared for and might grow to love. I think that appreciation is to be valued. It isn't easy to get to- appreciation of the arts is a real cost. Its something that takes time and effort, its something that you have to struggle to get to and it is something that relies on context. To take writing, its because I understand the history of English poetry that I can appreciate the opening line of the Wasteland, that April is the cruellest month- in that opening line Elliot tells us that everything that has gone before resting on Chaucer is wrong. That April is not the month of gentle showers but the month of cruelty. Poetry and novels are echoing always with previous works- the anxiety of influence was a disease that Harold Bloom diagnosed flowing through each and every author. The great writers though manage to combine that with accessibility. I learnt to read novels- and I have to say watch films (the great twentieth century entertainment) because I began through enjoying them, I ended appreciating the same books. Most of the early readers started the same way, Jonathan Rose writes illuminatingly about the way that the first Labour MPs for example read Dickens, Carlyle, Ruskin and others and thought about them in their own way. There is a wonderful novel which really describes this process which unfortunately I can't lay my hands on right now- as soon as I find my copy I'll review it- but what shines through that book is the importance of embibing cultural classics to discovering the world of culture. The route to Austen is the route through Austen, the same goes for all the great writers and indeed for filmmakers from Orson Welles and Michael Curtiz to David Cronenberg. Its when you are bitten with the bug that you know that you have fallen in love and through falling in love you learn to appreciate and to link everything together and understand this lattice of things which all have been created partly for your pleasure. Steyn is entirely right- you can enjoy the arts (I enjoy Music in this sense) without knowing much, but you enjoy them a hell of a lot more when you have exposed yourself to even more. Part of life is a continual adventure in self improvement- I definitely think that there are 'miles to go before I sleep' and probably will be when I'm dead- and I think that goes for art as well as anything else. There is always something 'further up and further in' to look at, there is always something which can prompt you to understand more or to reevaluate what was once familiar and now is strange. Sometimes I think in modern life we are too comfortable, the truth is that life is an adventure of understanding. For us who lag, it is worth looking up to those who are scaling the heights, but if they are worth looking up to then they are looking in admiration at the next climber. Nobody arrives at the summit, but the effort is what makes everything worth while- because by mastering that interesting novel you suddenly have another angle on human experience. Sitting down and saying no further is surrendering that knowledge and beauty that you might acquire by going up another notch- the world is limitless and its beauties are vast. Steyn is right. To step back is folly, to stop is folly, and in this quest the canon (the works judged before by others as good) is a useful if not flawless guide. Relaxing in a comfort zone of the works written in your own culture or your own time is a waste- there is more to see and life is too short not to read that Egyptian novelist, see that Iranian film, find out about that twelfth century monk's poetry and listen to some Beethoven before going to watch Belle and Sebastien. November 06, 2007 At the end of the First World War, the great empires of Eastern Europe, the Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Ottoman all collapsed and were replaced with a variety of successor states. Some of those states were carved out by the treaties like Lausanne and Versailles after the war, others were essentially created by military facts on the ground- and in most cases the treaty recognised what had already happened. Its worth remembering that most of the territorial changes in Europe occurred far away from the areas in which the dominant powers at Versailles- the US, UK and France- had their troops- ie the North East corner of France. Look at a map of Western Europe in 1914 and the frontiers haven't changed really that much up to today, look at a map of Eastern Europe and the world is completely different. What happened in 1918 in order to accomplish that, and happened in 1945 as well, was the massive transfer of populations across frontiers. We often think of that as a fairly harmless process- it wasn't. To take one example, for centuries, for millennia, numerous Greeks had lived in Asia Minor. Thales one of the first philosophers, if not the first, lived for example in Miletus on the coast of modern day Turkey. By the time of the Ottoman Empire, those people calling themselves Greeks still lived there- still constituted a large minority in cities like Istanbul, Smyrna and other places. In the period after World War One the Greeks and Turks battled over the frontier between their states, in 1922 the Greeks finally lost and withdrew from Asia Minor and as they did, the Greeks living there were forced out as well. I thought of this when I first heard of it, doing my history GCSE, as a fact of history, a bloodless fact- in fact of course it wasn't- there was great brutality. Just to appreciate how horrible that process of ethnic movement was, its worth looking at some of the accounts from Greeks at the time. Thalia Pandiri has collected some and published translations in the International Literary Quarterly- I suggest you go and have a read, but what she describes is truly horrifying. Women with sticks driven through their bodies till they emerge coming out of their mouths. Some of the stories are equally horrifying for the poverty they display- women feeding children flour in water for example or walking for miles with a bag gripped between their teeth and a child in each hand. When they arrived in Greece, many of them found a less than hospitable reception awaiting them as well. Many of them afterall looked not to the new Greece but to the Russian Tsar, traditional protector of orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, as their prince. Bringing up old atrocities has more purpose to just wallowing in misfortune. The experience of Greeks moving from Asia Minor to European Greece was horrific, but it is relatively unknown. It highlights something though of worth to consider- that moving populations is always difficult. You encounter the fact that people don't want to leave their homes, you encounter the fact that newcomers aren't always welcome when they arrive. That is even true, when unlike say in Palestine, the moving population are in the end absorbed by another population- as in the Greek case where most of the immigrants report that they did eventually become successful Greeks. Ultimately though the experience of the Greeks moving across from Asia to Europe reminds us of two things: firstly that we should not be blase about moving populations around the globe- should for example climate change result in the destruction of Bangladesh we would see the events of Asia Minor on an even greater scale even if we found somewhere for those people to go. Secondly and perhaps more importantly, it reminds us of our own powerlessness. By the end of World War One, there was barely an army around apart from those of the Western Allies and even then in Eastern Europe, it was the facts on the ground that mattered, not the pious declarations from Paris, London and Washington. International politics requires modesty as well as ambition. November 05, 2007 An interesting piece in the Guardian reports comments from the MI5 head, Jonathan Evans, that increasingly Al Qaeda is targetting its recruitment efforts at younger and younger Muslims. In particular the organisation is looking to young British Muslims in their teens. Obviously the teenage years are amongst the prime years for people to form adult identities. One of the issues surrounding that is that people in their teenage years are often uncomfortable or unsure about where they are and what they are. They are thus prime for recruitment by groups like Al Qaeda which offer a strong identity and a purpose to life at a time when most people are going through confused emotional tempests. Part of the problem of course is what we do about this- ultimately it comes down in part to a working education system which isn't segregated (segregation is a wonderful way to manufacture resentment from afar). No doubt, youth workers, youth organisations, parents and mosques (as well as a host of others that I've forgotten) can help as well but the spectacle of the teenage suicide bomber may grow depressingly familiar as we go into the future. Well the Liberal Left Conspiracy came to the internet today- obviously as a group it has existed for a long time- liberals and lefties, the gay mafia, the illuminati and the free masons not to mention commies and various others have been conspiring for years which is why they have been quite so successful on both sides of the Atlantic in maintaining their control over the world. I am one of the conspirators as anyone looking at the roster will know- and I have to say I'm proud to be. The right has organised brilliantly on the internet- and Conservative Home is a really good clearing house for rightwing ideas- I know some of the best rightwing bloggers like say Matt Sinclair have written there. There isn't really any equivalent place to meet leftwing people and discuss politics on the net- Labour home is not as good as Conservative Home, its often too insular and focused in on Labour party internal affairs, other places are dominated by different sectional interests- its time the left came together in the UK on the net- and this is one option, lets hope it succeeds for doing that. Ok lets turn to the whole idea of the liberal left- what does it mean to be on the liberal left and why do those words fit together. Lets define them first: broadly speaking I think that to be on the left is to be concerned about equality, and that to be liberal is to be concerned about freedom. The point about equality is that it produces freedom. Wealth is power- money would be nothing unless it had a value and that value is the goods and services it commands. The more wealth that someone has and the more independent that wealth from the interference of others, the freer they are to gain what they want in life. Rightwingers believe that the only obstacle to a free will is a state: they are right that the state can be a significant obstacle to the exercise of a free will, noone with any knowledge of this century could deny that and many on the left stood against the state as it limited the freedom of will (Orwell is a great example) but rightwingers are wrong to say that it is only the state which obstructs freedom. Corporations do too- and even the wealthy can obstruct liberty- both can use the state as well in their own interests- you could argue that that is what the British libel laws do. Equality is married to freedom thus at a fundamental level- because without equality I cannot be free. Its encapsulated in that old piece of wisdom that beggars can't be choosers- something that the right tend to forget. This isn't an argument for state socialism, it could be but it isn't. It isn't an argument for any particular vision of society. But it is an argument that you cannot have real freedom without having equality, that you cannot be concerned about liberal things, without being concerned about leftwing things. And that goes as well for many of the other battles that the left are involved in, freeing women from the dominion of their husbands, freeing homosexual people from the legal restrictions of those that don't share their morality, freeing the innocent from the tyranny of a despot who would rather hold us all in jail than listen to any of us. All these things are both leftwing and liberal- how they are achieved is a totally separate issue but they can only be acheived if we think about equality and freedom together and try to acheive both through our policies. That's why I'm conspiring for the liberal left (though I have to say this blog will remain basically what it has always been)! November 04, 2007 Clive James is a figure unlike most others in our world- James has made a career of being an omnivore. From the chatshow couch to the comic circuit to the learned essay, James has succeeded everywhere he has gone. Writing and broadcasting, he has turned his natural wit to good account and provided a series of sparkling memoirs to furnish the bookshelves of the learned with. Cultural Amnesia, his latest book, is a fine effort to capture the unique folds of James's own mental landscape- he provides a short essay on over 100 cultural characters mainly from the last century. All the essays come out of a single quote- and often James doesn't even pause to ponder the life, instead pondering the importance of that quote. The quoted range from Duke Ellington to Hegel, Federico Fellini to Margerate Thatcher, from Tacitus and Edward Gibbon to Coco Chanel and Adolf Hitler. The range is astonishing- though the absense of any scientists is equally astonishing. James mentions an Albert Einstein but its the musician not his more famous namesake and relative the physicist. Indeed science is one of the leading absenses from the collection which is biassed very much towards the arts. Analytical philosophy is also underepresented- we have an essay on Wittgenstein but characteristically in it philosophy students are dismissed for giving him the 'credit for everything that would have struck them if they had ever been left along with the merest metaphysical lyric from the early seventeenth century.' The Wittgenstein that matters to philosophers is the one that 'they can prove only to each other' and what James is interested in is the Wittgenstein that matters to the writer- to the humanist. For that is what this book really is, a monument to what we might call humanism. A humanism that sees the limits of the human as surely as it does the extent of his range. James is limited- but to stress that is to undermine really his acheivement here- which is to gather and express particles of knowledge and understanding across many fields and many languages. He gets some judgements wrong- he dismisses Edward Gibbon as a poor stylist. James tells us that 'what he [Gibbon] wrote rarely lets you forget that it has been written'- possibly that's true but its also Gibbon's virtue and not to see that is to miss what Gibbon was trying to do and therefore to criticise him by a standerd he wasn't attempting to reach. James doesn't get Gibbon's historical breadth or depth either- doesn't see that the styllistic tics are made up for by the fact that Gibbon was another such as James who spanned centuries in a massive project that will probably never be attempted let alone completed again.Quotation has this feature that it inspires you to seek out the epigram- the fragment that illuminates rather than the rolling cadence of prose. Martial the great Latin poet is perhaps the most eminently quotable of Latin poets in that what he wrote was bitchy and short, James in these essays has the same quality. Like the greatest essayists he can skewer wonderfully. He can also at his best capture real nuance- his description of Edward Said in this sentence is perfect, 'As a critic and man of letters he has an enviable scope but it is continually invaded by his political strictness'. It captures the many sidedness of Said- the political lack of nuance which led him to some cartoonish descriptions of orientalists and of the orient but also the greatness- for Said who always recognised Israel and wanted Palestinians to recognise the sorrows of the Jews was a great man. James is able to capture that and through a quotation of Said's about the Battle of Algiers, bring to life the double sidedness of Said. But this book is not all nuance. James is more often than not on the good side and vows war against those who cravenly boosted tyranny. He writes eloquently about the Manns- Heinrich, Thomas and Golo- all of whom resisted Hitler from outside the boundaries of exile. Of all the praise though it is that devoted to Sophie Scholl which most resonated with me. Scholl, James tells us, 'was probably a saint' and died in complete silence. What James wants to do with praise is make us think- he points to the fact that in his judgement despite the fact that there is a perfect actress for the role alive today (Natalie Portman) Scholl should never be portrayed by Hollywood. The finality of her end is her tragedy- far better for it to be a more obscure German film starring the unknown Julia Jenstch to portray her for the public so that they too understand the finality of the fall of the ax upon her neck shut out one of the true heroines of the twentieth century and sent her to darkness. If Scholl volunteered to die, despite the fact she did not have to, to make a point against an odious regime, then James rightly eviscerates those who have supported those odious regimes. Though Sartre is his betenoir- he hates Sartre's evading of responsibility, hates the fact that 'Sartre was called profound because it sounded if he was either that or nothing' but ultimately his essay on Sartre is not the most interesting. Rather I think it is the essay on a much slighter figure- Peirre Drieu La Rochelle- a leading intellectual of Vichy that really made me think. For what he captures in that essay is the moment of victory in 1945, when the Germans were driven out and La Rochelle committed suicide. The key fact for James though is to evaluate the hysteria- a hysteria he informs us drily that Sartre backed and that Camus (who actually had a resistance record) disdained (though Camus thought there ought to be a reckoning). He leaves us in no doubt of the guilt of Pierre Drieu La Rochelle- but also paints a picture of France in those years which is terrifyingly accurate. Totalitarianism is one of the foci of this book- James argues long and hard against it. Whether it is Communist or Fascist, he suggests it is deeply repugnant and you get the sense that he thinks that clear writing, thinking and reading are its enemies. As he said recently to Stephen Colbert, intellectuals get things wrong all the time- but they get them wrong less than those who don't open themselves to intellectual pursuits. In reality this book is a book about heroes- but it is not a book about heroism. The essay structure enables there to be a convincing absense of structure- in the sense that James is not interested in archetypes but in individuals- his essays are at their most effective when they describe either of two things- the impact of writing upon him as an individual or the way that this individual's career worked. An essay on Nadezhda Mandelstam is incredibly effective at making you realise the pain that she must have felt as the Stalinist machinery of death whirled past her windows. It drives you to the reality of the statistics. Though James is reassuringly committed to the dry substance of the real world, he is most acute when he focuses on individual experiences, exploring them and rendering them to his reader. His selection is driven, as he argues in his essay on Chris Marker, by the solidity of the facts that he sees and understands but his talent is for explaining experience. This is a book which is unashamedly focused on reality- James gives postmodernism and its creeds of unreality very short shrift indeed. He is openly contemptuous of philosophical relativism and disdain for truth- openly praises the empirical and solidly researched. He bases his love for art upon a respect for reality. James's range of understanding in this book is incredible. James is a great evoker of what other authors do and write and film and play. He can convey the meaning of others' statements in such a way as to make you want to read and listen to and watch their books, music and films. He makes you want to stroll down the streets of Vienna in particular and pop into the cafes to hear the arguments and consume the culture. He makes you want to open the books, to understand what Contini means when he says that you need to learn poetry. He creates a desire in you to leap from cultural tree to tree- as James himself in these essays does- referring for instance in an essay on Marc Bloch to the seductions and disappointments of Pound's poetry. He made me want to learn languages- to read these authors in their original tongues and capture the calligraphy of sound that they all employed. Ultimately there isn't a greater compliment for a book like this than to say that- to say that this book is like the trunk of a great tree, along whose branches if you pursue them are fruit much more gaudy than anything found in the original bark. This is a book that leads to other books. Its a book that can be read at one sitting or dipped into- yes there are mistakes and there are manifold errors. But to forgive someone for misunderstanding that Gibbon is amongst the greatest English historians requires a great acheivement and this book is a great and interesting acheivement. The other day I wrote an article on analytical blogging, which got some negative attention from Dizzy, who makes a fairly amusing point against it though personally I'm not as convinced as he is that intelligence is only reserved for the elite. Its interesting as well that modern conservatives often have tended towards being unabashedly in favour of populism- that reinforces one of my feelings that modern conservatism and other historical forms of conservatism are not the same- I can't imagine Edmund Burke or Hayek even giving three cheers for the Sun in the way that Dizzy does! However that isn't the main point of this post. Matt Sinclair asks a much more interesting question about smart people and blogging, and I think he is right to ask it and the answer in the case of this blog demonstrates something which I think is interesting. Matt asks "Why should someone with interesting and novel things to say use the blogosphere as a medium?", he goes on to deliver some interesting answers, all of which depend mostly on the community as a whole providing a forum. Matt imagines that blogging is a bit like an intellectual salon on the net, in which we can throw around ideas, as he rightly points out that presumes a membership, there is no point talking to onesself. Somebody asked me on my thread about this, why I don't do more analytical work on politics. I do a bit, but nowhere near what Chris Dillow does on Stumbling and Mumbling- and I think this ties into another reason to maintain a blog, which is one of the basic reasons that Westminster Wisdom (the title is partly ironic) exists. This blog really isn't an analytical policy blog- though I do occasionally rummage through politics and policy, its really a purely egoistic exercise. For me a blog is the equivalent of an 18th Century common place book, ie its where I put down my impressions of the world so I can go back to them. An interesting quote, a fun video, a film review, even a review of a novel, anything which makes me remember how I reacted to something for the first time. I think that is a valid reason to keep a blog- partly because experience flows past me at such a rate that I can never really grab hold of it. Throughout my life, amongst my major vices is forgetfulness, and that means that I often lose hold of what I should know or should remember. Here I have a resource to which I can turn, when I want to, to find out about say Rousseau's walks or Bresson's Joan of Arc. Part of that is it forces me to think about what I see and read more acutely than ever before: because I know I'm going to have to write an article up here on it. That makes me look deeper and try and understand more. Its also a good resource to remember what an idiot I am occasionally- there are moments on this blog where I know I've been a complete fool- reminding onesself of that is a good thing and doing it on a blog is fairly harmless. (Which in a way brings me back to Dizzy, acute mockery of your own pretensions is always a good thing to read!) In answer to Matt's question therefore- I think there is another reason- in addition to the good ones he has given- for a person to keep a blog and that is as an online diary. Afterall that is what blogs started off being- and I wonder whether in the end that will be their principle use. LATER Incidentally Dizzy should probably go and watch this.

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Onuskis (Anishok or Anushishok in Yiddish) lies in the northeastern part of Lithuania, about 5 km. from the Latvian border and about 20 km. northwest of the District Administrative Center Rakishok (Rokiskis). Anishok is situated on a plain between forested hills which is very scenic. The lands of the town belonged to the Polish Graf Komar, to whom the Jews of the town and the farmers of the area paid rent. Wealthier Jews bought land from him on which they built their houses. The mansion of the Graf was situated near the town. The square in the center of town was ringed with shops, and the town's water supply well stood in the middle of the square. From the square a narrow alley led to the winding road to Rakishok. Most houses were built of wood, except for the tavern that was more substantial. This belonged to the Graf until he sold it to a Jew named Fain. Before World War I a tombstone from the mid-eighteenth century was found in the Jewish cemetery, which suggests that Jews had settled in Anishok by that time. In the nineteenth century the Jews were the majority in the town. Before World War I about 80 to 90 Jewish families lived in Anishok, but during the war years their number decreased to about 50 to 60 families. Most Anishok Jews had shops selling tools, grocery, haberdashery, hats and women's clothing. One Jew had a business in dyeing textiles. Others dealt in timber, horses and cattle. Others grew fruit. There were Jewish craftsmen and peddlers. Most income was earned on Sundays and on the Christian holidays when hundreds of peasants from the district came to church and afterwards did their shopping. Their best customers were the nearby Latvians, because at this time there was no border between Lithuania and Kurland (Latvia). Before World War I and until the establishment of the Lithuania-Latvia border, the economic situation of the Anishok Jews was fairly good. They all led traditional lives. The Mithnagdim and Hasidim attended separate prayer houses. There were Hadarim for the Jewish boys. Jewish children were sent to study in the Jewish schools of Rakishok, Vilkomir and Kovno, and a few attended the local Lithuanian pro-gymnasium. At the beginning of the twentieth century the ideals of Zionism and Haskalah gained support in Anishok. The Jewish youth embraced the Zionist and revolutionary ideas that were popular at the time. The names of many Anishok Jews appear in the published lists of donors for the settlement of Eretz-Yisrael for the years 1898, 1900 and 1903. The fund raisers were M. Kaplan, R. Kaplan and M. Fain. In 1902 and 1905 a circle of active revolutionaries was established in Anishok. Hirsh Lekert (1879-1902) was a member of this circle; he attempted to kill the Gubernator of Vilna, Fon Wal. The Gubernator was only injured and Lekert was caught and hanged. This assault made a great impression all over Russia and in particular among the Jews. Authors wrote about this event and the best known was the drama Hirsh Lekert by the Yiddish writer H. Leivik, that was performed for the first time in Vilna in 1931. With the outbreak of war in 1914, as the front moved toward Anishok many Jews escaped to Russia. A few returned home in 1922 and 1923, but many remained there. The returning Jews found the town plundered and desolate without any economic prospects. Many of them then chose to settle in the district center Rakishok or in Kovno. After the establishment of the Lithuanian state in 1918 and following the Law of Autonomies for Minorities issued by the new Lithuanian government, the Minister for Jewish Affairs, Dr. Menachem (Max) Soloveitshik, ordered elections for Community Committees (Va'adei Kehilah) to be held in the summer of 1919. In Anishok a community committee with five members was elected in 1920. It received administrative and financial support from the Ministry for Jewish Affairs in Kovno. Letters from the Ministry to the committee were written in three languages: Lithuanian, Yiddish and Hebrew. The committee was active in all aspects of Jewish life from 1920 until 1924. As stated above, the severing of the connection with markets in Latvia caused economic hardships in the town. The estate owners and the peasants, who lost their clients in Latvia, were forced take their produce to the district center in order to sell it, and they did much of their own shopping there. As a result of this many of the Jewish merchants in Anishok lost their livelihood. |A Jewish house in Anishok (1937)| According to the government survey of 1931 the Jewish businesses included a pharmacy and a general store. In 1937 there were fourteen Jewish artisans: five tailors, four shoemakers, two butchers, two bakers and one other. In 1939 there were no telephones in the town. The economic situation became worse from year to year and many, in particular the young, left town to build their future abroad. Also the elderly moved to Rakishok and Kovno or joined their families abroad. All this led to a decrease in the number of the Jewish families in Anishok. Only about twenty-five families remained in town, mostly elderly who were supported by their children in America and South Africa. Among the rabbis who officiated in Anishok were: Yisrael-Iser Klatzkin (1844-1921)Avraham-Dov Popel (1871-1923) who was among the builders of the Independence of Lithuania, later was Deputy Chairman of the Nationalrat (National Committee) of Lithuanian Jews, Chairman of the Association of Rabbis and a delegate to the Lithuanian Seimas where his speech against death penalty was printed in many newspapers around the world. Despite being active in the Agudath Yisrael party, he supported the funds for the settlement of Eretz-Yisrael. He died in Mariampol at the age of 52. Tsevi-Nathan Kaplan, the last rabbi of the community, was murdered by the Lithuanians in 1941. |Rabbi Avraham-Dov Popel| Anishok Jews purchased Shekalim and took part in elections for the Zionist congresses. In 1927, 20 Shekalim were sold. In 1937, 55 Zionists voted for the nineteenth Zionist congress as follows: 20 for the Labor party, 24 voted for the General Zionists B, 6 for the General Zionists A and 5 for Mizrahi. Jewish personages born in Anishok include: Hirsh Lekert, who is mentioned above; Yehoshua Bodzon (1858-1929), writer; Beinush Belek, a melamed (teacher of a Heder). One of his sons, Leib Belek became a leader of the British Labor party and his second son Ben Zion was a leader of the leftist movement in Lithuania; Yehoshua Bodzon wrote many popular novels in Yiddish that were published in Vilna in the 1890s. He later became an accountant. In 1941 the Jews of Anishok were murdered by the Germans and their Lithuanian helpers. The location of the murder site is not known. Nor is it known whether the atrocities took place in the town or if the Jews were transported to be murdered along with the Jews of Rakishok or Obeliai. According to a Lithuanian source the pharmacist Antanas Truskis hid the Jewish doctor Kovalsky. Yad Vashem archives, Jerusalem, M-31/983; Koniukhovsky collection 0-71, files 88, 90 YIVO, New York, Collection of Lithuanian Jewish Communities, pages 4565, 4571, 4589 Bakaltchuk-Felin, Meilakh (Editor); Yizkor book of Rakishok and surroundings (Yiddish) Johannesburg, 1952, pages 366-369 Julius, Rafael; Pinkas Hakehiloth-Lita, Anishok, Yad Vashem, 1996 Folksblat, Kovno, 3.2.1935 The above article is an excerpt from Protecting Our Litvak Heritage by Josef Rosin. The book contains this article along with many others, plus an extensive description of the Litvak Jewish community in Lithuania that provides an excellent context to understand the above article. Click here to see where to obtain the book. JewishGen, Inc. makes no representations regarding the accuracy of the translation.The reader may wish to refer to the original material for verification. JewishGen is not responsible for inaccuracies or omissions in the original work and cannot rewrite or edit the text to correct inaccuracies and/or omissions. Our mission is to produce a translation of the original work and we cannot verify the accuracy of statements or alter facts cited. Protecting Our Litvak Heritage Yizkor Book Project JewishGen Home Page Copyright © 1999-2013 by JewishGen, Inc. Updated 27 Jul 2011 by OR

