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The CO2 atmosphere is the least of your worries. Temperature on Venus is hot enough to melt lead, one day is 243 earth days, clouds made of sulphuric acid and a pressure 90 times greater than that on earth's surface. It would be hard to conceive of a single celled organism that could survive the conditions on Venus, let alone complex plant life. | since venus' atmosphere is mostly co_2, making it too hot for human life, what is preventing us from introducing high tolerance plant life to convert the co_2 into oxygen, to make it inhabitable? | <P> A number of approaches to terraforming are reviewed by Martyn J. Fogg (1995) and by Geoffrey A. Landis (2011). Eliminating the dense carbon dioxide atmosphere The main problem with Venus today, from a terraformation standpoint, is the very thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. The ground level pressure of Venus is 9.2 MPa (1,330 psi). This also, through the greenhouse effect, causes the temperature on the surface to be several hundred degrees too warm for any known lifeforms. Basically, all approaches to the terraforming of Venus include somehow getting rid of practically all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Biological approaches The method proposed <P> carbon dioxide would trap incoming solar radiation. Because the raised temperature would add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, the two processes would augment each other. Carbon dioxide alone would not suffice to sustain a temperature above the freezing point of water, so a mixture of specialized greenhouse molecules might be manufactured. Venus Terraforming Venus requires two major changes; removing most of the planet's dense 9 MPa (1,300 psi) carbon dioxide atmosphere and reducing the planet's 450 °C (842 °F) surface temperature. These goals are closely interrelated, because Venus's extreme temperature is thought to be due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense atmosphere. <P> planet's surface. However, later discoveries about the conditions on Venus made this particular approach impossible. One problem is that the clouds of Venus are composed of a highly concentrated sulfuric acid solution. Even if atmospheric algae could thrive in the hostile environment of Venus's upper atmosphere, an even more insurmountable problem is that its atmosphere is simply far too thick—the high atmospheric pressure would result in an "atmosphere of nearly pure molecular oxygen" and cause the planet's surface to be thickly covered in fine graphite powder. This volatile combination could not be sustained through time. Any carbon that was fixed |
> On its way to full deuterium-tritium operation, ITER will experiment with a succession of "non-nuclear" plasma fuels. > Spread over a period of roughly seven years, hydrogen, helium (with a variable proportion of hydrogen) and deuterium campaigns—interspersed with maintenance and upgrade periods—will provide operators with the necessary know-how to run the machine, commission its components, and control its plasma before entering nuclear operation. | the iter fusion experiment is planned to be finished with assembly by 2021 but not start fusing until 2035. why a 14 year gap? | <P> reactors. In addition, progress in the development of advanced, low activation structural materials supports the promise of environmentally benign fusion reactors and research into alternate confinement concepts is yielding the promise of future improvements in confinement. Finally, supporters contend that other potential replacements to the fossil fuels have environmental issues of their own. Solar, wind, and hydroelectric power all have a relatively low power output per square kilometer compared to ITER's successor DEMO which, at 2,000 MW, would have an energy density that exceeds even large fission power stations. Similar projects Precursors to ITER were EAST, SST-1, KSTAR, JET, and <P> the actively cooled plasma-facing components
In 1997, JET produced a peak of 16.1MW of fusion power (65% of heat to plasma), with fusion power of over 10MW sustained for over 0.5 sec. Its successor, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), was officially announced as part of a seven-party consortium (six countries and the EU). ITER is designed to produce ten times more fusion power than the power put into the plasma. ITER is currently under construction in Cadarache, France.
In the late nineties, a team at Columbia University and MIT developed the Levitated dipole a fusion device which consisted of a superconducting electromagnet, <P> reactor. Organization history ITER began in 1985 as a Reagan–Gorbachev initiative with the equal participation of the Soviet Union, the European Atomic Energy Community, the United States, and Japan through the 1988–1998 initial design phases. Preparations for the first Gorbachev-Reagan Summit showed that there were no tangible agreements in the works for the summit.
One energy research project, however, was being considered quietly by two physicists, Alvin Trivelpiece and Evgeny Velikhov. The project involved collaboration on the next phase of magnetic fusion research — the construction of a demonstration model. At the time, magnetic fusion research was ongoing in Japan, Europe, |
There's no way the SNP can get a majority in the UK Parliament. They are only contesting 59 out of 650 seats (the ones in Scotland). So there is no realistic way Nicola Sturgeon can become PM. She actually isn't standing for election herself anyway, because she is a member of the Scottish Parliament and Scottish First Minister already. Her aim is for the SNP to support a Labour government. But since Labour probably won't get a majority, it means Labour will often find themselves needing to get the SNP to agree with them to be able to get bills passed. | what happens if the snp are voted for in the general election? | <P> Nicola Sturgeon retained her post as First Minister under an SNP minority government. 2017 United Kingdom general election The SNP underperformed against polling expectations, losing 21 seats to bring their Westminster MPs down to 35. In what was largely attributed to their stance on holding a second Scottish independence referendum and saw a significant swing to the Unionist parties, with seats being gained by the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberal Democrats and a significant reduction in their majorities in the seats they did manage to retain. High-profile losses included: SNP House of Commons leader Angus Robertson in Moray and former <P> asked, I'll decline, if nominated, I'll defer, and if elected, I'll resign". Nicola Sturgeon then withdrew from the contest and declared her support for Salmond and decided to stand for Deputy Leader.
This resulted in Kenny MacAskill pulling out of the race for deputy and declaring his support for Salmond and Sturgeon, leaving Sturgeon standing against Fergus Ewing and Christine Grahame. Shortly after Salmond and Sturgeon announced they were running on a joint ticket.
The campaign for leader was characterised by being a low-key affair. Salmond remained firm favourite to win back the leadership of the SNP. There remained greater doubt as <P> have an absolute majority. Between 1999 and 2007, the Scottish Executive was formed by a Labour and Liberal Democrat coalition, with the leader of Scottish Labour serving as First Minister and the leader of the Scottish Lib Dems serving as Deputy First Minister.
Although the Scottish National Party (SNP) formed a single party minority administration following the 2007 election, the post was not abolished despite there being no need to recognise the status of a second party leader, instead being given to the SNP's depute leader, Nicola Sturgeon. When Sturgeon became First Minister, the party's depute leader, Stewart Hosie, was |
This is pure conjecture, but perhaps it is a relic of past times when the value of a coin was tied to the value of the metal used to make it. Gold is the most valuable, so you could have a $5, $10, $20, etc coin, with the value determined by how much gold is in it. Silver is less valuable, and in the US, quarters were silver until 1965. For the smaller denominations, nickel or copper are used, these being metals of even lesser value. I would imagine a couple hundred years ago when the US and Canada started making their coins, the amount and type of metal used to make a coin of a certain value would have been similar, so the size, shape and color of each coin is the same. Now that it's all fiat money anyway, all the coins are made with less valuable materials, but the basic design of each coin has remained the same. | why are the united states' coins and canada's coins basically the same size, shape, and color? what happened that the two countries decided this would be a good idea? | <P> Coins of the Canadian dollar Denominations There are six denominations of Canadian circulation coinage in production: 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, 50¢, $1, and $2. Officially they are each named according to their value (e.g. "10-cent piece"), but in practice only the 50-cent piece is known by that name. The three smallest coins are known by the traditional names "nickel" (5¢), "dime" (10¢), and "quarter" (25¢), and the one-dollar and two-dollar coins are called the "loonie" (for the loon depiction on the reverse) and the "toonie" (a portmanteau of "two" and "loonie") respectively. The production of the Canadian 1-cent piece (known as <P> of British North America started issuing their own coins denominated in cents, featuring the likeness of Queen Victoria on the obverse. These replaced the sterling coins previously in circulation. The Province of Canada was the first to issue decimal coins. They were based on the value of the American dollar, due to an influx of American silver. Denominations issued were 1¢, 5¢, 10¢, and 20¢. The 1¢ coin was issued again in 1859, but it was very unpopular due to its extremely light weight. The coins had to be discounted by around 20% to get them into circulation. Other <P> most of the 50-cent coins from 1920 and 1921 were melted (amounting to approximately 480,392 coins). The reason for the melting was that new coins were needed for 1929 and if coins from 1920 and 1921 were released into circulation, people would suspect counterfeit coins. According to legend, only 50 of these coins still exist (with only 3 known in mint state), and most of those are from Specimen Sets that were sold to people who visited the RC Mint. Victory nickel (Tombac 1943–1944) (Steel 1944–1945)
The 5-cent piece underwent a design change for the first time since 1937 when the |
So, to fire a gun there is a firing pin, which you can see in this gif striking the back of a cartridge, igniting the powder and firing the gun. *Most* cartridges are center fire, with a primer in the middle (the silvery middle part of the back of a cartridge) but some are rim fire. Here is an illustration of the difference, and here is a picture of the two. The firing pin hits the primer, which ignites the powder, which fires the bullet. But it's not just a light tap, it has to strike with a decent amount of force. In order to do that, the hammer (the part you cock back on a pistol, highlighted here is spring-loaded. When you cock it, the hammer is pulled against the spring and held in place until you pull the trigger, which releases the hammer, which hits the firing pin (or is attached to it), which hits the primer...etc. There are two ways dropping a handgun can cause it to fire. If the hammer is cocked and you drop it, you may jar the hammer so that it slips past the mechanism holding it back, in which case it slams into the firing pin just like it's supposed to do, as if you had pulled the trigger. That is not good, and it's also why you should never keep your firearm cocked until you're ready to use it. But as u/NO_LATTE_NO_PEACE pointed out, many pistols are double-action, so you don't have to cock the hammer first. The hammer is cocked *as you pull the trigger* until you reach a point in the swing of the trigger that releases the hammer. If it's an automatic or semi-automatic weapon, the firing action reloads the gun and cocks the hammer again. Single-action weapons, like the revolvers of the old west, require you to cock the hammer each time you want to fire, before you pull the trigger. So if you're carrying a weapon for personal defense, it's probably going to be a double-action, in which case you can carry it without it being cocked and you don't have to worry about wasting the time to cock it. Single-action weapons are generally considered to be simpler and more reliable. But that's neither here nor there. The other way a weapon might fire when dropped is if it lands directly on the hammer. In that case, when the hammer hits the ground and transfers the energy of the drop into the hammer, it pushes the hammer against the firing pin with a lot of force, exactly as if the hammer had been released by the trigger. The floor hits the hammer, which hits the firing pin, which hits the primer...etc. However, most modern weapons will not allow the firing pin to touch the back of the cartridge unless the hammer has been cocked first. There is a mechanism in place that gets between the hammer and the firing pin or prevents the hammer from moving forward unless it's been cocked and/or the trigger is pulled. With those weapons, you can bang on it as hard as you want and it will not go off... \* \* Until the gunpowder ignites from the shock, which is a thing gunpowder can do. It's *possible* that if you dropped a gun from high enough the sheer force of hitting the ground would set off the gunpowder, but...that's not a realistic possibility. It certainly won't happen from you dropping it from your hand onto the ground. It *used* to be more common, partly because guns were not designed with the safety features to prevent the firing pin from touching the cartridge. Older guns simply rested the firing pin against the back of the cartridge, and the hammer against the firing pin when it wasn't cocked. Obviously, this is pretty unsafe, but hey, guns were still being improved upon so no one had anything better at the time. We have also significantly improved our understanding of gun safety when we handle weapons so people to know better than to keep a gun cocked when you aren't about to immediately fire it, and technologies like double-action weapons have allowed people to be more comfortable because they don't need to have the weapon cocked before the gunfight starts. Today it's very uncommon, unless someone is mishandling the gun, the mechanism is malfunctioning, or most likely, both. | in films, when a gun, usually a pistol, is dropped or thrown onto the ground, it will sometimes fire. is this something real guns do too, and if so, why, since the trigger isn't being pulled? | <P> When the gun was ready to fire, a round would be in the chamber and the bolt and barrel group would be locked together, with the locking block at the rear of the bolt. When the rear of the trigger was pivoted upwards by the operator, the front of the trigger tipped downward, pulling the sear out of engagement with the spring-loaded firing pin, allowing it to move forward and strike the primer of the cartridge.
As the assembly of bolt, barrel and barrel extension recoiled to the rear of the gun upon firing, the locking block was drawn out of <P> waiting to be loaded. Every time the gun fired a single shot, the gun performed the sequence of extracting and ejecting the spent round as the bolt came rearward, loading the next round to be fired into the barrel, advancing the belt, grabbing the next round in preparation for loading, then chambering it as the bolt came forward again under tension from the spring. If the trigger was held down, the gun would continue to fire in full automatic, repeating the sequence over and over until stopped.
The gun's original design was as a water-cooled machine gun (see the M1917 Browning <P> machine gun). When it was decided to try to lighten the gun and make it air-cooled, its design as a closed bolt weapon created a potentially dangerous situation. If the gun was very hot from prolonged firing, the cartridge ready to be fired could be resting in a red-hot barrel, causing the propellant in the cartridge to heat up to the point that it would ignite and fire the cartridge on its own (a cook-off). With each further shot heating the barrel even more, the gun would continue to fire uncontrollably until the ammunition ran out, since depressing the trigger |
Very frequently it is completely marketing, with little to no research backing up the claims. "Superfood" is not a regulated term, so anyone can slap it on their product, and anyone can write a blog post claiming that anything is a superfood. That said, dietary research *is* an active science, and new discoveries are frequently made. Many are not obvious; yes, "vitamin C is good for you" is an easy one, but other chemicals have more complex pathways and are formed from different chemicals your food gives you. For instance, new research shows that chicken eggs are excellent at helping your body produce chemicals used to develop the brain; this was not obvious previously, even though we knew a lot about the chemical makeup of eggs. Be wary of the term "superfood" when you see it in the world, but know that it isn't always snake oil. Don't accept health-based claims without supporting research-based evidence. | who decides what the next "superfood" is? how did we not already know something is good for us? is it just a marketing ploy to get rid of old stock? | <P> and self-help books about fad diets, promising an enhancement to health. "Superfood" products were sold at a higher price than similar foods not marketed with the label. The purported health benefits and effects of foods described as superfoods are unsupported or disputed by scientific studies.
As of 2007, the marketing of products as superfoods was prohibited in the European Union unless accompanied by a specific authorized health claim supported by credible scientific research. The ruling was a marketing guide issued to manufacturers to assure scientific proof or evidence why a food would be labeled as extra healthy or classified as a <P> Superfood Superfood is a marketing term for food assumed to confer health benefits resulting from an exceptional nutrient density. The term is not commonly used by experts, dietitians and nutrition scientists, many of whom dispute that particular foods have the health benefits claimed by their advocates. Even without scientific evidence of exceptional nutrient content, many new, exotic, and foreign fruits or "ancient" grains are marketed under the term – or the related term, superfruit or supergrain – after being introduced or re-introduced to Western markets.
In 2007, the marketing of products as "superfoods" was prohibited in the European Union unless accompanied <P> superfood. The European Food Information Council stated that it was impractical for people to have a diet based only on superfoods when nutrients are provided readily from a diet based on a diversity of foods, especially a diet including fruits and vegetables.
According to Cancer Research UK, "the term 'superfood' is really just a marketing tool, with little scientific basis to it". Although superfoods are often promoted as preventing or curing diseases, including cancer, Cancer Research UK cautioned that they "cannot substitute for a generally healthy and balanced diet". According to Catherine Collins, chief dietitian at St George's Hospital in London, |
fly fishing uses an extremely light line and lure - not bait, usually something as light and basic as a small collection of feathers with a small hook. To cast, you whip the line back and forwards, feeding out more line with each pendulum swing so you can build enough momentum to send the tiny lure out far enough. This is to catch surface hunting fish that go after small insects that land on a river's surface. You need a big open space to do it in and a lot of practice getting the pendulum swing right. Other types of fishing usually involve casting something with a bit of weight, directly where you think fish are, something that isn't really possible with such a light lure | what is fly fishing? what differentiates it from other types of angling? | <P> Surf fishing Surf fishing is the sport of catching fish standing on the shoreline or wading in the surf. A general term, surf fishing may or may not include casting a lure or bait, and refers to all types of shore fishing – from sandy and rocky beaches, rock jetties, or even fishing piers. The terms surfcasting or beachcasting refer more specifically to surf fishing from the beach by casting into the surf at or near the shoreline. With few exceptions, surf fishing is done in saltwater. Equipment The basic idea of most surfcasting is to cast <P> rod action. Today's modern carbon graphite composite fly rods are available in a wide range of sizes and types, from ultralight trout rods to bass fishing rods and two-handed "spey" rods. Fly reels Fly reels, or fly casting reels, with a few exceptions, are really little more than line-storage devices. In use, a fly angler strips line off the reel with one hand while casting and manipulating the rod with the other. Slack line is picked up by rotating the reel spool. Even today, the vast majority of fly reels are manually operated, single-action reels of rather <P> Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice Synopsis Whereas Floating Flies and How to Dress Them was about the dry fly, fly tying and to some extent the entomology of the chalk stream, Dry-Fly Fishing... was about fishing the dry fly. It was the consummate "how-to" manual for the dry-fly fisherman. It was not only about methodology, but also about the ethics and purism of the dry fly on English chalk streams.
The purists among dry-fly fishermen will not under any circumstances cast except over rising fish, and prefer to remain idle the entire day rather than attempt to persuade the wary |
Define new. Mormonism is fairly new as far as religions go and in the areas it is expanding it is completely new. Scientology is fairly new and started only a few decades ago. There are lots of popular "gurus" and such in India. Falun Gong has between 10-70 million followers. All sorts of New Age BS started in the 60's and a lot of it got popular. Unitarianism started in the 60's. They come and go. | why there are not any new popular religions? | <P> and Africa. Most have only a few members, some have thousands, and a few have more than a million members.
New religions have often faced a hostile reception from established religious organisations and various secular institutions. In Western nations, a secular anti-cult movement and a Christian countercult movement emerged during the 1970s and 1980s to oppose emergent groups. In the 1970s, the distinct field of new religions studies developed within the academic study of religion. There are now several scholarly organisations and peer-reviewed journals devoted to the subject. Religious studies scholars contextualize the rise of NRMs in modernity, relating it <P> more than each other." One question that faces scholars of religion is when a new religious movement ceases to be "new." As noted by Barker, "In the first century, Christianity was new, in the seventh century Islam was new, in the eighteenth century Methodism was new, in the nineteenth century the Seventh-day Adventists, Christadelphians and Jehovah's Witnesses were new; in the twenty-first century the Unification Church, ISKCON and Scientology are beginning to look old."
Some NRMs are strongly counter-cultural and 'alternative' in the society they appear in, while others are far more similar to a society's established traditional <P> New religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion or alternative spirituality, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or part of a wider religion, in which case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Some NRMs deal with the challenges posed by the modernizing world by embracing individualism, whereas others seek tightly knit collective means. Scholars have estimated that NRMs now number in the tens of thousands worldwide, with most of their members living in Asia |
Rutherford was influenced by Prout's hypothesis that all atoms were made up of groups of hydrogen atoms, with the hydrogen atom being the fundamental particle. The logic was that the atomic weights known at the time were almost exactly integer multiples of the mass of hydrogen. If there were smaller particles, there would be smaller elements or elements with masses that fell in between multiples of hydrogen. Obviously Rutherford discovered that an atom wasn't just one particle but a positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons, and then when he observed the process of nitrogen atoms releasing hydrogen atoms when bombarded by alpha particles he took this as evidence that the hydrogen nucleus is indeed the fundamental building block for all other nuclei. This was before the neutron was discovered, it was believed that the nucleus was only made of positive charges. Of course, protons are actually made up of quarks with fractional charges but there was no way to know that at the time. | how did ernest rutherford know that the the positively charged particles in a nucleus were equal in magnitude of charge to electrons? | <P> to give the hydrogen nucleus a special name as a particle, since he suspected that hydrogen, the lightest element, contained only one of these particles. He named this new fundamental building block of the nucleus the proton, after the neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", πρῶτον. However, Rutherford also had in mind the word protyle as used by Prout. Rutherford spoke at the British Association for the Advancement of Science at its Cardiff meeting beginning 24 August 1920. Rutherford was asked by Oliver Lodge for a new name for the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid confusion with the <P> not be identified with a single particle, unlike the negative electrons discovered by J. J. Thomson. Wilhelm Wien in 1898 identified the hydrogen ion as particle with highest charge-to-mass ratio in ionized gases.
Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, Antonius van den Broek proposed that the place of each element in the periodic table (its atomic number) is equal to its nuclear charge. This was confirmed experimentally by Henry Moseley in 1913 using X-ray spectra.
In 1917 (in experiments reported in 1919 and 1925), Rutherford proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei, a <P> capture of the alpha particle, a proton is ejected, so that heavy oxygen, not carbon, is the end result i.e. Z is not decremented but incremented. This was the first reported nuclear reaction, ¹⁴N + α → ¹⁷O + p. Depending on one's perspective, either 1919 or 1925 may be regarded as the moment when the proton was 'discovered'.
