Datasets:

eastwind

/

finweb_sentences_10BT_40_char

like 0

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_2

A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_3

The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_4

The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_5

In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_6

This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_7

The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_8

This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_9

This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_10

The situation is not beyond remediation.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_11

The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_12

The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_13

The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_14

Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_15

This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_16

Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_17

It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_18

The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_19

Nigeria has about nine ecological zones.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_20

Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_21

Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_22

The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_23

As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_24

In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_25

These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_26

Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_27

Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_28

Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North?

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_29

Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices?

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_30

Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these?

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_31

These are the perspectives being examined in this paper.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_32

Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_33

Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_34

Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_35

For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_36

With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_37

Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_38

In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_39

Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_40

Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_41

The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_42

But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_43

Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_44

An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_45

It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_46

An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_47

In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_48

The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_49

A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_50

The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_51

The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_52

Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_53

By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_54

Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_55

The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_56

Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_57

The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_58

It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_59

The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_60

This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_61

The following short term and long term measures have been proposed.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_63

Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_65

It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_66

The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_68

A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_69

The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_70

This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_72

Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_73

v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_74

The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_75

The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_76

In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_77

The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_78

• Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_79

• Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_80

• Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta).

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_81

With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_82

The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_83

The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_84

Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_86

Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_87

In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_88

Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_92

Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_94

- Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_95

- Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_96

- Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_99

John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_102

Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_103

- Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_104

- Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_107

Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_108

Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_109

- Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_111

Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_114

- Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_115

"Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem."

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_116

Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419.