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Bay of Pigs Invasion info On the 17th of April, 1961, Brigade 2506, comprised of Cuban exiles, landed at the Bay of Pigs on the southern-central coast of Cuba. They were mostly young men who came from all sectors of society and regions of the island with one common goal: to overthrow the growing communism led by Fidel Castro who was imposing a rigid totalitarian system on this largest island of the Antilles. In three days of hard fighting they were defeated by highly superior forces. Almost 40 years after this event we must ask ourselves about the factors that determined the creation of the Brigade, the causes of their defeat, and its consequences for Cuba and the rest of the world. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND By early 1960 it was evident that the promises made by Castro about the restoration of democracy at the beginning of his government after the flight of dictator Fulgencio Batista on January 1st, 1959, had vanished. By that time the promise of general elections was discarded along with key men in the government who were truly prodemocratic. Also almost gone was the free press (nearly wiped out by mid-1960). There was a growing trend of confiscations of private property, while unions and student associations had been controlled through trickery. To make the picture more clear, members of the old and unpopular communist party were increasingly entering positions of power, while an effective repressive apparatus was being constructed under the model of those of Eastern Europe. By 1961, Castro had also intervened militarily in four Caribbean and Central American Presiding over this process was the figure of a leader who, like no other one before in Cuba, had awakened enormous faith and trust from the people. He himself denied many times that his government had communist leanings, but its actions increasingly indicated that it was heading towards a new dictatorship of a totalitarian communist nature Resulting from those realities, inside as well as outside Cuba, preparations were being made to fight the new order by those who felt betrayed by it and by those who did not desire a regime of that nature clandestine urban groups were creating a growing anti-Castro movement, potentially very threatening to the incipient dictatorship. Through lliance with the USSR Castro. Because of this, many thought that only through the help of the United States was it possible to rid themselves of the new dictatorship that was developing around the most charismatic and unscrupulous leader ever produced in Cuba. Near the end of 1960, the dissatisfaction of the powerful and unbeaten northern neighbor and important members of the Cuban democratic leadership came together in a special way in an effort to overthrow Castro via military means, the only way possible due to his closure of peaceful alternatives DEVELOPMENT OF THE MILITARY OPERATION The initial military strategy outlined by the United States--in which many of the Cuban leaders placed an extreme confidence--consisted of the development of guerrilla warfare, which would be promoted by exiles that would land on various strategic points throughout the island. This plan was later changed in favor of a massive landing by a conventional expeditionary force also comprised of exiles. This was later known as Brigade 2506, honoring the number of the first person who gave his life in this process. The reasons for this change were due to the enormous quantity of weapons received by Castro from the USSR, especially MiG fighter aircraft, which would become operational by mid-1961. This situation required a conventional force to defeat such development. Another reason was the alleged lack of effectiveness of those who were carrying on the fight against Castro inside Cuba, although the fact that there was a lack of security within these clandestine movements due to government infiltration was also mentioned. The strategy of a massive landing undermined the internal effort to eliminate Castro from within the revolutionary ranks. In any event, today there is evidence that there was little effective cooperation between the rural guerrillas, that noticeably sprung up throughout the country, and the American agencies. The military operation against Castro was the product of an American plan. This was prepared without adequate participation on the part of the exiled leaders, both civilian and military. This leadership was centered in the Revolutionary Council, directed by Dr. José Miró Cardona, former prime minister of Cuba in 1959. The military plan was the object of great debate in the cabinet of president Kennedy because of his preoccupation with keeping the flagrant intervention by the United States. This was a rather naïve worry because the information already revealed by the press regarding the training of the exiles left little room for doubt. For these reasons the White House vetoed the landing at Trinidad-Casilda, on the southern-central coast. This was an ideal location selected by the American military officials who planned the operation. But it was perceived as too "revealing" of the presence of the U.S. and was changed, to the west, in the same area, in favor of the Bay of Pigs and adjacent Girón Beach, which was tactically and strategically inferior. The plan consisted of the landing of some 1,400 heavily armed exiles from Brigade 2506. This invasion was to be preceded by three days of aerial attacks from vintage World War II B-26 aircraft flown by Cuban pilots from bases in Nicaragua which were to destroy Castro's air force on the ground. This was comprised of faster and more modern aircraft left by the Batista regime. These planes had to be destroyed in order to achieve the crucial aerial supremacy without which the operation could not succeed. This premise was repeated many times by the instructors to the exiles who were worried about their blatant numerical inferiority. They were assured that "the sky would be theirs." Upon establishing a beachhead, and with the continued support of the exile air force who would be based in that zone, the troops would advance, counting on internal support by way of uprisings and desertions and further support from abroad. The total power which the U.S. held over the military operation, based on its absolute logistical contribution, turned out to be fatal to the goal of overthrowing Castro. The Revolutionary Council, in practice, had no other alternative but to subordinate itself to the direction of the U.S., at the same time thinking about the invincibility and reliability of this powerful ally. However, the refusal on the part of president Kennedy to guarantee victory once the operation was launched, condemned to failure the actions of the exiles before their landing on the 17th of April, 1961. As a result of the naive fear of making too evident the American support (already well known) and of the public promise made by president Kennedy that he would not intervene in Cuba--a point that has been debated--the first aerial attack is partially conducted on April 15th on several air bases. This was carried out with half of the planes originally designated due to a presidential decision, since the attacks were to be presented as uprisings of Castro's air force. Those bombings don't destroy the enemy planes. Furthermore, due to the scandal generated, the two remaining planned air raids were canceled. After that moment, the operation was doomed due to the lack of fulfillment of its main premise. PART 1 Last edited by 5.56X45mm; April 19th, 2006 at 06:10..

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LAVC Writing Center Simple fragments can usually be easily fixed once a writer learns to check each sentence for a subject and a verb. But, there are other types of fragments that are a little tougher to identify and correct because they follow a different set of rules than simple fragments. This handout will help to answer some of the questions and provide solutions for helping to avoid complex fragments. Can you find a complex fragment by asking the question, “Does this sentence have a subject and a verb?” Common Causes of Complex Fragments A group of words with a subject and an –ing verb can still be a fragment. Fragment: Some of the athletes running in the Olympics. Complete Sentence: Some of the athletes are running in the Olympics. The above fragment has a subject and a verb, but it’s still a fragment. Whenever a sentence has an –ing verb, it must also have a helping verb (was, is, are, were, etc.). - A group of words that contains a complete sentence, but begins with a subordinator can be a fragment. Fragment: Although we were going to dinner for Bill’s birthday. Complete Sentence: Although we were going to dinner for Bill’s birthday, we were still going to have another party for him on the weekend. In this case, “although” is a subordinator, or a word that makes an independent clause into a dependent clause. When a subordinator is used, the dependent clause must be used in conjunction with a comma and an independent clause to make a complete sentence. Some popular subordinators are: when, until, after, before, however, while, because, since, though, if, so that, so, and where. - A group of words that contains a complete sentence, but begins with a coordinating conjunction can be a fragment. Fragment: So the dog ran away with the spoon. Complete Sentence: The farmer ate all the bones, so the dog ran away with the spoon. Coordinating conjunctions act like subordinators. Since the sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, this group of words becomes a dependent clause. To turn this clause into a sentence, the writer could add an independent clause and a comma before the coordinating conjunction. See the Coordinating Conjunctions handout for more information on them. - A group of words that contains a complete sentence, but begins with a relative pronoun (that, who, whose, whom, which, when, etc.) can be a fragment. Fragment: That he should have been told first. Complete Sentence: Everyone agreed that he should have been told first. In this example, the use of a relative pronoun at the beginning makes this phrase a dependent clause. In order to make this a complete sentence, the writer can either remove the word “That” or add information before it to clear up the meaning. More Causes of Complex Fragments Verbal phrases may be fragments: Participial phrases (when verb phrases act as adjectives) Fragment: Jumping as high as he could Complete Sentence: The boy, jumping as high as he could, grabbed the ball. Gerund Phrases (when –ing verb phrases act as a subject or object) Fragment: Rolling in the grass Complete Sentence: Rolling in the grass made him itch. Infinitive Phrases (verb phrases contain “to” and another verb acting as a noun, adjective, or adverb) Fragment: To be or not to be Complete Sentence: To be or not to be is the question. There are still more common causes of fragments that you can look for in your writing. Phrases that help writers create complex sentences can be also be causes of complex fragments, if they aren’t used correctly. Still More Causes of Fragments Parenthetical Phrases, or Appositives may be fragments These are phrases used to add supplemental information and usually interrupt the flow of a sentence. Fragment: Tom, a doctor Complete Sentence: Tom, a doctor, is very tall. Unconnected lists are fragments What information does your list belong to? Fragment: Onions, tomato, and garlic Complete Sentence: Tomato sauce has three main ingredients: onions, tomato, and garlic. Expressions that introduce an example may be fragments. Such as, for example, as in, like, etc. Fragment: For example, a fish. Complete Sentence: There are many good pets, for example, a fish. Prepositional Phrases may be fragments. See the Prepositions handout for more information about prepositional phrases. Fragment: At the park. Complete Sentence: There was a game at the park. Exceptions to the Rule Everybody knows that any good rule has to have a couple of exceptions. Rules that govern fragments are no different. People use fragments all the time when they speak. Can you imagine having to speak in complete sentences every time you had a conversation, especially when you could answer a question in just a word or two? Probably not. But, when we write, there are rules that we have follow so that our writing makes sense. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule, too. So, every writer wants to know, “When can I use fragments and get away with them?” These are some common places where fragments are allowed in writing, even though it’s still important to make sure that what you write will make sense to anyone who is going to read it: - Imperatives – When a writer gives a command, the subject is usually implied, and therefore, a sentence without a subject can be considered complete. Ex: Throw me the ball. (The implied subject is “You.”) - Creative Writing – Author’s use fragments all the time for emphasis or to imitate speech. When you’re writing a story, fragments can be a great tool, once you know how to use them correctly. - Advertising – Fragments are used in advertising for the same reasons as when they’re used in creative writing. - Informal Situations – When you’re writing a letter to a friend, or a journal entry, or any other type of informal exercises, usually it’s acceptable to use fragments in your writing. Finally, a writer should be able to check for fragments in their own writing. But how? One way to evaluate your writing is to read it slowly and carefully. Ask yourself, “If I made this statement to a stranger, would the statement make sense on it’s own?” If no, then you might have a fragment. Another great way to check for fragments is to see if you can turn the statement into a yes/no question. John, the pastor at my church. Did John, the pastor at my church? This question doesn’t make sense, so we have a fragment. John, the pastor at my church, makes great barbeque ribs. Does John, the pastor at my church, make great barbeque ribs? This is a question we can answer. It’s not a fragment. For the following exercises, try first to determine whether or not the following sentences are complete. If not, revise the sentences so that they are complete. If the exercises begin as complex sentences, try and fix them so that they remain so. - Geraldine, the runner in the green jumpsuit jogging the track. - However, the meeting still went well, according to the head of the company. - Which is the first thing that he thought of when he built the castle, he thought. - So, I called my other friend to ask him the same question. - Riding a horse is the most fun activity that anyone can do in his or her spare time. - To drive from New York to Los Angeles, and to go to a Dodger game, and to sit in the outfield seats. - Such as you could only see at the original IceCapades. - Rudy, a twelve-year-old girl, loved playing football and beating up her brothers. - A rubber ducky, two pieces of string, twenty-four paper clips, a monkey wrench, and your mother’s blessing. - Around four o’clock, and close to the school they used to go to when they were kids. This handout is based on the following websites: “Common Causes of Sentence Fragments.” St. Cloud State University: Literacy Education Online. 02 Feb. 2005. <http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/punct/fragmentcauses.html>. “Fragments.” Big Dog’s Grammar. 02 Feb. 2005. <http://aliscot.com/bigdog/fragments.htm>. “The Grammar Outlaw.” Acadia University English Department. 02 Feb. 2005. “Sentence Fragments.” Capital Community College. 02 Feb. 2001. “Sentence Fragments.” UIUC Center for Writing Studies. 02 Feb. 2005. “Verbals and Verbal Phrases.” UIUC Center for Writing Studies. 02 Feb. 2005. - Active Voice Vs. Passive Voice - Adjective and Adverbs - APA Format (Sample included) - The Comma - Creating A Resume - Essay Writing - Fragments II - Gerunds And Infinitives - In-class Essay Exams - Internet Basics - Internet Research - Microsoft Word Basics - MLA Format (Updated) - Paragraph Development - Parts of Speech - Personal Statement Essays - Pronoun Agreement - Run-on Sentences - Speech Giving - Study Skills/Time Management - Subject Verb Agreement - Thesis Statements - Verb Tenses - Verbs With -ED Endings - The Writing Process - Writing A Summary

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The China widely bruited as the next hegemonic power is the product of 150 years of false starts, repeated disappointments, and astonishing violence. During the 19th century China was often at war with foreign countries but internal warfare was far worse; the famous Taiping Rebellion alone claimed tens of millions of lives. China's imperial system collapsed in 1912 and decades of internal chaos followed. The eight years of war between China and Japan—July 1937 to September 1945—displayed a ferocity comparable to the German-Soviet front in Europe. After the China-Japan war, the civil war resumed, and there were millions of casualties. In 1950, the new People's Republic of China invaded Tibet and battled armed resistance until 1959. Turkic peoples in the northwest of the country also fought Chinese rule and they, too, were bloodily suppressed. Mao Zedong (1893-1976) then turned against the Chinese people themselves. He initiated the Great Leap Forward in the 1950s, a brutal campaign of collectivization and man-made famine that took more than 40 million lives. In the 1960s, he started the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, which cost more lives and wrought more destruction. Mao's death in 1976 triggered a brief, but intense, power struggle, from which a 75-year-old man named Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997) emerged as the country's dominant political figure. Now Ezra Vogel has taken on the daunting task of explaining how Deng, inheriting the mess Mao had made, set China on a radically new course. "Reform and opening up," as Deng called his policy, is into its fourth decade and few will argue with Vogel that Deng's program has had an enormous influence. Vogel brings a formidable background to his depiction of Deng's efforts. Now emeritus professor at Harvard, he has been a sociologist, a China—focused intelligence officer, and an industrious "Pekingologist," that is, someone who pays close attention to the inner workings of China's Communist Party and the political system it has created. * * * Vogel devotes but a few score of his almost 900 pages to Deng's activities before the consolidation of his position in the late 1970s. Deng became a Communist when he was 18. By 1930, he had allied himself with Mao Zedong's faction inside the party and he rose rapidly. He survived the Long March and the intra-party purges associated with it. He commanded troops in the protracted Communist-Nationalist civil war. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, he was an unwavering Mao loyalist and, in 1957, the chairman made him the party's highest-ranking administrative official, general secretary. Vogel leaves us to fend for ourselves if we wish to discern Deng's mindset. One instructive episode occurs during his leadership of the Chinese delegation to the famous Soviet Communist Party Congress in 1956 where Nikita Khrushchev, Joseph Stalin's successor, powerfully criticized Stalin's crimes—not so much the ones Stalin had committed against tens of millions of Soviet citizens, but those against members of the Communist Party. Vogel does not quote Khrushchev but one can easily find and read what Deng heard Khrushchev say about Stalin: Stalin did not tolerate collegiality...he practiced brutal violence...his character was capricious and despotic...he demanded absolute submission to his opinion...whoever opposed him was doomed to moral and physical liquidation...Stalin showed in a whole series of cases his intolerance, his brutality and his abuse of power...he chose the path of repression and physical annihilation. Khrushchev called Stalin's personality cult "an expression of the most dissolute flattery, an example of making a man into a godhead." All of this was more than merely reminiscent of Mao Zedong. Deng was appalled and, when he returned to China, he joined Mao in a spirited defense of Stalin; indeed, Deng himself wrote the pro-Stalin polemics that marked the initial phase of the Sino-Soviet split. But Deng was more than a polemicist; he was also a practitioner. Vogel does not reflect on what Mao and Deng saw in each other nor, more important to his book, on the deeper personal qualities that Deng would later bring to his own post-1978 program. "Deng, the implementer," Vogel writes, "had always been more practical and realistic than Mao, the philosopher, poet, and dreamer." A partnership of dreamer and doer, indeed: as Mao's chief operating officer, Deng was deeply involved in many murderous episodes of the 1950s, culminating in the "Great Leap Forward." Still, for Vogel, the first four decades of Deng's career are not as interesting or as significant as the last three. The murder and mayhem just happened. Vogel's tone is flat, but it is also morally obtuse. Put plainly, Deng's infatuation with Mao's philosophy, poetry, and dreams helped to destroy tens of millions of lives. * * * But what of Deng's sense of himself? For decades, he had seen comrades perish and suffer. More than once, Mao had capriciously demoted him and sent him into rough and dangerous internal exile. Deng's son was beaten into paralysis while imprisoned by the Red Guards and the father of his third wife was killed in a "land reform" campaign. Many turned on the party, but Deng's faith in its historic mission endured. Indeed, when he had the chance, Deng directed a "historical evaluation" of Mao that pronounced him "seventy percent right." The 30% wrong was the campaigns he had directed against party members, threatening the party's hold on power. Thus, many good party members victimized by Mao were to be "rehabilitated" if dead or, if still alive, returned to positions of influence. As for the rest of Mao's legacy, it is by Deng's order that Mao still looks out over Tiananmen Square and his face still appears on the country's currency. Vogel says that Deng had his reasons. Maintenance of the Communist Party's monopoly on power was one of the four objectives of his plan. Deng could not imagine a way forward without the party's dictatorship and thus he consistently suppressed advocates of political liberalization, most notoriously in 1989 when he ordered military forces into Tiananmen Square. Hu Jintao, now the head of both China's Communist Party and its government, was brought to Beijing by Deng in 1989; he had drawn Deng's attention after imposing martial law in Tibet to crush local dissent. Deng believed that his program of "reform and opening up" in both its economic and political parts would save the party and perpetuate its rule even as it transformed the society. It was a gambit unprecedented in the history of Communist dictatorships, almost all of them now defunct. Does Deng's program make the case for Chinese exceptionalism? The Chinese Communist Party has been saved even as Chinese society has been radically transformed—thoroughly, unimaginably transformed. Deng's Long March is therefore no ordinary episode and it is well worthwhile trying to understand how it happened. * * * Vogel is now 82 and the transformed China about which he writes so extensively is a vivid contrast to the first decades of the People's Republic, which he also knew. In truth, those of us who are not yet 82 but still old enough to remember that People's Republic find it hard to express our amazement to younger people whose first exposure to China is a recent one. Things are so much better now than they were then that it can seem crotchety and grudging to point out contemporary shortcomings. But all of us need to get beyond our amazement when we see the skylines of skyscraper-filled cities that were once provincial backwaters. The People's Republic no longer measures itself solely against its sordid past, and we should not either. Its own standard is its "peer competitors" of today. By that measure, how should we regard the past 30 years in China? Vogel recounts a blizzard of things that happened during this period and his industrious scholarship does us the great service of tracking Deng's every move through the party's labyrinth. He shows how Deng skillfully played a weak diplomatic hand, prodding the United States, Western Europe, and Japan to fashion a grand strategy against the Soviet Union that would work to China's advantage. By offering China as an eager collaborator, Deng secured essential backing from the industrial democracies for his plans. Vogel also reminds us of the decisive presence, nearby, of "Confucian" and "Chinese" success stories—Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong—that Deng would draw upon for expertise and capital. * * * The fundamental problem with Vogel's account is that it is another variation on the "triumphalist" theme originally spun by China's Communist Party and now performed around the world. All the triumphalist narratives derive from a claim first made by Mao Zedong in 1950: "Without the Communist Party There Would Be No New China." The slogan later became the basis for a catchy ditty often sung during the Cultural Revolution. Now, with revised lyrics of course, it is an international smash hit. At home, this unexamined assertion is used to buttress the party's bedrock claim to continuation of its monopoly on political power—that it has been the architect of New China, as no other group of people could have been. The party presents itself as the best solver of China's problems; it claims that it alone possesses unique understanding; it admits of no other possibility. The central question of contemporary Chinese politics is thus a contest over this claim: does China still need an all-powerful Communist Party? And this question immediately leads us to an underlying one: did China ever need an all-powerful Communist Party? Today, we have both 60 years of experience with the People's Republic itself and a much deeper knowledge of China's modern history with which to engage these questions. We also have Vogel's book which, though certainly not written to promote previously unmentionable heresies, forces us to consider them on almost every one of its pages. In fact, when we place Vogel's account of Deng's time in power against what we know of China and the world, we cannot help being far less impressed than Vogel thinks we should be. In the first place, a blueprint like Deng's appeared in the mid-19th century when even the Taiping rebels drew up detailed plans for the renovation of the country. It is also now well understood that the so-called "self-strengtheners" of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were well along in major "reform and opening up" that was rapidly integrating China into the global economy even as major reforms were being implemented in education and governance. In fact, these processes were well-enough along so that, today, many younger Chinese historians question whether the last dynasty should have been overthrown at all. In the event, the leaders of the early republic, especially Sun Yat-sen, moved forward along the same track, and the decades prior to the founding of the People's Republic were filled with significant achievements. Meanwhile, the first 30 years of the People's Republic are now seen as the disruptive and destructive decades they actually were. At best, we can say that Deng helped to restart history or, better, rejoin it. Fortunately for China, other places had not been so unfortunate in their leaders. Vogel describes at great length the critical role of money and advice and, most important, inspiration from Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan, Capitalist Roaders all. In sum, the correct formulation should be: "Without the Communist Party, New China Would Have Shown Up Decades Sooner"—and at but a tiny fraction of the cost in human and material destruction wrought by Mao, Deng, and their cohort. In 1989 Ezra Vogel published a detailed 500-page analysis of how the first 10 years of Deng's program were faring in Guangdong, its showplace province. He called it One Step Ahead in China. More than 20 years later, in the ways that matter most, China has fallen many steps behind, and ominously so. In the end, Deng Xiaoping made it harder for China to catch up, even as he made it appear that China was sprinting ahead.