Rutherford knew hydrogen to be the simplest and lightest element and was influenced by Prout's hypothesis that hydrogen was the building block of all elements. Discovery that the hydrogen nucleus is present in all other nuclei as an elementary particle led Rutherford |
Bismarck led the creation of a welfare state for a few main reasons: * Reduce social unrest, and prevent an uprising like the Paris Commune of 1871. Bismarck wanted to reduce worker support for the socialists, and also make sure that the working classes supported the German empire project (which realistically could have dissolved following massive unrest). * Encourage workers not to emigrate, as many were leaving for the eastern USA, which was industrializing as well * He combined protectionism with new welfare policies to foster German heavy industry, which many saw to be key to both economic and military success There had also been welfare policies in place (often dealing with some kind of healthcare or pensions) in some German states, like Saxony, prior to unification, and these had proved to be *not a bad thing.* The existing models formed the base of the welfare that was provided across the German empire. | what was otto von bismarck's motivation(s) for creating a welfare state in germany during the 1880s? | <P> success.... No other statesman of his standing had ever before shown the same great moderation and sound political sense of the possible and desirable.... Bismarck at least deserves full credit for having steered European politics through this dangerous transitional period without serious conflict between the great powers." Early legislation In domestic policy Bismarck pursued a conservative state-building strategy designed to make ordinary Germans—not just his own Junker elite—more loyal to throne and empire, implementing the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s. According to Kees van Kersbergen and Barbara Vis, his strategy was:
granting social rights to enhance the integration <P> of a hierarchical society, to forge a bond between workers and the state so as to strengthen the latter, to maintain traditional relations of authority between social and status groups, and to provide a countervailing power against the modernist forces of liberalism and socialism.
Bismarck worked closely with large industry and aimed to stimulate German economic growth by giving workers greater security. A secondary concern was trumping the Socialists, who had no welfare proposals of their own and opposed Bismarck's. Bismarck especially listened to Hermann Wagener and Theodor Lohmann, advisers who persuaded him to give workers a corporate status in the <P> based on internal political and economic forces; they were not his response to external pressure. At first he promoted liberal goals of free trade commercial expansionism in order to maintain economic growth and social stability, as well as preserve the social and political power structure. However he changed, broke with the liberals, and adopted tariffs to win Catholic support and shore up his political base. Germany's imperialism in the 1880's derived less from strength and instead represented Bismarck's solution to unstable industrialization. Protectionism made for unity at a time when class conflict was rising. Wehler says the chancellor's ultimate |
Because Portugal did not have the capacity nor the inclination to fight Japan. The Portuguese East Timor garrison consisted of an understrength colonial battalion of one colonial company, a very small militia force and a mounted border police unit, a grand total of 282 men with 4 light and 6 heavy machine guns and no artillery at all. East Timor had already been invaded, under local Portuguese protest, by Australian forces who recognised that the island could not be held by only defending the western (Dutch) part on the 17th of December 1941. When Japan invaded on the 19th of February 1942, there was a convoy heading for East Timor carrying two companies of Mozambique colonial troops and artillery, but this force was not allowed passage by the Japanese, and the Portuguese troops which had intended to replace the Austrialian and Dutch East Indees troops - a force of about 800 men with a battery of artillery had to turn around and head back for Portuguese Mozambique. | why did portugal not declare war on japan when japan invaded portuguese east timor in the 2nd world war | <P> Indonesian invasion of East Timor Background East Timor owes its territorial distinctiveness from the rest of Timor, and the Indonesian archipelago as a whole, to being colonised by the Portuguese, rather than the Dutch; an agreement dividing the island between the two powers was signed in 1915. Colonial rule was replaced by the Japanese during World War II, whose occupation spawned a resistance movement that resulted in the deaths of 60,000 people, 13 percent of the population at the time. Following the war, the Dutch East Indies secured its independence as the Republic of Indonesia and the Portuguese, meanwhile, re-established <P> East Timorese. The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out. However, following the end of World War II and Japanese surrender, Portuguese control was reinstated.
Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony on Timor and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975.
The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975, and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975. Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975. <P> Australia to back an Indonesian take over, as opposed to an independent East Timor, stating: "In support of (i), Indonesian absorption of Timor makes geopolitical sense. Any other long-term solution would be potentially disruptive of both Indonesia and the region. It would help confirm our seabed agreement with Indonesia."; they however also stressed the importance of self determination of Portuguese Timor to Australian public pressure . The records available also show that department officials were aware of planned clandestine operations for Indonesia to perform in Portuguese Timor, with the intent being "to ensure that the territory would opt for incorporation |
Through out the republican and imperial periods of Roman history, important figures like consuls, generals, senators, and later emperors were issued with official types of their portraiture. This consisted of an approved (by some authority, whether the artist or subject or both is contested) bust of their head. So all statues of them would use replicas of their head to have a standard look that people could recognise. The Prima Porta type is the most famous for the emperor Augustus(I was just looking at the eponymous statue of the type yesterday in Oxford's Ashmoleon for a paper I'm writing) and would probably be recognisable to people familiar with Augustus as it has over 140 replicas still in existence. The types could change over time and are not seen as perfect examples of what they looked like although in most cases we'll never know, but we are sure of the level at which this affected the mass conception of how people thought their rulers looked. Similar forms were also used on coinage that was minted by senators and emperors which were far more widespread than any statue and handed over far and wide. After Rome fell the level of recognisability fell greatly as the level of centralisation required for mass produced images simply was was not reached again for centuries in the west. In the east imperial images of emperors and the like was a bit more centralised but I am unaware of the specifics and how widespread images were as I am not an expert in that field unfortunately. Hope I helped, keep learning | how did commoners before the advent of photographs recognize "famous people" in the past without seeing them before? | <P> a portrait head. In Rome, an ideal figure of a divinity might often be adapted slightly (here, for instance the chiton covers the breast) and given a separately made portrait head. Evidence that this was the case here can be seen in the locks of hair falling onto the shoulders. These are also seen in posthumous portraits of Agrippina the Elder, which enables us to date this statue to the second quarter of the 1st century AD. <P> not included in this article. Equally, sculpted heads stopping at the neck are sometimes mistakenly called busts.
The portrait bust was a Hellenistic Greek invention, though very few original Greek examples survive, as opposed to many Roman copies of them. There are four Roman copies as busts of Pericles with the Corinthian helmet, but the Greek original was a full-length bronze statue. They were very popular in Roman portraiture.
The Roman tradition may have originated in the tradition of Roman patrician families keeping wax masks, perhaps death masks, of dead members, in the atrium of the family <P> and occupying far less space than a full-length statue, the bust has been since ancient times a popular style of life-size portrait sculpture. It can also be executed in weaker materials, such as terracotta.
A sculpture that only includes the head, perhaps with the neck, is more strictly called a "head", but this distinction is not always observed. Antiquity Sculptural portrait heads from classical antiquity, stopping at the neck, are sometimes displayed as busts. However, these are often fragments from full-body statues, or were created to be inserted into an existing body, a common Roman practice; these portrait heads are |
Over the past 20 years Venezuela socialized their industry and began running the government very poorly. One instance is that they started setting rules on how much stores could charge for food so that everyone could afford it. The stores couldn't afford to sell anymore so they restricted how much the farmers could charge. Then the farmers could no longer make a living so Venezuela stopped producing much of their food. Fortunately for them, they had a lot of oil and it sold for a lot of money and the government could subsidize imports. Unfortunately, there is something called a resource curse in which governments get rich and corrupt at the expense of their people. When the price of oil dropped the country fell into turmoil but the government would not deal with the rampant corruption. Hugo Chavez, the president who made all these changes, died in 2013 and put vice president Maduro in charge. In the midst of these struggles he outlawed opponents and won the next election. Many of the people of Venezuela, many countries around the world, and most of the Western Hemisphere including the US believe the elections were fraudulent and are calling for Maduro to step down. Maduro has not taken this well and the country is getting worse. Aid trucks were sent in to help, but the convoy was blocked. During the ensuing riot the supplies were destroyed. It looks like one of the people protesting the government accidentally started it with a poorly thrown Molotov cocktail (the burning rag fell out of the bottle while being thrown), but that the situation could even exist shows there is a problem between the government and the people. The problem is that the industries are nationalized so whatever money goes in through exports like oil goes to him. His supporters will be supplied while the average people suffer. Edit: Additionally, Venezuela also appears to be working with Russia in making threats against the US. So, another part of Cold War II | why is the u.s. sanctioning venezuela? | <P> and the establishment of the Bolivarian government, improvements in healthcare were promising due to the installation of free healthcare facilities and programs, and the assistance of Cuban medical professionals. The Bolivarian government's failure to concentrate on healthcare, the reduction of healthcare spending, and government corruption eventually affected medical practices in Venezuela causing avoidable deaths along with an emigration of medical professionals to other countries. Venezuela's reliance on imported goods and its complicated exchange rates (initiated by Hugo Chávez) led to increasing shortages during the late-2000s and into the 2010s that affected the availability of medicines and medical equipment in the <P> Health care in Venezuela After the Bolivarian Revolution, extensive inoculation programs and the availability of low- or no-cost health care provided by the Venezuelan Institute of Social Security made Venezuela's health care infrastructure one of the more advanced in Latin America. However, by 2015, the Venezuelan health care system had collapsed. 1970s Venezuelan state governments operated only 5 facilities in 1979, down from about 60 hospitals in 1970 since the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance (MSAS) took over many of the hospitals.
In 1978, a presidential election year, medical sales in Venezuela hit an all-time high, but dropped in 1979. <P> huge real exchange rate and other relative price misalignments, to maintain expensive fuel subsidies while monetizing a double-digit budget deficit, and to persecute the private sector for responding to relative price signals all contributed to making Venezuelans’ lives miserable under Maduro.”
He has also said that “abundant evidence of serious human rights abuses during [2014] protests…merit an international investigation to determine the potential complicity of high-ranking members of government.”
At the same time, Rodríguez is critical of economic sanctions on Venezuela, which he argues have not forced Maduro out but have contributed to deepening Venezuela's economic crisis. In a 2018 article, he |
Lyndon Johnson was a Democrat from Texas. He stunned the Southern Democrats by strongly supporting the Civil Rights Act of 1964. A huge swath of these Southern Democrats defected to the Republican Party and that greatly helped Richard Nixon win the 1968 presidential election with his southern strategy. Storm Thurmond and Trent Lott were two prominant Republican US senators in the late 20th century, who started their political careers as Democrats. | has any modern leader of a western country made a controversial decision/order that no one expected once he became the leader? | <P> Party's Solid South since the end of the Reconstruction era in the 1870s, the Democratic nomination for statewide office had long been considered tantamount to election. In 1948, the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senator to succeed the retiring W. Lee O'Daniel was won by Lyndon Johnson, who defeated the more conservative Coke Stevenson by less than 100 votes in a bitter runoff election that included allegations of fraud.
Carlos G. Watson initially received the Republican nomination. Watson, a loyal Republican who had run several unsuccessful campaigns for the U.S. House and U.S. Senate as a token candidate so that <P> prevented African Americans from having a meaningful vote in the election. Without a Republican candidate, the Democratic primary election acted as the presidential election.
A major shift began in South Carolina politics with President Lyndon B. Johnson's Civil Rights Act of 1964. Over time the SCDP shifted in focus from maintaining white landowner control to representing labor rights, protecting South Carolina's natural resources, and protecting the civil rights of blacks and other minorities. Current elected officials The South Carolina Democratic Party
currently control none of the statewide offices and holds minorities in both the South Carolina Senate and House of Representatives. <P> Strom Thurmond tried to get Gore to sign the Southern Manifesto, but Gore refused. Gore could not, however, be regarded as an integrationist, as he voted against some major civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 although he supported the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Gore easily won renomination in 1958 over former governor Jim Nance McCord. In those days, Democratic nomination was still tantamount to election in Tennessee since the Republican Party was largely nonexistent in most of the state. In 1964, he faced an energetic Republican challenge from Dan Kuykendall, chairman of the Shelby County (Memphis) |
Is your question about the use of the word "militia" or the use of dictionaries? If you're asking about militias, the _URL_10_ definition is correct. In all the colonies, able-bodied men from the ages of 16 to 60 were typically required to join the county militia. Later on, this would change to the ages of 18 to 45, as the states became more populated and there were more young men available to serve. This would require them to go do training a few weekends each summer, and maybe a couple more weekends throughout the year. A 1647 Massachusetts law stipulated that militia men were to receive eight days of training every year. Some people were exempt from service, such as the clergy, Quakers, members of the legislature, and the infirm, but everybody else had to serve, or else they would be subject to legal punishments, such as jail time. In many cases, you couldn't hold public office unless you were a member of the militia, either. Because of the large number of men required to join, militia muster rolls are often used as census substitutes for research purposes, particularly before the U.S. Census began being conducted in 1790. To more directly answer this question (if it is the question you're asking), another group that was exempt from militia duty were paid soldiers, such as those who joined up with Washington's Continental Army, or before that, those who had joined to serve alongside the British Army or Royal Navy, which would often happen during wartime--during one of the French and Indian Wars, for example. And then after that, this would have also included enlisted soldiers in the U.S. Army and Navy. There were active duty militias during times of war, but for the most part, the militias were reserve soldiers, only called up when the war front came close to their home county. If you're asking about dictionaries, then the one that would have been most available to the founders was *A Dictionary of the English Language* by Samuel Johnson, first published in London in 1755. Noah Webster published his first provisional dictionary in 1806, under the title *A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language*, although it was his later 1828 dictionary, *An American Dictionary of the English Language*, that was his first comprehensive dictionary. In the earlier 1806 dictionary, Webster wrote in the preface about Samuel Johnson's dictionary at length. It was clearly *the* standard by which English language dictionaries were compared to at the time. He also wrote in that preface a little about Nathan Bailey's *An Universal Etymological English Dictionary* first published in 1721. More briefly, Webster's preface mentioned Robert *Lowth's Grammar* published in 1762, and Thomas Sheridan's *A General Dictionary of the English Language* published in 1780. Webster also mentioned dictionaries by several other writers, including Walker, Entick, Perry, Ash, and Jones, all published between 1775 and 1800. But these were all mainly pronunciation dictionaries, rather than definitional dictionaries, so Johnson's and Bailey's dictionaries were the most useful to Noah Webster when he began the long work to compiling his American dictionary. | language of the american founding fathers | <P> hunting and rural living.
Prior to the American Revolution, there was neither budget nor manpower nor government desire to maintain a full-time army. Therefore, the armed citizen-soldier carried responsibility. Service in militia, including providing one's own ammunition and weapons, was mandatory for all men. Yet, as early as the 1790s, the mandatory universal militia duty evolved gradually to voluntary militia units and a reliance on a regular army. Throughout the 19th century the institution of the organized civilian militia began to decline. The unorganized civilian militia, however, still remains even in current U.S. law, consisting of essentially everyone from age 17 <P> killed or wounded before that. Shorter enlistment periods could be offered during war to entice more recruits. There was a constant lack of men that wanted to enlist. Forced recruitment of vagrants was often resorted to in wartime. During the Napoleonic wars, the militia was mobilised, but it could not serve outside England, and the government tried to induce the militiamen to enlist in the regular army. From 1803, men were also drafted to an Army of Reserve, the real purpose of which was to form a recruitment basis for the regular army, but it was politically very unpopular and <P> War were called "Rangers" and are often considered to be the spiritual birthplace of the modern Army Rangers. Militia The beginning of the United States military lies in local governments which created militias that enrolled nearly all free white men. The British Army and Royal Navy handled international wars. The militia was not employed as a fighting force in major operations outside the local jurisdiction. Instead, the colony asked for (and paid) volunteers (e.g., Rangers), many of whom were also militia members. The local Indian threat ended by 1725 in most places, after which the militia system was little used |
You assume right. The (whole) island of Timor was first conquered and administered by Portuguese colonialists, from the 16th century onwards. They set up both commercial outposts and catholic missions. From the 17th century onwards, the Dutch came over and conquered nearly all of Indonesia, including Western Timor. However, they faced resistance from the Portuguese, and Topasses - native Timorians of Portuguese descent -, and Eastern Timor remained under Portuguese administration. Fast forward real quick to 1975. Portugal has just gotten rid of its dictatorship following a revolution, and its government decided to disengage from its remaining colonies in Asia. Independentists in Timor unilaterally declared independence, virtually unopposed **by the Portuguese Government** However, Indonesia attacked, occupied and annexed East Timor right off the bat, in 1976. Note that East Timor's government was left-leaning, and with the Cold War and all, the US & co. favored Indonesia in this war. :) Indonesian occupation was nightmarish from a Human Rights point of view, you got that right. UN mediation finally led to a solution to the crisis, and eventually East Timor became independent in 2002. Here is a recap I found on Google Books. TLDR : Shitty colonialism + shitty neighbour. **Disclaimer** - I'm no historian, nor remotely Timorese (?) - I just have too much time on my hands. Feel free to correct me. | how did east timor come to exist? | <P> the island. Classical era Before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. Since the 1500's, the Timorese people had military ties with the Luções of present-day northern Philippines. It was the relative abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms. Portuguese period (1769–1975) The Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of <P> Indonesian invasion of East Timor Background East Timor owes its territorial distinctiveness from the rest of Timor, and the Indonesian archipelago as a whole, to being colonised by the Portuguese, rather than the Dutch; an agreement dividing the island between the two powers was signed in 1915. Colonial rule was replaced by the Japanese during World War II, whose occupation spawned a resistance movement that resulted in the deaths of 60,000 people, 13 percent of the population at the time. Following the war, the Dutch East Indies secured its independence as the Republic of Indonesia and the Portuguese, meanwhile, re-established <P> East Timorese. The Japanese eventually drove the last of the Australian and Allied forces out. However, following the end of World War II and Japanese surrender, Portuguese control was reinstated.
Following the 1974 Portuguese revolution, Portugal effectively abandoned its colony on Timor and civil war between East Timorese political parties broke out in 1975.
The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) resisted a Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) coup attempt in August 1975, and unilaterally declared independence on 28 November 1975. Fearing a communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, the Indonesian military launched an invasion of East Timor in December 1975. |
One armed rebellion with no external support was Spartacus' rebellion against Rome (or the Third Servile War). Spartacus was a gladiator who led a group of gladiators in a bid for freedom. Eventually, Spartacus collected about 70,000 followers from escaped or liberated slaves. He trained an army from these followers, defeated three Roman forces sent to subdue him, and held out for two years. Initially, Spartacus was helped by the Romans having no legions in the area, their forces being off fighting against a revolt in Hispania and in the Third Mithridatic War in Asia. Although these concurrent wars were somewhat helpful to Spartacus, the Roman enemies in these wars were never supporters or allies of Spartacus. Spartacus tried to get some external support when he made a bargain with Cicilian pirates to transport his forces out of Southern Italy (where they were trapped by the Romans) across the straits of Messina to Sicily. The pirates took his money and sailed away, abandoning his forces. Spartacus was defeated after two years of rebellion by Roman legions under Crassus. Source: I suspect there were many armed rebellions throughout history that had no external support. Were any of them successful? | are there armed rebellions in history that had no external support of any kind nor base from outside? | <P> Marius prior to Sulla's second civil war (83–82 BC). Sulla then sent him to Sicily (82 BC) and Africa (81 BC) against the Marians who had fled there, where he defeated them, thereby gaining military glory and distinction, particularly in Africa. Pompey then fought the rebellion by Quintus Sertorius in Hispania from 76 BC to 71 BC during the Sertorian War (80–71 BC). He played a part in the suppression of the slave revolt led by Spartacus (the Third Servile War, 72–70 BC). The latter two earned him the award of a consulship in 70 BC even though he was <P> Lentulus Batiatus Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Batiatus (or, possibly, Vatia) was the Roman owner of a gladiatorial school in Capua. It was from this school that, in 73 BC, the Thracian slave Spartacus and about 70 to 78 followers escaped. The break-out led to the slave rebellion known as the Third Servile War (73–71 BC). Identity and origins Shackleton Bailey noted that the name ('Batiatus'), as recorded by the ancient historians, could be a corrupted form of the cognomen Vatia. Cornelius Lentulus Vatia would then have been either a Servilius Vatia by birth adopted into the Cornelii Lentuli or else a <P> Spartacus to the Gladiators at Capua "Spartacus to the Gladiators at Capua" is a rhetorical monologue written by Elijah Kellogg for a student competition at Bowdoin College in 1842, and later published by Epes Sargent, one of the judges, in his 1846 School Reader. The piece, written as if it were an actual declamation by Spartacus to his fellows during the slave rebellion against the Roman Empire known as the Third Servile War, became popular in collections of rhetoric in the late 19th century. |
Well, 99% of computer makers can spy on you, if they want to. Google and Amazon do all the time. The question is what they DO with the information they have on you. The fear is that **Huawei,** as a Chinese company, has a direct interest in keeping the info on you, and providing direct access to the Chinese Government. | just how dangerous is it to use a huawei device? | <P> Criticism of Huawei Huawei is a Chinese multinational technology and consumer electronics company. It has faced criticisms for various aspects of its operations, particularly in regards to cybersecurity and intellectual property.