Review Article - International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology (2016) Volume 4, Issue 3 Threats to Aquatic and Terrestrial Faunal Resources in Nigeria: The Nexus for Mitigating Future Tribal and Boundary Conflicts - *Corresponding Author: - Amah Joseph Idu Department of Geology, Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, P.M.B1010, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] Received 10th May 2016; Accepted 14th June 2016; Published 20th June 2016 Resource conflicts are persistent the world over since the lives of the people, to some extent, depend on the outcome. In present day Nigeria, a lot of skirmishes between Fulani nomads and some host communities over grazing land for cattle are in the front burner. A Southward migration of nomads for grazing lands has been met with stiff opposition from host communities. The Niger Delta is the main resource hub of Nigeria due to its petroliferous on shore and offshore areas. The pollution of the creeks and inland waterways and the depletion of aquatic species due to eutrophication is clearly the major cause of oil infrastructure vandalization and sabotage. In the Sahel Savanna in the far north, climate change, human development, effects of land use practices and mismanagement of established grazing reserves have brought great stress on the land available for crop growth and sustenance of animals. This state of affairs underscores the sharp resource divide amongst the ecological zones of Nigeria and the potentials for conflict generation. The coastal areas no longer enjoy the rich aquatic resources due mainly to oil pollution effects on the ecosystem. This situation is exacerbated by the conquering posture of the South-bound nomads which tends to bring about tribal and boundary conflicts. This paper focuses on the unfolding scenarios in Nigeria due to unplanned resource management. The situation is not beyond remediation. The starting point is the restoration of existing reserves in the north and education of the herdsmen. The Niger Delta pollution problems must be clearly and transparently pursued. The bottom line is the management of available land and water resources especially the aquatic and terrestrial zoological resources Aquatic, Terrestrial, Resources, Conflicts, Threats, Nigeria. Anthropogenic disturbance is a major driver for biodiversity loss. This is especially true for subtropical and tropical forest ecosystems. Nigeria is not spared from this state of affairs. It has over 170 million inhabitants most of which are farmers who derive their sources of livelihood from forest and water resources. The recent emergence of global problems including climate change, biodiversity loss, habitat fragmentation, globalization, and infectious disease emergence demands integrative approaches breaching disciplinary boundaries. Nigeria has about nine ecological zones. Of these zones, the Sahel Savanna has a vast land with the least of the forest resources in terms of productivity, needed for the sustainance of farming actvities and animal husbandry. Due to climate change effects, desertification in the north, herdsmen are heading southward looking for better grazing grounds which are limited due to farming activities. The destruction of crops and farms by herds of cattle are resisted by host communities thereby straining tribal and boundary harmony. As fishing communities turn towards subsistent farming for survival on limited land occasioned by oil spills, the encroachment of herds of cattle on this farms become a great source of conflict between the farmers and the herdsmen. In the Niger Delta region, especially Ogoniland, major conflicts between government forces and youths from the area have gained international attention. These conflicts arise from the claims by the rampaging youths that the source of their livelihood which is mainly fishing is being wiped out. Governments, on the other hand appears oblivious of this fact hence the tagging of these youths as militants. Studies have shown that the quantity of oil spilled over a fifty year period is between 9-13million barrels, which are equivalent to 50 times the Exxon Valdez spills. Does Nigeria require setting up grazing reserves elsewhere outside the operational region of herdsmen or does the solution lie in restoring and maintaining already established reserves in the North? Does the oil spill in the Niger Delta about 50 times the quantity of Exxon Valdez spills show environment-friendly practices? Can there be a paradigm shift from the coercive and subjugative stance to the persuasive and palliative measures in all these? These are the perspectives being examined in this paper. Moretimore and Wilson (1965) noted that the farmers in northern Nigeria have cultivated up to 83.5% of the land. Around Katsina, with 119 people per 135 square kilometers, farmers plow 66-75% of the land, while the remaining bush land is extensively grazed, if grass grows. Further researches have shown that for all classes of land use, except uncultivated land, grazing has intensified in Nigeria. For the uncultivated land, primary grazing-sites are diminishing because sedentary farmers inhabit the land. With an increase in population, grazing changes from surplus, to subsistence, and to survival methods of land exploitation (Awogbade, 1980). Urban or rural expansion impinge on access to grazing-sites causing herders, farmers, and builders to struggle for areas with known quality land. In the fadama floodplains, conflicts resulting in loss of life are common. Clashes in these wet-lands escalate when farmers deny animals access to water and verdant grass (Galaty, et al., 1980b). Recently, conflicts between farmers and herdsmen have resulted in bloody skirmishes in southeast Nigeria and are ongoing in North Eentral Nigeria. The Niger Delta consists of diverse ecosystems of mangrove swamps, freshwater swamps and rainforest and is considered the largest wetland in Africa and among the ten most important wetlands and marine ecosystems in the world. But due to oil pollution and contamination, the area is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, forest destruction and biodiversity loss in general, making the area an ecological wasteland (Kadafa, 2012). Oil spills that pollute the creeks, surface and groundwater bodies and the effects of dams on downstream, excessive use of sulphate fertilizers were reported as some of the threats to water resources development in Nigeria (Idu, 2015). An extension of this finding is the effects on downstream migration of fish and other marine faunas. It has been estimated that 24 out of 224 mammals, 10 out of 831 birds and 2 out of 114 reptiles known to exist in Nigeria are endangered (WRI, 1992). An estimated 9million – 13 million (about 1.5 m tons) of oil has been spilled in to