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Phil/FA 310 Introduction to Aesthetics Instructor: Dr. Norman Lillegard Office: H 229 587 7384 Office Hours: 10.00 ‑11.00 a.m. and 1-2 p.m. MWF and by appointment Texts: Puzzles about Art (ed. Battin etc.) and Basic Issues in Aesthetics by Eaton (In UC and Bradley). Course Title: Questions about the Arts That Won’t Go Away. Art; can you define it? Are there non-subjective standards of criticism/evaluation? Why bother with the arts? Why spend (public) money on galleries, subsidies for playwrights or orchestras, etc.? Are there correct interpretations of art works? Does interpretation depend upon the artists intentions? Should art be “moral” in any sense? Should it be censored in any way? Is avant-garde art really art at all? What is the “ontological status” of various art works? How do art works differ from products of the crafts, if at all? How if at all do “fine arts” differ from entertainment? Does, or should, art “imitate” life or anything else? What about “art for arts sake?” Is art a medium of expression? Expression of what? The Artist’s soul? Her emotions? Should “works” produced by computers (or monkeys!) be counted as works of art? Do the arts have a future or are the fine arts done for, about to be replaced by decoration, entertainment, craft? And so forth. The Purposes of this Course: To address the questions listed above and related questions. To become familiar with some of the principal answers that have been proposed from the Greeks to the present. To gain practice in thinking critically and with a sense of the options available about these questions. Perhaps, to formulate some defensible views on these matters that will inform one’s own practices in the future. Perhaps, to find ways of defending civilization against barbarism (!!??). We will be studying the views of some major thinkers, but the aim is not that you be able to repeat their views, but that you learn to think with them. Therefore, the ability to parrot views (whether those of an author, the instructor or anyone else's) or regurgitate information (like a quiz show participant) is of no use to you or anyone. You will not be tested on such an ability. Exams are designed to test understanding of arguments and issues, and critical reading skills, rather than retention of information. However, you do need to be familiar with some relevant examples and illustrations, and some terminology. ! Attend class and participate, do the readings, do all written assignments, pass the exams. Two exams. (multiple choice, T/F, see sample exams on web page). First exam worth 120 pts, Final exam is comprehensive, worth 180 pts. ! Quizzes: there will be frequent (once a week or more) unannounced quizzes. Missed quizzes cannot be made up. Each quiz will be worth 6 – 12 points, and will consist of multiple choice and T/F questions. Total, ca. 130 pts. ! A short paper (no less than 1500 words) on a topic approved by the instructor must be completed and handed in by mid-term and revised in the light of criticisms by the final. NO PAPER WILL BE ACCEPTED AFTER THE MID TERM. 100 pts. ! One report on a UTM art event (exhibit, theatre, concert). 25 pts. ! Attendance. Regular attendance and informed participation in class are essential since (a)not everything covered in class is included in the texts (b) you will need help with this material, and that is what class sessions, and the instructor, are for. 40 points. ! Extra Credit: Don’t count on much. Carefully prepared reports or other class presentations (including student prepared debates under the instructor's guidance) can earn extra points. (Max. of 30 pts.). Presentation of actual (original) art works with discussion relating to the readings might be especially valuable. Total points ca. 600. Normally %90 of total points gets you an 'A', %80 a 'B' and so forth, but significant adjustments for curve are made when necessary. The instructor’s web page for this course will include sample exams, lists of important terms, and outlines of classes. All quizzes will also be preserved on that page for review purposes. Access the Phil/FA 310 page through the UTM page (click on faculty staff, then on faculty web pages) or by using www.utm.edu/~nlillega/lillegard.htm. and clicking on relevant link. Class Conduct, Instructor's Role, etc. What I Expect of Students. 1.Treat each other with respect. 2.Treat the instructor with respect. 3.Do not talk unless called on. 4. Do not leave the room without permission except in extreme emergency. 5. Be on time. 6. Be eager to learn. The best indication of progress is engagement with the issues and ideas we deal with. 7. Do not be afraid to say "I don't understand." 8. Expect the same of me as I expect of you. (Except for #3, and #4, of course. You will see that I follow #7 a lot.) NB. Any kind of cheating is a serious offense and will be dealt with accordingly. It also ought to be beneath the dignity of each and every student. Classes will consist of a mix of lecture, discussion, possible occasional reports, and viewing of videos, listening to recordings, etc. Students are expected to treat other students in a polite fashion, even though they should feel free to express disagreement on ANY topic or ANY claim that is advanced by anyone, including the instructor. At the same time, each student must attempt to exercise responsibility by keeping discussion focused on the subject at hand and by listening carefully to the responses of the instructor and other participants. Particular value is placed on argument, as opposed to mere expression of opinion. Say what you believe, but be prepared to say why. The instructor will attempt to clarify difficult concepts and passages in the text, and provide relevant examples. Students are encouraged to provide their own examples. If there is an art work (painting, pot, poem etc.) by yourself or someone else that you want to discuss, bring it or describe it and some class time will be spent on it, provided there is some connection to the readings. Students should feel free to interrupt with questions or comments, even though on occasion answers may be postponed for the sake of coherence. The instructor is pledged to careful consideration of any view, including those which he finds unsupportable, and to critical thinking with any student who values thoughtful discussion. Students who feel a need for individual help should feel free to ask.. NOTE: "Any student eligible for and requesting academic accommodations due to a disability is requested to provide a letter of accommodation from P.A.C.E. or COURSE OUTLINE: (Approximate. Content and time periods may vary slightly.) Week 1 (1/18) Overview of course. Kinds of “arts.” The notion of “fine art.” Defining art. Art criticism. Read Battin, 1-26. Be familiar with the 24 cases described. Week 2 (1/24) Week I continued. Defining “art” and theories of art. Eaton, ch. 1. Week 3 (1/31) Week II continued. Creativity. Selections from Battin. Eaton, ch. 2. Week 4 (2/7)Week 3 continued. Eaton ch. 3. Viewers, taste, emotion etc. Selections from Battin ch. 2 Week 5 (2/14) Eaton ch. 4. Languages of art. Week 6 (2/21) Eaton ch. 5. Art objects. Battin selections. Week 7 (2/28) MIDTERM EXAM Wed. Mar. 2 Paper due. Interpretation and criticism. Eaton ch. 6. Selections from Battin ch. 3,4, 6. Week 8 (3/7) Week 7 cont. Battin ch. 6 Forgeries, etc. Week 9 (3/14 – 18 SPRING BREAK) Week 10 (3/21) Week 8 continued. The value of Art. Eaton ch. 7. Selections from Battin ch. 5. Week 11 (3/28) Meaning and truth in Literature. Handouts. Art, public policy, Eaton ch. 7 Week 12 (4/4) Art, ethics. Eaton ch. 7. Handouts. . Week 13 (4/11) The end (or future) of the arts. Handouts. Week 14 (4/18) . Discussions of papers, themes. Week 15 (4/25) “ “ Week 16. Classes end May 2. FINAL EXAMS, MAY 5-11. Article for week 13, 14. http://www.eurozine.com/article/2003_02_25_lillegard_en.html Plato – Republic, Ion. Aristotle – Poetics 1-15. Mo Tzu, Hsun Tzu (On music) Plotinus – Enneads I.6 Hume – Of the Standard of Taste Kant – Critique of Aesthetic Judgement Friedrich Schiller, Letters 26-27 Hegel – Intro. to Aesthetics 1-3. Schopenhauer, World as Will and Representation Tolstoy – On Art. Coomoraswamy- The Dance of Siva Dewey – Art as Experience Heidegger – The Origin of the Work of Art Collingwood – Principles of Art Cavell – The Claim of Reason and Must We Mean What we Say (various essays). Danto – The Philosophical Disenfranchisment of Art. Wollheim – Art and its Objects Expression in __________ (music, painting etc.) Censorship of the Arts Fiction and truth. Meaning and Intention in Literature Tragedy and Ethical Criticism of Art Application of selected aesthetic theories to __________ (Drama, Painting, Film etc.) Art vs. Entertainment The Aesthetics of Nature The Historical Nature of the Arts. Art, Propaganda, Politics. Battin, 1-26 Questions 1 - 21 below 1. What does case 4 add to case 1 and 2 and 3, if anything? 2. What does 5 add to 1,2,3, 4, if anything? 3. What does 6 etc. 4. What does 7 QG 2. Read Eaton, 1-13 1. What are the four general types of aesthetic theory? 2. Give some reasons for thinking aesthetic theories are not even possible. Eaton p.14-31. 1 - below 1. Assuming that something is a work of art only if someone works on it in some way, be prepared to illustrate each of the following views about what kind of work is required to produce an artwork, as opposed to simply a (non-artistic) artifact: a. art works result from the particular unique personalities of artists b. art works result from a creative and original activity, where what makes an activity creative is either that it i. consists in something more than following rules to produce an envisaged end ii. consists in paying attention to features of things which have “artistic potential.” c. art works result from carrying out an artistic “intention” (particular kinds of intention make certain things works of art) d. art works result from (successful) attempts to express something (like an emotion). 2. Give criticisms of each of a-d above, as found in Eaton. 3. How does Aristotle respond to the claim that the arts are “irrational?” 4. Be prepared to illustrate and critique each of the following views on art as expression of an emotion (E): in a work of art a. the artist expresses his/her own E in the work b. the work arouses an E in the “viewer” c. a and b combined: the artist expresses an E and the same E is aroused in the “viewer” (Tolstoy-type view of art as “communication”) d. the work “depicts” an E e. the work has in itself the properties or traits of people who feel E (Langer) f. the work “treats something in a way that demonstrates” E (Sircello) 5. Compare and contrast Croce’s and Dewey’s views on art as an expression of the artist’s “idea.” Eaton, p. 34-52 Battin, p. 28-58 1. Eaton suggests that there are three sets of criteria that might be used to sort people who are having an “aesthetic experience.” What are they? 2. Taste on the Hume/Sibley view includes a. special sensitivity to properties objectively present in a work b. the idea that the perceptual faculties employed by a person with taste are different from ordinary perceptual faculties. c. the judgements of people with taste will converge What are some criticisms of a, b and c? 3. Are viewer emotional responses to works of art a. real ordinary? (does the viewer feel real sadness, for example) b. not real but special aesthetic? (Burke’s “delight”, or, metaresponse) c. ordinary but in a non-ordinary way? (in control etc.) Discuss each of a-c pro and con. 4. What is the problem of “negative emotions”? 5. What are some problems with the idea that the “aesthetic attitude” is essentially “non-practical” or involves “distancing?” 6. Explain and illustrate the Sibley/Hungerford view that non-aesthetic properties never entail any aesthetic properties (or, aesthetic properties are never “condition governed.” Mention the “looks/is not really” test) 7. Give some criticisms of the Sibley/Hungerford view. 8. According to Dickie, the aesthetic attitude is a myth: the jealous husband and the lighting technician are not attending in a different way, they are attending to different ____________. Mention some possibilities. Read (carefully!!) Eaton, 53-74 Think about these examples: Hobo signs, a musical phrase (Handel), Bach’s Nun kom der Heiden Heiland, Lover’s kiss, Jan Steen’s painting, Battin 3.13, 3.15, a poem (cf. Battin, 2.16), Dǖrer’s Melencolia I. Ask these questions about these examples, and write down your answers: 1.Do they refer to, or contain parts that refer to, something? If so HOW is the reference achieved? 2. Do they state something? If so, HOW? In answering 1 and 2, take account of the fact that referring and stating are usually done through language, and that actual verbal language is completely missing from most of these examples. When you have answered 1 and 2 as FULLY as you can, note (a)all the similarities or identities between the different cases, and (b) all the differences. Remember that these answers require reference to certain fundamental contrasts, such as that between conventional and the natural, between reference and resemblance, between iconic and non-iconic signs. Also keep in mind that these contrasts are not always sharp. Study Eaton 76-101. Eaton, 104- 123. Battin, 60-102 Eaton, 125-147 Battin, 148-178 T or F 1. Something might seem to count as a work of art because it is displayed in a certain way. 2. One question that arises in connection with “sound sculpture” is this: are there genres of art that are constrained by the “materials” used? 1. Artist centered theories of art could include expression theories. 2. Weitz denies that it is possible to define (give necc and suff conditions for)the concept ‘work of art’ because a. it is an “open concept” b. there are no resemblances at all between some art works and others c. there are at best family resemblances between some art works and others d. a and c. 1. According to Sircello, a painting could express a love of animals in the sense that the artist painted the animals “lovingly.” 2. If a work of art expresses sadness in the sense that it made the viewer feel sad, then it is mysterious why most people would want anything to do with it. 1. The idea of the “aesthetic attitude” typically includes the ideas that (a) a special faculty is required for aesthetic perception (b) aesthetic response is non-practical (c) aesthetic responses are to conditioned-governed properties (d) all of these. 2. Dickie claims that what makes a response aesthetic is what sorts of things the “viewer” responds to. 3. Twains two different responses to a sunrise on the river illustrate (a) the difference between a practical and a non-practical response (b) the difference between an aesthetic and a non-aesthetic response (c) the difference between a response that shows taste and one that does not. (d) a and b. 1. An 18th century garden, like that at Stowe, that leaves certain things out (like a statue of Queen Ann) and locates certain things lower than others, seems to make various statements, including negations. 2. Both Gombrich and Goodman emphasize the conventional aspect of artistic representation. 3. The more a sign looks like or in some way resembles what it refers to, the more “iconic” it is. 1. It is not implausible to think of Brancusi’s “lovers kiss” as referring to or representing a lover’s kiss (a) by resembling in some slight way two lovers (b) by “standing for” a lover’s kiss by the use of slightly iconic signs (c) by evoking feelings relating to unity, difference, bridging, inner and outer divisions, and the like (d) any or all of these. 2. Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice could be said to (a)communicate knowledge or understanding of human life and character (b) be true to life (c) be a good novel because it invites disinterested contemplation (the aesthetic attitude) (d) all of these (e) a and b. 1. Formalists argue that (a) only properties directly observed in a art work are relevant to aesthetics (b) the artists intention is relevant to aesthetics (c) such traits as shading (in a painting), thematic development (music), or structure (novel) are aesthetically relevant. (d) all of these (e) a and c. 2. Clive Bell and Roger Frye are probably the best known formalist critics. 1. Marxist aesthetics is contextual in a very broad sense. 2. The context of a work of art could include (a) the historical/political situation in which it was produced (b) the prevailing artistic traditions at the time of its production (c) the personal idiosyncracies of the artist (d)all of these (e) none of these. 1. Contextualists hold the view that all that matters in a work of art are its intrinsic properties. 2. According to the institutional theory of art, an object, X, becomes an art work (a) when the artist produces X (b) when art institutions confer on X the status ‘art work’ (c) when enough people see that in fact the work is worthy of appreciation (d) none of these. 1. Everyone would agree that since James says that The Turn of the Screw is just a ghost story, that therefore the best interpretation is one that treats it as a Ghost story. 2. There is a clear difference between interpreting a work of art and evaluating it. 1. If someone interprets ‘dark satanic mills’ in Blake’s Preface to Milton to refer to sooty industrial factories, they (a) have not taken into account the author’s intentions (b) have taken into account the historical circumstances of the poem’s composition (c) have obviously made the poem less enjoyable (d) all of these. 2. Giving reasons for the belief that a work of art is a good work is not like giving reasons for believing that a breakfast is nutritious, or for believing that it is not a good idea to go 80 mph in a 30 mph zone. 1. The case of Virgil’s and Mendelssohn’s death bed wishes respecting their masterpieces illustrates the conflict between the value placed on art works and other values. 2. Tolstoy argued that the only good art works were a. works that had economic value b. works that appealed to people with taste c. works that had intrinsically pleasing properties d. all of these. e. none of these. 3. Aesthetic value (the value of the arts) could, on some views, be a. a function of moral values b. in competition with economic values c. not in competition with any other values d. all of these e. none of these. 1. The 18th century revisions of King Lear illustrate a. a conflict between aesthetic and economic values b. how some people want art works to serve moral didacticism c. how questions of authorship can never be settled d. all of these. 2. The belief that “earthworks” should not be subject to the requirements of environmental protection suggests that social values and aesthetic values can conflict. 3. It is clear that religious subject matter in an art work will make it a work of religious art. Class Outlines Phil/FA 310 Aesthetics A.What sorts of things (actions etc.) count as works of art? Or, What is the “definition” of ‘art?’ Examples: B. Should works of art express something? Like what? Examples: C. Is there some right way to “interpret” works of art? Examples: 1. q. What is the problem in (A)? Answ. Deciding what features of a thing make it a work of art. 2. q. What is the problem in (B)? Answ. Same as 1? 3. Any additional feature for (C)? 1. Organizing the intuitions: Should we focus on I.1 The Artist I.2The Object (intention, (Beauty, formal Expression etc.) properties, etc.) I.3The Viewer I.4The Setting A. aesthetic theories tend to focus on one of these. E.g. it is necessary and sufficient for x’s being a work of art, that it be produced with an “artistic” intention. i. perhaps there cannot be such theories. Perhaps ‘art’ or ‘aesthetic’ or ‘beauty’ are open concepts. Weitz and Wittgenstein. ii. language games and games. “what is common to all games?” a. family resemblances. 2. The cognitive status of evaluative claims about art; A. is ‘that is a good painting’ like ‘that is a good knife’ or not? 1. (I,1)Focusing on the artist: A. focus on the artists inner states and the EXPRESSION of those states. B. art works result from the particular unique personalities of artists C. art works result from a creative and original activity, where what makes an activity creative is either that it i. consists in something more than following rules to produce an envisaged end ii. consists in paying attention to features of things which have “artistic potential.” D. art works result from carrying out an artistic “intention” (particular kinds of intention make certain things works of art) E. art works result from (successful) attempts to express something (like an emotion). 2. Exploration of E. Art as expression of an emotion (E): in a work of art A. the artist expresses his/her own E in the work B. the work arouses an E in the “viewer” C. a and b combined: the artist expresses an E and the same E is aroused in the “viewer” (Tolstoy-type view of art as “communication”) D. the work “depicts” an E E. the work has in itself the properties or traits of people who feel E (Langer) F. the work “treats something in a way that demonstrates” E (Sircello) 3. Croce’s and Dewey’s views on art as an expression of the artist’s “idea.” 1. Eaton on three sets of criteria that might be used to sort people who are having an “aesthetic experience.” 2. Exploration of (1,i). The idea of Taste The Hume/Sibley view of taste includes A. special sensitivity to properties objectively present in a work B. the idea that the perceptual faculties employed by a person with taste are different from ordinary perceptual faculties. C. the judgments of people with taste will converge 3. (Exploration of 1.ii)Viewer emotional responses to works of art. How should we describe those responses? A. They consist of real ordinary emotions? (does the viewer feel real sadness, for example) B. not real but special aesthetic? (Burke’s “delight”, or, metaresponses) (This seems to fit with 1.i) C. ordinary (like ‘sad’) but in a non-ordinary way? (in control etc.) D. The problem of “negative emotions” Examples: 4. Exploring another approach to 1.i. A.The “aesthetic attitude” : essentially “non-practical” or involves “distancing.” i. examples: from Twain, Bullough, (caught in a fog). B. Aesthetic attitude and The Sibley/Hungerford view that non-aesthetic properties never entail any aesthetic properties (or, aesthetic properties are never “condition governed.” ‘It is red and gold’ (non-aesthetic properties) never entails ‘it is beautiful’ (aesthetic property). i. the “looks/is not really” test. Can sensibly say ‘it looks yellow but is not’ but cannot say ‘it looks beautiful but is not.’ 7. Exploring 1.iii. Rejection of aesthetic attitude theory. Dickie: the aesthetic attitude is a myth: the jealous husband and the lighting technician are not attending in a different way, they are attending to different _things___________. (he is referring to Bullough) Mention some possibilities. So, What things should we attend to in works of art? Which are important? A. Beardsley – regional qualities, formal unity. Lists on p. 49 i. examples from Battin WEEK V The Arts and (as) Language 1. Does “getting A” (A could be any sort of non-linguistic art work) require something like learning a language? A. In a language, words (are used to) refer to things and sentences (are used to) say things. Examples: ques. What would correspond to words (lexical items) in non-linguistic art? i. elements that “refer”. cf. medieval iconlogicae ii. more general cases of “elements” “standing for” something. Ques. What would correspond to sentences? cases of something (a string of elements) “saying” something. 2. Exploration of idea of elements in art works referring to something. Ques. How can x stand for y? A. by representing it? More obvious examples from painting. Less obvious ones from music, literature. i. representing and imitating. ii. imitating by resembling. iii. differences between resembling and representing. x represents a horse. Does it resemble one? Two chairs resemble each other. Do they represent each other? iv. cf. examples from Hobo language, Handel. v. on the other hand, a stick drawing can “represent” X. Does it resemble it? B. If representation does not work through resemblance, how does it work? Gombrich and Goodman; it works somewhat the way a regular language does. Art really is a lot like verbal language. i. denoting by convention. C. The ingredients of a language – signs, syntax, semantics. a. Signs, semantics, and natural/non-natural, or conventional, relations. Cf. ‘dog’ and a picture of a dog. Road signs. Now, how much knowledge of conventions do we need to see what the picture “represents?” How much to produce a representation? i. ways to classify signs. Natural. Conventional. Another way to classify signs – icon, index(indication), symbol. Or, iconic, iconlogical, iconographical. Is a road sign iconic? i. degrees of iconicity. B. syntax. How the signs (“lexical items”) are arranged makes a difference to “meaning.” Cf. a sentence, a musical phrase, Steen. 3. Gombrich – reference does not depend upon resemblance. A. making and matching, schema and correction. i. schema are learned from the present “tradition.” Like learning a vocabulary. Thus the arts are historically located. ii. however the individual artists can “correct” or modify the schema. iii. figures, shapes, are not chosen because they resemble x, but because they are good “substitutes” for x. Even in painting, the “signs” are more like symbols, less like icons, then we usually recognize. 4. Goodman – goes even further than Gombrich in denying resemblance. Shapes in paintings are conventional denoters. A. Seems obviously wrong. In painting SEEING plays a fundamental role. Not so with “reading” a text. B. Goodman agrees that the “symbols” in painting are not “notational.” You don’t “read the painting” and then produce it, the way you read a score, or a poem, and then produce it (perhaps many times many ways). i. in a poem, all the identifying features of it are in the printed or spoken poem itself. Likewise, for a piece of music, Goodman thinks. ii. in a poem, etc. the features are repeatable. That is essential according to Goodman, for being language. iii. That is NOT the case for paintings. So they are not language. But they do employ conventional signs, like language does. C. Goodman seems wrong about music. Can’t tell just from the score how to reproduce or “repeat” it. D. In a language familiarity in varieties of contexts, grasp of syntax, is required for grasping the reference. Examples: rose, rose. Similarly in painting, music? Historical element. Durer. 3. Problems with the art-language analogy with respect to painting, music. No logical connectives No conjoining of separate works to make more complex “statements” Not clear what the lexical items in paintings, music, are. Truth in the Arts. 1.Different ways fiction might be true. a. Possible worlds. b. Fiction can tell us truths about people, places. Tolstoy on families. Dickens on London etc. 2. Pictures and truth. If no language, then no truth? a.True to life. A picture is worth a thousand words. Etc. b. Symbols that make a statement. Polish triangles and circles. c. Can pictures lie? Yes. In more than one way. False in relation to some particular fact.(Curtis’ photos of Indians) Or, false to “life.” 3. Music and truth. Making a statement? Lieing? Or is music the most formal art? Expressing and stating. 1. The ontological status of works of art: what kind of “being” do they have? E.g. a painting, a poem, a song. a. spatial – non spatial (temporal) b. performing – non performing c. works that are only types – works that have tokens. 2. What is included in the work of art? Is the context part of it? Examples. a. Pole – the history as part of the work. 1. Context is irrelevant. “Message” is irrelevant (art as language?). Representation is irrelevant. Artist’s intentions are irrelevant. Intrinsic properties (presentational properties) are all that matter. Ques. Is expression irrelevant? a. examples from Painting, Music, Literature, film. Cf. a film remake. Content remains the same. “form” is new. Cf. p. 81 Are changes part of it? b. Ques. Is it possible to view (notice) ONLY the formal properties? Answer: Different cases: Mona Lisa, Notre Dame, Braque, Brancusi, Liden, Strandqvist. A Bach prelude. A Bach Fugue. A Mozart sonata. A lyric. A sestina. What are the “formal elements” in each? (goes well beyond Eaton, p. 80) Cf. “Sonata Allegro form” – A(tonic) – B (dominant?) – repeat- Development, recapitulation A (subdominant?) – B tonic. Codas, bridges, etc. Development in bridges. Of bridges. Fry, “the content doesn’t matter”(p. 81) Clive Bell, religious feeling and “significant” form. Liden and the poem. c. connections between formalism and “special aesthetic emotions” (see Week IV, C 3.) Connections between formalism and aesthetic attitude theories. Connections to Plato, Kant. NOTICE how fuzzy these distinctions actually are. One is always getting one KIND of content or another. There are lots of kinds. Eaton p. 83. Liden. 1. Kinds of context. a. Conventional associations (iconlogicae!) b. artist’s life. c. art-historical facts d. plain old historical facts e. including, “social” facts (political etc.) Cf. Steen. Homer. Durer. Van Eyck (3.13). Liden. Bach’s 2. Marxist Aesthetics a. Example: Berger on oil painting vs. e.g. ink. Possessions. The oils in English manors. (Cornwallis). b. problem: exceptions Rembrandt’s biblical subjects. Other kinds of counterexamples. “Ownership” and “Three Beauties.” (Ukiyo-e – pictures of the fleeting world). Which comes first, (religious, metaphysical, ethical ) ideas or economic arrangements? Vaclav Havel. 3. Less sweeping contextualism. Walton. a. Which “intrinsic features” get our attention depends upon “extrinsic” information. b. in opposition to formalists – you cannot just stare (listen etc.) and notice certain “intrinsic” properties. Examples (cf. 1 c): knowing what a sonnet is (historical facts) directs our attention to the 14 line, couplet–at-the end structure. Those are standard features which determine to what category a poem belongs. The subject matter of the sonnet (love e.g.) is a variable feature. A poem with 13 lines could not be a sonnet, since having 13 lines is a “contra standard” feature so far as sonnets go (it disqualifies anything as a sonnet). Other examples: how do you “hear” the opening line of Afternoon of a Faun? Which of its formal properties stand out? Must know the genre. Suppose you were expecting a classical symphony! (What, this is no classical symphony! What gives here?). Even knowing you have an orchestra makes a difference to the “properties” of that solo. (the radical of presentation). Week IX Break 1. Institutional theory a. Dickie; a work of art is 1. an artifact 2. some aspects of which have a “conferred status” Cf. examples from Battin, avant garde art. a. analogies – being married, being president. Observable features are not sufficient, or even necessary. b. “the art world” does the conferring. Makes something a “candidate for appreciation.” 1. what are the boundaries of the art world? 2. HOW does it confer (where is the “ritual”?). 3. what counts as “appreciation”? (Many different things). Give examples. 4. not just anything could be a candidate for appreciation. Examples; 5. don’t those who confer status do so for some reason? (Wolheim) e.g. they think X is worthy of appreciation. 2. The Art World (Danto) a. Art worlds are constituted by “institutions” 1. Danto goes beyond Dickie – there is no mystery about how certain objects get a status conferred 2. Works of art are constituted culturally or socially – like a language. b. Identifying something as a work of art requires initiation into a culture. Cf. Seeing scribbles and seeing a sentence (something “meaningful”). 3. Eaton – art and traditions of discourse. a. x is a work of art iff x is discussed in such a way that audiences attend to intrinsic properties of x considered worthy of attention in aesthetic traditions (e.g. moulding in late Renaissance art). b. worthy? What about “bad” art? 1. Both bad and good art invite attention to the same sorts of properties, i.e. those that are attended to within current aesthetic traditions. 2. In bad art, those properties do not please (don’t please whom?). a. Certain basic forms or structures are found across cultures – cf. fairy or folk tales. 1. problem – James writes novels for sure – they fit that genre. But, THAT is not what matters most about them. What does? a. The “elements” that constitute art works are not fixed by any interpretation or linked to anything permanent. 1. the elements (e.g. words, sentences) interact with each other, with larger contexts, endlessly. Cf. the sentence on p. 99, Eaton. 1. Texts (etc.) as occasions for “play” which never comes to an end. 2. Spy the “ideological” constructions and de construct them. Representation? Resemblance? Convention? Iconic symbol? Durer: Melencolia I Denoting? Referring? Symbolizing? DEGREES of iconicity. Reference within a system. Portrait of Nicolaes Ruts Oil on panel 118.5 x 88.5 cm The Frick Collection, Fan K'uan (d. after 1023) Travelers Amid Streams and Mountains Ink and color on silk Franz Marc; Blue Horses Winslow Homer “ Van Gogh - Shoes Questions about interpretation: Setting works from different periods “side by side.” Mondrian Yellow, Red, White Mondrian Broadway Boogie Woogie Using Mondrian to illustrate a distinction between “style” and “repertoire” (Wollheim) Setting an individual artist’s works “side by side.” ART AND OTHER VALUES Tolstoy’s (good) question. Either get a good answer or change your lives!!! 1. examples. The flower vase (p. 127) a. economic value b. sentimental value c. historical value (cf. d. art historical value e. cultural value f. ethical value g. religious/ “philosophical” value (e.g. epistemic value) 1. c, e, f, g, as “truth” values (cf. art as “language”) 2. what does “aesthetic value” amount to when separated from 1a-g? a. inherent value?(cf. formalism, theories of “aesthetic experience”, “disinterested contemplation” etc. Contrast with?) b. consequential value? (cf. Plato – Tolstoy – (think of what he DID value) 3. Art and ethical values. N.B. Eaton connects consequential value in the arts with consequentialist ethics. THAT IS MOSTLY CONFUSING OR A MISTAKE. Illustration: Plato is certainly not a consequentialist in ethics. But he evaluates art in terms of its value for knowledge. What makes the arts bad, or suspect, is that they make people even more ignorant than they already are (i.e. it has that bad consequence). But what is bad about being ignorant is not that IT has bad consequences, but because it is an intrinsically bad condition to be in. One other sorry defect in Eaton: she begins by trying to limit the discussion of art/ethics to “consequentialist or deontological” ethics. But it seems pretty clear that the arts connect up with ethics largely through “VIRTUES” and some of her examples even illustrate that, e.g. Putnam, Richards. Illustration: coming to see the world in various (richer?) ways might contribute to development of “character.” Virtues are “character” traits. a. art and violation of moral principles (examples from Battin) b. art and production of bad consequences (examples from Battin) c. Pornographic “art” as an example. 1. moral principles 2. bad consequences 3. Consider that the bad consequence might be the “stunting of growth.” 4. Art and Public Policy a. The NEA. Serrano. b. Public art. Serra’s “Tilted arc” (v. Battin p. 181-193) c. Public commemoration, history ( the EATON on the AESTHETIC 1. aesthetic experience is – 2. aesthetic value is – a. problem with 2. The notion of “pleasure” is either too broad or too narrow. 1. too broad if it includes any “pro attitude.” 2. too narrow if construed as mere sensuous enjoyment. 3. In fact, Eaton’s account still belongs to the “grand narrative.” 1. the (300 year old) GRAND NARRATIVE. It consists of these ingredients: a. art has now (by the 18th cent.) “freed” itself from service to anything extraneous to itself. And that is supposed to be progress! (Be able to illustrate the theoretical expressions of this idea from course content). b. it is progress because when it is thus freed, art “comes into it own”, finds its proper place in life. Freed art can shape our engagement with it in the proper or appropriate way. 1. properly, it is the object of “engrossed contemplation.” c. art releases us from social fragmentation, reintegrates human life into a “pristine” condition (the romanticist idea). 1. Art works as objects of transcendent worth. 2. The prophetic/messianic mission of art. 3. Art works as an avenue to “God” 2. Give up the grand narrative!! a. art works, and artists, are not the unsullied items that the grand narrative supposes. (cf. Pound) b. and anyway, art works are still immersed in “uses” of all sorts. 2. commemorative or public art 3. liturgical art 4. “political” art c. the “mode of engagement” with such art is NOT disinterested, engrossed contemplation. (cf. kissing the Vietman memorial and kissing icons). Consider also the mode of engagement with certain photographs. Lillegard (yah, that’s right) 1. A codicil to Wolterstorf. Art is not at an end. The Grand Narrative is? Ordinary Narratives, tradition rooted in day to day contingencies, constitute art works in ways that make a great variety of modes of engagement possible. a. Inta Ruka (narratives of birth, suffering, death, for remembering or memorial) Contrast to Adams, or Maplethorpe. b. Gorecki – memorial, again. The virtues of remembering “roots.” History filtered consciously (rather than unconsciously!) c. Rouault – memorial, protest, religion. d. Kate Campbell (local history and…) e. Anselm Kiefer (ironical /serious use of mythical, architectural, literary traditions, historical memory etc.) Rouault – Old King - traditions of production, thought and belief, social protest, testimony to conscience, le sang du pauvre. Two smaller works from the same period, principally in watercolor, combine darker themes with lush visual presentations. Your Golden Hair, Margarete (1980) quotes Romanian Jewish poet Paul Celan's poem Death Fugue, which is set in a concentration camp. Kiefer has sometimes depicted the German heroine's locks as straw adhered to the canvas; in this work, they appear in watercolor as sheaves of wheat in a field. Winter Storm Clearing In each of his images Think of Bullough in the fog! Mapplethorpe: formalism + eroticism…not exactly a new idea! Contrast Adams and Mapplethorpe to Ruka. Think Georgia O’Keefe! Georgia O’Keefe - Jack in the Pulpit II "A phrase O'Keeffe used in a letter to Anita Pollitzer, "Tonight I walked into the sunset". (11 September 1916), is like all of her best art: immediate, concrete, all-encompassing, with a surprising syntax. Sunset is the time when the world appears least structured, when forms tend to dissolve and are replaced by new colors and sensations. O'Keeffe acted to suspend time, producing art that would capture the transient. For example, O'Keeffe made of a flower, with all its fragility, a permanent image without season, wilt, or decay. Enlarged and reconstructed in oil on canvas or pastel on paper, it is a vehicle for pure expression rather than an example of botanical illustration. In her art, fleeting effects of natural phenomena or personal emotion become symbols, permanent points of reference.” (Jack Cowart. Lillegard’s emphasis). Cf. Zen flower arranging, which stresses precisely the fact of contingency, impermanence, the approach of decay. Where does art leave off, and decoration begin? You would never feel tempted to ask that question about Ruka’s work. It clearly is not decoration. The same cannot be said for O’Keefe (which is not to say that her art is not valuable in various ways). 1. According to Weitz it is not possible to define ‘art.’ Why? 2. Mention some reasons for thinking that what makes something a work of art is the intentions with which it was produced. Some reasons against. Give an example or two. 3. ditto 2, but “circumstances in which it was produced or presented.” 4. Eaton proposes a fourfold classification of aesthetic theories: they are 5. Eaton mentions six construals of ‘X (a work of art) expresses E.’ What are they? What is a point in favor of each one? A point against? 6. If artists express emotions in their works, does that make art “irrational?” Why would anyone think so? What would Plato have said? Aristotle? 7. Give some examples of the sorts of qualities or properties that a person of “taste” attends to in art works. Give a criticism of the view that certain qualities are noticed only by a person of taste, whereas others can be noticed by just about anyone. Use Sibley on Van Gogh for examples. 8. What is meant by the “aesthetic attitude?” Illustrate the idea from Twain and Bullough. 9. One problem with aesthetic attitude theory is that it applies equally well to ________ nature and ___ works. It completely leaves the artist’s own activity out of the account. 10. What is the problem of negative emotions? Give some examples of art works involving negative emotions, and give an account of them that explains why people would be interested in such works. 11. Discuss two versions of the view that art works are the result of a special kind of creative activity. 12. What might be some examples of special aesthetic emotions? 13. Describe a case of an ordinary emotion that is included in a response to an art work, but in a special way. 14. Give an illustration of Dickie’s view that what distinguishes aesthetic response is the things that are attended to, rather than the manner of the response. 15. The following are ways in which art works, or elements in them, have been thought to refer to something: they might refer by representing; imitating; resembling; being conventionally related to; standing for. Illustrate each of these using the following examples (a single example might illustrate more than one of these); Handel’s ‘All we like Sheep;’ The bat, and the compass, in Durer’s Melecholia I ; Hobo signs and road signs; a musical phrase (Handel); Brancusi’s “The Lover’s kiss;” The figures in Jan Steen’s painting; Battin 3.13, 3.15. 16. Discuss two ways a work of fiction might be “true.” Give examples. 17. Discuss two ways a painting or other visual art might be “true” Give examples. 18. Discuss ways in which fiction or visual art might be “false” or “lie.” 19. Various “signs” or symbols in art works vary in their degree of “iconicity;” Illustrate with reference to a piece of music, a painting or sculpture. You can use the examples from question 15 if necessary. 20. Could works of visual art, or of music, have a “syntax?” Illustrate. 21. Give a few examples from painting, music, literature, of “formal” properties. 22. Formalism: use several examples of different sorts of art works that might suggest different answers to this question: is it possible to notice only the formal properties of an art work? 23. Give some examples of art works that exist only as types. As tokens. 24. Formalists supposedly claim that the only properties of works of art that deserve attention are those immediately present in the work. Critique this notion by connecting it to a. the “grand narrative” b. Clive Bell’s “pantheist” religiosity 25. Mention as many different kinds of “context” of an art work that might be important to its status and significance as an art work as you can think of. 26. Give an illustration of Marxist contextualism using two of the works above. 27. Give several illustrations of Walton’s anti-formalist notion that which intrinsic features of an art work get our attention depends upon extrinsic information. 28. Explain what Dickie means when he claims that art works have features due to a “conferred status.” Then offer three criticisms of the institutional theory. 29. Give reasons for thinking that there is no such thing as pure “factual” description of an art work. 30. Give reasons for thinking interpretation of art works is not merely “subjective.” Include a discussion of the kinds of “reason giving” involved in interpretation, and the idea of the non-transferability of critical judgments. 31. Use the cited interpretations of Winslow Homer and Gaugin (spirit of the dead watching) to illustrate “political correctness” in criticism. 32. Illustrate the idea that criticism consists in “inviting and pointing” by considering the following cases: a. pointing out art-historical facts by setting Durer and Ostade side by side (what fact become noticeable?) Give another example. b. pointing out facts about repertoire by putting one artist’s work next to another of that same artist’s work (cf.Mondrian). c. pointing out various “unities” in a Tolstoy story. d. pointing out the fact that the early 18th cent. is an age of increasing “individualism” (cf. e. pointing out 33. For each of 32 a-d, connect to question 25. 34. Illustrate Eaton’s definition of art by reference to typical reactions to Egyptian wall paintings on the one hand, a Rembrandt portrait on the other. 35. Show how interpretation of an art work can be improved or made more correct by attending to a. the artist’s intention b. art-historical facts c. ordinary historical facts d. facts intrinsic to the work. Illustrate each of these from Battin, Eaton or class examples. 36. a.Mention at least three “other values” that might conflict with so-called aesthetic value. Illustrate (from Battin, Eaton, class). Begin with a discussion of Tolstoy, and mention Plato, and Riefenstahl. b. mention at least three “other values” that might be enhanced by or communicated through art works. Illustrate. Mention Aristotle in one illustration. 37. Discuss several difficulties in separating “esthetic” value from other values. Illustrate. 38. Discuss issues of art and public policy in relation to Serrano, Maplethorpe, Serra. Sketch several positions (e.g. “there should be no public art” or “art should be constrained by moral norms”) and argue pro and con. 39. Describe the main ingredients in the “grand narrative” as Wolterstorff conceives it. Then illustrate some alternative (non-grand narrative) approaches to art works. 40. Illustrate each of the following (discussed in Wolterstorff and Lillegard) using examples from class, and point out different kinds of engagement with art works which these examples suggest; a. art and memorial (give several) b. art and narrative (esp. keep in mind ordinary life narratives, “birth, copulation, death” ). c. art and morality (discuss virtues in particular. See quote 1 below) d. art and religion e. art and political statement f. the end of art, decoration, and formalism. g. art and testimony (testifying). To what? Truisms. Include a discussion of the photography of Adams, Maplethorpe, Ruka wherever they fit. photographs were the core of 1. A quote from “Spirit and the End of Art” “A story, if it is going to work as a story and not just as an incidental means to the expression of an ideology, must show the unfolding of life through time. And that in turn requires continuity in its subjects. Now virtues are precisely such formed traits as provide continuity in a life. Our ability to appreciate a life as virtuous depends upon our grasp of the way in which existence gets form through passionate commitment and formed response. Virtues are precisely patterns of formed response, dispositions of thought, feeling and action which continue and enforce a coherent life. Vices too take on significance in relationship to possibilities of achieved continuity. We understand what it means for a life to fall apart because we understand what it means for a life to come together” Another quote to reflect on; 2. “The photographs of Inta Ruka should be viewed as an amalgamation of images and text. . .it is a broad and clear manifestation of an ethical position. To quote Prof. Klavins; “it reconciles with reality.” Even though people may be inscribed in some particular social context. . .for me, you and her country people there is only one life with a beginning and an end.” (Helena Demakova, in Inta Ruka: My Country People) 3. “ In Rilke's poem "Death Experienced," in memory of Countess Schwerin, he writes: "when, though, you went, there broke upon this scene/a shining segment of realities/ in at the crack you disappeared through: green/of real green, real sunshine, real trees."3 It is remarkable how close in spirit, even in detail, Rilke's lines are to the following lines from a poem by Orville Kelly written to his wife as he faced certain death from cancer: "Summer, and I never knew a bird/could sing so sweet and clear,.. .I never knew the sky could be so deep a blue, /Until I knew I could not grow old with you..."4 These are characteristic expressions of the grace-filled enhancement of existence which can only be realized in the face of my own death, fully accepted. At this point I will enter a few remarks on cloning, as promised above. My original argument was intended to establish the claim that what we can sensibly say and think about ourselves depends in part upon the fact that we are the kind of beings who are begotten, born, reproduce in a certain way and die. Being born contrasts with being manufactured. We count as "our kind" others brought into existence in like manner, that is, through acts of begetting which are fundamentally biological and not subject to perfect control. Thus it is natural even for many people who are not religious believers to think of a child as in some way a "gift." These facts have, I believe, a direct relevance to what we should think about cloning of humans. In his testimony before congress the theologian/ethicist Gilbert Meilander argued that the idea of "begetting" is essentially opposed to "making" and that the fact that our children are begotten rather than made is fundamental to the conceptual background required for thinking of them as free and sharers in a common dignity, as more than just functions of our individual projects or outputs of our desires and wishes.(Meilander's statement, presented to the National Bioethics Advisory Commission on March l3th, 1997, is printed in First Things, #74 (July/August 1997), p.41-43.) The fear that cloning would alter that background is I believe well founded. I have accused Sennett of gnosticizing tendencies. The gnostics' distaste for earthly life is rooted in a hatred of contingency, the limitations of space, time, mortal embodiment and our inability to control our lives, which seem to them obstacles to "spiritual" release and realization. . .” (From Lillegard, “Reply to Sennett and Wildman” in CrossCurrents 1998)