It has faced allegations that its wireless networking equipment could contain backdoors enabling surveillance by the Chinese government. There have been calls from U.S. entities to prevent the use of products from Huawei or fellow Chinese telecom company ZTE by the U.S. or its allies, especially in relation to 5G wireless networks. A U.S. national defense spending bill signed in August 2018 banned the government from purchasing Huawei or ZTE equipment. <P> Huawei has argued that its products posed "no greater cybersecurity risk" than those of any other vendor, and that there is no evidence of the U.S. espionage claims. In many markets such as the UK, Huawei proactively welcomes and allows full examination of its hardware and software products by local security experts. In the UK Huawei has been working closely with GCHQ to ensure products are secure. Huawei sued the U.S. government in March 2019, citing that it had refused to provide them with due process over the aforementioned restrictions.
Huawei has also faced allegations that it has engaged in <P> head of MI6, also raised questions about Huawei's role.
On 11 January 2019, Poland announced that two people working on a 5G Huawei network had been arrested: Wang Weijing (a Huawei executive), and Piotr Durbaglo, a consultant having worked for Polish domestic security, but currently working for Orange on 5G network testing. Consumer electronics In 2015, German cybersecurity company G Data reported that it had found that malware that can listen to calls, track users, and make online purchases was found pre-installed on smartphones from Chinese companies including Lenovo, Xiaomi, and Huawei. When G Data contacted the companies to let |
> a way for Protestants to equate German national identity with Protestantism in an attempt to more fully unify the country. Nope, that's a fundamental misconception. The Kulturkampf was about the separation of church and state, not about protestant powers. Bismarck wanted to consolidate the power of the Prussian government and administration. Most of them were protestants, as the core of Prussia was protestant, but it was not a fight between protestants and catholics, it was the Prussian government vs. the Catholic church. In some parts of Prussia, like Cologne or Poland, the catholic church had more influence and power (eg. through welfare services) than the government. The Lutheran church never had that influence in the core of Prussia, since it was not as rich as the catholic one and esp. Friedrich der Große had a more enlightened laissez faire relationship to religion. The term was coined by Rudolf Virchow and is usually attributed to the fight between Prussia and the Catholic Church, but other German states (Bavaria, Baden) had their Kulturkampf too. The laws about supervision of schools and the introduction of civil marriage in Germany were against *every* church in Germany, not just the catholic. You should also have a look at the *Walk to Canossa*, Bismarck stated in the Reichstag, that he will not walk to Canossa. That might explain some of cultural background. | would someone care to explain the kulturkampf in the german empire (~1871-~1879)? | <P> Lutheran—forged an alliance with secular liberals in 1871–1878 to launch a Kulturkampf (literally, "culture struggle") especially in Prussia, the largest state in the new German Empire to destroy the political power of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Catholics were numerous in the South (Bavaria) and west (Rhineland) and fought back. Bismarck intended to end Catholics' loyalty with Rome (ultramontanism) and subordinate all Germans to the power of his state.
Priests and bishops who resisted the Kulturkampf were arrested or removed from their positions. By the height of anti-Catholic legislation, half of the Prussian bishops were in prison or in exile, <P> had near complete control over domestic and foreign policy. The office of Minister President of Prussia was temporarily separated from that of Chancellor in 1873, when Albrecht von Roon was appointed to the former office. But by the end of the year, Roon resigned due to ill health, and Bismarck again became Minister-President. Kulturkampf Bismarck launched an anti-Catholic Kulturkampf ("culture struggle") in Prussia in 1871. This was partly motivated by Bismarck's fear that Pius IX and his successors would use papal infallibility to achieve the "papal desire for international political hegemony.... The result was the Kulturkampf, which, with its largely <P> Germany and enthusiastic defenders of the now infallible Faith of Rome, united, disciplined, and thirsting for martyrdom, thanks to Bismarck's uncalled for antiliberal declaration of War on the freedom they had hitherto peacefully enjoyed."
The Catholics reacted by organizing themselves and strengthening the Centre Party. Bismarck, a devout pietistic Protestant, was alarmed that secularists and socialists were using the Kulturkampf to attack all religion. He abandoned it in 1878 to preserve his remaining political capital since he now needed the Centre Party votes in his new battle against socialism. Pius IX died that year, replaced by the more pragmatic Pope Leo |
A good primary source for this question would be Peter Beresford Ellis' *Eyewitness to Irish History* which presents, amongst other things, the majority of the Penal Laws which affected Catholics and non-Anglicans alike for the majority of the time they were in effect. Catholics, Non-Conformists (Calvinists), and other non-Anglicans were barred from holding office or being elected to any position, could not vote, could be pressed into service by any landholder Anglican for whatever price he named (refusal brought beatings, arrest, and deportation), Catholics and non-Conformists were barred from receiving education at home or abroad (on penalty of death in most cases), could not own a horse worth more than 5 pounds sterling, were barred from owning weapons, were forced to divide their property evenly amongst their heirs, and so on. Additionally, the book chronicles the treatment of non-Conformists and Catholics at the hands of Cromwell's army (Cromwell only stayed for a year in Ireland, but his son-in-law was arguable just as happy to be malicious and cruel towards the Irish) including 50,000 Irish sent into slavery in Barbados and the razing of entire towns. That being said, many of the radicals and revolutionaries of Ireland were Protestants, even Anglicans, who were outraged at the treatment of their fellow Irishmen; Theobald Wolfe Tone, Robert Emmet, and Charles Stuart Parnell were all Protestants. But the **Wind that Shakes the Barley** takes place int he immediate run-up to the 1916 uprising to the middle-ish part of the Irish Civil War. During the film's first half, you are treated to the lawlessness and butchery of the infamous "Black and Tans" and "Auxies" who **DID** go door-to-door killing innocent people suspected of being Feinian/IRA. THey mass-raped, burned people out, and generally ran roughshod over people with little or no oversight. The Black and Tans' behavior, coupled with battle exhaustion of the British public, made the fight against the revolution untenable and thus brought both sides to the negotiation table. TL;DR: it is a qualified "Yes" - the English were (to borrow a phrase) "Right bastards" towards Irish (Catholic and non-Conformists) during much of the time they ruled the island, with few exceptions. | were the british as cruel to the irish as they're depicted in the wind that shakes the barley? | <P> and men were forcibly removed from Ireland and sent to Bermuda and Barbados as indentured servants. Laws that restricted the rights of Irish Catholics The Irish potato famine was due in part to Anti-Catholic laws. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Irish Catholics had been prohibited by the penal laws from purchasing or leasing land, from voting, from holding political office, from living in or within 5 miles (8 km) of a corporate town, from obtaining education, from entering a profession, and from doing many other things that were necessary for a person to succeed and prosper in society. The laws <P> are found today. Ireland As punishment for the rebellion of 1641, almost all lands owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers. Under the penal laws, no Irish Catholic could sit in the Parliament of Ireland, even though some 90% of Ireland's population was native Irish Catholic when the first of these bans was introduced in 1691. Catholic / Protestant strife has been blamed for much of "The Troubles", the ongoing struggle in Northern Ireland.
The English Protestant rulers killed many thousands of Irish people (mostly Catholics) who refused to acknowledge the government and sought an alliance with <P> them to a condition of extreme, brutal ignorance; and, to disassociate them from the soil". As a result, whilst to some extent tolerated, the public practice of Catholicism was almost completely extinguished and all Churches existent at the time of the enactment of the laws were ceded to the Established Church. Thus, by the end of the eighteenth century, there were few Catholic churches and no cathedrals in existence in Ireland for a large Catholic population. Following Catholic emancipation in 1829, the need to construct churches and cathedrals to serve this population became apparent. The lack of a Catholic presence |
The dress codes vary from department to department and have been evolving for a long time. Most officers I know now (pretty high number, nature of my job) favor all black boots on duty. Not western style boots, more of a military / hiking / trail runner style that is pretty comfortable, provides ankle support and foot protection and is conducive to running. When my dad was a patrolman (early 70s) it was black oxfords and they wore a tie as part of their uniform, which was a holdover from earlier times when even bus drivers and the milkman wore a tie. Usually a clip on so it couldn't be used against them in a fight. | why do cops wear oxford shoes rather than running/sports shoes? wouldn't they be more mobile with the latter? | <P> designed for different tasks and weather situations, most of them in dark-blue. According to the regulations, officers should typically wear hi-visibility vests, unless it is detrimental to the task at hand. Officers may also wear a light-blue long sleeve dress shirt with a dark-blue tie, usually paired with a dark-blue or white peaked cap, and sometimes worn with dark-blue suit jackets and trousers. There is also a light-blue short sleeve dress shirt that may be worn open-necked. White dress shirts are primarily reserved for more formal occasions. <P> blue shirts, cargo pants with a red stripe and boots. Winter jackets are either black or reflective orange and yellow with the word police in white and blue at the back. Hats are standard forage caps with a red band. Yukon hats or embroidered toques are worn in the winter.
Frontline officers wear dark-navy shirts, v-neck sweaters (optional during cold weather months), and side-pocket patrol pants ("cargo pants") with a red stripe (ranks of sergeant and higher wear a black stripe down their pant leg in place of red); and officers wear dark-navy rank slip-ons on the epaulets of their shirts, <P> winter uniform, troopers may wear a black "woolly-pully" commando sweater over their uniform shirts, along with a vinyl/fur winter hat.
The Class "A" Ceremonial Unit troopers wear a "full dress" uniform which is a charcoal gray military-style dress coat with black buttons. It is worn with matching charcoal gray military-style riding breeches and black high-rider leather boots. The duty belt is worn with the shoulder strap. This uniform is modeled after the original PSP history uniform. Vehicles The department currently operates a mixed fleet of vehicles including the new law enforcement specific Ford Taurus, Ford Explorer, Crown Victorias and Dodge Charger, |
Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious were the last emperors that ruled over a united Frankish Empire. Frankish custom made it so that heritage of a dead father was split between his sons. So the three sons of Louis divided the Empire in three parts with the Treaty of Verdun in 843 after a civil war had raged for three years. Lothair became emperor and claimed the Middle-Empire. Louis the German in Bavaria or the eastern part, and Charles the Bald in Aquitaine or the western part. Middle-Francia did not last long however, and was contest by both the East-Franks and the West-Franks. However, the east and west parts lasted longer (a few centuries), but eventually could not resist outside pressure of the Vikings and Magyars. Central control crumbled and regional leaders grew in power. This happend in both the western part as the eastern part, where new dynasties came into power. With the fall of Franks the western part and the eastern part were divided forever and came to be as France and Germany. | to what extent did the division of charlemagne's empire through the treaty of verdun lead to the creation of france and germany as we know them today? | <P> and Charles until the Verdun Treaty. Considered a milestone in European history, the Oaths of Strasbourg symbolize the birth of both France and Germany. The partition of Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 by and between Louis the Pious' three sons in the Treaty of Verdun. After the Treaty of Verdun (843–877) Lothar received the Imperial title, the Kingship of Italy, and the territory between the Rhine and Rhone Rivers, collectively called the Central Frankish Realm. Louis was guaranteed the Kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which <P> was called the Eastern Frankish Realm which was the precursor to modern Germany. Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was called the Western Frankish Realm.
Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son Louis II in 844, making him co-Emperor in 850. Lothar died in 855, dividing his kingdom into three parts: the territory already held by Louis remained his, the territory of the former Kingdom of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charles of Burgundy, and the remaining territory for which there was no traditional name was granted to his second son Lothar II, whose realm was <P> died early in 855 and his realm was divided into three parts. The part known as Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was given to Lothar's son. The rest was shared between Lothar's brothers Charles the Bald (ruler of the West Frankish realm) and Louis the German (ruler of the East Frankish realm). The Kingdom of Lotharingia was short-lived, however, becoming the stem duchy of Lorraine in Eastern Francia after the Treaty of Ribemont in 880. Alsace was united with the other Alemanni east of the Rhine into the stem duchy of Swabia. Alsace within the Holy Roman Empire At about this time, |
The theoretical minimum mass a star needs to undergo nuclear fusion (i.e. to actually be a "star") is about 75 times the mass of Jupiter. Neptune is about 5% of Jupiter's mass, so we'd be increasing Jupiter from 1 "Jupiter mass" to 1.05 "Jupiter masses" - still way below what we need. | jupiter is sometimes referred to as a failed star, too small to achieve nuclear fusion. if a neptune sized planet crashed into jupiter would it be big enough to be a star then and give us a small second star in our solar system? | <P> masses. Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star. Mass composition The majority of Jupiter's mass is hydrogen and helium. These two elements make up more than 87% of the total mass of Jupiter. The total mass of heavy elements other than hydrogen and helium in the planet is between 11 and 45 M⊕. The bulk of the hydrogen on Jupiter is solid hydrogen. Evidence suggests that Jupiter contains a central dense core. If so, the mass of the core is predicted to be no larger than about 12 M⊕. The exact mass <P> would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses.
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter. Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from <P> Jupiter mass Context and implications Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies beyond the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center.
Because the mass of Jupiter is so large compared to the other objects in the solar system, the effects of its gravity must be included when calculating satellite trajectories and the precise orbits of other bodies in the solar system, including Earth's moon and even Pluto.
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at |
In most parts of the world suicide is legal, the only reason (in most places) that assisted suicide is illegal is because it's so difficult to put in place safeguards to prevent people from bumping off their ill relatives and then pocketing their cash safe in the knowledge that the euthanasia laws will protect them. | why do we have the right to life but not the right to death? | <P> labels as euphemisms and use the term "assisted suicide."
Controversy concerning the legalization of this practice typically arises from concerns regarding its intersection with manipulative circumstances or family members; inaccurate prognoses, the accuracy death certificates, unequal access to healthcare, financial problems, the Werther Effect, advocacy for the practice's expansion to those with disabilities, evidence of the latter and ableism. Opponents view these factors as legitimate reasons to keep what they would term "assisted suicide" illegal. Debate over Whether Assisted Death is Suicide Suicide refers to the act of taking one's own life. Opponents feel that this term is appropriate to describe <P> that list their underlying condition as the cause of death. According to the proponents, suicide is a solitary, unregulated act whereas aid in dying is medically authorized and is intended to allow for the presence of loved ones. Proponents define "suicide" as an irrational act committed in the throes of mental illness. They assert that the latter act is fundamentally distinct from the practice that they are advocating, as it is intended to be a measured act.
In contrast, opponents feel that this characterization of suicide is erroneous. They point out that people commit suicide for political reasons, for the same <P> reasons that proponents cite as rational justifications for assisted death, and that mentally ill people who become terminally ill may experience assisted death as a potential "out" in regard to suicidal ideation that they had previously fought. Moreover, they argue that the highly publicized deaths of assisted death advocates are political acts. Assisted Death vs. Euthanasia In the United States, assisted death is a practice by which a terminally ill person who is believed to be of sound mind and has a prognosis of six months or less requests, obtains and — if they feel their suffering has become |
I assume you're referring to the submarine crewed by Masaharu Yokoyama and Samada Ueda, the M-16. It was never found and can safely be presumed to have been lost at sea somehow. It was last heard from at 10:41 PM. The last radio message was "success, success, success", so it's possible that the sub had penetrated the harbor and fired its torpedoes. In Japan, the fifth midget sub is credited with sinking the *USS Arizona*, but this is a contested theory. Yokoyama and Uyeda were posthumously promoted two ranks, given military funerals, and praised as "pillars of loyalty". Along with the other midget sub crewmen, they were known as the *Nine Warrior-Gods of the Shouwa Era* (the reign of Emperor Hirohito). Bonus fact: Masaharu Yokoyama was a relative of the creator of *Giant Robo*, Mitsuteru Yokoyama. | what happened to the crew of the 5th japanese midget submarine at pearl harbor? | <P> and Yellow Sea areas. On 24 June, southwest of Kagoshima, the submarine contacted a convoy of six large ships guarded by 16 escorts. Tang closed for a surface attack and fired a spread of three torpedoes at one of the ships and then fired a similar spread at a second target. Explosions followed, and Tang reported two ships sunk. However, postwar examination of Japanese records revealed by the Japanese government show that two passenger-cargo ships and two freighters were sunk. The ships must have overlapped, and the torpedo spread must have hit and sunk two victims in addition to their intended <P> damage.
Pintado and her sisters in the wolfpack had all but destroyed the convoy which was attempting to reinforce Japanese defenses of the Marianas. While escorts rescued many of the 7,000 troops whose ships had gone down, they had lost weapons, tanks, and equipment. This greatly weakened Japan's defensive capability in the Marianas for the impending American invasion of Saipan. Pintado then headed for the Marshall Islands, arriving Majuro 1 July for refit. Second patrol, July – September 1944 Her second war patrol took the submarine to the East China Sea. On 6 August she sank 5,401-ton cargoship Shonan Maru and <P> auxiliary minesweepers Nagato Maru No.3 and Nagato Maru No.6 were lost to mines on October 3. The minelayer Takachiho sank after being torpedoed by the S90 on October 17, while torpedo boat 33 sank after hitting a mine on November 11, after the German surrender. Search for the East Asia Squadron On 14 September, the South Seas Squadron under the command of Vice-Admiral Yamaya Tanin left Yokosuka in order to pursue the fleeing German East Asiatic Squadron. The squadron consisted of a battlecruiser (Kurama flagship), two cruisers, two destroyers and three transports. However, by this time, Vice-Admiral von Spee had |
You cannot open carry any gun in California except at shooting or hunting events, or if you specifically have a permit to carry, such as a permit to carry a concealed weapon. This is for all guns, not just handguns, as laws were recently passed to this effect. This applies to both unloaded and loaded weapons. You can transport guns in say the trunk of a car, as long as it is not exposed to the public. You can also transport unloaded guns to/from a car. | open carry laws in california | <P> lawfully possess and carry such firearm.
The firearm must be unloaded while in transit within the state. The firearm and any ammunition for it must not be easily accessible by anyone in the vehicle's driver or passenger area. For example, the gun and ammunition must be kept in the storage area of the vehicle, such as a car's "trunk." In vehicles without a storage area separate from the driver or passenger compartment, the firearm or ammunition shall be contained in a locked container other than the glove compartment or console." You may also transport a firearm for target competition purposes, <P> guidelines are allowed to carry concealed.
Open carry of firearms is generally illegal, except when hunting, or in a fixed place of business with the owner's permission, or in one's abode.
When a firearm is being transported it must be (a) unloaded and enclosed in a case, firearm carrying box, shipping box, or other container, or (b) broken down in a non-functioning state, or (c) not immediately accessible, or (d) carried or possessed in accordance with the Firearm Concealed Carry Act by a person with a valid concealed carry license.
On June 14, 2018, the Illinois Appellate Court said that the mere possession <P> crossing a public road while hunting. A rifle or shotgun cannot be kept loaded in any of the above circumstances except for a self-defense emergency. Antiques and replica handguns must be registered to be legally loaded and fired. Contrary to handguns, NY state law does not ban the open carry of shotguns & rifles, except in restricted buildings such as schools and courthouses. Non-resident travel throughout the state State law provides restricted exceptions for interstate transportation of firearms by non-residents. Non-residents may transport any lawful firearm through the state to any place outside of it where an individual may |
Fluoride ions bind to enamel and turn hydroxyapatite into fluoroapatite. Fluoroapatite is much more resilient to acids and a low pH environment. Therefore bacteria cannot thrive and demineralize the tooth. | how does "restoring anticavity fluoride rinse" work? | <P> ocean and other water sources. The recommended dosage of fluoride in drinking water does not depend on air temperature. Fluoride catalyzes the diffusion of calcium and phosphate into the tooth surface, which in turn remineralizes the crystalline structures in a dental cavity. The remineralized tooth surfaces contain fluoridated hydroxyapatite and fluorapatite, which resist acid attack much better than the original tooth did. Fluoride therapy is used to help prevent dental decay.