the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years; 50 times the volume spilled in Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska 1989 (FME, NCF, WWF UK, CEESP-IUCN 2006). In 2004, Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas pipeline transversing through Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest leaked and set ablaze and burnt for three days. The local plant and animals within the areas were engulfed (Nenibarini, 2004). A bill for the setting up of grazing reserves elsewhere in the country is a matter before the national assembly. The debate is raging based on which part of the country one comes from and in all prima facie issues are being overlooked. The sponsors of the bill believe that the chronic scarcity of pasture is the primary cause of nomadic pastoralism and invasion of farmlands by the nomads down south. Grazing reserves in Nigeria started during the pre-colonial era (Bako and Ingawa, 1988). By 1964, the government had gazetted about 6.4 million hectares of the forest reserve, ninetyeight percent in the Savanna. Sokoto Province had twentyone percent of the land, followed by Kabba, Bauchi, Zaria, Ilorin, and Katsina, with 11-15 percent each (Awogbade, 1982). The Wase, Zamfara, and Udubo reserves followed in succession. Records show that the establishment of these reserves witnessed colossal failures due to mismanagement, inadequate infrastructure and the failure of the nomads to adapt to a sedentary life styles. The above accounts clearly show that the starting point in the solution of the pasture issues lie in the restoration of the mismanaged reserves and setting up of new ones if necessary. It is to be noted that making this a national issue can only breed further regional mistrust. The mindset of the protagonists of pastoral extension nationwide assumes that the Fulanis will remain herdsmen in perpetuity. This line of thinking surely obscures government vision for the Fulani development in the future. The following short term and long term measures have been proposed. i. Enforcement of land reform and protection of the already demarcated grazing reserves for the intended users especially in the North where the practice is not alien to the people. ii. It should also be within the government scope to ensure better stoking rates through improved herd quality. The Fulani should be made to appreciate the value of improved stock rather than keeping large number of herds for the sake of it. iii. A long term road map for the acquisition of skills and occupational diversification should be in place by all concerned states in the North. The expansion of grazing reserves with a view to perpetuating pastoralism is shear myopia. This can only be achieved through intensive education which is presently hampered by nomadic life. iv. Establishment of cattle ranches as this is the modern method of raising cattle in leading producers of beef and cattle products globally. v. Establishment of ranches in the south should be through private negotiation with host land owners and not through government fiat or law. The Niger Delta imbroglio The lack of development in the region and perceived injustice over the sharing of revenues from oil often triggered conflicts between the host communities and oil extracting companies on the one hand and between the host communities and the state on the other. The adverse effects of these conflicts on the Nigerian economy, and the need to tackle decisively the challenges in the region, led to the introduction of the Ministry of Niger Delta and an Amnesty Programme for the Niger Delta militants. In the policy thrust, among other things issues and challenges that must be overcome include environmental degradation and pollution. The medium term objectives and targets for the Niger Delta Regional Implementation Plan are hinged on the following five pillars: • Reduction of oil-related conflicts in the region • Enhanced and sustainable development of human and physical infrastructures. • Diversification of the region’s economy from oil and gas to agriculture, manufacturing, and knowledge based. • Consolidation of post-amnesty projects and programmes. • Preservation and conservation of the environment (Report No 293 Annual Report Ministry of Niger Delta). With the above measures put in place, one would like to see an expedited remediation of the ND environment. The recent vandalization of infrastructures by groups claiming to Niger Delta Avengers is of major concern. The palliatives should be effectual and the coercive measures must be played down. Acknowledgement is made to Ismail Iro PhD (Founder, gamji.com USA) whose articulate documentation provided a direction for this very important national discourse especially as it affects the Herdsmen of Nigeria. - Awogbade, M.,1980. Livestock Development and Range Use in Nigeria. In The Future of Pastoral People: Proceedings of a Conference Held in Nairobi, by Institute of Development Studies. Nairobi: Institute of Development Studies, pp: 325-333. - Bako, S., and S. Ingawa., 1988. Animal Traction in Nigeria: A Review. Paper presented to the Third Regional Workshop on animal Traction for Agricultural Development in West Africa. Selv, Senegal. - Ezeomah, C., 1987.The Settlement Patterns of Nomadic Fulbe in Nigeria:Implications for Educational Development.Cheshire: Deanhouse Limited. - Federal Ministry of Environment,2006.Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos,WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic and Social Policy.Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project. - Galaty, J., Aronson, D. and Salzman, P.,1980. The Future of Pastoral People. In The Future of Pastoral People, ed. John Galaty, Dan Aronson, and Philip Salzman. Nairobi: I.D.S. - Ismail, Iro., 2016. Grazing Reserve Development: A Panacea to the Intractable Strife between Farmer and Herders. - Kadafi,A.A., 2012.Environmental Impacts of oil Exploration and Exploitation in the Niger Delta.Global Journal of Science Frontier Research.Environment &Earth Sciences.Vol.12 Issue 3 Version 10. - Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs.,2012. Annual Report No.293. - Moretimore, M. and Wilson,J.,1965. Land and People of the Kano Close-Settled Zone. Occasional Paper 1, by the Department of Geography, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. - Nenibarini,Z.,2004.Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta.National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management. - Idu, A.J., 2015. Threats to Water Resources Development in Nigeria. J. Geol. Geosci 4: 205. - Omaliko, C., Mammah, O. and Agbakoba, A., 1984. "Some Aspects of Rangeland Improvement in a Derived Savannah Ecosystem." Journal of Range Management 37: 415-419. - WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource. N.Y.Oxford University Press.