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(IRAN: مسجد سلیمان) is a city in the Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran. The first modern oil wells of the Middle East were discovered and drilled in this area. It is mostly populated by the Bakhtiari Lur people with estimated population of 127,634 in 2005. The name of the city is assumed to have its origins from a belief of local inhabitants calling the ruins of an Achaemenid palace as the Irsoleyman, which means "Mosque of Solomon." The primary settlement of the city formed about 100 years ago as a result of petroleum industry development in the Middle East when the first negotiations on the establishment of the Anglo-Bakhtiari Oil Company were in progress between William Knox D'Arcy representatives and Bakhtiari Tribe leaders (Khans). In 1908 the first oil well in the Middle East was drilled in the region of Naftoon in the center of this city, so the 100th year anniversary of oil drilling in the Middle East was celebrated in 2008 in this city. The historical name of the city is "Parsoumash", this name was given to this city by "Persians" who came from the west to this area. During medieval times it was called "Talghar", the name of a land in the vicinity of Karoon river. Later on the city was called "Jahangiri" , then "Naftoun", and finally Masjed Soleyman . When Arabs attacked this region, they intended to destroy the fire temple in this city, but they encountered objection and resistance. It is said that "Moses" established "Sar Masjed" fire temple to develop his religion and it was respected by the population. The name of the city was changed to Masjed Soleyman after Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's visit in 1303 solar year. It is also believed that this was the birth place of "Kourosh" the king. In 1287 solar year there was a big turn in Middle East by exploring Oil in Masjed Soleyman. The city became a company city when British experts moved in. The culture of the city was also influenced by the British empire. 2000 national monuments are expected to exist in this province and the towns around , about 400 of them have been found and excavated. Besides Karoon, there are some other rivers in the city such as "Shour", "Tambi", and "Cham Asiyab". The majority of the population is Bakhtiyari tribes , whom are living on the slope of Zagros Mountain. "Gelim", "Chogha", and "Khersak" are among the handicrafts of this region Sar Masjed fire temple Professor Grishman believes this monument is related to the Persian era and he also believes that this temple is older than "Pasargad" castle or even "Perspolice". He notes that this monument is related to 8th century B.C. Bardneshandeh temple "Bard" in Bakhtiyari Language means "stone" which is in a column shape installed in the earth. The height is 3.5 m and the thickness is 50 cm. Archaeologists believe that this is the oldest open temple in Iran. The carving of the temple is related to Achaemean. The monument is located on the route from Masjed Soleyman to Andika. In this monument there are remains of walls made of stone and plaster. The length of the wall is 250 m and the width is 150 m. There are paintings and designs on the wall implying a religious message. The foreigner's cemetery In the vicinity of "Zaman Abad" village, there is a cemetery for American and British. There is also another Armenian cemetery located in "Naftoon" quarter. The old sirens The fire department of the oil company is located opposite Nazaja department. An alarm went off for waking the labours and also it was a sign of starting and finishing work. This siren left sweet memories for people inhabiting in the region. Beautiful building of oil company The Oil company hospital located in "Kalge" was constructed in 1303. It is the first and the most well equipped hospital in the country. The first and best well equipped golf club is located in "Bibiyan" quarter in Masjed Soleyman. The athletes of this club are still the best golf players in the country. The railway is located on the border of Karoon River in Masjed Soleyman city center. It is counted as the first railway of the country. The railway transported the equipment and the goods to industrial establishments in Masjed Soleyman, which had been carried by ships through Karoon River and anchored in Darkhazineh 100 km away for Ahwaz.

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Family name: Pandanaceae (Pandanus family) English names: Screwpine, Pandanus Pohnpeian name: Kipar Kosraen name: Mweng Chuukese name: Fach Yapese name: Choy Habit: Shrub or tree. It grows up to 25 feet (8m) or more in height, with aerial prop roots and prickly stem. Leaves: Linear leaves spirally arranged at branch tips, up to 6 feet (2m) or more length, M-shaped in cross section, margins and midrib of lower surface prickly (serrate). Flowers: Male flowers tiny, in dense, white inflorescences with large white bracts. Female flowers in a head. Both appear at branch tips. Fruit: Globose shape, separated pieces (phalanges) are tooth-like shape (angular), wedge-shape orange sections (prudes) are edible, husk fibrous, one to several-seeded. Location & Habituation: Pandanus tectorius is native to all the archipelagoes of Micronesia. It is found all over Micronesia due to its growing advantage on rocky and sandy shores of atolls and high islands. Micronesia is mostly consists of atolls and high islands, thus abets the growth of Pandanus tectorius. Pandanus tectorius is a terrestrial plant; it grows on the ground. Uses: Pandanus tectorius is one of the most useful trees in Micronesia. The leaves, which are the most useful part of the plant, are woven or plaited into mats, thatch, sails, baskets, hats, local fans, marmars, anticrafts, and many other items. Tip of prop roots are eaten and are often used as native medicine in Pohnpei and maybe in other Micronesian islands as well. The fruit is a major source of food in Micronesia especially on the atolls. They can be eaten raw or cooked. Either way, it is very healthy. Besides serving as a food, its fibrous helps clean the teeth, acting as a natural dental floss. Overall Summary: In English this cultivated tree is known as the "Screwpine." Kipar in Pohnpei; Fach in Chuuk; Mweng in Kosrae; and Choy in Yap. Pandanus tectorius is native to Micronesia. It was brought to Pohnpei by the early Micronesians. Pandanus tectorius is a wide-branched tree that grows up to heights of about 25 feet (8m). The prickly trunk has few to many aerial prop roots and the leaves are long (up to 6 feet, 3m) with serrated magins (thorny leaf edges). The large edible fruit is an aggregate of many angular, wedge-shaped orange sections (drupes). Although it does grow from seed, the fruit rarely does produce seed. This is a strong indication that people have been reproducing Pandanus tectorius by planting cuttings for many generations. Besides serving as a food, the fibrous helps clean the teeth, acting as a natural dental floss. The dried leaves are used to weave hats, baskets, mats, and other items. The tips of the aerial roots are used in traditional medicine. Specimen photographed and web page created by: Jenson Santos, October 1998. Culturally Significant Plant -- Pandanus Tree Mwokillese: Kupar The pandanus tree is a very important tree to the Mwokillese people. To this day, the pandanus tree still holds special meaning to them. Because of this tree, people gather together for feast, activities, or just to enjoy the day. They use this plant to build houses, and to weave mats, hats, even masks for the warrior dances. They also use this plant as a means of food and, in the old days, dental floss. All the parts of the tree has it's own unique use. The bark, for example, was used in the old days to build houses for the people of Mwokil. They thought that this was the strongest tree that could support their houses. It was used as the foundation to the house. Then they completed it by using the leaves to make thatched roofs. But then again that is not the only use for the leaf. The people had a lot of warrior dances that needed masks to be used. Since there were no cardboard boxes to make masks with and no stores to buy them at, they had to make the masks locally. These, the masks, are held dear to the old people who are still alive today and their kids. The mats that they slept on and the hats that they wore to block the heat of the sun were also made from the leaves. The fruit also comes in handy. Back then, they had a season for the pandanus tree. Whenever the fruits started getting ripe. They would harvest the crop and gather together to make whatever kinds of recipes they could. They would boil it and add grated coconut to it, or make a special plate from it and all sorts of things that we, now-a-days, don't do anymore. In these days, the Mwokillese on Pohnpei would look forward to going down to the Mwokil Atoll. The Mwokillese on this island don't weave mats because they are too caught up with the western technologies on this island. If they don't have mats they buy them. This is why it never stops to excite them thinking about all those mats that they know would be waiting for them. Not only are they long-lasting than the ones in the stores, but they are also FREE. Each lady would be very proud of her mat if she got one. They would brag about how many they have or how new it looks or just because they have one. The Mwokil Atoll uses these mats as their only means of gifts to everyone and anyone who visits the atoll. The fruit attracts a lot of visitors towhere it grows. When it is ripe, all family members gather together to enjoy the fruits and, of course, the day. These are only just some of the reason why the pandanus tree is so special to us. Botany home page Lee Ling home COM-FSM home page

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Read More To infect its host, the respiratory pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa takes an ordinary protein usually involved in making other proteins and adds three small molecules to turn it into a key for gaining access to human cells. In a study to be published May 7 in mBio, the online open-access journal... Read More A new study led by researchers from Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in the UK has, for the first time, used genome sequencing technology to track the changes in a bacterial population following the introduction of a vaccine. The study follows how th... Read More Certain types of anti-depressants have been linked to an increase in the risk of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) finds a study in BioMed Central's open access journal BMC Medicine. Awareness of this link should improve identification and early treatment of CDI. Certain types of anti-dep... Read More A new approach to treating antibiotic-resistant infections has been developed by University of Wollongong (UOW) and University of New South Wales’ (UNSW) researchers who have patented the new technology and entered into commercialization discussions with two French pharmaceutical companies. A... Read More That word "microbiome" — describing the collection of bacteria that live in and on our bodies — keeps popping up. This time, researchers say that children whose parents clean their pacifiers by sucking them might be less likely to develop allergic conditions because of how their parents' saliva ... Read More Shanghai Daily has a web page set up that shows the geographic distribution of H7N9 infections and fatalities in China. There is also a news feed, information on symptoms and a photo gallery. Click "source" to view. Read More (via Wired's Superbug blog) In my last post 36 hours ago, I raised questions about Saudi Arabia’s apparent delay in reporting new cases of the novel coronavirus that has been causing low-level unease since last summer. (For the full history of that, check these posts.) So it’s only fair to say t... Read More Spring cleaning is always a good way to get rid of those hard-to-reach cobwebs that appear around the house. However, when they appear in cooling tanks for spent nuclear fuel and have never been seen there before, special attention is warranted. Sometime in Fiscal Year 2011, “cobwebs” of bact... Read More A new federal report blames a combination of problems for a mysterious and dramatic disappearance of U.S. honeybees since 2006. The intertwined factors cited include a parasitic mite, multiple viruses, bacteria, poor nutrition, genetics, habitat loss and pesticides. The multiple causes mak... Read More Chinese scientists are being criticized for their “appalling irresponsibility” after they intentionally developed a new mutant influenza strain in a veterinary laboratory, the Independent reported. Experts have warned that the new virus strains could potentially escape the lab, which could c... Read More