Fluoride ion, as an antimicrobial, may activate bacteria fluoride-induced genes associated with fluoride riboswitches. The combination of fluoride ion and QAS (Quaternary ammonium salts) was found stronger antimicrobial effect on <P> bacterial growth. Although neither floss nor toothbrushes can penetrate the deep grooves and pits of enamel, good general oral-health habits can usually prevent enough bacterial growth to keep tooth decay from starting. Genetic variations, in humans, might contribute to the intrinsic structural integrity of the enamel, and to its predisposition to demineralization or attack from bacteria. Remineralization Despite fluoridation's detractors, most dental professionals and organizations agree that the inclusion of fluoride in public water has been one of the most effective methods of decreasing the prevalence of tooth decay. Fluoride can be found in many locations naturally, such as the <P> Sodium fluoride Dental caries Fluoride salts are often added to municipal drinking water (as well as to certain food products in some countries) for the purpose of maintaining dental health. The fluoride enhances the strength of teeth by the formation of fluorapatite, a naturally occurring component of tooth enamel. Although sodium fluoride is used to fluoridate water and, indeed, is the standard by which other water-fluoridation compounds are gauged, hexafluorosilicic acid (H₂SiF₆) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (Na₂SiF₆) are more commonly used additives in the U.S. Osteoporosis Fluoride supplementation has been extensively studied for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. This |
I'm no neuroscientist, but I took a couple related courses in college. The general principle is called "synaptic plasticity" which basically means that transmission of signals within your brain strengthens or weakens over time as a function of activity. A "synapse" is the connection between two neurons through which electrical potential is transmitted from one neuron to the next. As a specific part of the brain is used, the synapses within that channel become stronger through a variety of mechanisms, including increased quantities of neurotransmitters released by the axon terminals (sort of the "tail end") of the pre-synaptic neuron and enhanced responsiveness of receptors within the dendrites ("head") of the post-synaptic neuron. Let's put this into football terms: your pre-synaptic neuron is your quarterback, let's say...Dak Prescott. Your post-synaptic neuron is a receiver, Dez Bryant. Early in the season, Prescott didn't throw to Bryant all that often, because the chemistry/connection, the "synapse" per se, wasn't great. As they practiced together and gained trust in each other, that connected strengthened, and they became a more effective pair, both because Dak got a better idea of where to put the ball for Dez to catch it (bigger signal from the pre-synaptic neuron), and Dez had a better idea of where the ball was going to be and when (better receptiveness of the post-synaptic neuron). Likewise, if they stop practicing/playing together for a while, this relationship will diminish, and they will have to rebuild the connection just as you will with particular connections/pathways in your brain. | how does using your brain make it stronger? | <P> Homeostatic plasticity In neuroscience, homeostatic plasticity refers to the capacity of neurons to regulate their own excitability relative to network activity, a compensatory adjustment that occurs over the timescale of days. Synaptic scaling has been proposed as a potential mechanism of homeostatic plasticity.
Homeostatic plasticity is thought to balance Hebbian plasticity by modulating the activity of the synapse or the properties of ion channels. Homeostatic plasticity in neocortical circuits has been studied in depth by Gina G. Turrigiano and Sacha Nelson of Brandeis University, who first observed compensatory changes in excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) after chronic activity manipulations.
Homeostatic plasticity can be <P> used to term a process that maintains the stability of neuronal functions through a coordinated plasticity among subcellular compartments, such as the synapses versus the neurons and the cell bodies versus the axons.
Homeostatic plasticity also maintains neuronal excitability in a real-time manner through the coordinated plasticity of threshold and refractory period at voltage-gated sodium channels.
The term homeostatic plasticity derives from two opposing concepts: 'homeostatic' (a product of the Greek words for 'same' and 'state' or 'condition') and plasticity (or 'change'), thus homeostatic plasticity means "staying the same through change". <P> plasticity Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of neurons to strengthen or weaken the connections between them. According to Hebbian theory, these connections are strengthened and maintained through repeated stimulation between neurons. Specifically, there is an emphasis on long-term potentiation (LTP), which is the prolonged strengthening of synaptic connections that facilitate learning from experience.
On a larger scale, there are many pathways and brain regions that are interdependent and contribute to a cohesive, stable personality. For example, the amygdala and hippocampus of the limbic system mediate emotional intensity and consolidate memory of these experiences. But the basic mechanism by which these |
Nice video. One point worth noting is that Schroedinger put forth his 'cat' thought experiment in order to demonstrate the preposterousness of quantum theory. It must have irked him that it ended up becoming the image to explain it. | zeno's paradox, the grandfather paradox, searle's chinese room, hilbert's hotel, einstein's twin paradox and schrodinger's cat all explained like you're 5 (youtube link) | <P> Schrödinger's cat Origin and motivation Schrödinger intended his thought experiment as a discussion of the EPR article—named after its authors Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen—in 1935. The EPR article highlighted the counterintuitive nature of quantum superpositions, in which a quantum system such as an atom or photon can exist as a combination of multiple states corresponding to different possible outcomes.
The prevailing theory, called the Copenhagen interpretation, says that a quantum system remains in superposition until it interacts with, or is observed by the external world. When this happens, the superposition collapses into one or another of the possible definite states. <P> the "alive and dead" cat superposition as quite real. Intended as a critique of the Copenhagen interpretation (the prevailing orthodoxy in 1935), the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment remains a defining touchstone for modern interpretations of quantum mechanics. Physicists often use the way each interpretation deals with Schrödinger's cat as a way of illustrating and comparing the particular features, strengths, and weaknesses of each interpretation. Thought experiment Schrödinger wrote:
One can even set up quite ridiculous cases. A cat is penned up in a steel chamber, along with the following device (which must be secured against direct interference by the <P> in a mixture of states—yet the cat, it seems from the thought experiment, can be such a mixture. Is the cat required to be an observer, or does its existence in a single well-defined classical state require another external observer? Each alternative seemed absurd to Einstein, who was impressed by the ability of the thought experiment to highlight these issues. In a letter to Schrödinger dated 1950, he wrote:
You are the only contemporary physicist, besides Laue, who sees that one cannot get around the assumption of reality, if only one is honest. Most of them simply do not see what |
In the 50's switchblades became associated with criminals due their portrayal in films and television. Greasers, mobsters and other thugs were commonly seen carrying them and it led to a public scare and the subsequent passing of the USA Switchblade Act of 1958. | why are switchblades illegal? | <P> folded and locked in the closed position.
During the 1950s, US newspapers as well as the tabloid press promoted the image of a new violent crime wave caused by young male delinquents with a stiletto switchblade or flick knife, based mostly on anecdotal evidence. In 1954, Democratic Rep. James J. Delaney of New York authored the first bill submitted to the U.S. Congress banning the manufacture and sale of switchblades, beginning a wave of legal restrictions worldwide and a consequent decline in their popularity. History Switchblades date from the mid-18th century. The earliest known examples of spring-loaded blades were constructed by <P> was "Designed for violence, deadly as a revolver - that’s the switchblade, the 'toy' youngsters all over the country are taking up as a fad. Press the button on this new version of the pocketknife and the blade darts out like a snake’s tongue. Action against this killer should be taken now". To back up his charges, Pollack quoted an unnamed juvenile court judge as saying: "It’s only a short step from carrying a switchblade to gang warfare".
During the 1950s, established U.S. newspapers as well as the sensationalist tabloid press joined forces in promoting the image of a young delinquent <P> with a stiletto switchblade or flick knife. While the press focused on the switchblade as a symbol of youthful evil intent, the American public's attention was attracted by lurid stories of urban youth gang warfare and the fact that many gangs were composed of lower class youth and/or racial minorities. The purported offensive nature of the stiletto switchblade combined with reports of knife fights, robberies, and stabbings by youth gangs and other criminal elements in urban areas of the United States generated continuing demands from newspaper editorial rooms and the public for new laws restricting the lawful possession and/or use |
The H1-B visa is a type of work visa for people in certain high-skill positions, like software developers and engineers, to come work in the United States. There's only a limited number of these visas available every year, and the spots fill up very quickly. In order to qualify for an H1-B visa, you need to have a job offer, that job offer needs to pay just as much as you would pay an American citizen, and the employer needs to have tried to hire American citizens but been unable to find any that meet the qualifications. The applicant also needs to have a college degree in a relevant field. The visa is tied to the job offer, so if the employee gets fired, they have to go back to their home country (although if they get a new job within a set time frame, the new employer can file paperwork to get a new visa for the immigrant without having to go through the whole process). The fraud that was found is that people were creating fake jobs to get people over here. While some major companies, like Microsoft and Intel, use the H1-B to hire top talent from around the world and bring them to their US headquarters to work, there are also outsourcing and consulting companies that (ab)use the process. They file for tens of thousands of petitions for H1-B visas every year. They use different job titles for their employees than most of the big employers (like "computer programmer" instead of "software developer") so that the official "average salary" is lower and they can pay them less than an American citizen would normally get paid for the same duties. Other companies will then fire their IT staff and hire the outsourcing company, effectively letting expensive American workers go and replacing them with cheap imported labor but without technically running afoul of immigration law. So, what would happen if the visa was abolished? Well, the major tech companies would probably still hire those people, but they'd have them work in India, Ireland, Switzerland, or wherever they had permission to work instead of bringing them to the US. The outsourcing companies would probably have more trouble if their supply of cheap labor dried up. | what is an h-1b visa, and what does the recent uncovering of the h-1b fraud scheme mean for the future? | <P> are the H-1B visa (the primary use case: a temporary visa for skilled workers), H-3 visa (a trainee and special education exchange visitor visa), and J-1 visa (a visa for exchange visitor students and scholars). The U.S. Department of State recommends that consular officers clearly annotate such B visas to make the scope of the visa clear to the applicant and the U.S. Customs and Border Protection officer at the port of entry.
Prior to the September 2001 attacks, the B visa could also be used by people on short courses of study, but now such people need to get a <P> at a consulate. No dependent visa As with ordinary B visas, there is no visa for dependents of the in lieu of visas. However, the family members of B visa holders can still apply for ordinary B visas and use those to accompany or visit the holder of the in lieu of visa. Changes in the 1990s The Immigration Act of 1990 officially split the original H-1 visa into a H-1A visa (for nurses) and H-1B visa (for other categories of skilled workers) and imposed an annual numerical cap on H-1Bs. In 1993, the INS and the U.S. Department of <P> consulates, such as the Mumbai consulate, list the B-1 in lieu of H-1B but not as part of any specific program.
This article discusses these rare uses of the B visa and the rules governing these uses. Importance of having the "in lieu of" annotation at the time of visa issuance An ordinary B visa cannot be retroactively changed by an applicant or his or her sponsoring company or institution to a B visa in lieu of another visa. Even if a person has an already valid B visa, the person must get a new B visa in lieu of |
There are a couple of steps missing in there from "in a binary" to "fast rotation". Most neutron stars/pulsars are "born" with a spin period much faster than a second; the Crab has a 33 ms period and we know it was born in 1054 AD. Since they are emitting radiation in the form of a beam, they lose energy, and as they do so they start slowing down. Eventually they start reaching spin periods well over a second, and then maybe even into the 10s of seconds. Somewhere in there, they are moving too slowly for the radiation beam to be seen and they turn "off". If the pulsar is in a binary, then as the companion star starts to enter its end of life phase and begins to increase in size, the outer layers of that star will get accreted (pulled) onto the neutron star. There will be a transfer of angular momentum which causes the neutron star to spin up. Eventually what you're left with is a white dwarf companion, what is left of the core of that devoured star, and a very rapidly spinning "millisecond pulsar". The term millisecond pulsar is a little confusing because in some sense, by spin period definitions, the Crab is a millisecond pulsar. But we instead usually refer to a millisecond pulsar as being "recycled". That is, it accretes material/angular momentum, spins back up, and turns back "on" so that it shines again as a pulsar, and thus is recycled. There are a number of millisecond pulsars known with spin period just above 1 ms, and so far none have been found below. | why does a neutron star spin faster when it is part of a binary system? | <P> pulsars) and X-ray pulsars exhibit very different spin behaviors and have different mechanisms producing their characteristic pulses although it is accepted that both kinds of pulsar are manifestations of a rotating magnetized neutron star. The rotation cycle of the neutron star in both cases is identified with the pulse period.
The major differences are that radio pulsars have periods on the order of milliseconds to seconds, and all radio pulsars are losing angular momentum and slowing down. In contrast, the X-ray pulsars exhibit a variety of spin behaviors. Some X-ray pulsars are observed to be continuously spinning faster and faster or <P> (or from) the neutron star causing the spin rate to increase or decrease at rates that are often hundreds of times faster than the typical spin down rate in radio pulsars. Exactly why the X-ray pulsars show such varied spin behavior is still not clearly understood. Observations X-ray pulsars are observed using X-ray telescopes that are satellites in low Earth orbit although some observations have been made, mostly in the early years of X-ray astronomy, using detectors carried by balloons or sounding rockets. The first X-ray pulsar to be discovered was Centaurus X-3, in 1971 with the Uhuru X-ray satellite. <P> the companion star is a Be star that rotates very rapidly and apparently sheds a disk of gas around its equator. The orbits of the neutron star with these companions are usually large and very elliptical in shape. When the neutron star passes nearby or through the Be circumstellar disk, it will capture material and temporarily become an X-ray pulsar. The circumstellar disk around the Be star expands and contracts for unknown reasons, so these are transient X-ray pulsars that are observed only intermittently, often with months to years between episodes of observable X-ray pulsation. Spin behaviors Radio pulsars (rotation-powered |
That's probably because Congress does not allow for funding of research into pretty much anything related to gun violence. However, we can look at other countries to attempt to draw conclusions. In Australia, they've gotten rid of many guns and found that suicide rates plummeted: . The idea being that many suicides are 'spur of the moment' type things and that the presence of a very very easy method (via gun) allows them to occur. But, removing that method frequently allows the person's strong suicidal urge to 'pass'. A) this is an oversimplification, of course and B) you probably knew this part, thus why you asked. Assuming that interpretation is correct, then, in theory, a waiting period should have close to the same effect, assuming someone didn't buy the gun prior to their suicidal urge. | do gun waiting periods effect suicide rates? | <P> 2013, and suicides account for 63% of all firearm-related deaths. A 2012 review by researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health found that in the United States, the percent of suicide attempts that prove fatal is "strongly related to the availability of household firearms." Prior to this, one book written by criminologist Gary Kleck in the 1990s stated that they found no relationship between gun availability and suicide rates. Federal and state laws The number of federal and state gun laws is unknown. A 2005 American Journal of Preventive Medicine study says 300, and the NRA says 20,000, though <P> are five to six times higher in high-income (HI) and upper-middle-income (UMI) countries in the Americas (12.72) than in Europe (2.17) or Oceania (2.57) and 95 times higher than in Asia (0.13). The rate of firearm deaths in the United States (14.24 per 100,000) exceeds that of its economic counterparts (1.76) eightfold and that of UMI countries (9.69) by a factor of 1.5. Suicide and homicide contribute equally to total firearm deaths in the U.S., but most firearm deaths are suicides (71%) in HI countries and homicides (72%) in UMI countries." Suicide Firearms accounted for 51.5% of U.S. suicides in <P> ownership per capita. According to the CDC, between 1999 and 2014 there have been 185,718 homicides from use of a firearm and 291,571 suicides using a firearm. Despite a significant increase in the sales of firearms since 1994, the US has seen a drop in the annual rate of homicides using a firearm from 7.0 per 100,000 population in 1993 to 3.6 per 100,000. In the ten years between 2000 and 2009, the ATF reported 37,372,713 clearances for purchase, however, in the four years between 2010 and 2013, the ATF reported 31,421,528 clearances. Property crime According to a |
She died young and more or less at the peak of her career, she was a fairly prolific and successful actress, she was one of the first really famous women to pose nude, and she was married to DiMaggio and Arthur Miller. I mean, pick one. | why is marilyn monroe considered such an iconic model? | <P> was suffering from a heart ailment. She was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. In the years before her death, she resided in a neighborhood only a few miles from where she once made motion pictures. <P> member of parliament, and later the Italian Undersecretary of State. Together they went to Perugia. She died from surgery in Rome on 9 April 1910, aged 54.
Her husband, heartbroken by her death, committed suicide shortly thereafter next to her corpse. <P> of his rocky career, she remained a loyal and supportive wife. They had no children. After her retirement from the stage in 1969, they moved to Monte Carlo and then to southern France, where she lived until her death. She died at her home in Beaulieu-sur-Mer, on the Mediterranean coast west of Nice. She was 80 years old. |
He didn't know it was The One Ring - it was thought to be destroyed. In The Hobbit the ring was nothing special (other than the invisibility), and in the Lord of the Rings books it took Gandalf 17 years from Bilbo's farewell party to discover that it was in fact Sauron's ring. | if gandalf knew bilbo has the ring, why did he let him keep it? | <P> the Ring. Eventually, Gandalf was able to determine the evil presence in Dol Guldur was indeed Sauron. Gandalf reported back to the White Council, but Saruman dissuaded them from moving against Sauron. Only when he learned the One Ring may be in the vicinity of the Gladden Fields did Saruman agree to attack Sauron, hoping to find the Ring himself. The Council drove Sauron from Dol Guldur, unaware that he knew the Ring had been found. Just prior to Sauron's departure, the Ring passed to another hobbit, Bilbo Baggins, who used it to assist in the victory of elves, men <P> and dwarves at the Battle of the Five Armies. Sixty years later, Gollum was captured by orcs, and taken to Mordor, where he was tortured into revealing the owner and location of the Ring; Bilbo Baggins of the Shire. In the meantime, Bilbo had left the Shire to live in Rivendell, and upon the advice of Gandalf had (very reluctantly) given the Ring to his nephew, Frodo Baggins. With the information given him by Gollum, Sauron, still unable to take physical form, thus sent the Nazgûl to the Shire to retrieve the One Ring. Frodo, and his friends, Samwise Gamgee, <P> Ring. He learned that it was in the possession of a Hobbit and sent out the nine Ringwraiths to retrieve it. The Ring-bearer, Frodo Baggins, travelled to Rivendell, where it was decided that the Ring had to be destroyed in the only way possible: casting it into the fires of Mount Doom. Frodo set out on the quest with eight companions—the Fellowship of the Ring. At the last moment, he failed, but with the intervention of the creature Gollum—who had been saved by the pity of Frodo and Bilbo Baggins—the Ring was nevertheless destroyed. Frodo with his companion Sam Gamgee |
Like reddit, just much older. Usenet is an ancient but great discussion board system. You have separate groups, dedicated to certain topics. There are many independent servers you can use. Servers usually have most of the common groups, i.e. they keep all the messages from these groups. To read, you pick any convenient server (e.g. in ancient days, one located nearby, e.g. at your university). Then you use a program like Thunderbird to download the messages and read them. Unlike a web forum, where all the icons, tables, HTML etc. have to be downloaded, you only transfer pure plain text messages. Since your client (Thunderbird) can download them, you can easily do it when you have internet, and then read (and reply!) while offline. Your messages go out to the world when you connect again. As soon as you send a message, your server will distribute it to other servers he knows (as long as they carry the group where you posted), which in turn will forward it to others. Today, your message usually reaches every common server within seconds. This way, it doesn't matter which server you use. It's great, but about 30 years old (possibly older than the WWW!) and has its issues (no upvotes/downvotes, for example). The decentralization (many servers) makes it hard to ban people without pre-moderating everything, so some groups have been overrun by trolls. Other than that, it is an amazing system, still preferred by many. Mozilla uses usenet for discussions about the browser, for example (they sync it to their mailing lists). The main downside is that you need a client instead of just visiting a web page, but once you get one, it is awesome. Some people discovered that you could also post non-text stuff (binaries), aka porn, movies and other pirated stuff, and have it distributed that way. Since this puts a lot of load on the servers, only special (usually paid) "binary" servers allow this. So basically, you have one usenet for discussions and one for piracy. For the latter, you use a special client that automatically finds the tens of thousands of messages into which your movie or other content was split, downloads them, joins them, and spits out a file. It's basically like megaupload, just that all servers exchange the content with each other. It has little to do with the original idea of usenet (sometimes even technically - some servers unpack the files for you, so it's basically a giant network drive full of warez). | what is use net? | <P> Usenet Usenet (/ˈjuːznɛt/) is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP) dial-up network architecture. Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages (called articles or posts, and collectively termed news) to one or more categories, known as newsgroups. Usenet resembles a bulletin board system (BBS) in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially. <P> The name comes from the term "users network".
A major difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a central server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store and forward messages to one another via "news feeds". Individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server, which may be operated by anyone.