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/threats-to-aquatic-and-terrestrial-faunal-resources-in-nigeria-the-nexus-for-mitigating-future-tribal-and-boundary-conflicts.html

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500619.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207134453-20230207164453-00476.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:332ff2a2-5976-43a2-bb38-13cbd7db154a>_117

- WRI.World Resource Institute.,1992.World Resource.

“A picture is worth a thousand words.” Images are powerful. We see them everywhere – on T.V. advertising, in magazines, on the sides of buses, on social media. Images can make us feel something, they can inspire us and they can help us understand things. So what is Imagery? Imagery is a process of creating a mental image or intention that you want to happen or want to feel. It can be used to improve technique or performance quality, help decrease anxiety and stage fright and even aid in recovery from injury. It is widely accepted that the mind and body are an integrated system even though the mechanisms behind this connection are not fully understood. To see how quickly imagery can affect movement try this: Ask a friend to straighten on arm out to the side and tell them you are going to try to bend their arm. Notice how much your friend can resist your effort. Now tell your friend to think of a river of energy flowing through their arm and out into space. They should keep this image of energy flowing going as you again try to bend their arm. What happened? Was it harder to bend? Did your friend suddenly become stronger? Of course not, but certain ways of thinking can influence the body’s force without changing the structure. (Adapted from R Fritz 1984) Try this one on yourself: Do 5 sautés in 1st position. Think about how it felt. This time imagine your legs are made of lead or that you have a ball and chain attached to your ankles. Now; try your 5 jumps again… What happened? Finally, imagine your legs are springs, as you plié the springs compress and store energy, as you push off they release that energy. How did your jumps feel this time? As you would have just seen, imagery can be very powerful and can create a dramatic change in your quality movement even though you haven’t changed any physical structure. In addition to influencing performance, mental imagery can be used to aid recovery from injuries. Research has started looking into this phenomenon and has found that imagery can help people cope with pain, can speed the healing process, prevent the deterioration of physical skills due to injury and immobility and increase adherence to rehabilitation programs. There are many different ways of categorising they types of imagery that dancers and athletes use. I have chosen 3 to describe here as I felt that they could be easily related to dancers who are recovering from injury. This is where dancers see themselves performing the movements of their class or routine. The ability to see yourself successfully performing a particular step or routine by use of imagery helps to create a sense of motivation. To help you start this process, use past videos of you dancing (before your injury) to help you recall movements vividly. With practice you will be able to imagine yourself dancing without needing the visual aid. Positive visual imagery has been shown to enhance the coping skills of injured athletes, and encouraged them to follow to their rehabilitation program. Utilising visual imagery as a practice technique helps injured dancers maintain their fundamental skills and technique. If you can see yourself doing it first, then you can do it. According to research, imagery can be a powerful tool in rehabilitation. As the human brain interprets the images created during imagery process the neural pathways that are recruited are identical to those used when physically performing the task. For example: if you imagine yourself performing a perfect double pirouette: the preparation, the relevé, finishing facing the front, on balance; the parts of your brain that light up are the same as if you had actually performed the pirouette! Imagery is poly-sensory, meaning that it utilises different senses to create a stronger image. All the senses can be used to stimulate vivid memories of prior successes. For example, have you ever smelt something that brings back a memory of childhood? Maybe it is a perfume that reminds you of an overseas holiday or the smell of cut grass that take you back to a great time you had with your family on a picnic. Associating a sense to an image helps you create a more effective image. Maybe you have a particular song that you listen to before any competition or exam that gets you “hyped up” or “calms your nerves”, maybe you do the same warm up before every performance because you performed really well after doing it once before. Emotive imagery is a great tool to help create a sense of self-efficacy and find senses that help the rehabilitation process. Healing imagery is an effective technique that can enhance recovery from injuries. Those who receive detailed information about the healing process, including pictures of the injured area are better able to understand what is happening, visualise the healing process and are more likely to follow their rehabilitation program. The better your understanding of what is happening within your body as it recovers the better you are able to visualise the healing process. Healing imagery guides the injured dancer to “see” the healing occurring in the injured are (e.g., seeing the blood stream take damaged tissues away from the injury reducing swelling, and seeing the new cells coming in to repair the injured area) and to “feel” tissues getting stronger (e.g., visualising ligaments feeling as strong as steel, or as many fibres linking together). Utilising imagery allows the dancer to become stronger than they were before their injury. It is an effective, positive tool that can help dancers develop a positive self-image and encourages self-efficacy and a sense of control. The process of empowering dancers with imagery skills could translate positively to benefits such as a shorter recovery time and a more positive experience during rehabilitation. Learning to use imagery is like learning a new language it takes time and practice. You wouldn’t expect to be able to read a whole French novel after 2 or 3 weeks of French lessons would you. It is different for everybody but with practice and persistence you will find that images can change the way you move, recover and dance. Article written by Haydee Ferguson. Physiotherapist with a dance history spanning more than 25 years.

<urn:uuid:7149eb5c-7703-4215-a13c-d97e3fad6ae7>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://mdmdance.jp/visualisation/

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500904.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20230208191211-20230208221211-00556.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:7149eb5c-7703-4215-a13c-d97e3fad6ae7>_0

“A picture is worth a thousand words.” Images are powerful.