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Kamrul starts his day very early in the morning. He leaves his bed just after sunrise and washes his face from the nearest pond. After having a little cold rice from the previous night, he leaves for work. These days, Kamrul feels very relaxed. He doesn’t have to pay rent to the cycle van owner daily. He has his own van now. It is the most useful gift for his family. Kamrul has been. His new cycle van ensures a decent life for his family. Kamrul considers himself a fortunate father of a Compassion-assisted child. His 8-year-old daughter, Mukta, is the channel of blessings in his family. Every morning, Kamrul drives to the nearest village market for passengers or a load to carry. If he is fortunate enough, he can get more than two passengers at a time and heavy stuff to carry. He earns 100-120 taka (U.S.$1.45-$1.74) per day by driving his cycle van. “One hundred taka ($1.45) per day for me is the same as 100,000 taka ($1,450) for the rich people living in the big cities. This 100 taka allows me to buy food for my children and keep my family.” In the rainy and cold season he earns less than that, but the money is still adequate to buy food for his children. It wouldn’t be possible if he didn’t have his own cycle van. Previously, he had to pay around 100-120 taka as rent for a cycle van. He had very little left for his family. To pay the owner on a regular basis was a Herculean task for Kamrul. It took eight out of his 11 hours of working to earn the money for the owner. Now Kamrul believes that his bad days are over and he can do something more for his children and family. Kamrul’s working hours are now more flexible. To work eight hours throughout the day is enough for him to take care of his family. Whenever he is on the road driving his cycle van, he keeps the faces of his children in his mind rather than the worry of paying the owner of the cycle van. You made this possible for him. Kamrul had a bitter childhood. After the death of his father, his mother was kicked out of the house by his stepbrothers. His father married twice, and Kamrul’s mother was the second wife. It is common in Bangladesh for stepmothers not to be well-accepted by their stepchildren. Kamrul’s mother had to struggle a lot to raise her children. She stayed in a different town from them and worked as a housemaid. She was unable to provide education for her children. Kamrul grew up to become an illiterate rickshaw puller. He couldn’t manage to live in another town, and seven years ago returned to his own village. His stebrothers didn’t receive him warmly. He asked them to allow him to stay on his father’s land, but they said no. With help of the local people, he got a small piece of the land, but every day he has to face the anger of his vicious stepbrothers. In his 30 years of life, Kamrul has never been well-treated by people, except for his mother. When he first came in touch with the Compassion staff, he was amazed by their compassionate attitude. Now Kamrul is astonished by your love for him and his family. “From my childhood I got used to mistreatment. I never got love and sympathy from my stepbrothers or neighbors. “But the love that the Compassion sponsors have shown to me is unconditional. They bought me a new cycle van just after knowing about my struggling. This is beyond my imagination. They improved our living. I am grateful to them.” Kamrul is very popular at the child development center because of his sincerity. The center manager and church pastor always call him whenever they need to carry goods a distance. Kamrul carries all the sacks of rice, lentil, vegetables and chicken on his van for the center. It is very helpful for the church as well as for Kamrul. He is their “official” cycle van driver. Seven months ago, Kamrul used to carry the stuff of other people on his rented cycle van. Many people used to buy goods and food stuffs from the local market, and Kamrul carried those on his van. He couldn’t afford to buy stuff for his family. Conditions have changed. He is now able to earn adequate money to buy products from the weekly market. Last Friday he went to the market with his daughter, Mukta. He didn’t take his cycle van with him as they had been there just for shopping. Kamrul bought cooking oil, potatoes, onions, spices, biscuits and soap. Mukta asked for potato chips, and Kamrul was happy to buy her a packet of potato chips. He was very satisfied while he was heading back to his home holding the hand of his daughter. Kamrul is a very hardworking individual and always thinks about his family. He took a loan of 12,000 taka ($174) from a local organization. He invested the money to grow a paddy. This year he has received 420 kilograms of paddy, which provides five months of rice for his family. He has to pay the local organization 340 taka ($4.93) weekly. With his new van, he is able to save 50 taka per day; at the end of the week he has 350 taka to pay his weekly debt. The paddy will ensure rice is available three times a day for his family. Nowadays Mukta doesn’t have to go hungry in the morning. Every morning her mother serves her steamy rice and vegetables before she leaves for the development center. The new cycle van doesn’t mean that all the problems are removed from Kamrul’s life. He is still having some difficulties. Last month his stepbrothers beat him and his wife badly in front of their children. They threatened them and told Kamrul to leave the land where he and his family are staying. Kamrul and his wife were in great physical pain. Kamrul bought medicine for his wife. It wouldn’t be possible for him to spend money for medicine if he didn’t own the cycle van. “I am always anxious about my house. The land belonged to my father so I have a small share on that land. But my stepbrothers and their sons want to deprive me. “Compassion built a new house for us on that land after the cyclone disaster last year, but my stepbrothers want the land back, so they are trying to destroy my house. “They have never taken care of my family but always try to push us toward the edge. “Compassion took care of us by providing the van, which is the only earning way for me to survive. Even the medicine I bought for my wife were by the money I earned from the new cycle van.” Kamrul loves his children more than his own life. He has a great expectation for his daughter, Mukta. Kamrul never got the opportunity to complete his studies. He wants both of his children to grow up as well-educated human beings. From his childhood experience he knows how bitter it is to live without food as well as love. He loves his kids and tries to work at his level best to ensure they have food and clothes. He always worked hard, but now with his new cycle van he has started to work harder. He knows he has commitments to keep to his family as well as to the sponsors of Compassion. Kamrul is trying to make the most of his cycle van because the more he drives the greater chance that his children will never go hungry. Thank you for standing beside this responsible and hardworking father.

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Education is the single most important issue facing urban America. Much talk centers on the "digital divide," but we must first deal with the educational divide. The lack of access to quality education for all has helped produce poverty with all its trappings, including crime and drug abuse. The link is undeniable; seven of 10 prison inmates are functionally illiterate, according to a recent National Adult Literacy Survey. Clearly, tough decisions have to be made. The present system of social promotions, based on quantity of age rather than the quality of knowledge, shortchanges our children. For years I have seen full-grown men and women with high-school diplomas who needed someone to help them to fill out simple applications. According to the National Assessment of Education Progress, nearly 70 percent of fourth-graders in poor inner-city schools cannot read at grade level. Stephen Sample of the University of Southern California observed that "the United States, the country with the best universities in the world, has among the worst elementary and secondary schools." This is an American tragedy. Earlier this year I spoke with a first-year teacher who was bubbling over with enthusiasm. I spoke with her again some months later; her excitement had been replaced by frustration. She had discovered that half of her fifth-grade class was reading at a second-grade level. She looked at me with helplessness in her eyes. Someone must find the courage to make the tough decisions to stop this madness. If we fail to do so, not only will our children continue to be victimized, but also there will be a great exodus of brilliant teachers from our school systems. Right away, we can take these steps: Reward good teachers. Hold parents accountable for their children's behavior. Hold teachers accountable for the academic performance of their students. Change the way we handle discipline, and institute a uniform code of conduct and consistently enforce it. Another promising young teacher told me of an embarrassing incident that took place between a sixth-grade student and his teacher. The student verbally assaulted the teacher with words so vulgar and caustic that the teacher's only response was tears. The next day the child was right back in school. This kind of behavior not only dishonors and disrespects the teacher; it also disrupts the classroom. And it must not be tolerated. Many people point to the lack of classroom space, too many students in a class, or lack of funding as the biggest problems in education. But history shows otherwise. Many older black Americans can remember when nearly all black schools were incubators for educational excellence-even though their books, facilities, and supplies were hand-me-downs, far inferior to those used by others. I'm talking about schools like Williston High School in Wilmington, N.C., once known as the "greatest school under the sun." I'm talking about schools like Dunbar High School in Washington, D.C., an educational gem from 1870 to 1955. During Dunbar's academic peak, when college attendance was the exception rather than the rule for all Americans, three-quarters of Dunbar's graduates went on to college. The difference between then and now is that the students were inspired; they had confidence that they could do anything, in spite of everything. School, home, and church wove a circle of familiarity around these children, and these institutions played a cooperative, organized role in influencing the behavior and achievements of the young. As I see it, this makes an interesting argument for charter schools and some sort of voucher program. Most of us would agree that these are not the final solution to urban school problems. But I believe these at least would give families some viable options. We know that when inner-city children graduate from high school, many of them are functionally illiterate. Is it not cruel to condemn their younger siblings to the same fate? These families want choices; study after study has shown that the majority of African-Americans are in favor of vouchers. Some "experts" predict that vouchers will be the destruction of the public school. I refuse to accept that notion. I have much more faith in our public-school system than that. Vouchers will only stimulate and bring out the best in them through much-needed competition. We must raise the standard. We must no longer be willing to settle for mediocrity in the education of our precious youth. The fault lies squarely at our feet because we are no longer demanding and expecting our children to excel, and they are not disappointing us. Americans must no longer sacrifice the future of the children by shoveling them into the blazing incinerators of poorly performing schools. Years ago I played professional football. Anyone who consistently failed to do his job was soon out of a job. Excuses didn't help. Everyone understood this; it wasn't kind, but neither is the marketplace. When our children reach the marketplace, the ones who merely were shuffled through poorly performing schools will be at a real disadvantage. Society will not treat them kindly when they fail to get the job done, and excuses won't help them, either. That's why I am hopeful about Rod Paige, our new secretary of education. He showed during his tenure with the Houston Independent School District that he's willing to think outside the box. For example, he contacted private schools to help with children who were struggling academically, and he developed a system for holding schools accountable for student performance. It was high praise indeed when former Houston ISD board member Don McAdams said Mr. Paige "started Houston ISD on a path of creating a performance culture." Excellence can only be achieved through the rewarding of good teachers, discipline, testing, and returning to the days of commitment, to accountability for all. We must insist on performance and settle on nothing less than excellence. May God help us. -Herb Lusk is pastor of Philadelphia's Greater Exodus Baptist Church

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The school is test-piloting a “Bring Your Own Device” program for students, in which kids can bring their cell phones or other wireless devices – e-readers, laptops – into the classroom to supplement their learning. Since you’re reading these sentences in the order I wrote them, you’ve guessed what happened. Students in the school’s college-prep macroeconomics class found a way to beat the system during an exam. According to reports, one student would snap a photo of the test with his phone, then excuse himself to the bathroom, where he would send the photo to other students who hadn’t yet taken the test so they could research the precise answers they needed to pass with flying colors. Administrators refused to comment to the media, but the school’s newspaper (yay, high-school journalism!) scooped the world by getting an interview with the principal, who explained what happened. The paper also quoted an instructor as saying the exposed cheating incident made the Bring Your Own Device program “look like the stupidest idea ever.” Which is what I thought. At first. Academic cheating probably has been around since pupils could palm cuneiform tablets to pass that big alchemy midterm. Technology makes cheating easier, or more tempting, or more devious. At Dartmouth College in 2000, a visiting computer science professor left the answer to a problem on the class’ website and showed the Web address on an overhead projector. But since it was impossible to determine exactly which students logged onto which computers to cheat, 78 students were cleared of any charges. Another Ivy League cheating scandal boiled over earlier this year at Harvard. More than 100 students of an Introduction to Congress class – about half the class – were implicated in a scheme in which students plagiarized material from study guides for a take-home final exam. To be fair, considering that the class dealt with Congress, you’d think stealing would be required as part of the syllabus. Cheating scandals even hit the U.S. Naval Academy in 1994. In 2007, they hit Indiana University’s dentistry school, Duke University’s business school and football players at Florida State University. At California’s Diablo Valley College a few years ago, a cheating ring was discovered in which students apparently traded cash and even sexual favors for better grades. Cheating is being rubbed into our culture like a stain increasingly impossible to remove. Continually we hear about students cheating on tests. Shifty spouses cheat on one another. Shady businesses cheat shareholders. Crooked politicians cheat constituents. Steroid-hungry athletes cheat against clean sportsmanship. Video games even tout “cheat codes” to play a game at an unfair advantage that you’re actually expected to enjoy. And kids – adults, too, really – are soaking all of that in. The message: The honest and often hard road to success is for suckers. Or maybe you feel that you’ve worked hard enough, and you somehow deserve a little edge to improve your performance. Why do people cheat? To get ahead? To look good? To dodge the fear of failure? Or because the cheater shrugs it off because he thinks everybody else is cheating? It’s all those reasons, and you probably can think of a few more. And think about this: Cheating early in life sows seeds for cheating later in life. A Josephson Institute of Ethics character study issued in 2009 found that high-schoolers who cheat on tests are three times as likely to become workers who lie to customers, taxpayers who cheat on their returns and insurance-holders who cheat on their claims. Cheating has to be fought like you would any epidemic. They lost a battle in Naperville Ill. But in Fayette County, Ga., school officials are shooting for success. Fayette schools, in southern suburban Atlanta, also are piloting a program that allows students to use wireless devices. Officials call their program Bring Your Own Technology. According to the school system’s website, the program “uses that personal technology the student is familiar with, provides it a safe location on a student virtual network, and allows its use for educational purposes.” When it’s put like that, it makes more sense. Engage kids through the portals through which they view the world. If a kid is most comfortable hunched over her phone, you might as well pump some knowledge through to the kid’s screen while she’s there. It’s being done at schools across the country. And it’s coming sooner or later to schools in the CSRA. Count on it. That wireless genie is out of the bottle. The key – and this is where Naperville dropped the ball – lies in relentless supervision. Students get to keep their electronics, but teachers and administrators still have to retain rigid control. Kids should be allowed to network solely by the school’s rules, accessing only school-sanctioned material. Any and all cheating shenanigans have to be anticipated and stomped out. As I was writing this, I was reminded that it’s exam time for a lot of schools in the CSRA. Here’s hoping all pupils hit the books instead of hitting the “easy” button by cheating. Cheating erodes the trust others have in you. It tears down your confidence. It stains your soul. That’s not just advice for the students. That goes for the rest of us.

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EDU8111 Emerging Environments for Learning |Semester 3, 2012 Online Toowoomba| |Faculty or Section :||Faculty of Education| |School or Department :||Education| |Version produced :||21 May 2013| Examiner: Janice Jones Moderator: Roderick Fogarty Learning environments are designed, developed and implemented using theories and technologies that are constantly evolving. Those working in the field require knowledge of contemporary learning environments together with the capacity to locate and evaluate information about new developments. Engagement in relevant professional communities is a powerful way of accessing and contributing to shared knowledge about emerging learning environments. Theories, including constructivism and connectivism, associated with the design and adoption of learning environments will be reviewed with a focus on developing understanding of how theory can inform effective design and implementation of learning environments appropriate to a variety of contexts such as formal education, workplaces, and leisure. Students will be introduced to sources and communities from which they can obtain knowledge of current developments in learning environments and associated theories and technologies. They will collaborate to identify and evaluate relevant knowledge from a variety of sources and will be encouraged to participate as members of relevant professional communities. They will construct shared artefacts that contribute to the professional discourse of emerging learning environments and demonstrate appropriate design of learning environments for specific purposes. Where appropriate, students will work with emerging and experimental technologies. The course objectives define the student learning outcomes for a course. The assessment item(s) that may be used to assess student achievement of an objective are shown in parenthesis. On successful completion of this course students will be able to: - identify and evaluate information relevant to a range of emerging environments for learning (Assignment 1) - critically examine the use of emerging tools in the context of technology development, educational trends, usage patterns and innovation adoption (Assignment 3) - investigate future trends in learning technologies in various educational contexts (Assignment 2) - apply a range of technologies to the design of learning environments (Assignment 3) - work professionally and collaboratively on projects related to emerging learning environments. (Assignment 2) - Demonstrate competence in and appropriate use of language and literacy, including spelling, grammar, punctuation and bibliographic referencing (Assignment 3) |2.||Technology development trends||10.00| |3.||Emerging technology usage patterns||10.00| |4.||Emerging trends in education||10.00| |5.||Innovations adoption and outcome trends||10.00| |6.||Emerging technologies and tools||40.00| |7.||Conclusion and future developments||10.00| Text and materials required to be purchased or accessed ALL textbooks and materials available to be purchased can be sourced from USQ's Online Bookshop (unless otherwise stated). (https://bookshop.usq.edu.au/bookweb/subject.cgi?year=2012&sem=03&subject1=EDU8111) Please contact us for alternative purchase options from USQ Bookshop. (https://bookshop.usq.edu.au/contact/) - There are no texts or materials required for this course. Albion, P.R 2008, Virtual Worlds: Exploring Potential for Educational Interaction. In J. Luca & E.R. Weippl (Eds.), Proceedings of Ed-Media 2008: World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (pp. 5100-5107), Association for the Advancement of Computing in Ed, Chesapeake, VA. Brown, J. S 2006, 'New Learning Environments for the 21st Century:', Exploring the edge, vol. 38, no. 5, p. 18. Chen, C. J 2006, 'Australian Journal of Educational Technology', The design, development and evaluation of a virtual reality based learning environment, vol. 22, no. 1, p. 39. Hazel, P 2008, 'Toward a narrative pedagogy', for interactive learning environments, vol. 16, no. 3, p. 199. Herrington, T,. & Herrington, J. (Eds.) 2005, Authentic learning environments in higher education, Information Science Pub, Hershey, PA. Irlbeck, S., Kays, E., Jones, D., & Sims, R 2006, 'The Phoenix Rising:', Emergent models of instructional design, vol. 27, no. 2, p. 171. Whether you are on, or off campus, the USQ Library is an excellent source of information http://www.usq.edu.au/library. The gateway to education resources is here ... http://www.usq.edu.au/library/help/facultyguides/education/default.htm. Student workload requirements |Description||Marks out of||Wtg (%)||Due Date||Notes| |ASSIGNMENT 1||20||20||28 Nov 2012| |ASSIGNMENT 2||30||30||02 Jan 2013| |ASSIGNMENT 3||50||50||30 Jan 2013| Important assessment information There are no attendance requirements for this course. However, it is the student's responsibility to study all material provided to them or required to be accessed by them to maximise their chance of meeting the objectives of the course and to be informed of course-related activities and administration. Requirements for students to complete each assessment item satisfactorily: To complete each of the assessment items satisfactorily, students must obtain at least 50% of the marks available for each assessment item. Penalties for late submission of required work: If students submit assignments after the due date without (prior) approval of the examiner then a penalty of 5% of the total marks gained by the student for the assignment may apply for each working day late up to ten working days at which time a mark of zero may be recorded. No assignments will be accepted after model answers have been posted. Requirements for student to be awarded a passing grade in the course: To be assured of receiving a passing grade a student must achieve at least 50% of the total weighted marks available for the course. Method used to combine assessment results to attain final grade: The final grades for students will be assigned on the basis of the weighted aggregate of the marks obtained for each of the summative assessment items in the course. There is no examination in this course. Examination period when Deferred/Supplementary examinations will be held: There will be no Deferred or Supplementary examinations in this course. University Student Policies: Students should read the USQ policies: Definitions, Assessment and Student Academic Misconduct to avoid actions which might contravene University policies and practices. These policies can be found at http://policy.usq.edu.au/portal/custom/search/category/usq_document_policy_type/Student.1.html. APA style is the referencing system required in this course. Students should use APA style in their assignments to format details of the information sources they have cited in their work. The APA style to be used is defined by the USQ Library's referencing guide. http://www.usq.edu.au/library/help/referencing/default.htm Students will require access to e-mail and Internet access to UConnect for this course. Students enrolling in WEB courses MUST have ongoing convenient and reliable access to the Internet in order to access course materials and participate in activities that will affect assessment. The levels of equipment required may change from time to time, with the most recent specification listed at http://www.usq.edu.au/currentstudents/computingstandards/default.htm. You can check whether your computer system meets these requirements from USQAssist (http://usqassist.usq.edu.au/).

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What induced the Indian Ministry of External Affairs to issue a statement endorsing a plan that could result in loss of human life, and have negative economic and ecological repercussions for India? George W Bush's plan to tackle global warming, announced on Valentine's Day, invoked anger and ridicule from governments and non-government organisations alike. It was seen, rightly enough, as sleight of hand, an attempt to fool the world. Bush rejected the Kyoto Protocol, under which the US would have to reduce aggregate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 7 per cent compared to 1990. But he offered instead to cut greenhouse gas intensity by 17.5 per cent by 2012 (see background information). Given that the greenhouse gas intensity in the US has been falling faster than this rate anyway since the mid-1990s with no effort on part of the US government, Bush's plan promises to do precisely nothing to reduce aggregate US emissions. Instead, 2012 emissions in the US will actually be 30 per cent above 1990 level if this plan is implemented. Even staunch US allies have smelt a fish. Japan, for example, has asked the US to set targets to actually reduce GHG emissions rather than seek intensity cuts. According to UK environment secretary Margaret Beckett, Britain has protested at "the highest level" to President George Bush about his environmental policy, [which] is "very disappointing" and will not work. Then why did the Indian Ministry for External Affairs (MEA) issue a statement on February 18, 2002 welcoming Bush's policy statement? Particularly since India is among the nations that are likely to be worst hit by climate change unless countries like the US reign in their GHG emissions? India stands to incur huge economic losses if the monsoon is disrupted due to climactic changes, or if climate change leads to an increased frequency of extreme events such as typhoons, floods and droughts, water scarcity, increased incidence of vector borne disease, and heat stress. Moreover, the Indian position at the climate change negotiations has been to staunchly argue that industrialised countries should be the first to cut GHG emissions, given their higher contribution to the problem - while Bush, in his policy statement, states that countries like India and China "cannot be absolved of their responsibility". The MEA statement weakly defends this position - but only after welcoming Bush's new policy. While the motives of the MEA are not immediately clear, there seems to be only one reason to explain this wanton act of extreme foolishness -- that the MEA came under pressure from the isolated US government to show support for a plan that everybody else was junking, and was pathetic enough to oblige (perhaps to earn brownie points over Pakistan, given the present political situation between the three countries?). The US government is not known for its subtlety while buying support, so offers to fund vague climate change related projects in India could possibly have helped oil the wheels. A direct phone call to the MEA did not solve the mystery of why the statement was issued, and to whom, since none of the journalists we contacted had any prior knowledge of it. For a copy of the MEA statement, Bush's policy statement, or any further information, contact Anju Sharma or Neelam Singh, at 6081110, 6083394, 6086401 Highlights of the US president George W Bush's latest plan 'Clear Skies and Global Climate Change Initiatives' announced at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on February 14, 2002: Recommends cuts in power plant emissions of nitrogen oxides (67 per cent), sulphur dioxide (73 per cent) and mercury (69 per cent). These cuts will be completed over two phases, with one set of emission limits for 2010 and the other for 2018. Market-based cap and trade approach will be used to achieve these cuts. Each power plant facility will get a tradable permit to emit. The proposal falls short of imposing similar cuts on carbon dioxide emissions from power plants. Carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gases (GHG) whose increasing concentrations in the atmosphere contribute to global warming and climate change. GHG intensity to decline by 17.5 per cent by 2012. GHG intensity is a measure of GHG emissions per unit of economic output, usually expressed in terms of gross domestic product (GDP). In 1990-2000, the GHG intensity in the US fell by about 17 per cent, but the total emissions increased by 14.7 per cent. The cut in intensity proposed by Bush is almost the same as the reduction achieved in the last decade. Over the next ten years, GDP is projected to increase at approximately the same rate as in the past decade. As a result, the total emissions will increase by about 14 per cent, even as GHG intensity declines by 17.5 per cent. Bush's plan aims for nothing else but maintaining the status quo. Under the Kyoto Protocol rejected by the US in 2001, it had to bring down its emissions to 7 per cent below 1990 emission levels. - "If, however, by 2012, our progress is not sufficient and sound science justifies further action, the US will respond with additional measures that may include broad-based market programmes as well as additional incentives and voluntary measures designed to accelerate technology development and deployment," Bush while announcing the plan. The stress is on voluntary measures and there is no mention of binding, definite targets to reduce GHG emissions. - "….developing nations such as China and India already account for a majority of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, and it would be irresponsible to absolve them from shouldering some of the shared obligations." Industrialised countries owe their present economic prosperity to years of unrestrained carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere - a global common. They are primarily responsible for the problem of global warming whose maximum adverse effects will be borne by developing countries. Since it has not been possible to delink carbon dioxide emissions from economic growth, the South needs the space to increase their emissions to further their development goals. Imposing limits on their emissions at this stage will amount to putting a freeze on the existing inequality between the North and the South.