Usenet is culturally and historically significant in the networked world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as "FAQ", "flame", Sockpuppet, and "spam". In the 1990s, <P> and social media. Usenet differs from such media in several ways: Usenet requires no personal registration with the group concerned; information need not be stored on a remote server; archives are always available; and reading the messages does not require a mail or web client, but a news client. However, it is now possible to read and participate in Usenet newsgroups to a large degree using ordinary Internet browsers since most newsgroups are now copied to several internet sites. The groups in alt.binaries are still widely used for data transfer. ISPs, news servers, and newsfeeds Many Internet service providers, |
That's a very good question. We do have to make a distinction between Congo under the rule of Leopold II and subsequently under the rule of the Belgian government, a transfer of power which occured in 1908. The Congo Free State existed between 1885 and 1908 and it was run like a private company focused on efficiency with no regard for human costs. The way Congo was run by the Belgian government after the reign of Leopold II was still very much troubled by systemic racism and colonialism, it was run more like an actual country in stark comparison with the Congo Free State. When the Belgian king Leopold II took control of Congo, he recruited a few experienced Belgian civil servants to help him build out the colony, but they were essentially there to enforce his will. The Force Public, which was the army through which Leopold II exerted control, had internationally recruited white people in positions of power while the lower ranks were locally recruited black people. The fact that Congo - a vast amount of land with rich resources - was under the control of Belgium, was not to the liking of many other European countries. It didn't help that Leopold II had made a lot of promises to neighbouring countries regarding the profits of his Congo project. Also, it's important to note that these were times when governmental control was still very much reserved for the elite. You have to keep in mind that universal male suffrage wasn't really all that widespread yet, certainly not in the United Kingdom where the governmental body was mostly made up of entrepreneurs or nobility. The same can be said for Belgium to some extent. While Belgium did have a long history of grassroots power structures, their version of universal male suffrage dbetween 1893 and 1918 was still plural voting. This meant that you gained extra votes for paying more taxes or having more money, up to a maximum of three votes. Before 1893 there was "cijnskiesrecht", which attributed votes only to those with a lot of capital. I'm certain that there's a name for it in English, but it's not my native language. So many political decisions were guided by the interests of these entrepreneurs who were a part of the governmental bodies for both Belgium and the United Kingdom. This is evident from the actions by Cecil Rhodes, a British entrepreneur who became the Prime Minister of the Cape Colony under Brittish rule. He pushed to take control of the southern regions of Congo to further his own interests. He wasn't the only British entrepreneur who took issue with the rubber coming from the Congo and the pressure from within the British government to overthrow Leopold his rule kept mounting. Leopold II viciously pushed his staff and the locals to offer rubber at dump prices on the international market. The Congo Free State was chronically understaffed and everyone involved was being pushed beyond the limits of what's possible and humane. While the humanitarian issues certainly played a big role in the downfall of Leopold II his Congo project, it was heavily influenced by his competitors within the British government. To answer your question, the rubber trade stemming from the Congo Free State was a major player on the rubber market. So much so that British entrepreneurs heavily pressed towards removing Leopold II from his Congo project and not just for humanitarian reasons. It's not a coincidence that the rubber trade from Malaya by British companies mostly took off shortly after Congo was transfered to the Belgian government. The reason as to why you can't find a lot of information on it is because there aren't too many sources on this. The Congo Free State was run like a private company during a time when international companies were absolutely lawless - unlike today *ahum*. There simply isn't a big paper trail. However, there's still a good amount of historical research on this specific question and I can certainly recommend you some. The only problem is that most of it is written in either Dutch or French and mostly behind paywalls for those who aren't affiliated with universities. So do you speak either of these language and do you have access to a university library? There are certain more popular books translated to English, but while they are certainly worth a read they aren't always as academically sound. | how vital were belgium controlled rubber exports from congo in the early production of cars? | <P> from King Leopold II.
On 18 October 1908, the Belgian parliament voted in favour of annexing the Congo as a Belgian colony. Executive power went to the Belgian minister of colonial affairs, assisted by a Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial) (both located in Brussels). The Belgian parliament exercised legislative authority over the Belgian Congo. In 1926 the colonial capital moved from Boma to Léopoldville, some 300 kilometres (190 mi) further upstream into the interior.
The transition from the Congo Free State to the Belgian Congo was a break but it also featured a large degree of continuity. The last Governor-general of the Congo Free <P> Free Republic of the Congo Background On 30 June 1960, the Belgian Congo became independent as the Republic of the Congo. However, the domestic situation quickly devolved as the army mutinied, beginning the Congo Crisis. In spite of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba's efforts to calm the troops, the situation worsened. Katanga and South Kasai subsequently seceded from the central government. The United Nations (UN) organised a peacekeeping operation and sent troops to the Congo. On 5 September, President Joseph Kasa-Vubu dismissed Lumumba from his post. The government was paralyzed by the political battle that ensued, and on 14 September, Colonel <P> property. He named it the Congo Free State. Leopold's regime began various infrastructure projects, such as the construction of the railway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa), which took eight years to complete. Nearly all such infrastructure projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold and his associates could extract from the colony.
In the Free State, colonists coerced the local population into producing rubber, for which the spread of automobiles and development of rubber tires created a growing international market. Rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built |
At trial, there are two types of examinations: the direct examination (i.e. your opportunity to question the witness *you* call to the stand) and the cross examination (i.e. your opportunity to question to witness the other side calls). When examining your own witnesses, you are not allowed to ask what are called "leading questions." Leading questions are questions where the answer is implied in the question ("you're a redditor, correct?"). Some judges will even consider any yes/no questions to be leading ("were you on reddit last night?") You *are* allowed to ask leading questions to 1) witnesses you are cross-examining; or 2) witnesses you are direct examining, but who the judge has declared hostile for some reason (e.g. you ask them their named and they say, "f*ck off" and everyone can tell it's going to be a struggle for you to ask them open questions) EDIT: or (in federal court and some state courts) 3) witnesses you are direct examining but who are either adverse parties or witnesses for the adverse party. EDIT: Wow, thank you guys so much for all the upvotes and for the gold! I'm glad I could be of help, and it's awesome to see so many people interested in the legal system. One more EDIT: As others have so nicely pointed out, I never really answered the initial question! Why would a lawyer want to declare the witness hostile? Let's start with why leading questions are typically not allowed on direct examination. In the american legal system, the goal of a trial is for the fact-finder (whether it be a jury or a judge in the case of a bench-trial) to determine the truth about what happened. The witnesses are called for their benefit. The goal of direct is for the witness to tell their side of the story (I'm using "story" loosely here, as it could also be an expert witness, etc.). The fact-finder will listen to determine 1) whether the content of the story is believable 2) whether the witness him/herself seems credible. Now consider, how can a fact-finder determine these two things when some slick lawyer is leading the witness into yes/no questions? At that point, it basically becomes the lawyer testifying, not the witness. However, when a witness has proven unable to tell their story, whether it be because communication is difficult for them (eg. they are a very young child, they have some sort of disability, etc.) or because they are simply acting hostile, the court will allow them to be questioned in the next best way which will still result in information being dispensed to the fact-finder so that they can do their job. This next best way would be through leading questions. So why would a lawyer want a witness to be declared hostile? The answer is so that they can ask them leading questions. The advantage of being able to ask leading questions, besides being able to move the trial along quickly (it might take hours for a young child to answer very basic non-leading questions) is that you can formulate the questions in a way such that you pretty much always get the answer you want and that you expect. Thus, the lawyer will be able to basically use the witness as a mouth-piece through which they can tell their clients' story exactly as they see fit. | why would a lawyer ask a judge for permission to "treat the witness as hostile", and what are the benefits for being able to do so? | <P> or education. Leading questions may also be permitted on direct examination when a witness requires special handling, for example a child. However, the court must take care to be sure that the examining attorney is not coaching the witness through leading questions.
Although Rule 611(c) of the Federal Rules of Evidence (and comparable rules of many states) do not prohibit leading questions on re-direct, some states have expressly limited the use of leading questions on re-direct. As a practical matter, it rests within the trial court's discretion as to what leading questions may be asked on re-direct. Generally speaking, <P> Leading question United States While each state has its own rules of evidence, many states model their rules on the Federal Rules of Evidence, which themselves relate closely to the common-law mode of examination. Rule 611(c) of the Federal Rules of Evidence provides that:
Leading questions should not be used on the direct examination of a witness except as may be necessary to develop the witness' testimony. Ordinarily leading questions should be permitted on cross-examination. When a party calls a hostile witness, an adverse party, or a witness identified with an adverse party, interrogation may be by leading questions.
Leading questions are <P> the primary mode of examination of witnesses who are hostile to the examining party, and are not objectionable in that context. Examination of hostile witnesses usually takes place on cross-examination. As the rule recognizes, the examination of a "hostile witness, an adverse party, or a witness identified with an adverse party" will sometimes take place on direct examination, and leading questions are permitted.
In practice, judges will sometimes permit leading questions on direct examination of friendly witnesses with respect to preliminary matters that are necessary to provide background or context, and which are not in dispute; for example, a witness's employment |
In case anyone gets confused about geography, Wikipedia has provided a nice annotated map of the area in question [here.] () This may prove useful to anyone who is not familiar with European geography. The Schleswig-Holstein question involves a number of things that we all love about 19th Century political history: problematic succession laws, the unification of nation states, and one Otto von Bismarck. In order to understand the question, we must travel many centuries back to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. This is about a thousand years outside of my specialisation so I can't talk about it in great detail, but suffice to say that the area surrounding Schleswig and Holstein was an area of contention between the Danish and the Germans, and even before that had been contested by various groups. After the dust settled, all land north of the Eider river was held by the Danish, and all land south was held by the Germans. Holstein formed a part of the Duchy of Saxony. /u/wowbuggertheinfinite posted a more detailed overview lower down the comment chain here. Moving forward to 1326, King Valdemar of Denmark *allegedly* made a statement saying that the Duchy of South Jutland (Schleswig) and the Kingdom of Denmark should always remain two separate entities. Proof of this was first produced in 1448 by Christian I of Denmark, and in 1460 Denmark retook Holstein and Schleswig, which had been lost previously. The Treaty of Ribe added the County of Holstein as a possession of the King of Denmark, but not of the Kingdom itself. One phrase in the treaty, that Schleswig and Holstein should be 'forever inseparable', would prove important later. We can understand at this point why the issue becomes so complicated. The Danish Monarchy possessed the Kingdom of Denmark, and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. However, neither Duchy was itself a component part of the Kingdom of Denmark, rather they were possessions of the *King* of Denmark. To make matters more complicated, in 1665 the Kingdom of Denmark introduced a succession law that allowed females to inherit. Schleswig and Holstein did not, and kept the Salic Law, where women were unable to inhereit. This will also prove important later. Over the years until 1806 there was a bit more back and forth between various Counts, Dukes and Kings with some territorial shifting, but nothing major. After the Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved in 1806, Denmark extended their influence over Holstein, introducing various language and social reforms. However this was reversed by the Congress of Vienna, who included Holstein in the German Confederation. Given that the Treaty of Ribe had declared Schleswig and Holstein to be forever unseparable, this opened up a whole range of potential problems. With the stage set, we can now move forward to 1846. The male line of the Danish Monarchy is set to die out with the death of Frederick, son of King Christian VIII. Since the Kingdom of Denmark and the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein have different succession laws, a crisis is brewing. 31% of the population of Denmark, mostly concentrated in the two Duchies, spoke German, and the rising star of Prussia offered hopes of a German unification. In 1848, tensions came to a head as Liberal revolutions broke out across Europe, and the attempts of the Danish monarchy to incorporate Schleswig-Holstein into the Kingdom of Denmark proper led to open rebellion. Prussian troops marched into Holstein in order to enforce their independence. The male heir to the Duchy, Christian August, duke of Augustenburg, was declared to be the legitimate ruler. However, Prussia here drew the ire of the other Great Powers of Europe, who up until now hadn't been particularly bothered by the constitutional history of a minor German Duchy. Britain and Russia wished to protect their naval interests and if Prussia could take the harbour at Kiel and build a canal to the North Sea then they had the potential to become a North Sea naval power, an outcome neither Britain nor Russia wanted. Austria were at this time in conflict with Prussia over which country would assume leadership of the German speaking peoples, and so tended to side against Prussia. While they were open to the idea of an independent Schleswig-Holstein, they were highly against idea that it could be integrated into Prussia. Additionally, the wishes of the significant Danish speaking minority in the Duchy had to be taken into account. Sweden sent troops to help Denmark, and Nicholas I of Russia diplomatically pressured the Prussians to withdraw. In 1850 the Treaty of Berlin re-established the status quo before the war, and in 1852 Christian August withdrew his claim. Over the course of the next decade, the Danish slowly tried to consolidate power in the Duchy. The teaching of German in Northern Schleswig was banned, and the teaching of Danish in the rest of Schleswig was emphasised. In 1855 the Danish proposed to create a national assembly, where the Kingdom would have 60% of the members, allowing them to outvote the Duchies. The Duchies naturally protested against this. The situation was rapidly becoming untenable. In 1862 the British tried to propose a new system, but were wary of upsetting the Prussians, with whom they had developed a tentative friendship. By 1864, the situation had changed. Russia was preoccupied with internal issues, Sweden had no real desire to intervene without the backing of other great powers, and Britain no longer desired to hinder Prussia quite so much. Denmark were issued an ultimatum by Prussia and Austria, the latter of whom had joined in an attempt to restrain Prussia. They rejected it, and lost the ensuing war quite badly. They later rejected an international conference set up to solve the dispute and lost the continuation of the war even more badly. Austria and Prussia agreed to split Schleswig between them, with Prussia administering Schleswig and the city of Kiel, and Austria administering Holstein minus Kiel. In 1866, Bismarck declared war on Austria and occupied Holstein. After a short 3 week war the fighting ended with no changes other than the transfer of Holstein to Prussia. The status of Schleswig-Holstein would stay the same until 1920, when a plebiscite saw the Danish speaking north assigned back to Denmark. In conclusion, the Schleswig-Holstein question was an incredibly complicated diplomatic and legal matter that came to a head in a period in which Prussia and Austria were looking to assert their superiority over German-speaking Europe. While war was certainly not inevitable, and the situation could have been solved diplomatically at several points, and attempts were made to do so, with Bismarck at the head of Prussia and German nationalism both in Prussia and Schleswig-Holstein at a fever pitch, it would have required supreme patience and diplomatic skill to do so. Sources: Stacie Goddard, 'When Right Makes Might: How Prussia Overturned the European Balance of Power', *International Security*, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Winter, 2008/2009), pp. 110-142 Hans Brems, 'The Collapse of the Binational Danish Monarchy in 1864, a Multinational Perspective', *Scandinavian Studies*, Vol. 51, No. 4, HENRIK IBSEN ISSUE (AUTUMN 1979), pp. 428- 441 | lord palmerston quipped “the schleswig-holstein question is so complicated, only three men in europe have ever understood it. one was prince albert, who is dead. the second was a german professor who became mad. i am the third and i have forgotten all about it.” why was it irresolvable without war? | <P> Duke of Holstein and Duke of Lauenburg. Schleswig-Holstein Question The Schleswig-Holstein Question was the name given to the whole complex of diplomatic and other issues arising in the 19th century out of the relations of the two duchies, Schleswig and Holstein, to the Danish crown on one side and the German Confederation on the other.
In 1806–1815 the government of Denmark had claimed Schleswig and Holstein to be parts of the monarchy of Denmark, which was not popular among the German population in Schleswig-Holstein, who had traditionally the majority in Holstein and had gradually increased its dominance in Schleswig as well. <P> Schleswig and Holstein have at different times belonged in part or completely to either Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire, or been virtually independent of both nations. The exception is that Schleswig had never been part of the Holy Roman Empire or the German Confederation before the Second War of Schleswig in 1864. For many centuries, the King of Denmark was both a Danish Duke of Schleswig and a Duke of Holstein within the Holy Roman Empire. The short version is: Schleswig was either integrated in Denmark or a Danish fief, and Holstein was a Holy Roman Imperial fief. Since 1460 <P> However, this development sparked a German national awakening after the Napoleonic wars and led to a strong popular movement in Holstein and Southern Schleswig for unification of both with a new Germany (see German unification), turning out to be Prussian-dominated, as it was.
A controversy in the 19th century raged round the ancient indissoluble union of the two duchies, and the inferences to be drawn from it; the Danish National Liberals claimed Schleswig as an integral part of the Danish kingdom; Germans claimed, besides Holstein, being a member state of the German Confederation, also Schleswig. The history of the relations of |
Sheer size. The Great Red Spot id bigger than the Earth. Even if it was to move 2000 km, it would be very hard to see on a picture. | if jupiter and saturn are made of gas, how come whenever i see pictures of them, the patterns and colours on them look the same? doesn't the gas move around? | <P> as a few hours or stretch on for centuries.
Even before Voyager proved that the feature was a storm, there was strong evidence that the spot could not be associated with any deeper feature on the planet's surface, as the Spot rotates differentially with respect to the rest of the atmosphere, sometimes faster and sometimes more slowly.
In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when several smaller, white oval-shaped storms merged to form a single feature—these three smaller white ovals were first observed <P> about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloudtops.
The Great Red Spot is large enough to accommodate Earth within its boundaries. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and may be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi). Hubble observations in 1995 showed it <P> temperatures at the cloud layer. Great Red Spot and other vortices The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth, located 22° south of the equator. It is known to have been in existence since at least 1831, and possibly since 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two "red spots" adjacent to the Great Red Spot. The storm is large enough to be visible through Earth-based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of |
It is better because it uses a superior system of measurement that takes more data into account. When your prescription is taken for standard LASIK/LASEK/PRK they are basically taking an average measurement for your entire eye. But of course your eye is not a perfect shape with a smooth surface. It's composed of organic tissues. Some of them are out of position, some of them are not as transparent as others, etc. etc. That's where Wavefront-Guided Custom LASIK/LASEK/PRK comes into play. The Wavefront technology takes measurements from many different angles (I believe I was told something like 240 measurements). This allows it to detect and adjust for tiny imperfections in parts of your eye, that could not be accounted for using traditional measurement technologies. I had Wavefront-guided PRK performed almost a year ago and let me tell you it is the single best decision I have ever made. It is the best money I ever spent. It was life-changing. | how wavefront/custom lasik is different from older versions of lasik/lasek/prk, and why it is (or isn't) better. | <P> pain. The two techniques after a period of one year have similar results.
A 2017 systematic review found uncertainty in visual acuity, but found that in one study, those receiving PRK were less likely to achieve a refractive error, and were less likely to have an over-correction than compared to LASIK. <P> PRK with the excimer laser. The addition of a flap to PRK became known as LASIK. Further research Since 1991, there have been further developments such as faster lasers; larger spot areas; bladeless flap incisions; intraoperative corneal pachymetry; and "wavefront-optimized" and "wavefront-guided" techniques which were introduced by the University of Michigan's Center for Ultrafast Optical Science. The goal of refractive surgery is to avoid permanently weakening the cornea with incisions and to deliver less energy to the surrounding tissues. Comparison to photorefractive keratectomy A systematic review that compared PRK and LASIK concluded that LASIK has shorter recovery time and less <P> in patients with keratoconus.
No good data can be found that compare the percentage of LASIK procedures that employ wavefront guidance versus the percentage that do not, nor the percentage of refractive surgeons who have a preference one way or the other. Wavefront technology continues to be positioned as an "advance" in LASIK with putative advantages; however, it is clear that not all LASIK procedures are performed with wavefront guidance.
Still, surgeons claim patients are generally more satisfied with this technique than with previous methods, particularly regarding lowered incidence of "halos," the visual artifact caused by spherical aberration induced in the eye |
Computerphile just did a video on that. Basically, to make an AI safe you'd have to account for the absurdest of things since computer brains will be very different from ours. Deadly Truth of General AI: | elon musk has been very clear recently in regard to his fears of quickly developing a.i. what is he afraid of, and what would a.i. "going bad" look like working itself out in today's global economy? | <P> AI aftermath scenarios Background Most scientists believe that AI research will at some point lead to the creation of machines that are as intelligent, or more intelligent, than human beings in every domain of interest. There is no physical law precluding particles from being organised in ways that perform even more advanced computations than the arrangements of particles in human brains; therefore superintelligence is physically possible. In addition to potential algorithmic improvements over human brains, a digital brain can be many orders of magnitude larger and faster than a human brain, which was constrained in size by evolution to be <P> (or at least the illusion of control), humanity ends up progressing more slowly than it would if the AI were unrestricted in its willingness to rain down all the benefits of its advanced technology on the human race. Boxed AI People ask what is the relationship between humans and machines, and my answer is that it's very obvious: Machines are our slaves.
— Tom Dietterich, president of the AAAI
The AI Box scenario postulates that a superintelligent AI can be "confined to a box" and its actions can be restricted by human gatekeepers; the humans in charge would try to take advantage of <P> some of the AI's scientific breakthroughs or reasoning abilities, without allowing the AI to take over the world. Successful gatekeeping may be difficult; the more intelligent the AI is, the more likely the AI can find a clever way to use "social hacking" and convince the gatekeepers to let it escape, or even to find an unforeseen physical method of escape. Human-AI merger Kurzweil argues that in the future "There will be no distinction, post-Singularity, between human and machine or between physical and virtual reality". Human extinction If a dominant superintelligent machine were to conclude that human survival is an |
I would argue that much of those issues, are the consequences of Residential Schools that were present in Canada and the U.S.A from the 18th century to as late as 1996 and many more societal problems common today in Native American communities. The purpose of these schools was to assimilate natives into European culture through constant immersion. That was accomplished through removing children from their homes and enrolling them in these schools at a young age. There was little to no tolerance for the speaking of languages other than those allowed and, very often, any remotely cultural behavior or sentiments shown by these children were punishable. From alumni testimonies that have come to light, the schools were rampant with physical, psychological, emotional and sexual abuses. The institutions are cited as a major force in the cultural genocide of First Nation peoples and the experiences there as one of the leading causes for the development of depression and other mental illnesses in Native peoples in the past. So to answer your question, the issues today are the accumulative product of several generations of colonialism and systematic oppression in North America. Much work remains to heal the damage. You can read up in more detail about government settlements, testimonies, history, and what work is being done with these sources: Residential School Settlements, Canada Testimonies Further reading List from the same website above Government support resources More detailed analysis and history | are alaska natives' issues with depression and suicide modern, or have the communities always struggled with high depression and suicide rates? | <P> indigenous activists and historians led to a change in the public perception of the residential school system, as well as official government apologies, and a (controversial) legal settlement.