“A picture is worth a thousand words.” Images are powerful. We see them everywhere – on T.V. advertising, in magazines, on the sides of buses, on social media. Images can make us feel something, they can inspire us and they can help us understand things. So what is Imagery? Imagery is a process of creating a mental image or intention that you want to happen or want to feel. It can be used to improve technique or performance quality, help decrease anxiety and stage fright and even aid in recovery from injury. It is widely accepted that the mind and body are an integrated system even though the mechanisms behind this connection are not fully understood. To see how quickly imagery can affect movement try this: Ask a friend to straighten on arm out to the side and tell them you are going to try to bend their arm. Notice how much your friend can resist your effort. Now tell your friend to think of a river of energy flowing through their arm and out into space. They should keep this image of energy flowing going as you again try to bend their arm. What happened? Was it harder to bend? Did your friend suddenly become stronger? Of course not, but certain ways of thinking can influence the body’s force without changing the structure. (Adapted from R Fritz 1984) Try this one on yourself: Do 5 sautés in 1st position. Think about how it felt. This time imagine your legs are made of lead or that you have a ball and chain attached to your ankles. Now; try your 5 jumps again… What happened? Finally, imagine your legs are springs, as you plié the springs compress and store energy, as you push off they release that energy. How did your jumps feel this time? As you would have just seen, imagery can be very powerful and can create a dramatic change in your quality movement even though you haven’t changed any physical structure. In addition to influencing performance, mental imagery can be used to aid recovery from injuries. Research has started looking into this phenomenon and has found that imagery can help people cope with pain, can speed the healing process, prevent the deterioration of physical skills due to injury and immobility and increase adherence to rehabilitation programs. There are many different ways of categorising they types of imagery that dancers and athletes use. I have chosen 3 to describe here as I felt that they could be easily related to dancers who are recovering from injury. This is where dancers see themselves performing the movements of their class or routine. The ability to see yourself successfully performing a particular step or routine by use of imagery helps to create a sense of motivation. To help you start this process, use past videos of you dancing (before your injury) to help you recall movements vividly. With practice you will be able to imagine yourself dancing without needing the visual aid. Positive visual imagery has been shown to enhance the coping skills of injured athletes, and encouraged them to follow to their rehabilitation program. Utilising visual imagery as a practice technique helps injured dancers maintain their fundamental skills and technique. If you can see yourself doing it first, then you can do it. According to research, imagery can be a powerful tool in rehabilitation. As the human brain interprets the images created during imagery process the neural pathways that are recruited are identical to those used when physically performing the task. For example: if you imagine yourself performing a perfect double pirouette: the preparation, the relevé, finishing facing the front, on balance; the parts of your brain that light up are the same as if you had actually performed the pirouette! Imagery is poly-sensory, meaning that it utilises different senses to create a stronger image. All the senses can be used to stimulate vivid memories of prior successes. For example, have you ever smelt something that brings back a memory of childhood? Maybe it is a perfume that reminds you of an overseas holiday or the smell of cut grass that take you back to a great time you had with your family on a picnic. Associating a sense to an image helps you create a more effective image. Maybe you have a particular song that you listen to before any competition or exam that gets you “hyped up” or “calms your nerves”, maybe you do the same warm up before every performance because you performed really well after doing it once before. Emotive imagery is a great tool to help create a sense of self-efficacy and find senses that help the rehabilitation process. Healing imagery is an effective technique that can enhance recovery from injuries. Those who receive detailed information about the healing process, including pictures of the injured area are better able to understand what is happening, visualise the healing process and are more likely to follow their rehabilitation program. The better your understanding of what is happening within your body as it recovers the better you are able to visualise the healing process. Healing imagery guides the injured dancer to “see” the healing occurring in the injured are (e.g., seeing the blood stream take damaged tissues away from the injury reducing swelling, and seeing the new cells coming in to repair the injured area) and to “feel” tissues getting stronger (e.g., visualising ligaments feeling as strong as steel, or as many fibres linking together). Utilising imagery allows the dancer to become stronger than they were before their injury. It is an effective, positive tool that can help dancers develop a positive self-image and encourages self-efficacy and a sense of control. The process of empowering dancers with imagery skills could translate positively to benefits such as a shorter recovery time and a more positive experience during rehabilitation. Learning to use imagery is like learning a new language it takes time and practice. You wouldn’t expect to be able to read a whole French novel after 2 or 3 weeks of French lessons would you. It is different for everybody but with practice and persistence you will find that images can change the way you move, recover and dance. Article written by Haydee Ferguson. Physiotherapist with a dance history spanning more than 25 years.

<urn:uuid:7149eb5c-7703-4215-a13c-d97e3fad6ae7>

CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://mdmdance.jp/visualisation/

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500904.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20230208191211-20230208221211-00556.warc.gz

en

<urn:uuid:7149eb5c-7703-4215-a13c-d97e3fad6ae7>_2

advertising, in magazines, on the sides of buses, on social media.