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Climate change campaigners are complaining bitterly that global warming and greenhouse gas reduction were entirely missing from the presidential and vice-presidential debates. However, it was discussed — just under a different title. In every debate, “clean energy,” “green energy,” and solar and wind power came up at least once, in some cases repeatedly. This is indirect climate policy: the drive to enable these technologies — which happen to be supported by all four candidates — is primarily the result of the belief that it is important to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions to prevent a global climate crisis. Without climate concerns, clean and green energy would refer only to low pollution energy sources, not to low CO2 sources (which is an essential reactant in plant photosynthesis and in no way a pollutant). Developed countries have been very successful in reducing real air pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, lead, and others. With the exception of ground level ozone, which has been difficult to reduce in many metropolitan areas, even our largest cities have much cleaner skies (and waterways) than they had decades ago. So, without the climate scare, there would be little reason for wind and solar power to have such prominence now. They would only be considered as niche applications in special circumstances. Someday, perhaps these power sources will be reliable and efficient enough to complete with conventional fossil fuel, hydropower, and nuclear sources without heavy government subsidies. Yet we are a long way from there. The approach of boosting low “carbon” energy sources as an alternative path to arrive at the climate movement’s goal — “de-carbonization” of humankind’s energy sources — has been planned for some time. For example, the Nathan Cummings Foundation (NCF), a $10 million-plus donor to climate change campaigns between 2005 and 2010, explained the need for a new, less direct approach in their Annual Report 2009 (see p. 16, “Ecological Innovation Program”). They expressed concern that grantees were overly emphasizing direct CO2 emission reduction and other costly measures to address climate change. NCF discussed how this left organizations they support open to damaging attacks from their opponents when promoting government and industry action on climate change. Presumably, NCF and their allies could see how the public were coming to realize that the costs of CO2 emission reduction were anything but trivial, and the raison d’être for the activities — the science — was also being increasingly questioned. So a new approach was needed. NCF explained in their annual report that the foundation’s desired focus is on the supposed benefits of low CO2 energy sources, instead of direct CO2 restrictions on conventional power plants. The idea was to change the paradigm of the discourse in America: instead of making conventional energy sources more costly, the objective was to present low CO2 emitting energy sources as inexpensive “in order to engage many more people.” - NCF grantees are working to make clean energy innovation a core component of the new mainstream approach to climate policy. - Experts estimate that it will take annual investments on the order of $500 billion to $1.5 trillion globally to effect a transition to a clean energy economy. Most of that money will need to come from private investors and NCF grantees are engaged in a complimentary set of efforts to ensure that those investments will be made. - They [NCF grantees] are working to develop a more powerful advocacy community for clean energy investments. NCF and their allies have certainly succeeded. Media now regularly report glowingly on so-called clean energy projects, activities that have as their main objective reducing carbon dioxide emissions — or “global warming pollution,” as many journalists erroneously call it. President Barack Obama used this approach in his 2011 State of the Union address, and then in his 2012 address as well. As a consequence, public opinion surveys now often show strong public support for “clean” energy sources such as wind turbines and solar power. By January 2011, Rasmussen, after polling in the U.S., released a document titled “Support for Renewable Energy Resources Reaches Highest Level Yet.” In July 2011, Rasmussen even found that “51% Say Government Should Force Oil Companies To Use Profits To Develop Alternative Energy.” But alternative energy is extremely expensive and relies on huge taxpayer subsidies. To use such intermittent and diffuse power sources requires that the consumer pay between three and ten times the price of power from conventional sources. Energy independence is not a good reason for promoting new renewable energy technologies, either. Energy independence is more easily — and much more cheaply — attained by exploiting abundant national fossil fuel reserves, and then by spending some of the wealth created on research into potential new energy technologies. While large direct climate change programs continue across the world as well, the child of the climate scare — the drive for low carbon dioxide emitting energy sources — has grown up and now threatens our energy security. With twenty-nine American states and the District of Columbia now enforcing renewable energy mandates, hundreds of billions of dollars are being squandered on wind turbines, solar power, and most biofuels. At the same time, conventional power supplies are often neglected, thereby threatening our energy security, triggering higher energy prices, and placing millions of jobs and the economic futures of many countries at risk. Tragically, most energy companies have totally succumbed and now are feeding the fire that threatens to burn down their industries. We can no longer allow our politicians to promote so-called green energy solutions without holding them to account for what they actually cost and for their ineffectiveness at providing the reliable base load power needed by a modern industrial society. Unless this climate policy by stealth is recognized for what it is and halted quickly, millions of people will be left hungry and freezing in the dark.

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Bön has typically been described as the shamanistic religion in Tibet before the arrival of Buddhism in the 7th century C.E. With the recent exile of many Bönpo lamas to India, however, a more complex description of Bön is emerging and is now being considered by Western scholars. ("-po" is a part of a word in Tibetan that forms an adjective or shows the relativity, can also indicate a person, thus, "Bönpo" means a person, or people, who follow(s) the path of Bön. The transcription of the Tibetan spelling is actually just "Bon", but the diaresis is sometimes added above the "o" to prompt the reader to a more nearly Tibetan pronunciation of the vowel.) The Meaning of BönEdit A pure mind (a mind which recognizes Existence and understands it fully in an objective and factual way) behaving accordingly, being used in utmost justice or balance, looking beyond, meditating on it, etc. comes to the point when the blindness of the mind and its attitudes, proven by verbal guidance, intellectual minds and perfect examples, clears out ignorance from the very root and can save anybody from the three stages of sadness and will come to an eternal well defined understanding. This wisdom or religion is called Bön. Historical phases of BönEdit According to the Bönpo themselves, the Bön religion has actually gone through three distinct phases: Animistic Bön, Yungdrung or Eternal Bön, and New Bön. The first phase of Bön was indeed rooted in animistic and shamanistic practices, and corresponds to the characterization of Bön as previously described in the West. Initiation and rituals strongly resembled those found also in native Siberian shamanism. Individuals who could become shamans were traditionally members of a special clan from which all shamans came. Shamans could be male or female, but few modern shamans are women. One who would become a shaman was visited, and possessed by, either an ancestral shaman or one or more gods, deamons or spirits of other sorts (in contrast to non-Eastern shamans, who went seeking visions) and driven into incoherent babbling and subsequently running wildly into the forest. After the individual in question returns, they are taught how to control the spirits that visit them, as well as recitation of mantras. Article on Anamistic Bön The second phase is the controversial phase, which rests on the claims of the Bönpo texts and traditions (which are extensive and only now being analyzed in the West). These texts assert that Yungdrung Bön can be traced back to a Buddha-like founder named Tönpa Shenrab Miwoche. He discovered the methods of attaining enlightenment and is considered to be a figure analogous to Gautama Buddha. He was said to have lived 18,000 years ago, in the land of Olmo Lungring, or Shambhala, which was a part of the so-called land of Tazig to the west of present day Tibet (which some scholars identify with the Persian Tajik). According to Buddhist legends, before Shakyamuni Buddha came there were many other Buddhas in the past. Tönpa Shenrab transmitted the faith (similar in many regards to Buddhism) to the people of the Shangshung culture of western Tibet who had previously been practicing animistic Bön, thus establishing Yungdrung ("eternal") Bön. The most tantalizing claim (which, on balance, is not endorsed by most scholars) is that Buddhism may have arrived in Tibet by some other path than directly from northwest India. A transmission through Persia prior to the 7th century is not impossible. Alexander the Great had connected Greece with India almost a millennium earlier, resulting in a flourishing Greco-Buddhist art style in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The 6th century Khosrau I of Persia is known to have ordered the translation of the Buddhist jataka tales into the Persian language. The Silk Road, the path by which Buddhism traveled to China in 67 C.E., lies entirely to the west of Tibet and passed through the Persian city of Hamadan. Recently, Buddhist structures have been discovered in far western Tibet that have been dated to the third century C.E. Bönpo stupas have also been discovered as far west as Afghanistan. Nonetheless, no scholars have yet identified a major center of Buddhist learning in Persia which corresponds to the Bönpos' land of Tazig. Alternative proposed sites have included the ancient cities of Merv, Khotan, or Balkh, all of which had thriving Buddhist communities active in the correct timeframe and are located to the west of Tibet. Leaving aside the speculation on Tazig, what can we say about the other Bön claims? The existence of the Shangshung culture is supported by many lines of evidence, including the existence of a remnant of living Shangshung speakers still found in Himachal Pradesh. The claim that Lord Shenrab was born 180 centuries ago is generally not taken literally, but understood as an allusion to a master born in the very distant past. One interesting question relating to the history of Bön is: when did Bön really enter the Yungdrung phase, that is, when did elements strongly resembling Buddhism become important? These elements became apparent with the codification of the Yungdrung Bön canon by the first abbot of Menri, Nyame Sherab Gyaltsen, in the 14th century, but this trend probably began earlier. At the same time, the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya orders of Buddhism were also reorganizing themselves in order to be able to compete effectively with the dominant, Gelug order. Even if we do not accept the Bön claim that Bön's Buddhist elements are older than the (Indian, historical) Buddha, we may consider some other milestones in Tibetan history which may mark points at which Buddhist ideas became integrated into Bön. - In the first half of the 7th century, the Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo assassinates King Ligmicha of the Shangshung and annexes the Shangshung kingdom. The same Songtsen Gampo is also the first Tibetan king to marry a Buddhist (or, in his case, two): in 632, Nepalese princess Bhrikuti, and in 641, Princess Wencheng, daughter of Emperor Tang Taizong of Tang Dynasty China (where Buddhism is approaching its zenith). Both Tibetan and Bön history agree that King Songtsen Gampo decides to follow Bön, despite his marriages. The nature of the Bön practiced by him and his court is not very clear. - Approximately 130 years later, King Trisong Detsen (742-797) holds a debate contest between Bön priests and Buddhists, and decides to convert to Buddhism; in 779, he invites the great Indian saint Padmasambhava to bring Tantric Buddhism to Tibet. According to Tibetan Buddhist tradition, the arrival of Padmasambhava represents the First Transmission of the faith. Tantric Buddhism becomes important in Tibet, at this point. - As Tantric Buddhism becomes the state religion of Tibet, Bön faces persecution, forcing Bönpo masters such as Drenpa Namkha underground. It is, however, possible that several decades later, with the collapse of the Tibetan Empire into civil war in 842, Bön may have experienced a partial revival in some districts, especially in western Tibet. - In the 11th century, approximately coincident with the Second Transmission of Tantric Buddhism into Tibet associated with Indian saints such as Atisha and Naropa, we start to find more Bönpo texts, discovered as terma. The "New Bön" phase emerges in the 14th century, when some Bön teachers discovered termas related to Padmasambhava. New Bön is primarily practiced in the eastern regions of Amdo and Kham. Although the practices of New Bön vary to some extent from Yungdrung Bön, the practitioners of New Bön still honor the Abbot of Menri Monastery as the leader of their tradition. According to a recent Chinese census, presently about 10 percent of Tibetans are estimated to follow Bön. At the time of the communist takeover in Tibet, there were approximately 300 Bön monasteries in Tibet and western China. According to a recent survey, there are 264 active Bön monasteries, convents, and hermitages. The present spiritual head of the Bön is Lungtok Tenpa'i Nyima (b. 1929), the thirty-third Abbot of Menri Monastery (destroyed in the Cultural Revolution, but now being rebuilt), who now presides over Pal Shen-ten Menri Ling in Dolanji in Himachal Pradesh, India, for the abbacy of which monastery he was selected in 1969. A number of Bön establishments also exist in Nepal; the most accessible is probably Triten Norbutse Bönpo Monastery, on the Western outskirts of Kathmandu. In Kathmandu, go to the bus stop on the Ring Road nearest Swayambhu (downhill just behind the great stupa.) Follow the Ring Road about 500 meters northeast in the direction of Balaju. Turn left at the small village called Baraing, and follow the dirt road through the rice fields to the red colored monastery, situated on the side of the mountain, a little lower than the Swayambhu Stupa. (It is not the monastery on the top of the mountain.) The Monastery is clearly visible from the Ring Road. Visitors are welcome. Bön spiritual practicesEdit Bön, while now very similar to schools of Tibetan Buddhism, may be distinguished by certain characteristics: - The origin of the Bönpo lineage is traced to Buddha Tönpa Shenrab (sTon pa gShen rab), rather than to Buddha Shakyamuni. - Bönpo circumambulate chortens or other venerated structures counter-clockwise (i.e., with the left shoulder toward the object), rather than clockwise (as Buddhists do). - Bönpos use the yungdrung (g.yung drung, swastika) instead of the dorje (rdo rje, vajra) as a symbol - Instead of a bell, Bönpos use the shang, a cymbal-like instrument with a "clapper" usually made of animal horn, in their rituals. - A nine-way path is described in Bön, which is distinct from the nine-yana (-vehicle) system of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. Bönpo consider Bön to be a superset of Buddhist paths. (The Bönpo divide their teachings in a mostly familiar way: Causal Vehicle, Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen). - The Bönpo textual canon includes rites to pacify spirits, influence the weather, heal people through spiritual means, and other "shamanic" practices. While many of these practices are also common in some form in Tibetan Buddhism (and mark a distinction between Tibetan and other forms of Buddhism), they are actually included within the recognized Bön canon (under the causal vehicle), rather than in Buddhist texts. - Bönpo have some sacred texts, of neither Sanskrit nor Tibetan origin, which include some sections written in the ancient Shangshung language. - The Bönpo mythic universe includes the Mountain of Nine Swastikas and the Olmo Lungring paradise. The Bönpo school is said to resemble most closely the Nyingma school, the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism, which traces its lineage to the First Transmission of Buddhism into Tibet. Reality and chakras in BönEdit Chakras, as pranic centers of the body, according the Tibetan Bön tradition, influence the quality of experience, because movement of prana can not be separated from experience. Each of six major chakras are linked to experiential qualities of one of the six realms of existence. A modern teacher, Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche uses a computer analogy: main chakras are like hard drives. Each hard drive has many files. One of the files is always open in each of the chakras, no matter how "closed" that particular chakra may be. What is displayed by the file shapes experience. The tsa lung practices open channels so prana could move without obstruction. Yogi opens chakras and evokes positive qualities associated with a particular chakra. In the hard drive analogy, the screen is cleared and a file is called up that contains positive, supportive qualities. A seed syllable (Sanskr. bija) is used both as a password that evokes the positive quality and the armor that sustains the quality. Tantric practice eventually transforms all experience into bliss. The practice liberates from negative conditioning and leads to control over perception and cognition. - See also: Reality in Buddhism - ↑ Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche, Healing with Form, Energy, and Light. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2002. ISBN 1559391766, p. 84 - ↑ Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche, Healing with Form, Energy, and Light. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2002. ISBN 1559391766, p. 85 - Norbu, Namkhai. 1995. Drung, Deu and Bön: Narrations, Symbolic languages and the Bön tradition in ancient Tibet. Translated from Tibetan into Italian edited and annotated by Adriano Clemente. Translated fom Italian into English by Andrew Lukianowicz. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. ISBN 81-85102-93-7. - Ligmincha Institute - Bon Foundation - Tibetan Yungdrung Bön Arts - Collection of rare artefacts of the Bön religion - Garuda Switzerland - interview with Lopon Tenzin Namdak Rinpoche, the most senior teacher of the Bönpo tradition - Picture of Bön inscription - John Reynolds' web site, including his Bonpo translation projectda:Bön-religionen |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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DefinitionHyperventilation is rapid or deep breathing that can occur with anxiety or panic. It is also called overbreathing, and may leave you feeling breathless.See also: Rapid shallow breathing Alternative NamesRapid deep breathing; Breathing - rapid and deep; Overbreathing; Fast deep breathing; Respiratory rate - rapid and deep ConsiderationsWhen you breathe, you inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Excessive breathing leads to low levels of carbon dioxide in your blood. This causes many of the symptoms you may feel if you hyperventilate.Feeling very anxious or having a panic attack are the usual reasons that you may hyperventilate. However, rapid breathing may be a symptom of a disease, such as:BleedingHeart or lung disorderInfectionYour doctor will determine the cause of your hyperventilation. Rapid breathing may be a medical emergency -- unless you have experienced this before and have been reassured by your doctor that your hyperventilation can be self treated.Often, panic and hyperventilation become a vicious cycle. Panic leads to rapid breathing, and breathing rapidly can make you feel panicked.If you frequently overbreathe, you may have hyperventilation syndrome that is triggered by emotions of stress, anxiety, depression, or anger. Occasional hyperventilation from panic is generally related to a specific fear or phobia, such as a fear of heights, dying, or closed-in spaces (claustrophobia).If you have hyperventilation syndrome, you might not be aware you are breathing fast. However, you will be aware of having many of the other symptoms, including:BelchingBloatingChest painConfusionDizzinessDry mouthLightheadednessMuscle spasms in hands and feetNumbness and tingling in the arms or around the mouthPalpitationsShortness of breathSleep disturbancesWeakness Common CausesAnxiety and nervousnessBleedingCardiac disease, such as congestive heart failure or heart attackDrugs (such as an aspirin overdose)Infection such as pneumonia or sepsisKetoacidosis and similar medical conditions Lung disease such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or pulmonary embolismPanic attackPregnancySevere painSituations where there is a psychological advantage in having a sudden, dramatic illness (for example, somatization disorder)Stimulant useStress Home CareYour doctor will look for other medical illnesses before diagnosing hyperventilation syndrome.If your doctor has explained that you hyperventilate from anxiety, stress, or panic, there are steps you can take at home. You, your friends, and family can learn techniques to stop you from hyperventilating when it happens and to prevent future attacks.If you start hyperventilating, the goal is to raise the carbon dioxide level in your blood, which will put an end to most of your symptoms. There are several ways to do this:Get reassurance from a friend or family member to help relax your breathing. Words like "you are doing fine," "you are not having a heart attack," and "you are not going to die" are very helpful. It is extremely important that the person helping you remain calm and deliver these messages with a soft, relaxed tone.To increase your carbon dioxide, you need to take in less oxygen. To accomplish this, you can breathe through pursed lips (as if you are blowing out a candle) or you can cover your mouth and one nostril, and breathe through the other nostril.Over the long term, there are several important steps to help you stop overbreathing:If you have been diagnosed with anxiety or panic, see a psychologist or psychiatrist to help you understand and treat your condition.Learn breathing exercises that help you relax and breathe from your diaphragm and abdomen, rather than your chest wall.Practice relaxation techniques regularly, such as progressive muscle relaxation or meditation.Exercise regularly.If these methods alone are not preventing your overbreathing, your doctor may recommend a beta blocker medication. Call your health care provider ifCall your health care provider if:You are experiencing rapid breathing for the first time. (This is a medical emergency and you should be taken to the emergency room right away.)You are in pain, have a fever, or notice any bleeding.Your hyperventilation continues or gets worse, even with home treatment.You also have other symptoms. What to expect at your health care provider's officeYour doctor will perform a careful physical examination.To get your medical history, your doctor will ask questions about your symptoms, such as:Do you feel short of breath?What other symptoms do you have when you are breathing rapidly? Do these symptoms start at any other time (for example, when you are walking or exercising)?Do you have any medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or high cholesterol?What medications do you take?What is happening in your life in general? Has it been a particularly stressful time?Do you feel anxious or stressed, especially before you start breathing rapidly?Are you in pain? What does the pain feel like? How intense is the pain? Where is it located?What other symptoms do you have (for example, have you had any bleeding? Are you dizzy?)The doctor will assess how rapidly you are breathing at the time of the visit. If you are not breathing quickly, the physician may try to induce hyperventilation by instructing you to breathe a certain way.While you hyperventilate, the doctor will ask how you feel and watch how you breathe -- including what muscles you are using in your chest wall and surrounding areas.Tests that may be performed include:Blood tests for the oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in your bloodChest CT scanECGVentilation/perfusion scan of your lungsX-rays of the chest ReferencesDuffin J, Phillipson EA. Hypoventilation and hyperventilation syndromes. In: Mason RJ, Broaddus CV, Martin TR, et al. Murray & Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2010:chap 78.Winter AO, Purcell TB. Somatoform disorders. In: Marx JA, ed. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2009:chap 111.

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Are we at last one nation, with liberty and justice for all? In this ebook, we reflect on the life and legacy of Martin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement, and assess their efforts to overcome racial discrimination and to promote racial equality and integration. The first chapter explores the origins and traditions of the Martin Luther King Jr. birthday celebration, with particular attention to the American character of the holiday. The second chapter presents powerful accounts of the black American experience during the era of racial segregation—from Booker T. Washington, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Zora Neale Hurston, to Langston Hughes, Ralph Ellison, and James Baldwin—with a focus on showing the need for civil rights. The third chapter brings us to the Civil Rights Movement itself, evaluating the goals, strategies, and tactics of the Movement's various leaders. The final chapter raises questions about the challenging and vexed issues left open in the wake of the successes of the Civil Rights Movement: equality; family, religion, and culture; and identity. For more stories, speeches, and songs, or to learn more about the What So Proudly We Hail project, head to www.WhatSoProudlyWeHail.org. Martin Luther King Jr. Day: An American Holiday The Origins and Traditions of Martin Luther King Jr. Day A Brief History of the Civil Rights Movement Dwight D. Eisenhower, "On the Situation in Little Rock: A Radio and Television Address to the American People" Lyndon B. Johnson, "To Fulfill These Rights: Commencement Address at Howard University" Stevie Wonder, "Happy Birthday" Ronald Reagan, Remarks on Signing the Bill Making the Birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. a National Holiday William Jefferson Clinton, Remarks on Signing the King Holiday and Service Act Barack Obama, Remarks at the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Dedication The African American Experience and the Need for Civil Rights Frederick Douglass, "The Civil Rights Cases" W. E. B. Du Bois, "On Being Crazy" Booker T. Washington, "My View of Segregation Laws" W. E. B. Du Bois, "Of the Coming of John," from The Souls of Black Folk James Baldwin, "Stranger in the Village," from Notes of a Native Son Ralph Ellison, "The Battle Royal," from Invisible Man Zora Neale Hurston, "How It Feels to Be Colored Me" James Baldwin, From Notes of a Native Son Langston Hughes, "One Friday Morning" John O. Killens, "God Bless America" Junius Edwards, "Liars Don't Qualify" The Civil Rights Movement The Movement and Its Goals "Lift Every Voice and Sing" "Onward, Christian Soldiers" "We Shall Overcome" "This Little Light of Mine" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" Martin Luther King Jr., "I Have a Dream" Diane Oliver, "Neighbors" Zora Neale Hurston, Letter to the Orlando Sentinel Martin Luther King Jr., "Eulogy for the Martyred Children" Leon R. Kass, Letter on the Civil Rights Movement Martin Luther King Jr., "I've Been to the Mountaintop" Movement Tactics and Strategy Martin Luther King Jr., "The Power of Nonviolence" Appendix: "Commitment Card," Alabama Christian Movement for Civil Rights Lee Martin, "The Welcome Table" Anthony Grooms, "Food That Pleases, Food to Take Home" A Group of Clergymen, "A Call for Unity" Martin Luther King Jr., "Letter from Birmingham Jail" Joseph H. Jackson, Address to the 1964 National Baptist Convention Malcolm X, "The Ballot or The Bullet" Diana Schaub, "Solve for X" Civil Rights, Race, and the American Republic: Today and Tomorrow Racial Discrimination and Affirmative Action Earl Warren, Brown v. Board of Education John G. Roberts, Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District Shelby Steele, "Affirmative Action," from The Content of Our Character The Pursuit of Equality Kurt Vonnegut Jr., "Harrison Bergeron" Daniel Patrick Moynihan, "The Negro Family: The Case for National Action" Thomas Sowell, "The Mirage of Equality," from The Quest for Cosmic Justice Family, Religion, and Culture Juan Williams, From Enough Cornel West, "The Moral Obligations of Living in a Democratic Society" Gerald Early, "Dreaming of a Black Christmas" Alice Walker, "Everyday Use" Henry Louis Gates Jr., "Growing Up Colored" John McWhorter, "How Can We Save the African-American Race?," from Losing the Race Stephen L. Carter, "The Black Table, the Empty Suit, and the Tie" Shelby Steele, "Race-Holding," from The Content of Our Character

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Duck numbers down, but similar to last year MEMPHIS, Tenn. - July 7, 2008 - The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service released its preliminary report today on mid-continent breeding ducks and habitats, based on surveys conducted in May and early June. Total duck populations were estimated at 37.3 million breeding ducks on the surveyed area. This estimate represents a 9 percent decline over last year's estimate of 41.2 million birds, but remains 11 percent above the 1955-2007 long-term average. One of the most important elements in duck breeding success is the amount of water present in portions of prairie and parkland Canada and north central United States. Total pond counts for the United States and Canada combined showed 4.4 million ponds, a 37 percent decrease from last year’s estimate, and 10 percent below the long-term average. Habitat conditions in 2008 were a good news / bad news scenario. Drought in many parts of the traditional survey area including the prairie pothole region contrasted sharply with record amounts of snow and rainfall in the eastern survey area. The FWS spring surveys provide the scientific basis for many management programs across the continent including the setting of hunting regulations. The Flyway Councils and the FWS Regulations Committee will meet in July and early August to recommend and adopt the season structure and bag limits for 2008-09. Individual states will make their selections following these meetings. Hunters should check their state's rules for final dates. “The decline in breeding habitat conditions is consistent with what Ducks Unlimited’s field biologists have reported across much of the U.S. and Canadian breeding grounds this spring,” said Ducks Unlimited’s Chief Biologist, Dale Humburg. “While late rains may have improved habitat for late nesting species, and for renesting and brood rearing, poor production will likely occur over key productions areas, particularly the prairie grasslands of the U.S. and Canada.” The mallard population was 7 percent below last year. An estimated 7.7 million mallards were on traditionally surveyed areas this spring, compared to last year’s estimate of 8.3 million birds. However, mallard numbers were similar to the long-term average. “The lack of an increase in mallard populations is consistent with a delayed spring and decreasing ponds in key mallard nesting areas; however, mallards remain at levels above the long-term average and near the North American Waterfowl Management Plan goal,” said Humburg. The most positive news coming out of this year’s survey continues to be for redheads, green-winged teal and scaup. For the second straight year, redheads remained above 1 million birds (66 percent above the long-term average). Green-winged teal populations remained similar to the level in 2007 and were 57 percent above the long-term average. Scaup numbers appear to have stabilized at similar levels for the last 8 years remaining at 3.7 million in 2008, similar to the 3.5 million surveyed in 2007. Breeding scaup numbers remain 27 percent below their long-term average, however. As expected, some breeding populations declined as habitat conditions deteriorated from 2007 to 2008. Although 6 of the 10 commonly surveyed species showed no significant change, 4 species declined appreciably. Notable declines were in numbers of breeding canvasbacks (-44 percent from 2007), northern pintails (-22 percent), gadwalls (-19 percent), and northern shovelers (-23 percent). Canvasbacks were at an estimated 489,000 breeding birds in the survey area 14 percent below their long-term average. Pintail numbers declined to 2.6 million, 36 percent below the long-term average. Despite declines from 2007 in numbers of gadwalls and shovelers, populations remain well above long-term averages (both +56 percent). “Severe drought occurred across much of the northcental U.S. and Prairie Canada - much of the core pintail breeding area,” said Humburg. “The poor habitat conditions likely will lead to limited pintail production and recruitment into the fall flight.” American wigeon numbers, at 2.5 million, remained similar to 2007 levels and the long-term.Although blue-winged teal populations did not change significantly from 2007, they remain well above the long-term average (+45). “Pintails and scaup continue to be well below their long-term averages and remain a significant concern,” said Humburg. “Habitat changes are believed to be the primary causes of decline for both these species. DU and partners continue targeted research programs on scaup and pintails that we hope will improve our understanding of the conservation actions that will help these species recover.” Since 1990, surveys have been conducted in eastern North America. In contrast to the western surveys most of the eastern survey area experienced record or near-record winter snowfall and spring precipitation accompanied by average to below-average temperatures. Population estimates for the 10 most abundant species surveyed were similar to last year and to the 1990-2007 averages. Wet and dry cycles, where water levels fluctuate over time, are vital components of maintaining wetland productivity. This is true for all wetlands, but is especially important for the prairie potholes of the northern plains. Although the short-term effect may be fewer breeding ducks, wetlands are rejuvenated during severe droughts. It’s important to note that droughts are temporary. If we can keep grassland and wetland habitats intact, when the water returns, prairie wetlands will again teem with breeding waterfowl and other wildlife. Equally important to note is that more stable wetland areas such as the boreal forest provide critical nesting habitat, particularly during drought years on the prairies. In 2008, these areas where rated as fair to excellent although in most places spring was delayed by 1-2 weeks. “Habitat is the core factor driving the health of duck populations and the size of the fall flight,” said Humburg. “Habitat also is a key for waterfowl in migration and for hunters. This year, spring and early summer flooding in the Midwest and South, drought in the Prairies, and extremely dry conditions in parts of the west coast, could affect migration and hunting habitat.” As painful as the current drought is, waterfowl and prairie habitats are facing even greater long-term threats. Grassland habitat is under siege on many fronts and is being lost at alarming rates. The U.S. Prairie Pothole Region lost more than 800,000 Conservation Reserve Program acres last year, and more than 3.3 million acres of native prairie are projected to be lost during the next five years unless governors in affected states opt into Sodsaver. There has never been a time more important than today to maintain our focus on restoring and protecting these habitats, so when wet conditions return they can continue to produce ducks for future generations. Related: Early Summer Habitat Conditions in Canada Mike Checkett(901) 758-3793 email@example.com Dale Humburg(901) 758-3786 firstname.lastname@example.org With more than a million supporters, Ducks Unlimited is the world’s largest and most effective wetland and waterfowl conservation organization with more than 12 million acres conserved. The United States alone has lost more than half of its original wetlands - nature’s most productive ecosystem - and continues to lose more than 80,000 acres of wetlands important to waterfowl each year.