Colonization had a significant impact on First Nations diet and health. According to the historian Mary-Ellen Kelm, "inadequate reserve allocations, restrictions on the food fishery, overhunting, and over-trapping" alienated First Nations from their traditional way of life, which undermined their physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health. 20th century As Canadian ideas of progress evolved around the start of the 20th century, the federal Indian policy was directed at removing Indigenous people from their <P> (IRS) is a checkered one, much criticism has been levelled at both the system and those who established and supported it. Neglect and poor nutrition were often what Aboriginal children experienced, particularly in the early decades of the system's operation. The stripping away of traditional native culture—sometimes referred to as "cultural genocide"—is another charge levelled at the residential schools. In many schools, students were not allowed to speak their Indigenous languages or practice any of their own customs, and thus lost their sense of identity, inevitably driving a cultural wedge between children and their family.
By 1920, attendance at some <P> squash.
Today, Aboriginal people work in a variety of occupations and live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on their culture, from spirituality to political attitudes. Contemporary issues First Nations peoples face a number of problems to a greater degree than Canadians overall, some with living conditions comparable to developing countries like Haiti. Aboriginals have higher rates of unemployment, rates of incarceration, substance abuse, health problems, homelessness, fetal alcohol syndrome, lower levels of education and higher levels of poverty. Residential schools Canada's federal residential school system began in the |
So contrary to Rothammer (as discussed in u/Dondville) Marquet et al argue that the Chinchorros lead a less hierarchical lifestyle and that mummification isn't tied to status. Mummification first started because of the pure heat of the environment. Natural mummification formed when bodies were left in dehydrated environments. This discovery of natural mummies is believed to be a primary inspiration for the creation of man-made mummies. The earliest man made mummies were most often covered with black mud after the removal (and replacement with natural fibres) of inards and sectioning, then rejoining of the body. The majority of early mummies were children, which lead Arriza to note a probable correlation between infant deaths and high arsenic levels in the local water (100 times the acceptable limit) and the EL Nino phenomenon. Mummification most likely started as a result of population rising (Marquet et al) and increased infant mortality. The common theory is that mummification was undertaken during periods of social stress caused by high infant mortality and a shortage of resources. Mummies were a tool to bring the community together, and perhaps played a religious, almost sacrificial role. Many of these mummies being children is probably those children who died from arsenic poisoning, which may have had importance. It actually dissapeared for a while (or at least wasn't as popular) only to be replaced with a different type of mummification (red mummies as opposed to the older black ones). When similar birth/death rates occured. Red mummies were prepared slightly differently (different coloured mud, and incisions made to extract innards rather than dissection). Red mummies again seem to be a reaction to envrionmental pressures and have been interpreted again as sacrificial. The dying out of mummification can perhaps be seen as a sign of stability in the community and its resurfacing to be a sign of pressures returning. #Sources: Arriaza, B. (1995) ‘Chinchorro Bioarchaeology: Chronology and Mummy Seriation’ in Latin American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology 6(1):35-55 Arriaza, B. (2005)’Arseniasis As An Envrionmental Hypothetical Explanation For the Origin of the Oldest Artifical Mummification Practice In the World/ Arsenicismo, Una Hipótesis Medioambiental Para Explicar El Origen De La Momicación Más Antigua Del Mundo’ in Chungara: Revista de Antropologia Chilena, Universidad de Tarapaca 3(2):255-260 Marquet, P., Santoro, C., Latorre, C., Standen, V., Abades, S., Rivadenira, M., Arriaza, B., Hochberg, M. (2012) ‘Emergence of Social Complexity Among Coastal Hunter-Gatherers in the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile’ in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, National Academy of Sciences 109(37):14754-14760 | the chinchorro culture of ancient chile began purposefully mummifying their dead thousands of years before the ancient egyptians did, and did so in a highly idiosyncratic manner. what led to the development of such practices, and what ended up happening to the chinchorro people? | <P> of fisherfolk existed, tucked away in the arid river valleys of the Andes, but the Chinchorro made themselves unique by their dedicated preservation of the dead. Chinchorro mummification While many cultures throughout the world have sought to focus on preserving the dead elite, the Chinchorro tradition performed mummification on all members of their society, making them archaeologically significant. The decision of egalitarian preservation is proven in the mummification of the relatively less productive members of society (meaning those who could not contribute to the welfare of others; the elderly, children, infants and miscarried fetuses). It is often the case <P> hindering relative dating techniques), mostly loose sand at the slope of the hill. Fifty-four adults were found: 27 female, 20 male and 7 of indeterminate sex; 42 children were also found: 7 female, 12 male, 23 indeterminate. This sample size suggests that the Chinchorro did not favor mummifying one sex over others.
The mummies may have served as a means of assisting the soul in surviving, and to prevent the bodies from frightening the living. A more commonly accepted theory is that there was an ancestor cult of sorts, since there is evidence of both the bodies traveling with the groups <P> and placed in positions of honor during major rituals and a delay in the final burial itself. Also, the bodies (which were always found in the extended position) were elaborately decorated and colored (even later repainted), and are thought to be reinforced and stiffened in order to be carried on reed litters and consequently displayed. However, since the society is a preceramic one, as well as slightly nomadic, it is somewhat difficult to determine through archaeological records the reasons why the Chinchorro felt the need to mummify the dead.
The representatives of the Chinchorro culture was determined by mitochondrial haplogroup A2.
Dr. |
Many times monasteries and churches were built on land which was donated to the church by a king; so it was a case of "take what you get". Also, a lot of monastic orders stressed avoidance of societal temptations in favor of a life of religious contemplation and work. Having your base of operations far from towns and cities would make this easier. | why were some chapels built far from inhabitated centres? | <P> The large monasteries had similarly large gardens with all kinds of facilities, from fountains, canals and wells. In some minor orders, the gardens had simply small chapels or oratories.
Sometimes inns were built outside the closure area. Over time and with the growing authority of the abbot, the religious houses were wont to build their own house, where the abbot might receive important guests.
Larger monasteries provided not only the means for the monks' subsistence but for a strong local economic base, with workshops, foundries, mills, potteries, wineries, and other small businesses. Heritage Despite the great vicissitudes suffered by the Spanish <P> monasteries—fire, theft, plundering, confiscations, laziness—there still remains still a considerable heritage of artistic furnishings.
The monasteries tried to move away from the heritage of austerity required of ascetics, without exhibiting any external signs of wealth. Maintaining this position was virtually impossible because of the desire of lay founders, sponsors and donors that their gifts be visible as indications of their power, generosity and position. All these monasteries developed a rich collection of art, and this display did not escape the strictest order in this regard, the Carthusian Order.
In the Renaissance and Baroque period, the great chapel altars and those of smaller <P> and the Canary Islands.
The establishment of monasteries during the Middle Ages was paramount from a social and cultural standpoint, benefiting the arts and agriculture.
The Camino de Santiago proved an important factor in locations of these monastic orders, as often an important objective was to support the pilgrims traveling along this route. Foundations Monasteries in this area were historically founded mainly by kings, bishops and nobles. There were a number of reasons individuals might found a monastery, largely self-serving ones: to reserve a burial there, which came with perpetual prayers by the monks on behalf of the founder's soul, sheltering a |
Medieval scholars were well aware of chronology, since they had to calculate calendars so that they could accurately plot out the date of moveable Christian feast days like Easter (the subject was called computus). This science allowed them to produce tables which would show the date of Easter years in advance. The development of Easter tables was the principle factor leading to the redating of time to the birth of Christ (Anno Domini, “In the Year of Our Lord’s [Incarnation]”). This was first calculated by the monk Dionysius Exiguus (Dennis the Short) in the sixth century but not widely used until popularized by Bede (died 735), a scholar in Northern England who was both an expert in computus and widely read throughout the continent for his biblical commentaries and other religious works (though known today mostly for his History of the English Church). Prior to this dating of years was usually carried out according to the year of the emperor or of the indiction cycle (a cycle of 15 years). To the question about their knowledge of the past, they had access to a number of Roman and late antique histories of Rome. Perhaps the most popular in western Europe were Rufinus’s translation of Eusebius’s History of the Church, and, covering the earlier period, Orosius’s History against the Pagans (written after the sack of Rome to counter the pagan accusation that Rome suffered calamity because of punishment for abandoning the Roman gods and accepting Christianity). This history went back to the foundation of Rome and dated events according to how many years it happened from that founding date (which I think it set at 753 BC, though Orosius was writing before the use of AD and BC). There were plenty of other histories they also read, as well as chronicles, which listed all the important events that happened year by year. Of course they also used the Bible as a source of history and took great pains to correlate the events it describes with contemporary events in Greece and Rome. You can read more in The Oxford Companion to the Year by Blackburn and Holford-Stevens and in Faith Wallis’s book on Bede: The Reckoning of Time, and also in the primary sources like Bede’s History, Orosius, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and others. | how accurate were medieval historians in terms of timeframes of the ancient world? | <P> convention established by Dionysius Exiguus and associated with the Julian calendar. The year number is variously given as AD (for Anno Domini) or CE (for Common Era or, indeed, Christian Era). Religious calendars The most important use of pre-modern calendars is keeping track of the liturgical year and the observation of religious feast days.
While the Gregorian calendar is itself historically motivated in relation to the calculation of the Easter date, it is now in worldwide secular use as the de facto standard. Alongside the use of the Gregorian calendar for secular matters, there remain a number of calendars in use <P> XIII. Drawing on ancient Greek and medieval Islamic astronomy recently introduced to western Europe via Spain, Bacon continued the work of Robert Grosseteste and criticised the then-current Julian calendar as "intolerable, horrible, and laughable".
It had become apparent that Eudoxus and Sosigenes's assumption of a year of 365¼ days was, over the course of centuries, too inexact. Bacon charged that this meant the computation of Easter had shifted forward by 9 days since the First Council of Nicaea in 325. His proposal to drop one day every 125 years and to cease the observance of fixed equinoxes and solstices was not <P> uses "Meridiani" and "Occidui" instead, as perhaps his informant had done. At the end of the work, Bede added a brief autobiographical note; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours' earlier History of the Franks.
Bede's work as a hagiographer, and his detailed attention to dating, were both useful preparations for the task of writing the Historia Ecclesiastica. His interest in computus, the science of calculating the date of Easter, was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo-Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date.
Bede is described by |
Propane is a byproduct of natural gas production and oil refinement. It is present in oil and gas, but must be separated out. If found in crude oil, it is separated during the refinement process. If it is found in natural gas, then it is separated at the wellhead into what is commonly referred to as "condensate". Condensate is made up of several components, including propane, hexane, and butane. The condensate is then refined and the individual components are separated. It's possible to have a shortage of propane just like it's possible to have a shortage of any fuel; when supply and demand are out of sync. In this case, demand spiked because of extremely cold weather, creating a shortage and increasing price. | what is the process of making propane gas and how is it possible to have a shortage of propane? | <P> Propane History Propane was discovered by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot in 1857. It was found dissolved in Pennsylvanian light crude oil by Edmund Ronalds in 1864. Walter O. Snelling of the U.S. Bureau of Mines highlighted it as a volatile component in gasoline in 1910, which was the beginning of the propane industry in the United States. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as "wild" because of the high vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, 1912, The New York Times reported on Snelling's work with liquefied gas, saying "a steel bottle will <P> pressure and is around 3.5 times as efficient as storing it as CNG. Unlike propane, if a spill occurs, CNG will evaporate and dissipate harmlessly because it is lighter than air. Propane is much more commonly used to fuel vehicles than is natural gas, because the equipment required costs less. Propane requires just 1,220 kilopascals (177 psi) of pressure to keep it liquid at 37.8 °C (100 °F). United States As of October 2013, the retail cost of propane was approximately $2.37 per gallon, or roughly $25.95 per 1 million BTUs. This means that filling a 500-gallon propane tank, which is what households that <P> a specification that establishes a maximum concentration of 5% propene in propane. Propane and other LP gas specifications are established in ASTM D-1835. All propane fuels include an odorant, almost always ethanethiol, so that people can easily smell the gas in case of a leak. Propane as HD-5 was originally intended for use as vehicle fuel. HD-5 is currently being used in all propane applications. Refrigeration Propane is also instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, as the energy source for a gas absorption refrigerator and is commonly used for camping and recreational vehicles.
In addition, blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (R-290a) (isobutane/propane |
When you want to compress a series of data (say, a sound recording) you can look for patterns in the data, and just record the patterns instead of the original measurements. DCT describes data as the sum of a series of waves (cosine functions) vibrating at different frequencies. This turns out to be a great way to describe sounds using just a small set of numbers. So it's used in audio compression. It's also used in video compression, since pictures also tend to have patterns. | discrete cosine transforms | <P> conceptual framework for digital scholarship, the World Wide Web, wikis and even social media. It was recognized as a significant work even at the time of its publication. Digital multimedia Practical digital multimedia distribution and streaming was made possible by advances in data compression, due to the impractically high memory, storage and bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media. The most important compression technique is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression algorithm that was first proposed as an image compression technique by Nasir Ahmed at the University of Texas in 1972. The DCT algorithm was the basis for the first <P> first appeared in the early 1990s. It was made possible by a major technological development, discrete cosine transform (DCT) video compression. DCT is a lossy compression technique that was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, and was later adapted into a motion-compensated DCT algorithm for video coding standards such as the H.26x formats from 1988 onwards and the MPEG formats from 1991 onwards. Motion-compensated DCT video compression significantly reduced the amount of bandwidth required for a digital TV signal. A standard-definition television (SDTV) signal requires around 200 Mbps bandwidth for uncompressed digital video, which could be compressed down to around <P> while raw digital video requires a bandwidth of 168 Mbps for SD video and over 1 Gbps for FHD video.
The most important compression technique that enabled practical streaming media is the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a form of lossy compression first proposed in 1972 by Nasir Ahmed, who then developed the algorithm with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao at the University of Texas in 1973. The DCT algorithm is the basis for the first practical video coding format, H.261, in 1988. It was initially used for online video conferencing. It was followed by more popular DCT-based video coding standards, most notably |
Not really. The minimum mass required to fuse hydrogen is about 80 times the mass of Jupiter, which is generally considered the lower bound of what a star is. For it to fuse deuterium, it has to be about 13 times the mass of Jupiter, and objects in this range are called brown dwarves. So, it's not like just a little bit more material would make Jupiter a star. | i've often heard jupiter referred to as a "failed star." is this a fair representation? how close in terms of mass was it to actually becoming a star? | <P> masses. Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star. Mass composition The majority of Jupiter's mass is hydrogen and helium. These two elements make up more than 87% of the total mass of Jupiter. The total mass of heavy elements other than hydrogen and helium in the planet is between 11 and 45 M⊕. The bulk of the hydrogen on Jupiter is solid hydrogen. Evidence suggests that Jupiter contains a central dense core. If so, the mass of the core is predicted to be no larger than about 12 M⊕. The exact mass <P> would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses.
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter. Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from <P> present, its atmosphere would collapse, and the planet would shrink. For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, but above about 500 M⊕ (1.6 Jupiter masses) the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter |
I feel like no-one has really answered your question so far, especially in regards to the Revolver part of the question. I'll try my best as a former Beatles fanatic. As you alluded to, Revolver was quite an experimental pop record, and it was the first album where the Beatles REALLY decided to use the studio as an instrument. The wild guitar solo in Taxman played the band's bassist, the backwards guitar in I'm Only Sleeping, the raga banger that is Love You To, and not to mention the psychedelic tape-looped masterpiece that is Tomorrow Never Knows. The Beatles threw brass and string instrumentation all on this thing as well, like in Eleanor Rigby and Got to Get You. Critics and Music Pundits understand the impact and importance Revolver brings forth, and many diehards will say Revolver is their favorite Beatles record. It certainly was mine for the longest time. Sgt. Pepper, however, was a different beast. In my opinion, it wasn't as musically ambitious as Revolver. However, conceptually, it changed how the artform of the album was seen. Instead of a collection of songs, it was better taken as a whole. All the songs are thematically and musically connected (The Beatles didn't exactly /intend/ this, but intention isn't important), the album art was wildly unique and fed into the album's themes. It was the first REAL album, Pet Sounds be damned (I like Pet Sounds more than any Beatles' album, so hush). This album also came out after the Beatles retired from touring, and after the double masterpiece whammy that was Strawberry Fields Forever and Penny Lane. The hype was through the roof and the Beatles trumped even that. They also won AOTY at the Grammys, which was surreal. It's a landmark of an album. Revolver is fantastic, and I like it way more than Sgt. Peppers, but it isn't a landmark. Not like Peppers. EDIT: Umm, wow I was not expecting this sort of response! I wrote this up in about 5 minutes before I ran out to hang with friends, so I know it’s quick and dirty, lacking a ton of history of what lead up to Revolver/Sgt. Pepper’s. I just wanted shine light of that period, so it would easier to do future research! I did want to answer three questions I saw: > What do you mean “former Beatlemaniac”? I was OBSESSED with the Beatles years ago. They were all I listened to for years straight, and I pretty much read every single thing possible about them. Now, I’m way more chill, ha. Still love them to pieces. > You like Pet Sounds more than any Beatles album? Really? Yep. The compositions and arrangements of Pet Sounds are transcendent, and the performances of each song are perfect. It’s a flawless album that hasn’t been touched since IMO > Zappa did it first/did it better/The Beatles suck Zappa was a prolific avant-garde/experimental musician, and unlike the Beatles, he did not make music for popular consumption per se. He did not have the production/engineering chops of the Abbey Road team, and he did not prioritize making layered pop tunes. He made weird bops. He’s a great musician and composer, but he and The Beatles couldn’t be any more different. They affected very different circles. You can believe the Beatles suck if you want tho. | why is the beatles’ sergeant peppers considered such a turning point in the history of rock and roll, especially when revolver sounds more experimental and came earlier? | <P> Beatles' creative approach in 1966 to that of modern jazz musicians, and recognises their channelling of Indian and Western classical, Southern soul, and electronic musical styles into their work as unprecedented in popular music. He says that, through the band's efforts to faithfully translate their LSD-inspired vision into music, "Revolver opened the doors to psychedelic rock (or acid rock)", while the primitive means by which it was recorded (on four-track equipment) inspired the work that artists such as Pink Floyd, Genesis, Yes and the Electric Light Orchestra were able to achieve with advances in studio technology. Turner also highlights the <P> Ryan and Kehew quote Emerick as saying: "I know for a fact that, from the day it came out, Revolver changed the way that everyone else made records." Overview Author Steve Turner writes that Revolver encapsulates not only "the spirit of the times" but the network of progressive social and cultural thinkers in which the Beatles had recently become immersed in London. The album is an early work in the psychedelic rock genre, which accompanied the emergence of counterculture ideology in the 1960s. Through its individual tracks, Revolver covers a wide range of styles, including acid rock, chamber music, R&B, <P> sessions, Lennon said that they had considered making the album a continuous flow of tracks, without gaps to differentiate between each song.