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The Mississippi Delta is famous for more than floods; it's the birthplace of uniquely American music. As the flood waters rose, many blues artists were inspired to write songs about the disaster and describe the experience of being in a flood. Mai Cramer, who has hosted her "Blues After Hours" radio show for over two decades, and Prof. David Evans, an ethnomusicologist at the University of Memphis, explain some of the history behind blues music, especially the stripped-down, raw style of music called Delta blues. Blues is very visceral. For the most part it's narrative. It tells a story out of people's lives. Compared to other types of music, it's very authentic -- there aren't a lot of frills. What we usually think of as Delta blues is one person with a guitar, typically a slide guitar, and that real raw kind of singing. Delta blues grew up into modern Chicago blues. If you listen to Muddy Waters, for example, he's basically singing Delta blues that are citified and electrified. Delta blues is the foundation for that. When we listen to blues music of the 1920s, it's like looking through a window at the experience people are having at the time. Typically, blues artists write out of their own experience. A lot of blues is about men and women, and relationships. Blues was sung at rent parties, where you'd play music and pass the hat to pay your rent. Or they'd be in shacks behind the fields, "juke joints" where people would drink, dance, and hear music. It's the music you'd play when you were relaxing or partying. Initially it was black music played by black people for black people. Only a few early performers, like Bessie Smith, who sold a lot of records, sold to white people. The blues were mostly only in the black community until large numbers of whites discovered the music in the 1950s and especially in the 1960s. We always think of blues as being intense, as having an emotional intensity. Floods are natural disasters that overwhelm you the way emotions can overwhelm you, and so the flood is an important image for the blues, a metaphor for an experience that's too much, that's just impossible to handle. Two artists who are still alive today have connections to the very earliest Delta blues. They're in their 80s. These two artists are not the only ones who play Delta blues, but they're among the last who were there when it started. Robert Junior Lockwood was up for a Grammy this year with traditional Delta blues, and he's a link to the Delta because his mother had a relationship with Robert Johnson, who was known as the King of the Delta Blues. Robert Junior learned from Robert Johnson. David "Honey Boy" Edwards is also still alive, and he's another important musician. He lived the life of an itinerant blues singer and wrote about it in his autobiography, The World Don't Owe Me Nothing. A lot of Delta blues appears on the Yazoo label. Most blues songs are about personal experiences and personal feelings and they tend to concentrate on themes of man-woman relationships and the related emotions -- the whole range of emotions, happy and sad. Travel is another theme. Movement. Work and other social conditions. Social problems. Luck. Magic. More or less, the ups and downs of daily life. There are some that deal with themes of broader interest: current events, political events, commentary, and so on. These are still often tied to personal reactions and personal feelings. The flood was both a public event, a news story, and something that hundreds of thousands of African Americans experienced directly. The Delta itself has throughout blues history been a stronghold of blues music. It was very intensely developed there, stylistically and creatively. It has been central to African American cultural life in the Delta, particularly in the first half of the 20th century. It's characterized stylistically by a very intense type of performance, a minimalist style that squeezes the maximum feeling and emotion out of each note. The perfomers typically sing and play very hard, and often explore very deep themes philosophically. In other words, it tends not to be superficial music, but a very deep expression of a personal, and a collective, feeling. The music started around the beginning of the 20th century and it seems to have reached a creative peak in the 1920s that's captured in phonograph records of that era, starting in the year 1920. A number of Mississippi Delta artists recorded in that decade. This was really a golden age, particularly of the country blues. The first flowering of country blues on records happened in 1926. It seems there were 25 or 30 records by blues artists on or related to the 1927 flood. The songs present a variety of commentary on the flood. The ones by the few artists that were from the area, who might have actually experienced the flood (like Charlie Patton or Alice Pearson) tend to be the most realistic in their descriptions, the most accurate in their details. Some of the others are inaccurate, based on hearsay, some sentimentalize the flood, some even trivialize it, or find some way to connect it to the man-woman theme, or sexual double entendre, getting back to more standard blues themes. A song by Atlanta artist Barbecue Bob, "Mississippi Heavy Water Blues," describes losing his woman, who's washed away in the flood. They range over quite a bit of emotional territory. Blind Lemon Jefferson, from Texas, recorded a flood song, and frequently performed in the Delta, in small theaters in towns like Greenwood and Greenville. Sometimes he would just come into town and set up in a park, and draw a crowd. Lonnie Johnson, who was based in St. Louis, recorded a flood song also. There were artists in other styles, too, the vaudeville blues singers, who also recorded flood songs. Bessie Smith had probably the most famous song on the flood, but there's a peculiarity to it. It was recorded before the flood. "Back Water Blues" was recorded in February 1927, before the great disaster of April. Perhaps the buildup of rain made her anticipate the flood; it was released just as the flood came, and as a result, it became a big hit. It's a description of one woman's experience of a flood. There had been a lot of rain for weeks prior to the flood so she might have in some way anticipated the flood, or it might have been a coincidence. There had been generic flood songs in the 1920s. There was a piece called "Muddy Water" which was a pop song of 1926. Bessie Smith also recorded this song. There were certainly enough floods in all parts of the lowland South so that flood themes would be taken up often. On the religious side, in gospel music, there were some recordings that saw greater significance in this flood. One in particular, "The1927 Flood," by Elders McIntorsh and Edwards (recorded in December 1928), saw the hand of God in the flood, as a punishment for wickedness. A black preacher in Memphis, the Reverend Sutton E. Griggs, saw the flood as a metaphor of black-white cooperation, the people trying to shore up the levees, something that led to better race relations, although the historical fact about it was that there were some major race-related problems related to the relief effort. The whites in charge of the relief effort thought that the blacks would just pitch in after the flood to restore the old order, and give volunteer labor so they could go back to being sharecroppers. The blacks tended to view the flood as wiping the slate clean, wiping out the old order. The flood wiped out the crops in the areas it devastated, so any black sharecroppers in that area knew they weren't going to get a crop, with the water and mud staying up until June. It was impossible to get a good crop. So they had to go somewhere and find some work. A lot of people headed North. Charlie Patton's great two-part song, "High Water Everywhere," was recorded in December 1929, two and a half years after the flood. Patton was from the Delta. He had probably composed it earlier; his recording career didn't start until 1929. But he and his record company thought the song still had relevance. In the early 1920s virtually all American record companies were recording blues material, and they had developed the concept of race records along with other specialized genres of music: hillbilly music, various non-English language ethnic series for immigrant communities, etc. It was a marketing strategy the record companies had, to direct their promotional efforts in these communities. Unfortunately it had the effect of isolating these American musical traditions and keping them out of the mainstream of American music, so that they didn't come to the attention of most Americans, but remained on the periphery. There were a few African American artists who had mainstream appeal: Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, and people like that. But the vast majority of African American recording artists, especially blues and gospel singers, sold almost entirely within the black community. If there hadn't been race records, much of this music might not have been recorded at all. It was recorded, but it didn't reach a bigger audience. Some artists, like Louis Armstrong, were heard on the radio, but blues was hardly broadcast at all. Some stations in the South started barn dance programs, like the Grand Ole Opry, which had a black harmonica player, but it was pretty unusual. Record players would have been one of the few luxuries, one of the few pieces of furniture, poor people might have had, more so even than radios. They were very important cultural items, even among people who were relatively poor. And in the cities you'd have people who had come from the country, listening to the blues. Blues is a music that's highly personalized, that deals with fairly intimate personal relationships, so you have to read through the songs to see broader social issues. But the personal relationships described in the blues are affected by social conditions of poverty, racism, the nature of work, rural life, and so on, and these shape how people relate to each other. You have to do a little bit of projection from those lyrics; blues are not usually songs of ideology or protest. But you can detect an overriding aura of dissatisfaction in the blues. They deal with the changes and fluctuations of life, and the possibilities of change, too, on a very personal level. My American Experience We invite you to tell us your own stories - whether you lived through a tumultuous time period or learned about it from a relative, a book or a movie.

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The United States has become accustomed to its hegemonic military presence in the greater Middle East. The U.S.-led international coalition against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait in August, 1990 led to a massive increase in America's direct military presence in the Gulf. Its military presence accelerated after the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Today, U.S. forces are deployed all the way from the Sinai desert through the Arabian Peninsula, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, as well as Afghanistan. While the U.S. has come to take its unchallenged military primacy in the Middle East for granted, key Asian countries -- especially India, China, Japan and South Korea -- have also increased their Middle East presence. The U.S. shouldn't view this as a threat but rather an opportunity for greater cooperation on a wide spectrum of growing security concerns. The signs of Asia's push into the Gulf can be seen everywhere. All around the Arabian Gulf, hotels, banks, schools, and shopping centers are managed by Asian expatriate workers, who also provide most of the region's manual labor. Without Asian labor, the oil-rich economies of the Gulf would collapse. Many of the vast construction projects in Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dubai and other city-states are supervised by South Korean companies. Most of the automobiles and trucks on the street are Japanese or Korean. The endless procession of tankers that sail from the huge ports of the Gulf carrying oil and liquefied natural gas is destined increasingly for the Asian market. Infrastructure projects, including new roads, railways, seaports, airports, gas and oil pipelines, and undersea communication lines, are expanding in both the Middle East and Central Asia, making access between the two regions easier and cheaper. These trends suggest that, absent a protracted global recession, the Asian presence in the Middle East will continue to grow significantly over the coming decade. Over the next 30 years, the economies of India and China are expected to surpass that of the United States in size (although as a result of population growth, their per capita GDP will remain relatively low), giving their governments increased regional and global clout. As India and China grow, Japan will be left behind. Nonetheless, Japan is likely to remain a key Asian power, given its close ties to the United States. Moreover, Japan's energy needs will keep it tied to the Gulf. Similarly, South Korea, while smaller than Japan, is already deeply engaged in the Middle East, especially in the energy sphere. Lacking domestic oil reserves, South Korea is the world's fifth-largest importer of oil and the eleventh-largest importer of liquefied natural gas. In addition, South Korean construction companies have been hired to build oil refineries, petrochemical plants, offices, and infrastructure across the Middle East. India is an under-appreciated player in this new Asian Middle East. The Indian subcontinent has had close commercial ties with the Gulf for centuries, and India today has managed to cultivate good working relationships with all the countries in the Middle East, including Israel. While economic interests have provided the basis for many of those relationships, India has also taken on a modest military role. The Indian government has participated in Middle East peacekeeping operations since 1956. In addition, India has been increasing its bilateral military ties with all of the small countries in the Gulf. India is likely to establish a stronger, more assertive presence in the Gulf over the coming decades. It is China, of course, which gets most of the attention. For a short period in the fifteenth century, China was the dominant power in the Indian Ocean, but over the centuries that followed, it had little to do with the Middle East. After the Communist Revolution in 1949, China tried to cultivate close relationships with revolutionary groups in the Arab world, but its efforts were violently opposed by Arab nationalists. In the wake of the Sino-Soviet split and China's eventual rapprochement with the United States in 1972, China changed course and sought instead to establish cordial relations with Middle Eastern governments. In particular, it became more directly involved in the geopolitics of the region through arms sales, notably to Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq, during the 1980s. More recently China has followed India's example by becoming engaged in Mideast peacekeeping. China's participation in United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) began officially on April 9, 2006. Considerable uncertainty remains regarding China's future presence in the region, particularly in the military arena. China is a long way from the Gulf, but if its permanent maritime reach eventually expands into the Indian Ocean and its overland reach grows through Central Asia and Pakistan, it, too, could become a major strategic player in the Middle East. The attention paid to China's voice in the debate over sanctions on Iran offers a stark contrast to its limited role in the debate over sanctions on Iraq in the 1990s. It is easy to see the growing doubts about how long the United States can sustain its presence in the region and remain the policeman of the Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Two wars have drained American resources. The financial crisis also diminished U.S. prestige by calling into question the validity of its economic model, which had been eagerly pursued on the Arabian Peninsula, the richest part of the Middle East. If all these factors coalesced to bring about a slow U.S. retreat from the region, would any Asian powers fill the vacuum? On this point, there is no consensus. Some acknowledge the importance of Asia's economic and cultural expansion into the Middle East but argue that domestic factors in India and China will limit their ability to play the role now held by the United States. Others maintain that, to the contrary, China is likely to take a more aggressive approach to the Middle East and develop close relationships with countries like Syria and Iran. Still others focus on the growing relationship between India and the United States, arguing that it may serve to counterbalance Chinese ambitions. The new dynamics must take into account not only growing ideological challenges to the West, but also the reemergence of more traditional balance-of-power politics as the Asian nations become world players and the sense that Americans may eventually grow tired of protecting the assets of "free loaders." In many ways an increased growing Asian presence in the Middle East will bring a breath of fresh air to a region left with the bitter historic legacies of European dominance and characterized by contemporary antagonism toward the hegemonic role of the United States. The major Asian players in the Middle East have not been colonizers or occupiers and they have far less of an emotional stake in the Arab-Israeli conflict. On the one hand, that means that they approach political issues and unresolved conflicts with what some would argue is a cynical, laissez-faire attitude, perhaps exemplified by China's initial indifference to human rights abuses in Sudan. However, the upside is that the Asians do not interfere directly in Middle East politics and therefore enjoy good relations with most states. How long they can sustain their hands-off approach is questionable if, by virtue of their economic dominance and their own strategic stakes in the region, they get drawn into the messiness of Middle East politics at a time when the United States becomes disillusioned by the burdens of hegemony. In the meantime, it is very much in the interests of both the U.S. and the Asian countries to reach common agreements on the importance of preventing further conflict in the region and jointly assuring the security of the increased maritime traffic across the Indian Ocean. Cooperation on meeting the piracy challenge off the coast of Somalia is an early test of this new strategic reality. Geoffrey Kemp is the Director of Regional Strategic Programs at the Nixon Center. This article summarizes some of the key themes in his latest book The East Moves West: India, China, and Asia's Growing Presence in the Middle East (Brookings Institution Press 2010). The Middle East Channel offers unique analysis and insights on this diverse and vital region of more than 400 million.

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Library of Congress preservation program works with millions of items, terabytes of data in a full spectrum of formats We are warned to be careful about what we put online because data on the Internet lives forever. But keeping random copies of files on servers, routers and databases is not the same as preservation, said Martha Anderson, director of program management for the Library of Congress’ National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation program. Digital data can be ephemeral. “That is the paradox,” she said. Web sites can disappear in a matter of days or change repeatedly in a matter of hours. Files can become lost or corrupted, formats and hardware change, and physical media such as tapes and disks deteriorate far more quickly than anticipated. So Congress charged the LOC in 2000 with preserving the nation’s digital heritage and at the same time making sure that its collection of 29 million books and 105 million other items gathered over the last 200 years remains available for the next 200 years. Toward that end, NDIIP has developed specifications and tools for the transfer of large digital files; worked with government, academia and industry on best practices for digitizing and preserving data; established programs to use delivery platforms such as Flickr to make LOC content available; and partnered with the private sector to harvest content from the Web for archiving. Across the board: The LOC’s Office of Strategic Initiatives is preserving everything from books to Dictabelt recordings. The library now has three broad initiatives under NDIIP: working with universities and libraries to understand the nature of digital content, working with state consortiums to help in the preservation of state government records, and working with commercial content providers to develop standards for digital preservation. The challenges of wedding a physical past to a digital future are varied. “The biggest difference is the element of time,” Anderson said. “Some physical artifacts can be put on a shelf and left for many years. Books from the 18th century are fine, for example. This is not so much the case with sound recordings and film.” The technology changes and the media deteriorate. Finding playback equipment for a wax cylinder, an old movie or a Dictabelt can be difficult. And when they are available, the cylinder, film or belt might not be playable. “The whole domain is looking to digital to carry this forward,” Anderson said. But digital conversion is time-consuming, and each type of material requires its own technology and special handling. Although the library has been working since the 1990s on digitizing its collections and has made millions of files available online, Anderson estimates that only about 1 percent of the library’s holdings have been digitized. And digital data can be tricky to handle. “Some formats are fairly stable,” Anderson said. Text and image files have not changed a lot in recent years, and there are plenty of PDF, TIFF and JPEG files that can be easily opened today. But sound and video formats tend to change more quickly. And the physical environment for storing and accessing files changes rapidly. “Servers and digital storage are a challenge. These turn over every three to five years and everything is moved off to another server.” To accomplish its digital mission, the library takes advantage of work being done in industry and academia to establish standardized environments and tools rather than developing everything itself. Among the initiatives NDIIP is participating in are: - Development of the BagIt protocol for large data transfers. - A collaborative Web site for federal partners developing guidelines for digitizing records. - The National Digital Newspaper Program, in collaboration with the National Endowment for the Humanities, to digitize and preserve regional newspapers. - State-of-the-art facilities at the library’s Packard Campus for preserving the world’s largest collection of audiovisual works. - Partnering with universities and the Internet Archive to harvest and preserve more than 69 terabytes of content from the Web. - Supporting standards development for digital content, including Office Open XML, PDF/A and JPEG2000. - Development of open-source tools for receiving, archiving and accessing data in digital repositories. It is not the technology that poses the greatest challenge to digital preservation, Anderson said. “The biggest challenge is social, getting organizations to understand the value of digital materials.” Most organizations focus on day-to-day operations without concern for preservation. “We would like to make preservation a part of regular operations and workflow,” she said. Part of the problem is the complexity of the tasks. “It is very complicated even to archive your own e-mail at home,” so preservation has not yet become a part of everyone’s digital environment. Another challenge in establishing long-term programs for digital preservation is the speed of change in the digital environment. “Our job as we saw it in 2001 was much simpler than we see it today,” Anderson said. When Congress gave the library the job of digital preservation, there was no Wikipedia, Google Maps, Flickr or Facebook. Today, those tools and others like them have changed the way digital content is created and distributed. “We worked for nine months to gather video from the Internet,” Anderson said. “During that nine months, YouTube came onto the scene and changed everything.”

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Crossed Signals Lead to War If the United States ever entered into a war that could have been prevented, it was the War of 1812. While the lure of land in Florida and Canada was the driving force behind the war hawks, the excuse put forth was “impressment and the rights of a neutral nation to free trade.” These slogans were a result of England and France being locked in a death struggle. Each country had blockaded the other, and the British Navy was “impressing” Americans to serve on its ships. These rules of economic warfare became known as “Orders in Council.” For years, America had fought back against the practice by limiting sales and purchases from Great Britain, but in the spring of 1812, the war hawks beat the drum of patriotism. Military historian Robert Lackie explained. “Ironically, American boycott of Britain had also produced economic distress in England. Receipts of American food crops had fallen to a trickle, exports to America had dried up, and the harsh winter of 1811-12 was made more unbearable by the failure of English crops. Starved and jobless English workmen began to riot while merchants and manufacturers beseeched the government to rescind the Orders in Council and reopen American trade. “It took that event unique in British history – the assassination of a prime minister, Spencer Perceval – to place in power a ministry willing to make the change. On June 16, 1812, London announced that the Orders in Council had been suspended.” The irony was it was too late. Two days later, before the news arrived in the United States, the Senate voted 19 to 13 to make the declaration of war official. The confusion of the times can be seen in the British Gentleman’s Magazine of July 1812, describing the action of New Jersey’s governor, Joseph Bloomfield. “Intelligence has been received by a pilot-boat arrived at Liverpool, that the American senate had determined on war with this country by a majority of six; the pilot-boat left New York the 23d ult; previous to her departure, an express had been received at that place by Gen. Bloomfield, which he read at the head of his whole army, formally announcing that war against Great Britain had been declared by the United States. Whether these measures received the final sanction of the American government previous to the arrival of the intelligence of the death of Mr. Perceval, and the revocation of the Orders in Council, is not yet known.” It would be the end of July before news of the repeal reached America, and events had already taken place. The secretary of the Navy sent orders to his top commanders on May 21. “As war appears now inevitable, I request you state to me, a plan of operations, which, in your judgment, will enable our little navy to annoy in the utmost extent, the trade of Gt Britain while it least exposes it to the immense naval force of that government. State also, the Ports of the US which you think safest as asylums for our Navy, in time of war.” An antiwar movement had already been dividing the country. As Congress debated, the citizens of Boston formed a committee. “While the temper and views of the national administration are intent upon war, an expression of the sense of this Town, will, of itself, be quite ineffectual, either to avert this deplorable calamity, or to accelerate a return of peace. But believing, as we do, that an immense majority of the people are invincibly averse from a conflict equally unnecessary and menacing ruin to themselves and their posterity; convinced, as we are, that the event will overwhelm them with astonishment and dismay, we cannot but trust that a general expression of the voice of the people would satisfy Congress that those of their Representatives who have voted in favor of war, have not truly represented the wishes of their constituents; and thus arrest the tendency of their measures to this extremity.” Finally, Boston, the hot bed of the American Revolution declared, “Therefore Resolved, That under existing circumstances, the inhabitants of this Town most sincerely deprecate a war with Great Britain as extremely injurious to the interests and happiness of the people, and peculiarly so, as it necessarily tends to an alliance with France, thereby threatening the subversion of their liberties and independence. That an offensive war against Great Britain alone would be manifestly unjust; and that a war against both the belligerent powers would be an extravagant undertaking, which is not required by the honour or interest of the nation.” The 34 members of the House of Representatives who opposed the war published, “The undersigned cannot refrain from asking, what are the United States to gain by this war? Will the gratification of some privateersmen compensate the nation for that sweep of our legitimate commerce by the extended marine of our enemy which this desperate act invites? Will Canada compensate the Middle states for New York; or the Western states for New Orleans? “Let us not be deceived. A war of invasion may invite a retort of invasion. When we visit the peaceable, and as to us innocent, colonies of Great Britain with the horrors of war, can we be assured that our own coast will not be visited with like horrors? At a crisis of the world such as the present, and under impressions such as these, the undersigned could not consider the war, in which the United States have in secret been precipitated, as necessary or required by any moral duty, or any political expediency.” There were those who supported the war. The logbook of the USS Constitution, then at Annapolis, Md., recorded, “JUNE 20. (1812) At 5 P. M. the Commanding Officer, Lieutenant Read, had the crew turned up, and read to them the declaration of war between the United States and the United Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, that had passed the Senate and authorizing the president James Madison to employ the Armies and navy of the United States against the above written powers. The Crew manifested their Zeal in Support of the Honor of the United States Flagg by requesting of leave to Cheer on the occasion (granted them). Crew returned to their duty, light airs from the Southward and Eastward.” Supporters of President James Madison and the war held a rally in Trenton on July 10 and sent their own letter to him. “Sir – Believing it would be pleasing to you, at this crisis to be acquainted with sentiments and views of your constituents in every part of the Union, the convention of Republican delegates from the several counties of the state of New Jersey take the liberty of addressing you on behalf of their constituents and themselves. “They have seen with approbation the long continued and often repeated efforts of the government of the United States to preserve to the country the blessings of peace, and at the same time to maintain the honor and independence of the nation. Negotiation has at length been abandoned as hopeless; Resistance has been commenced as the last resort.” Finally, Madison’s New Jersey supporters promised, “On behalf of the republican citizens of this state, and of ourselves, we, therefore, sir, assure you, we are now as much in favor of a vigorous prosecution of the war until our wrongs are redressed and our rights respected, as we have heretofore been of the preservation of peace, while it could be maintained without a surrender of our rights and interests. And we are fully of opinion that the confidence of the friends of government in New Jersey will be increased rather than diminished, by the measures adopted by the general government for the support of our unquestionable inalienable rights.” As the loyal citizens met in Trenton, the ship carrying word that the grievances had been in fact redressed was still in mid-Atlantic. Closer to the Jersey Shore, British and American warships had met, and once the bullets started flying, there would be no turning back. Next Week: Who fired the first shot?

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Federal Employment Discrimination Laws Specific acts that established Federal employment discrimination laws are linked below. Federal discrimination laws are also called anti-discrimination laws or equal employment opportunity laws. Acts that are not Federal discrimination laws per se, but still have provisions that prohibit prejudice in employment, are also included, as are resources to learn about discrimination laws. About Federal Discrimination Laws As indicated above, Federal discrimination laws are established by acts of congress. Laws are also called statutes and are enforced by regulations. Federal discrimination laws make it illegal for employers to discriminate against employees and job applicants in any aspect of employment based on age, disability, national origin, race, religion, genetics or sex (gender). The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces the most significant ("landmark") Federal discrimination laws related to employment. But states are permitted to enact and enforce their own employment discrimination laws that include or expand the minimum protections afforded by the Federal laws. Some states refer to discrimination laws as fair employment practices (FEP) laws. To research either on the Web, start with the resources listed in State Equal Employment Opportunity Commission or State Labor Laws. Federal Discrimination Law Links Affirmative Action under Title VII Title 29, Chapter XIV, Part 1608 is a labor law enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, that establishes guidelines for developing appropriate affirmative action programs under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (see below). Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 Considered to be among the landmark, Federal discrimination laws, it prohibits age discrimination in any aspect of employment against individuals who are 40 years old or older. Amended by the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 (below), which makes it unlawful to discriminate on the basis of age against individuals who are 40 or older, for employment benefit programs. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 The ADA too is considered to be among the landmark, Federal employment discrimination laws. It prohibits discrimination in any aspect of employment against qualified disabled individuals, because of their disabilities. Requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations for disabled workers. Effective January 1, 2009, the ADA was strengthened by the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008 (ADAA or ADA Amendments Act for short) to better protect disabled workers from employment discrimination. Not a discrimination law per se, but it has provisions that make it unlawful for employers to discriminate against incumbent employees and public-sector job applicants because of bankruptcy or the bad debts they had before filing for bankruptcy. According to precedential court decisions, the wording does not specifically prohibit private-sector employers from discriminatorily refusing to hire job applicants based on bankruptcy or prior debt, but it does prohibit them from wrongfully terminating and otherwise discriminating against their current employees. Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title VII of this Act is the landmark, Federal employment discrimination law. It prohibits discrimination in any aspect of employment on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin or sex (gender). (See also Sexual Harassment in the Workplace below.) This Act also established the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Civil Rights Act of 1991 Amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to strengthen and improve Federal civil rights laws, provide for damages in cases of intentional employment discrimination, clarify provisions regarding disparate impact actions, and for other purposes. Equal Pay Act of 1963 One of the landmark, Federal discrimination laws for employment, it disallows wage discrimination based on gender for all jobs that require equal skill, effort and responsibility under similar working conditions at the same employer. Part of the Fair Labor Standards Act, which also has provisions for overtime pay, minimum wage and child labor (see Federal Labor Laws). Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 GINA prohibits genetic discrimination in employment and health insurance. Title I, which applies to health insurers, took effect in phases up to May 21, 2010. Title II, which applies to employers, became effective on November 21, 2009. Title III amended the Fair Labor Standards Act to stiffen penalties for violating its child labor provisions. Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 Not a Federal employment discrimination law per se. Rather it amends the Immigration and Nationality Act to prohibit employment discrimination against individuals other than illegal aliens, based on citizenship status or national origin. Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 Changed the statue of limitations for filing a wage discrimination charge with the EEOC, from 180 days after the first incident of wage discrimination to 180 days after each incident (or 300 days after each incident if a state law comes into play). Amends Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 listed elsewhere on this page. See the blog post Obama Signs Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act for more information. For an example, see Compensation Discrimination published by the EEOC. Notification and Federal Employee Antidiscrimination and Retaliation Act of 2002 (No Fear Act) The No Fear Act makes Federal government employers more accountable than ever before, for violating antidiscrimination and whistleblower protection laws in the Federal government workplace. "No Fear" is not just a clever acronym, as it also means that Federal employees may report such violations without fearing retaliation. Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 OWBPA amended the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (above), by clarifying protections for workers of age 40 and older regarding employee benefit plans. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 Another of the landmark, Federal discrimination laws protecting employment, it prohibits sex discrimination on the basis of pregnancy and childbirth, and related medical conditions. An amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 listed above. Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Section 503 prohibits discrimination by Federal government employers and other employers that receive financial assistance from any Federal department or agency, against workers who have qualified disabilities. It also prohibits employment discrimination against workers who have qualified disabilities, by contractors and subcontractors working on contracts with the Federal government of over $10,000, including state and local governments. AIDS discrimination is prohibited under Section 504 of this Act. See also Sections 501 and 505 and Section 508. Section 1981(a) was originally enacted as the first section of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which protected the rights of freed slaves. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 amended it, by adding Section 1981(b). Since then, the Supreme Court has affirmed that employees may sue their employers under Section 1981 for employment discrimination on the basis of race and for race-based retaliation, which has several advantages verses suing under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace There is no standalone, Federal employment discrimination law per se, that prohibits sexual harassment in the workplace. Rather sexual harassment in the workplace is a form of sex discrimination that is prohibited under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 listed above. However, your state might have its own workplace sexual harassment law that includes or expands the minimum Federal protections. Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act Not a Federal employment discrimination law per se. But among other provisions that protect the jobs and employer-provided benefits of service members returning to the civilian workforce, USERRA also has provisions that prohibit job discrimination against veterans on the basis of their military service. The VOW to Hire Heroes Act of 2011 (see TITLE II) amended USERRA to strengthen its discrimination provisions. See also Employment Discrimination for Military Service and Veterans' Preference. Vietnam Era Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 Prohibits employment discrimination by employers with Federal contracts or subcontracts of $25,000 or more and provides affirmative-action programs for Vietnam-era veterans, special disabled veterans, and veterans who served on active duty during any war, campaign or expedition for which a campaign badge was authorized. See also Employment Discrimination for Military Service and Veterans' Preference. Youth at Work A special site by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, that explains employment discrimination for young employees and supervisory personnel. Also provides examples and answers to frequently-asked questions (FAQs). Consult an attorney for legal advice regarding a Federal employment discrimination law or a related lawsuit.

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The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 requires the Environmental Protection Agency to establish an Office of Pollution Prevention, develop and coordinate a pollution prevention strategy, and develop source reduction models. The act requires owners and operators of manufacturing facilities to report annually on source reduction and recycling activities, and authorizes EPA to collect data collection on pollution prevention. Enactment of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 marked a turning point in the direction of U.S. environmental protection policy. From an earlier focus on the need to reduce or repair environmental damage by controlling pollutants at the point where they are released to the environment — i.e., at the “end of the pipe” or smokestack, at the boundary of a polluter’s private property, in transit over public highways and waterways, or after disposal — Congress turned to pollution prevention through reduced generation of pollutants at their point of origin. Broad support for this policy change was based on the notion that traditional approaches to pollution control had achieved progress, but may in the future be supplemented with new approaches that might better address cross-media pollution transfers, the need for cost-effective alternatives, and methods of controlling pollution from dispersed or nonpoint sources of pollution. Pollution prevention, also referred to as “source reduction,” is viewed by its advocates as the first in a hierarchy of options to reduce risks to human health and the environment. Where prevention is not possible or may not be cost-effective, other options would include recycling, followed next by waste treatment according to environmental standards, and as a last resort, safe disposal of waste residues. Source reduction is the preferred strategy for environmental protection because it often: is cost-effective; offers industry substantial savings in reduced raw materials, pollution control costs, and liability costs; reduces risks to workers; and reduces risk to the environment and public health. In 1990, opportunities for source reduction appeared to be plentiful, but often were unrealized or rejected by industries without adequate consideration. The act was meant to increase interest in source reduction and encourage adoption of costeffective source reduction practices. The law was enacted as Title VI of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, P.L. 101-508, and is codified as 42 U.S.C. 13101-13109. Section 6602(b) of the Pollution Prevention Act states that it is the policy of the United States that “pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible; pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner, whenever feasible; pollution that cannot be prevented or recycled should be treated in an environmentally safe manner whenever feasible; and disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort and should be conducted in an environmentally safe manner.” Section 6603(5) defines source reduction as any practice which — - reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste stream or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive emissions) prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal; and - reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such substances, pollutants, or contaminants." Section 6604 of the act required EPA to establish an Office of Pollution Prevention. The office must be independent of the “single-medium program offices,” but was given authority to review and advise those offices to promote an integrated, multi-media (i.e., air, land, and water) approach to source reduction. EPA was directed to develop and implement a detailed and coordinated strategy to promote source reduction, to consider the effect on source reduction of all EPA programs and regulations, and to identify and make recommendations to Congress to eliminate barriers to source reduction. EPA also must conduct workshops and produce and disseminate guidance documents as part of a training program on source reduction opportunities for state and federal enforcement officers of environmental regulations. EPA’s strategy, issued in 1991, identifies goals, tasks, target dates, resources required, organizational responsibilities, and criteria to evaluate program progress. In addition, the act requires EPA to promote source reduction practices in other federal agencies and to identify opportunities to use federal procurement to encourage source reduction. To facilitate source reduction by industry, EPA is required under Section 6604 to develop, test, and disseminate model source reduction auditing procedures to highlight opportunities; promote research and development of source reduction techniques and processes with broad applicability; establish an annual award program to recognize innovative programs; establish a program under Section 6605 of state matching grants for programs to provide technical assistance to business; and disseminate information about source reduction techniques through a clearinghouse established in Section 6606. The act also includes provisions to improve data collection and public access to environmental data. Section 6604(b) directs EPA to develop improved methods of coordinating, streamlining and assuring access to data collected under all federal environmental statutes. An advisory panel of technical experts is established to advise the Administrator on ways to improve collection and dissemination of data. With respect to data collected under federal environmental statutes, Section 6608 directs EPA to evaluate data gaps and data duplication as well as methods of coordinating, streamlining, and improving public access. Section 6607 requires owners and operators of many industrial facilities to report annually on their releases of toxic chemicals to the environment (under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, Section 313). The Pollution Prevention Act requires these reports to include information about the facility’s efforts in source reduction and recycling. Specifically, reports must include: - the quantity of the toxic chemical entering any waste stream (or released to the environment) prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal; - the quantity of toxic substance recycled (on- or off-site); - the source reduction practices used; - quantities of toxic chemical expected to enter waste streams and to be recycled in the two years following the year for which the report is prepared; - ratio of production in the reporting year to production in the previous year; - techniques used to identify opportunities for source reduction; - amount of toxic chemical released in a catastrophic event, remedial action, or other one-time event; and - amount of toxic chemical treated on- or off-site. All collected information is to be made available to the general public. Section 6607(c) of the Pollution Prevention Act provides enforcement authority under Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (also known as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act). Civil, administrative, and criminal penalties are authorized for non-compliance with mandatory provisions. Citizens are given the authority to bring civil action for noncompliance against a facility, EPA, a governor, or a State Emergency Response Commission. Section 6608(a) requires EPA to file a report on implementation of its Pollution Prevention Strategy biennially. The required contents of the reports are specified in the statute. Authorization for appropriations under the Pollution Prevention Act expired September 30, 1993, but appropriations have continued. - National Pollution Prevention Roundtable. An Ounce of Pollution Prevention is Worth Over 167 Billion Pounds of Cure: A Decade of Pollution Prevention Results 1990 - 2000. Washington, DC, 2003. 53 pp. - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Program Accomplishments: Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics 2000 - 2002. Washington, DC, 2002. 40 pp. Note: This article was extracted from from the Congressional Research Service Report RL30798, Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered by the Environmental Protection Agency by David M. Bearden, Claudia Copeland, Linda Luther, James E. McCarthy, Linda-Jo Schierow, and Mary Tiemann (October 8, 2010). Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the Congressional Research Service. Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the Congressional Research Service should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content. Note: The first version of this article was drawn from material prepared for the Congressional Research Service by Linda Schierow.

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Guugu Yimithirr language |Native speakers||200–300 (1991)| Guugu Yimithirr, also rendered Guguyimidjir / / and many other spellings, is an Australian Aboriginal language, the traditional language of the Guugu Yimithirr people of Far North Queensland. It belongs to the Pama-Nyungan language family. Most of the speakers today live at the community of Hopevale, about 46 km from Cooktown. Guugu Yimithirr is one of the more famous Aboriginal, or otherwise non-English, Australian languages because it is the source language of the word "kangaroo." The word guugu means "speech, language", while yimithirr (or yumuthirr) means yimi-having, yimi being the word for "this". The use of the word yi(mi), rather than some other word for "this", was seen as a distinctive feature of Guugu Yimithirr. The element guugu and the practice of naming based on some distinctive word is found in many other languages. The name has many spelling variants, including Gogo-Yimidjir, Gugu-Yimidhirr, Gugu Yimithirr, Guugu Yimidhirr, Guguyimidjir (used by Ethnologue), Gugu Yimijir, Kukuyimidir, Koko Imudji, Koko Yimidir, Kuku Jimidir, Kuku Yimithirr, and Kuku Yimidhirr. Location of the Guugu Yimithirr people The original territory of the Guugu Yimithirr tribe extended northwards to the mouth of the Jeannie River, where it was bordered by speakers of Guugu Nyiguudji; southwards to the Annan River, where it was bordered by speakers of Guugu Yalandji; to the west, it was bordered by speakers of a language called Guugu Warra (literally "bad talk") or Lama-Lama. The modern town of Cooktown is located within Guugu Yimithirr territory. Guugu Yimithirr originally consisted of several dialects, although even the names of most have now been forgotten. Today two main dialects are distinguished: the coastal dialect, called dhalundirr "with the sea", and the inland dialect, called waguurrga "of the outside". Missionaries used the coastal dialect to translate hymns and Bible stories, so some of its words now have religious associations that the inland equivalents lack. In 1770, Guugu Yimithirr became the first Australian Aboriginal language to be written down when Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook and his crew recorded words while their ship, the HM Bark Endeavour, was being repaired after having run aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef. Joseph Banks described the language as totally different from that of the Islanders; it sounded more like English in its degree of harshness tho it could not be calld [sic] harsh neither. Among the words recorded were kangooroo or kanguru (IPA: /ɡaŋuru/), meaning a large black or grey kangaroo, which would become the general English term for all kangaroos, and dhigul (transcribed by Banks as Je-Quoll), the name of the quoll. |High||i iː||u uː| Short /u/ may be realized as unrounded [ɯ], and unstressed /a/ may be reduced to [ə]. The stops are usually voiceless and unaspirated initially and after short vowels, and voiced after consonants and long vowels. The retroflexes [ɖ ɳ] may not be single phonemes, but clusters of /ɻd ɻn/. However, there is at least one word which, for older speakers, is pronounced with a word-initial retroflex: "run", which is [ɖudaː] or [ɖuɖaː]. All words, with the exception of a couple of interjections, begin with one consonant. The consonant can be a stop, nasal, or semivowel (that is, /l r ɻ/ do not occur initially). Words can end in either a vowel or a consonant. The allowed word-final consonants are /l r ɻ j n n̪/. Within words, any consonant can occur, as well as clusters of up to three consonants, which cannot occur initially or finally. Like many Australian languages, Guugu Yimithirr pronouns have accusative morphology while nouns have ergative morphology. That is, the subject of an intransitive verb has the same form as the subject of a transitive verb if the subject is a pronoun, but the same form as the object of a transitive verb otherwise. Regardless of whether nouns or pronouns are used, the usual sentence order is subject–object–verb, although other word orders are possible. The language is notable for its use of pure geographic directions (north, south, east, west) rather than egocentric directions (left, right, forward, backward)., though such "purity" is disputed - Guugu Yimithirr at Ethnologue (16th ed., 2009) - Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh - , and following pages. - Deutscher, Guy (26 August 2010). "Does Your Language Shape How You Think?". The New York Times. - Haviland, John B. (March 1998). "Guugu Yimithirr Cardinal Directions". Ethos 26 (1): 25–47. Retrieved 7 January 2013. - Banks, Joseph (1962). J. C. Beaglehole, ed. The Endeavour journal of Joseph Banks, 1768-1771. - Breen, Gavan (1970). "A re-examination of Cook's Gogo-Yimidjir word list". Oceania 41 (1): 28–38. - Cook, James (1955). The Journals of Captain James Cook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-665-35756-7. - Dixon, R. M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47378-0. - Haviland, John B. (1974). "A last look at Cook's Guugu-Yimidhirr wordlist". Oceania 44 (3): 216–232. - Haviland, John B. (1979). "Guugu Yimidhirr Sketch Grammar". In R. M. W. Dixon and B. Blake. Handbook of Australian Languages Vol I. pp. 26–180. - Haviland, John B. (1985). "The life history of a speech community: Guugu Yimidhirr at Hopevale". Aboriginal History 8 (7): 170–204. - Richard Phillips; Sidney H. Ray (1898). "Vocabulary of Australian Aborigines in the neighbourhood of Cooktown, North Queensland". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland) 27: 144–147. doi:10.2307/2842861. JSTOR 2842861. - Roth, Walter E. (1901). The structure of the Koko-Yimidir language. Brisbane: Government Printer. - Schwarz, G. H. (1946). Order of service and hymns. Brisbane: Watson, Ferguson. - de Zwaan, Jan Daniel (1969). A preliminary analysis of Gogo-Yimidjir. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. - de Zwaan, Jan Daniel (1969). "Two studies in Gogo-Yimidjir". Oceania 39 (3): 198–217.

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Q:Dr Norman, what is the specific biomedical research area in which you have been labelled a groundbreaking pioneer? A:It has to do with vitamin B12. Along with co-workers at the University of Cincinnati, I developed a highly accurate, simple urine test for identifying an early deficiency in this vitamin. Why is B12 deficiency serious? It can lead to anemia (called 'pernicious anemia'). It can also cause problems with the nervous system. These include walking difficulties due to spinal cord degeneration, and memory loss which is indistinguishable from early Alzheimer's. The person can become confined to a wheelchair or permanently demented. However, if it is treated early with B12 injections, these conditions can reverse. If not treated in time, the changes can be permanent. What causes B12 deficiency? Usually it is not from a poor diet. As a person ages, the stomach produces less of the protein which carries B12 into the body. Thus, even though a person eats a perfectly normal diet, the vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed. Of course, since B12 is found only in foods from animals, strict vegetarians are also at risk. It has been known that vitamin B12 is needed to change methylmalonic acid (MMA) to succinic acid. With low B12 levels, this conversion is blocked, so MMA builds up in the body. Testing for MMA in a urine sample using gas chromatography mass spectrometry is the best way to detect vitamin B12 deficiency. Is there evidence that this problem has been seriously overlooked? For instance, that people in nursing homes labelled as having the untreatable Alzheimer's brain degeneration actually had this treatable B12 deficiency? Yes. Traditionally doctors have looked for anemia; when there was none, they did not suspect B12 deficiency. However, research shows people can have neurologic and psychologic problems without having anemia. In my studies of hospital patients with diagnosed B12 deficiency, 20 per cent had no anemia. Many had severe neurologic problems; they just had not been diagnosed correctly because they did not have anemia. Has there been any testing on the general population? As part of my research, hundreds of people over age 65 were tested. I found that about five out of every 100 had a B12 deficiency without any evidence of anemia. This research was partly funded with a grant from the National Institutes of Health. This work also showed that about 49 per cent of the people identified as having a definite B12 deficiency with the MMA test had a normal or low-normal blood test for B12. This means that blood tests for vitamin B12 are not accurate enough for screening. It seems that with proper screening in that age group, many thousands of people can be rescued from being demented, crippled, or both. Are others beginning to pick up on this? Yes, a number of other researchers have now reproduced what I have done. Some have measured MMA in the blood and are coming up with the same pattern of results. At a recent national convention on the subject, MMA testing was mentioned as the biggest advance in this area in recent years. Now some doctors are screening their patients to identify B12 deficiency early, when it can be corrected. That's wonderful. How did your belief in Jesus Christ as your Saviour and Lord influence your research? I received Jesus as my Lord and Saviour when I was 11. However, in my late twenties I began to really study the Bible and realized that God's entire Word was trustworthy. I believe as I have followed Christ, He has guided my life, including my research. One of my favourite Bible verses is Proverbs 3:6. ['In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall direct thy paths.'] What about evolution? In graduate school, I had an open mind about it. People presented evolution as fact, and I thought, 'Can you show me? Not just statements, but from real evidence?' As I studied the complexity of life processes and biomolecules, I saw there were really no facts at all for evolution. Dr Norman, didn't you work on DNA for your Master's degree? Yes, I did chemical synthesis on parts of the DNA molecule. These sub-units, the nucleotides and nucleosides, have bases out the side that act like 'letters' carrying genetic information. I worked many long months connecting just three of these bases. But everyone is told that this complex molecule needed for life, with millions of bases in the proper order, just 'happened'. Actually, I found that to connect these DNA 'letters' together correctly, a protective group must be attached on parts of the molecule to prevent wrong connections. A catalyst is also needed as a condensing agent, and the chemical reaction must take place in a completely water-free environment. If the flask is left open even momentarily, the humidity in the air would prevent the reaction. So I thought, I am connecting only three bases together. How could DNA randomly form out in an ocean or pond? What about all the proteins, sugars, and lipids also needed for life? The DNA in a 'simple' bacterium carries so many 'letters' in sequence that, if you typed it out, it would fill about 2,000 ordinary pages. One human cell would take about a million pages. So you came to your creation belief experimentally, in a sense? Yes. I did not read any specific creation literature. Evolution is just unscientific. It violates the laws of chemistry including the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the laws of probability, and information theory. Anti-creationists commonly charge creationists with misusing the Second Law of Thermodynamics, saying that an 'open system' solves the problem. Well, if you put a drop of dye in a swimming pool, that's pretty open, but the molecules are going to diffuse out, not collect together. Systems tend to move into states of greater disorganization. The complex DNA molecules I was working with have a tendency to break down into less complex forms. Very hard, directed work is required to get even the simple parts to form in a particular order. Random processes just won't do it. Chemical synthesis is a very exact science. Living things make these chemicals because they carry intelligently designed programs which direct all the complicated machinery needed. So an open system and energy doesn't solve the problem for the evolutionist? You need to have all this programmed machinery already there? In fact, a number of scientists are now acknowledging this and admitting that there must be an undiscovered scientific law that caused simple molecules to organize themselves into life. But they don't know how. What about six-day creation versus long-age creation like Rossism? Hebrew professors say the word 'day' in its context in Genesis can mean only a 24-hour day. Also, the Genesis account is in harmony with other Bible passages. I believe what God tells me and there is nothing in my understanding of science that convinces me otherwise. In evaluating all the models, the six-day, global-flood model, which is what the Bible plainly teaches, is the only one that really holds up. Some would be surprised that scientists like yourself who have made a name in their field can believe in creation and the Bible. Actually, I know of quite a number of scientists in various fields who are solidly creationist, although they are not out there giving talks at seminars or submitting papers on it. I think it is important to get it into the open and rationally discuss the existence of a creation model. I think that if the facts are brought out, more and more people will fall into the creation camp because that is where the evidence lies. Why do most educated people believe in evolution? I think it is because they have been told that 'most educated people believe in evolution'. They have rarely investigated the facts. That is why I think the Creation Science Foundation, the Answers in Genesis ministry, and Creationmagazine are so beneficial and important. Help keep these daily articles coming. Support AiG. “Now that I have updated, revised, and expanded The Lie, I believe it’s an even more powerful, eyeopening book for the church—an essential resource to help all of us to understand the great delusion that permeates our world! The message of The Lie IS the message of AiG and why we even exist! It IS the message God has laid on our hearts to bring before the church! It IS a vital message for our time.” – Ken Ham, president and founder of AiG–U.S. Answers magazine is the Bible-affirming, creation-based magazine from Answers in Genesis. In it you will find fascinating content and stunning photographs that present creation and worldview articles along with relevant cultural topics. Each quarterly issue includes a detachable chart, a pullout children’s magazine, a unique animal highlight, excellent layman and semi-technical articles, plus bonus content. Why wait? Subscribe today and get a FREE DVD download!

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