The group's willingness to experiment was also evident in their dedication to finding or inventing sounds that captured the heightened perception they experienced through hallucinogenic drugs. The album made liberal use of compression and tonal equalisation. Emerick says that the Beatles encouraged the studio staff to break from standard recording practices, adding: "It was implanted when we started Revolver that every instrument should sound unlike itself: a piano shouldn't sound like a piano, a guitar shouldn't sound like a |
In a simplified scheme of things, we could say that our memory comes in three parts. 1) Sensory Memory: 'Photographic' memory of the things we sense that persists for fleeting moments before being 'overwritten' by new information. This is why when you're not paying attention to the lecturer and they "call you out on it", you can often repeat what they had just said. You had an auditory sensory memory of the sounds that have recently struck your eardrum. 2) Working Memory. This is an expansion of our prior concepts of "short-term memory". It holds a few bits of information (often approximated to be 7 bits of information, plus or minus 2) and can access older memories to work with newer ones. This is what we use when actively cogitating. 3) Long-Term Memory. This is your essentially limitless storage facility, though it should in no way be thought of as a 'tape recorder' or other perfect recording device. This is where 'memorized' things go. So, you look at Reddit. What you see goes into your Sensory Memory. What you focus on enters your Working Memory as you read it and think about it. Now comes the tricky part--does it make it into Long-Term Memory, and thus become 'learned'? That depends. If it is a completely random fact, with no emotional or intellectual connection to you, that you don't actively try to remember, you will likely forget it. However, if you actively try to remember it (called "Rehearsal", takes place in your Working Memory), then you'll have a better likelihood of recall. The more Rehearsal, the better. If the information relates to a topic that interests you, if it strikes you as bizarre or amazing, if it effects you on an emotional level, you'll also be more likely to recall it. If you can relate it to yourself, you're more likely to recall the information (In accordance with the "Self-Reference Effect"). These special relationships that you might have with information help your brain to "Encode" the information on a 'deeper' level, forming more connections to other concepts and making recall an easier task. So, in short: it depends. It depends on the information and how it relates to you (or doesn't) and it depends on whether you put forth any effort to remember it. As far as brain development is concerned, I'm not fully sure what you're asking. If you do indeed learn any new information from your browsing (in accordance with above statements), then your brain structure does indeed change; this occurs every time we learn a new 'thing': our brains physically restructure. | what effect on our memory/knowledge does daily browsing of reddit have? how much of the information we read actually "stays" in our head? | <P> Storage (memory) Short-term memory Short-term memory is encoded in auditory, visual, spatial, and tactile forms. Short-term memory is closely related to working memory. Baddeley suggested that information stored in short-term memory continuously deteriorates, which can eventually lead to forgetting in the absence of rehearsal. George A. Miller suggested that the capacity of the short-term memory storage is about seven items plus or minus two, also known as the magic number 7, but this number has been shown to be subject to numerous variability, including the size, similarity, and other properties of the chunks. Memory span varies; it is lower <P> memory is called retrieval. This knowledge that is easily recalled is explicit knowledge, whereas most long-term memory is implicit knowledge and is not readily retrievable. Scientists speculate that the hippocampus is involved in the creation of long-term memory. It is unclear where long-term memory is stored, although there is evidence depicting long-term memory is stored in various parts of the nervous system. Long-term memory is permanent. Memory can be recalled, which, according to the dual-store memory search model, enhances the long-term memory. Forgetting may occur when the memory fails to be recalled on later occasions. Models Several memory models <P> rehearsal involves the association of old with new information. Long-term memory In contrast to the short-term memory, long-term memory refers to the ability to hold information for a prolonged time and is possibly the most complex component of the human memory system. The Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory (Atkinson 1968) suggests that the items stored in short-term memory moves to long-term memory through repeated practice and use. Long-term storage may be similar to learning—the process by which information that may be needed again is stored for recall on demand. The process of locating this information and bringing it back to working |
TLDR: No, hieratic is not an alphabetic writing system. **Egyptian hieroglyphs** Egyptian hieroglyphs can be divided into two types, phonetic signs and determinatives. Phonetic signs were used to write one consonant (uniliteral signs), two consonants (biliteral signs), or three consonants (triliteral signs). Phonetic signs could also function as logograms; the biliteral sign *pr*, for example, was used to write both the noun *pr* ("house") and the verb *pri* ("come forth/out of"). Note that Egyptians only wrote consonants; vowels were not recorded in hieroglyphs. Determinatives were signs at the end of words used for disambiguation. For an English example, adding vowels to "ct" could give you cat, cot, cut, cute, cote, acute, or various other words. If you wanted to signify "cot," you might add a drawing of a piece of furniture at the end of the word. If you meant "cat," you might add the paw print of an animal. There are many classes of determinatives (men, women, animals, furniture, pottery and vessels, earth, sky, and water symbols, etc.) used to disambiguate Egyptian words. Determinatives are quite helpful for Egyptologists because they enable them to guess the basic gist of a word even when its exact meaning is unknown (e.g. you can tell a word is the name of a type of clothing, even if its exact meaning is unclear). Hieroglyphic texts could be written right to left, left to right, or top to bottom. **Egyptian hieratic** Although hieroglyphs were very attractive when carved or painted onto stone, they were too cumbersome to use in daily life. Alongside hieroglyphs, therefore, the Egyptians developed hieratic. Hieratic signs are cursive forms of their hieroglyphic equivalents, often ligatured to allow the scribe to write quickly without lifting his brush. Originally hieratic signs were clearly recognizable from the hieroglyphic forms, and hieratic texts were written in columns. The Heqanakht letters are a good example. Hieratic signs became increasingly abbreviated over time, and during the Middle Kingdom hieratic texts switched from vertical columns to hieratic rows, as in P. Sallier II. P. Berlin 3022, which contains a copy of the Middle Kingdom *Tale of Sinuhe*, was transitional and includes both columns and rows. You can compare these examples of hieratic to the hieratic of the 20th Dynasty, which is noticeably different in style. Unlike hieroglyphic texts, hieratic texts were virtually always written right to left. You can think of hieratic as handwriting compared to typing something on a computer. In fact, it's quite common for Egyptologists to provide a hieroglyphic transcription while publishing a hieratic text. You can see the hieratic and hieroglyphic versions of a text side-by-side in this photo. Note that it's usually not too difficult to identify the hieroglyph a hieratic sign came from. Because it developed from the hieroglyphic writing system, hieratic contains all of its elements, including phonetic signs (uniliteral, biliteral, and triliteral signs) as well as determinatives. It is certainly *not* an alphabet or abjad. **From hieratic to Proto-Sinaitic** Keep in mind that the Proto-Sinaitic script borrowed **only** its signs from hieratic; the phonetic values assigned to the signs and how the signs worked are very different from Egyptian writing. The Proto-Sinaitic script used the acrophonic principle, in which a sign represents the first sound value in the word it represents. This was the innovation that marked the beginning of the development of the alphabet. For example, the Proto-Semitic word for house is *bayt-* (Akkadian *bītu-*), so the drawing of a house was used for the letter B (the "-bet" in "alphabet"). In Egyptian, however, the house hieroglyph has the biconsonantal reading *pr* (as in *pr-aA* or Pharaoh, literally "great house"). Moreover, unlike in Egyptian, there are no signs in the Proto-Sinaitic script that have biconsonantal or triconsonantal values. Each sign stands for only one consonant. **Further reading** I've assigned Andrew Robinson's *The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms* as a textbook while teaching a course on ancient writing systems. It provides a very good, very readable overview of different writing systems and the evolution of the alphabet. The British Museum's *Reading the Past: Ancient Writing From Cuneiform to the Alphabet* is a compilation of short books (~60 pages each) covering cuneiform, hieroglyphs, Linear B, the early alphabet, Greek, and Etruscan. The same series has other books on on Chinese, Maya hieroglyphs, etc. | why is the egyptian hieratic script not considered the world's first alphabet? | <P> script was developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, within which various schemes of 'group writing' had been used for showing vowels. <P> 1815, had been the first to suggest that the demotic was not alphabetic, but rather a mixture of "imitations of hieroglyphics" and "alphabetic" signs. Champollion on the other hand correctly considered the scripts to coincide almost entirely, being in essence different formal versions of the same script.
In the same year, he identified the hieroglyphic script on the Rosetta stone as being written in a mixture of ideograms and phonetic signs, just as Young had argued for Demotic. He reasoned that if the script was entirely ideographic the hieroglyphic text would require as many separate signs as there were separate words <P> script was phonetic already from the earliest available texts, which would mean that the Egyptians had developed writing independently of the other civilizations around the Mediterranean. The paper also still contained confusions regarding the relative role of ideographic and phonetic signs, still arguing that also hieratic and demotic were primarily ideographic.
Scholars have speculated that there had simply not been sufficient time between his breakthrough and collapse to fully incorporate the discovery into his thinking. But the paper presented many new phonetic readings of names of rulers, demonstrating clearly that he had made a major advance in deciphering the phonetic script. |
Nobody knows for sure, the details of the contract dispute are only known to Amazon and Hachette. The public comments both sides have made are most likely fairly biased towards their own side. However, Hachette is not some small publisher that Amazon is trampling over. They are owned by Lagardère Group, a company with 7 Billion Euros in annual revenue. As best I can determine, the root of the dispute is that Hachette wants to charge more for it's e-books. Amazon wants to charge less, generally preferring to keep e-book prices at 9.99 and under (cheaper ebooks helps Amazon sell Kindle devices and therefore more Amazon content). Hachette (and its authors) are portraying Amazon as a bully, using the size of its market to retaliate against them by not accepting pre-orders for books, etc. This may be true, but it seems like a pretty legitimate tactic. If you are in the middle of a tough negotiation with a supplier it seems reasonable to show them the consequences of not coming to mutually agreeable terms. Further, the authors themselves are the biggest victims, and under the royalty models that most publishers use the authors will lot lose/gain much due to a change in pricing. Hugh Howey, an independent author who has been very successful self-publishing with Amazon, and is generally disdainful of the traditional publishing model, has written quite a bit about it. | amazon vs hachette | <P> prices offered on their websites, rather than on the full recommended retail price (RRP).
Also in 2008, Amazon UK drew criticism in the British publishing community following their withdrawal from sale of key titles published by Hachette Livre UK. The withdrawal was possibly intended to put pressure on Hachette to provide levels of discount described by the trade as unreasonable. Curtis Brown's managing director Jonathan Lloyd opined that "publishers, authors and agents are 100% behind [Hachette]. Someone has to draw a line in the sand. Publishers have given 1% a year away to retailers, so where does it stop? Using authors <P> eliminating discounts, delaying delivery time, and refusing pre-publication orders did make physical Hachette books harder to get. Plummeting sales of Hachette books on Amazon indicated that its policies likely succeeded in deterring customers.
On August 11, 2014, Amazon removed the option to preorder Captain America: The Winter Soldier in an effort to gain control over online pricing of Disney films. Amazon has previously used similar tactics with Warner Bros. and Hachette Book Group. The conflict was resolved in late 2014 with neither having to concede anything. Then in February 2017, Amazon again began to block preorders of Disney films, just before <P> harming the livelihood of the authors on whom it has built its business. None of us, neither readers nor authors, benefit when books are taken hostage." At the heart of the dispute is Amazon's practice of discounting books so low that authors and publishers are unable to earn a profit. Author Ursula K. Le Guin commented on Amazon's practice of making Hachette books harder to buy on its site, stating "We’re talking about censorship: deliberately making a book hard or impossible to get, ‘disappearing’ an author." Although her statement was met with some outrage and disbelief, Amazon's actions such as |
In Bulgaria on 09.09.1944 there was a communist coup d'état (the USSR had declared war on Bulgaria on 05.09.1944). The goverment was overthrown and a new goverment composed of the Fatherland front was established. The Fatherland front was composed of Kimon Georgiev leader of Zveno(this is his 3rd coup d'état), BWP, BANU "Pladne", the Bulgarian Workers' Social Democratic Party (Wide Socialists). A new goverment was elected. Days after the the coup d'état the USSR would invade. Bulgaria falls under Soviet occupation until 1947. A series of People's courts were created where verdics would be handed out to "fascists". A lot of them were settling old scores and a lot of innocent people were killed. A lot of prisoners are released and are recruited into the forces of the communists. The military officers would be arrested and people would be incorporated into the army to make sure that the ideology of the army is a proper one (red). The leaders of the Fatherland Front army - NOVA would be incorporated into the army in order to prepare for the offensive against Germany. A lot of the Bulgarian officers were sentenced to years in prison. There were a total of 2730 death sentences, 1921 life, 19 for 20 years, 962 for 15 years, 727 for 10 years and 3241 shorter ones. The monarcy was removed via a referendum. The communists slowly under Georgi Dimitrov would push out the other parties out of the goverment by either assimilating them or by declaring them fascist. The only exception is BANU "Pladne" who remained during the entire regime as a second party with 0 inffluence on the goverment. The economy was reorganized to fit the new socialist/communist ideology the country (goverment) had. During 4-8 January 1949 COMECON/CMEA is created. Bulgaria becomes dependant on the USSR for its economy and takes a lot of loans from them in exchange Bulgaria is one of the USSR's most loyal allies during the period. The land, factories etc. are nationalized. And an economy based on the Soviet five-year plans is incorporated. | how did soviet occupation differ in germany, german allies, "liberated" countries, and territory annexed to the ussr, post world war 2? | <P> of 1944, after having crushed the Nazi defense around Iaşi and Chişinău, the Soviet Army was approaching the Balkans and Bulgaria. On 23 August 1944 Romania quit the Axis Powers, declared war on Germany and allowed Soviet forces to cross its territory to reach Bulgaria. On 26 August 1944 the Fatherland Front made the decision to incite an armed rebellion against the government, which led to the appointment of a new government on 2 September. Support for the government was withheld by the Fatherland Front, since it was composed of pro-Nazi elements, in a desperate attempt to hold on to <P> Kingdom and the United States near the end of 1941, an act that resulted in the bombing of Sofia and other Bulgarian cities by Allied aircraft.
Some communist activists managed to begin a guerrilla movement, headed by the underground Bulgarian Communist Party. A resistance movement called Otechestven front (Fatherland front, Bulgarian: Отечествен фронт) was set up in August 1942 by the Communist Party, the Zveno movement and a number of other parties to oppose the elected government, after a number of Allied victories indicated that the Axis might lose the War. In 1943 Tsar Boris III died suddenly. In the summer <P> power. On 5 September 1944 the Soviet Union declared war and invaded Bulgaria. On 8 September 1944 the Bulgarian army joined the Soviet Union in its war against Germany. Cold War era As the Red Army invaded Bulgaria in 1944 and installed a communist government, the armed forces were rapidly forced to reorganise following the Soviet model, and were renamed the Bulgarian People's Army (Bulgarska Narodna Armiya, BNA). Moscow quickly supplied Bulgaria with T-34-85 tanks, SU-100 guns, Il-2 attack planes and other new combat machinery. As the country was a Soviet satellite, it was a part of the Eastern Bloc |
Nanotechnology engineering graduate here. A recent [letter to the editor] () of Nature Nanotechnology says what I am going to reiterate and expand upon below. The biological effects of nanomaterials are at the moment impossible to summarize. The scope of current toxicity studies is both too narrow and too broad. Take carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for example. Before even starting a study we must ask "What kind of CNT?" (e.g. size, functionalization, dispersion medium, passivation layer). At the nano-scale, these details have an overwhelming influence on the biological properties of the material due to surface interactions. Even researchers studying the "same" material observe different biological outcomes due in part to differences in production methods and handling of the nanomaterials. There are no studies that cover all types of CNTs, and those that attempt to elucidate the effects of a few material characteristics are unable to create a clear picture since so much information is missing. Yes generalizations can be made, for example some coatings (e.g. PEG) prevent biological responses, and given a specific material it is possible to guess at the dangers of exposure. See [this] () review paper for a broad look at some of these generalizations. These are more concerns of the researcher or industrial worker exposed to the raw nanomaterial and at risk of inhalation. Consumers of finished products are at a low exposure risk since the nanomaterial is most commonly trapped in a solid matrix and most (not all) nanomaterials cannot penetrate the epidermis. But, the most pressing issue in nanotoxicology is not what researchers are doing, but that nanomaterials are controlled at the government level based on their bulk properties. Silver nanoparticles are categorized under bulk silver though their properties are very different. Look at your sunscreen bottle. It says titanium dioxide (TiO2) because the manufacturer is not required by law to state that it contains TiO2 *nanoparticles*. Consumers should not be worried about nanomaterials in medicine since these products undergo rigorous testing; however, cosmetics are uncontrolled and inexpensive to test and so are the most common use of nanomaterials today. If you look at the safety sheet for TiO2 nanoparticles it is very different depending on which company you buy it from because theoretically each company should conduct toxicity studies on their product, but they are not required to do so and so the information is listed as "no data available". As consumers we should be worried that the hazards are unknown, that the materials are in use long before toxicity studies are performed or their results even agreed upon by experts in the field, and that governments worldwide are only now making substantial efforts to regulate nanomaterials as separate from bulk materials. That being said, do not be afraid of nanotechnology. Most of the hazards you hear or read about in news sources, Wikipedia, yes definitely Reddit, etc., is misleading or just plain wrong. Read the articles yourself and even then be skeptical about the results and conclusions drawn by the authors. Those CNT-like-asbestos inhalation studies are not even relevant for human exposure risks. Most nanomaterial studies are not directly relevant unless you plan on injecting nanomaterials directly into your gut. **TLDR We cannot generalize yet. Nanomaterials have health risks just like other chemicals. Consumer products are mostly okay but be careful with cosmetics, they are not controlled. Also, for the love of all fish please don't wear socks with silver in them, it washes out.** | what are the potential dangers of nanomaterials? | <P> cytokines and other biomarkers for interstitial lung disease. Toxicity The toxicity of carbon nanotubes has been an important question in nanotechnology. As of 2007, such research had just begun. The data is still fragmentary and subject to criticism. Preliminary results highlight the difficulties in evaluating the toxicity of this heterogeneous material. Parameters such as structure, size distribution, surface area, surface chemistry, surface charge, and agglomeration state as well as purity of the samples, have considerable impact on the reactivity of carbon nanotubes. However, available data clearly show that, under some conditions, nanotubes can cross membrane barriers, which suggests that, if <P> and great caution before introducing such products into the market if long-term harm is to be avoided.
Although further research is required, the available data suggest that under certain conditions, especially those involving chronic exposure, carbon nanotubes can pose a serious risk to human health. Exposure Characterization Exposure scenarios are important to consider when trying to determine toxicity and the risks associated with these diverse and difficult to study materials. Exposure studies have been conducted over the past several years in an effort to determine where and how likely exposures will be. Since CNTs are being incorporated into composite materials <P> health effects, as well as applying what is already known about exposures to other fibrous materials such as asbestos or fine and ultra-fine particulates. This limitation of human data has led to the use of the precautionary principle, which urges workplaces to limit exposure levels to CNT as low as possibly achievable in the absence of known health effects data.
Epidemiology studies of nanomaterials thus far have considered a variety of nanomaterials. Few have been specific to CNTs and each has considered a small sample size. These studies have found some relationships between biological markers and MWCNT exposure. One |
First of all, it's not just Dell buying EMC, it's a consortium including MSD Partners (Michael Dell and others), Silver Lake (a private equity firm), and a Singapore-owned investment company. Oversimplified, they are buying EMC the same way you'd buy a house that is a multiple of your net worth: via borrowing (debt issuance). In fact, they're buying EMC with a combination of cash, from the various participants and borrowing, and a stock issued to track the performance of an EMC subsidiary, VMware. | how can dell buy ems when ems is quoted at being worth twice as much as dell? | <P> from its stake in VMware.
In November 2018, Carl Icahn (9.3% owner of Dell) sued the company over plans to go public. Acquisition of EMC On October 12, 2015, Dell announced its intent to acquire the enterprise software and storage company EMC Corporation. At $67 billion, it has been labeled the "highest-valued tech acquisition in history".
The announcement came two years after Dell Inc. returned to private ownership, claiming that it faced bleak prospects and would need several years out of the public eye to rebuild its business. It's thought that the company's value has roughly doubled since then. EMC was being <P> owns around 80 percent of the stock of VMware. The proposed acquisition will maintain VMware as a separate company, held via a new tracking stock, while the other parts of EMC will be rolled into Dell. Once the acquisition closes Dell will again publish quarterly financial results, having ceased these on going private in 2013.
The combined business was expected to address the markets for scale-out architecture, converged infrastructure and private cloud computing, playing to the strengths of both EMC and Dell. Commentators have questioned the deal, with FBR Capital Markets saying that though it makes a "ton of sense" for <P> pressured by Elliott Management, a hedge fund holding 2.2% of EMC's stock, to reorganize their unusual "Federation" structure, in which EMC's divisions were effectively being run as independent companies. Elliott argued this structure deeply undervalued EMC's core "EMC II" data storage business, and that increasing competition between EMC II and VMware products was confusing the market and hindering both companies. The Wall Street Journal estimated that in 2014 Dell had revenue of $27.3 billion from personal computers and $8.9bn from servers, while EMC had $16.5bn from EMC II, $1bn from RSA Security, $6bn from VMware, and $230 million from Pivotal Software. EMC |
Here's the list of all numbered minor planets from the IAU's Minor Planet Center. That includes both asteroids as well as Kuiper Belt Objects (pay special attention to #134340.) For named bodies, here's an alphabetical list. | where can i find a comprehensive list of all asteroids ever identified and catalogued? | <P> Meanings of minor planet names: 330001–331000 As minor planet discoveries are confirmed, they are given a permanent number by the IAU's Minor Planet Center (MPC), and the discoverers can then submit names for them, following the IAU's naming conventions. The list below concerns those minor planets in the specified number-range that have received names, and explains the meanings of those names.
Official naming citations of newly named small Solar System bodies are published in MPC's Minor Planet Circulars several times a year. Recent citations can also be found on the JPL Small-Body Database (SBDB). Until his death in 2016, German astronomer <P> Meanings of minor planet names: 352001–353000 As minor planet discoveries are confirmed, they are given a permanent number by the IAU's Minor Planet Center (MPC), and the discoverers can then submit names for them, following the IAU's naming conventions. The list below concerns those minor planets in the specified number-range that have received names, and explains the meanings of those names.
Official naming citations of newly named small Solar System bodies are published in MPC's Minor Planet Circulars several times a year. Recent citations can also be found on the JPL Small-Body Database (SBDB). Until his death in 2016, German astronomer <P> Meanings of minor planet names: 117001–118000 As minor planet discoveries are confirmed, they are given a permanent number by the IAU's Minor Planet Center (MPC), and the discoverers can then submit names for them, following the IAU's naming conventions. The list below concerns those minor planets in the specified number-range that have received names, and explains the meanings of those names.
Official naming citations of newly named small Solar System bodies are published in MPC's Minor Planet Circulars several times a year. Recent citations can also be found on the JPL Small-Body Database (SBDB). Until his death in 2016, German astronomer |
Liquid crystal displays— passing electricity can orient crystals in ways that let them pass light. When electricity isn’t applied, the crystals “relax” to a random state, blurring light as it passes. Other designs would have them totally shut out light. It’s VERY similar to how phone or computer screens work. Except for one particular type of screen (OLED), light isn’t produced as needed, where needed, in the colors needed. Instead light shines from the back of the screen, and LCD technology is used to block some colors and allow others through to create the right color/brightness when where it’s needed. The windows are (hopefully) cheaper than computer screens because they uniformly apply power to change the color/transparency of the whole window, rather than needing to control each pixel individually. | how those transparency changing windows work. | <P> employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or LEC, which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch each individual pixel on or off, but allow for higher resolution and larger display sizes.
An OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an OLED screen can achieve a <P> these have entered widespread production. OLED An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs.
There are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those <P> steps, resulting in savings on production costs. Additionally it has been claimed that Blue Phase panels would reduce the sensitivity of the liquid crystal layer to mechanical pressure which could impair the lateral uniformity of display (e.g. luminance, chromaticity).
In a blue phase based LC-display for TV applications it is not the selective reflection of light according to the lattice pitch (Bragg reflection) that is used for display of visual information, but an external electric field induces a birefringence in the liquid crystal via the Kerr effect. That field induced birefringence becomes apparent as a change of transmission when the |
Gravity. Beaches are uphill from the water. The wind pushes the wave hard enough for it to temporarily move uphill but water is heavy so it quickly flows back downhill. | i know the wind off the ocean pushes the water and makes waves on the beach, but when the wave comes in, what makes it go back out? | <P> there are a regularly spaced series of peaks and troughs along the length on the incoming wave that are caused by its interaction with the standing edge waves and it is these that caused the development of beach cusps.
In areas where the wave height has been increased, the wave now has more power and so can erode more and in areas where the wave height has been decreased, the wave now has less power and so will not erode as much. This is what forms the cusps as the areas with high erosion become the embayments of the cusp <P> of net erosion and deposition within a well-formed cusp. As the wave strikes the beach, it will first come into contact with the cusp horns, which will slow the water down. This causes it to lose energy and some of the heavier sediment that it is carrying will be deposited. The loss of this sediment, however, gives the water extra energy, and it uses this to remove sediment from the embayment on the backwash.
The problem with this theory is that this method of cusp formation would take time and if you were observing their formation, then you would see <P> Beach cusps Formation There are a number of theories as to why beach cusps are formed but currently, there are only two explanations with any real credibility. Standing edge wave theory The standing edge wave theory is based on an interaction, near the shoreline, between the waves that are approaching the shore and waves that have been set up perpendicular to the shoreline called 'edge waves'. The regular arrival of incoming waves in the near shore waters causes the development of waves perpendicular to the direction of the incoming waves; these are termed 'edge waves'. These edge waves become trapped |
Have you ever made one mistake, found yourself in a bad situation, and instead of admitting you were wrong and undoing the first mistake, making a second, then a third, then a forth? The objective of the Venezuelan government was to help people. The country was awash in oil revenues, and so they decided to cap the cost of goods so that the poor could receive them for that low, low, price. The government made up the price difference with oil revenue. Basically you can sell a chicken (that costs a dollar) in a supermarket for a penny if the farmer gets a penny from the grocery store, and 99 cents from the government. When you do this however you cause three bad results. First you are creating the ability for people to live beyond their means. Why eat rice and beans if you can eat chicken and steak for the same price? Why eat leftovers if you can just buy fresh food each day? When you artificially lower the price for something demand for it goes up and you use more of it. Second if I can buy a chicken for a penny in Venezuela and sell it for a dollar in columbia there are going to be people who do just that, buying as many chickens as they can at the subsidized price and shipping them out of the country for a profit. And third, people are going to change how they live to fit their new budgets. If my grocery bill is normally 400 a month and suddenly it is $2.00 a month i have 398 dollars to spend on other things, so maybe I buy a new cell phone, gym memberships etc. On paper this looks like good economic growth but in reality suddenly a lot of people (Cell phone companies, gym's, and average people) NEED the subsidies to stay in place, and if they are withdrawn there would be a painful/messy reorganization. Now imagine this has gone on for years. You have gotten nothing but praise. The people love you, the media loves you, you have spent years telling yourself again and again how good what you are doing is for the people. And the people have gotten used to these low prices. People have gotten used to the extra money in their pocket. But now the... problems... with the system are starting to become clear to the government. They are seizing thousands of chickens every day at the border and know hundreds of thousands are probably getting through. The budget is very tight, even with the oil revenue we are spending more than we bring in. And then oil prices start to fall... How can we possibly admit that a system that seemed to work for years had been doomed from the begining? How can you admit the last years were all a lie? How can we admit that if we had just thought about things in advance this wouldn't be happening? How can we admit that people are going to have to give up their cell phones, their cars, all the benefits that we brought them for years because we were dumb? How can we tell thousands of people who have jobs selling cell phones and such that they are out of work? How could you have been so wrong when everything was going so right? Especially when we have another option... We blame the people exporting the goods. They were assholes to begin with. They knew the prices were lowered here to help the poor and they decided to profit from it. So we blame them. We start targeting "hoarders" we start rationing supplies so the smugglers can't buy thousands of chickens. Sure people are getting hungry... and here is the real evil of socialism... but our intent was to help them and once the current crisis is over it will all be worth it. And as oil falls further we just double down again and again. People are starving on the streets but still we believe our political and economic philosophy is the right one, for the people's own good, and so we let them die today to save them later. | why would the government of venezuela implement price ceilings on food if it results in shortages? | <P> huge real exchange rate and other relative price misalignments, to maintain expensive fuel subsidies while monetizing a double-digit budget deficit, and to persecute the private sector for responding to relative price signals all contributed to making Venezuelans’ lives miserable under Maduro.”
He has also said that “abundant evidence of serious human rights abuses during [2014] protests…merit an international investigation to determine the potential complicity of high-ranking members of government.”
At the same time, Rodríguez is critical of economic sanctions on Venezuela, which he argues have not forced Maduro out but have contributed to deepening Venezuela's economic crisis. In a 2018 article, he <P> several assessments of Chávez-era social end economic policies in academic journals, including "Freed from Illiteracy? A Closer Look at Venezuela´s Misión Robinson Literacy Campaign" and "The price of political opposition: Evidence from Venezuela's Maisanta". Policy contributions Rodríguez is a fierce critic of Maduro's economic policies and human rights violations. He has written that the government's “gross mismanagement” of the economy is the primary cause of the deep economic contraction:
“In my view, it is a settled case that Venezuelans are much worse off today than they would have been under saner economic policies. The government’s decisions not to correct the <P> oil revenues. But when oil revenues started to go up, the Finance Ministry ignored the provision ... When my office pointed out this inconsistency, the Finance Ministry came up with [a] creative accounting gimmick ... [whose] effect was to direct resources away from the poor even as oil profits were surging.
— Francisco Rodríguez, An Empty Revolution: The Unfulfilled Promises of Hugo Chávez, Foreign Affairs March/April 2008.
DePaul University and the Financial Times have hosted discussions focused on the debate over Chávez's economic policies between Mark Weisbrot and Rodríguez. UNDP (2008-2011) In 2008, Rodríguez became the Head of Research of the United |
Oh man 1 i can actually answer for once!! So basically back in the 30s and 40s the Film Industry had a full monopoly and control over the whole visual entertainment, Since Television was not out till 1949. It was pretty normal for people to go out and see 5 to 7 movies a week at the time, so the Industry being a business first they found out that people liked certain genres more than others, this being Western, Musical, and Noir. Which such high demand for these films, the Industry would pump out hundreds of films a year for each genre. Now this did have draw backs at the time, since the Film Industry wanted to maximize profits, they didn't allow for director and writers to branch out and try new things in the business. Their ideals were make " safe non offensive movies that everyone can recognize and want to see", and since they controlled all aspects of the industry, the actors, writers, studios, directors, and even the cinema's and promotion were all employed by the industry majors. This business model basically killed off film as an art form and a form of expression for a few years, until Television hit the scene in the early 50s, suddenly cinemas lost a lot of profits fast, and with the nature of competition in a business, The film Industry had to now adapt since now their average 5 - 7 views per persons a week is no longer a thing. They let go of their tight grip on director, actors, and writers, anything to get people back on those seats. More R rated films came out and other genres like Sci-fy blew up. At the same time they started trying out gimmick like 3D glasses. Basically you can thank Television for saving film as an art form. EDIT: The information I got for this post was given to me by my online college Library. This video has all the information I stated above in full detail and more. Not sure if it is Log in gated to non students. But here is the direct link to their site seems to be a pay wall | why were many early movies westerns and why were other genres relatively slow to develop? | <P> New Hollywood Background Following the Paramount Case (which ended block booking and ownership of theater chains by film studios) and the advent of television, both of which severely weakened the traditional studio system, Hollywood studios initially used spectacle to retain profitability. Technicolor developed a far more widespread use, while widescreen processes and technical improvements, such as CinemaScope, stereo sound and others, such as 3-D, were invented in order to retain the dwindling audience and compete with television. However, these were generally unsuccessful in increasing profits. By 1957 Life magazine called the 1950s "the horrible decade" for Hollywood.
The 1950s and early <P> the mostly comedic approach of the thirties - aimed to show the sins of the past, and how they would change under the new socialist rule.
By 1950, the film industry was under total government control, plans for new movies were only issued by central command (with themes like "socialist conversion of the agriculture", or "exposing enemy sabotage". Scripts were written in several steps to ensure the enduring presence political messages. The films were issued to be directed by industry veterans who started their career in the 1930-40s, like Frigyes Bán or Márton Keleti, even while they were politically not to <P> (1935).
The proliferation of television in the early 1950s contributed to a heavy mid-century push for color within the film industry. In 1947, only 12 percent of American films were made in color. By 1954, that number had risen to over 50 percent. The color boom was aided by the breakup of Technicolor's near-monopoly on the medium. The last stand of black-and-white films made by or released through the major Hollywood studios came in the mid-1960s, after which the use of color film for all productions was effectively mandatory and exceptions were only rarely and grudgingly made. Sound era Initially, there |
The other comments about religious backlash towards evolution are accurate, but I mean Darwin did eventually become an agnostic, in large part *because* of his research that led to the theory of evolution. | charles darwin was an anglican, spent a lot of time studying theology, and in no way were his works an attack on the church. now days he is viewed as a symbol for atheism. why? | <P> Darwin had not excluded the work of the Creator as a primary cause.
Most churchmen, however, took a far more prosaic attitude. In the early period, it must have appeared far from clear that Darwin's theory of natural selection would come to be hegemonic among scientists, as refutations and alternate systems were still being proposed and debated. Then, when evolution became widely accepted, most churchmen were far less concerned with refuting it than they were with establishing schemes whereby Darwinism could be reconciled with Christianity. This was true even among prominent Old Schoolers at Princeton Theological Seminary such as Charles Hodge's <P> centuries. Merton explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science. Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to study God's influence on the world and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research. Evolution Since the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859, the position of the Catholic Church on the theory of evolution has slowly been refined. For about 100 years, there was no authoritative pronouncement on the subject, though many hostile comments were <P> by lay elder John Foster Dulles. Background: Darwinism and Christianity A giant of Old School Presbyterianism at Princeton, Charles Hodge, was one of the few Presbyterian controversialists to turn their guns on Darwinism prior to World War I. Hodge published his What is Darwinism? in 1874, three years after The Descent of Man was published, and argued that if Charles Darwin's theory excluded the design argument, it was effectively atheism and could not be reconciled with biblical Christianity.
Asa Gray responded that Christianity was compatible with Darwin's science. Both he and many other Christians accepted various forms of theistic evolution, and |
So I assume you're asking if bilinguals' two languages are represented in distinct areas of the brain, and if bilingualism is associated with different brain areas that are active when switching from one language to another? Hernandez et al (2000) studied this with a single-language and dual-language picture naming taskusing behavioral measures and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Participants showed slower reaction times and increased activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the mixed language condition relative to single language condition. There was no evidence that each language was represented in different areas of the brain. AKA language switching is a part of a general executive attentional system and languages are represented in overlapping areas of the brain. Furthermore, research (e.g. Wang et al, 2007) indicates that there are indeed neural correlates specifically associated with language switching, but that this seems to be direction dependent. Language switching elicits greater activation in the right superior prefrontal cortex, left middle and superior frontal cortex, and right middle cingulum and caudate. When the direction of switching is considered, forward switching (from native to secondary), but not backward switching (from secondary to native), activates several brain regions related to executive functions (i.e., bilateral frontal cortices and left ACC) relative to non-switching conditions. However we obviously can't garner what element of the switch is specifically responsible for this activation from this study in particular. TL;DR Yup. Language switching associated with executive function, neural correlates of each language are associated with overlapping areas of the brain and are switch-direction dependent. | can we see the changes in the brain when the language being spoken changes? | <P> of separate languages in the bilingual brain. That is to say, the cerebral regions that are engaged for both languages are the same. Although neurologists have a basic understanding of the underlying neural components and mechanisms of bilingual language, further research is necessary in order to fully understand or conclude any other findings.
Neuroimaging techniques such as fMRIs have shown that at least four brain areas are involved in bilingual switching: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and supramarginal gyrus. It is expected that switching from one language to another should involve different functional processes when compared to <P> Biological basis of bilingual memories One of the processes involved in analyzing which neural regions of the brain are involved in bilingual memory is a subtraction method. Researchers compare what has been impaired with what is functioning regularly. This contrast between the destroyed and intact regions of the brain aids researchers in discovering the components of language processing. It has been found that under typical circumstances, when multiple languages are lost at the same time, they are usually regained in the same fashion. It is therefore presumed that areas of the brain, which are responsible for processing language, are potentially <P> Bilingual memory Bilingualism is the regular use of two fluent languages, and bilinguals are those individuals who need and use two (or more) languages in their everyday lives. A person's bilingual memories are heavily dependent on the person's fluency, the age the second language was acquired, and high language proficiency to both languages. High proficiency provides mental flexibility across all domains of thought and forces them to adopt strategies that accelerate cognitive development. People who are bilingual integrate and organize the information of two languages, which creates advantages in terms of many cognitive abilities, such as intelligence, creativity, analogical reasoning, |
First, I think you're connecting two things that aren't connected. Going green, that is using more renewable energy sources, is not connected to the security of the electrical grid. Second, hardening the electrical grid against a cyberattack is an ongoing process. Most electric companies are private organizations but they work with various government agencies to coordinate a defense and restoration plan in case of a cyberattack. The exact details of what they're doing are understandably secret but they involve things like keeping control systems isolated from publicly accessible networks and providing manual overrides in case the automated systems are compromised. You can read more in this government report if you're interested. | for years nsa has raised concerns about the us power grid being hacked. what can the us do to protect the power grid? going green is critical for all, if nations are unable to protect their power grids, will that slow going green? | <P> Electric grid security Electric grid security refers to the activities that utilities, regulators, and other stakeholders play in securing the national electricity grid. The American electrical grid is going through one of the largest changes in its history, which is the move to smart grid technology. The smart grid allows energy customers and energy providers to more efficiently manage and generate electricity. Similar to other new technologies, the smart grid also introduces new concerns about security.
Utility owners and operators (whether investor-owned, municipal, or cooperative) typically are responsible for implementing system improvements with regards to cybersecurity. Executives in the utilities industry <P> is a highly connected system. The ongoing modernization of the grid is generally referred to as the "smart grid". Reliability and efficiency are two key drivers of the development of the smart grid. Another example is the ability for the electrical system to incorporate renewable energy sources such as wind power and geothermal power. One of the key issues for electric grid security is that these ongoing improvements and modernizations have created more risk to the system. As an example, one risk specifically comes from the integration of digital communications and computer infrastructure with the existing physical infrastructure of the <P> are beginning to recognize the business impact of cybersecurity.
The electric utility industry in the U.S. leads a number of initiatives to help protect the national electric grid from threats. The industry partners with the federal government, particularly the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the North American Electric Reliability Corporation, and federal intelligence and law enforcement agencies.
Electric grids can be targets of military or terrorist activity. When American military leaders created their first air war plan against the Axis in 1941, Germany's electric grid was at the top of the target list. Issue overview The North American electrical power grid |
It's important to note at the beginning that the "3/5ths compromise" came up in a debate about voting. The Slave states wanted slaves to count as whole "people" for the purposes of voting. This would mean they'd have more representatives and have more influence in presidential elections, because they'd be counting the slaves, who wouldn't be able to vote but would still "count." The non-slave states didn't want slaves to count at all. That's why three fifths was arbitrary. It wasn't mean to capture the role of the slaves in society or how much they counted for in law. It was the amount that the non-slave states could live with and the slave states could accept when it came to political representation. | why were black people considered 3/5 of a person? obviously they didn't want blacks to be a "full person". but 3/5 just sounds like such an random number. | <P> to a compromise that counted slaves as three-fifths of a person.
The three fifths clause is perhaps the most misunderstood provision of the U.S. constitution because the clause provides that the representation in Congress will be based on "the whole Number of free Persons" and "the three fifths of all other persons". The other persons were slaves. This provision declared that the slave states would get extra representation in congress for their slaves, even though those states treated slaves purely as property. The provision was not directly about race, but about status and allocation of political power. Free African American people <P> were counted exactly the same way as whites. The clause provided a mathematical formula that allowed for the allocation of representatives in Congress that factored in the slave population. No slaves could vote in the country, and the clause did not even provide a voice for slaves. This was about the distribution of political power among the states Three-Fifths Compromise The three-fifths compromise was proposed by James Wilson in 1789 in order to gain Southern support for the new framework of government by guaranteeing that the South would be strongly represented in the House of Representatives. Naturally, it was more <P> slaves in relation to taxation and representation. This federalist paper states that slaves are property as well as people, therefore requiring some representation. This representation is decided to be every three out of five slaves are to be counted, or 3/5 of the total number of slaves.
They decided to use population as a determinant of votes in the House of Representatives, but the three fifths compromise that had taken place a year earlier before this paper was the event that sparked controversy between states, men, and political parties. James Madison, Hamilton's major collaborator, later President of the United States and |
There were actually people in the Americas before Europeans came over the atlantic and evidence suggests that they came over the Bering Straight land bridge from russia to alaska when the sea was lower due to half the world being covered in glaciers. | why wasn't the world settled west to east? | <P> History of North America The beginning of North America The specifics of Paleo-Indians' migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. For years, the traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, <P> and Aleut (as well as various Paleo-Siberian groups) are believed by archaeologists to have their origin in eastern Siberia, arriving in the Bering Sea area about 10,000 years ago. Research on blood types, confirmed by later linguistic and DNA findings, suggests that the ancestors of American Indians reached North America before the ancestors of the Eskimo and Aleut. There appear to have been several waves of migration from Siberia to the Americas by way of the Bering land bridge, which became exposed between 20,000 and 8,000 years ago during periods of glaciation. By about 3,000 years ago, the progenitors of <P> either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.
Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago. This time range is a hot source of debate and promises to continue as such for years to come. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial |
Boorstin! Loved that book. James Burke (and others) tied the invention and widespread availability of clocks with work. There's a fun episode of *Connections* based around clocks. Some of the first clocks in Europe were used by monks who needed to keep track of times to pray. He rebuilds a water clock in that one based on a fragmentary 11th century manuscript found in a monastery in the Pyrenees. (It's around 16 minutes into that video.) It's designed to wake you up for nocturns, the prayers said in the middle of the night. Having a tool to wake you up means you don't have to wait for the sun any more. You don't have to (or, more darkly, aren't *able* to) sleep according to your body's needs. You can get up and do things. --- By the way, those monastic alarm clocks were only about as old as Su Song's clock tower, which was a bit more impressive as a construction - it was 40 feet tall and built of bronze between 1088 and 1094 CE. Unfortunately, it was disassembled by an invading army about a century later and carted off to Beijing, where no one could figure out how to put it back together again. Only recently, in the 1990s, were some folks able to follow Su Song's book on clocks, figure out the stuff he didn't include (to keep folks from copying his ideas) and rebuild the clock at Taiwan's National Museum of Natural Science. Song based his design on earlier Chinese water clock designs, one of which used mercury (which wouldn't freeze in winter). | how did the invention of reliable clocks change human life and culture? | <P> for at least two centuries". Giovanni de Dondi was another early mechanical clockmaker whose clock did not survive, but his work has been replicated based on the designs. De Dondi's clock was a seven-faced construction with 107 moving parts, showing the positions of the Sun, Moon, and five planets, as well as religious feast days. Around this period, mechanical clocks were introduced into abbeys and monasteries to mark important events and times, gradually replacing water clocks which had served the same purpose.
During the Middle Ages, clocks primarily served religious purposes; the first employed for secular timekeeping emerged around the 15th century. <P> water wheel. Early mechanical clocks and watches The earliest medieval European clockmakers were Catholic monks. Medieval religious institutions required clocks because they regulated daily prayer- and work-schedules strictly, using various types of time-telling and recording devices, such as water clocks, sundials and marked candles, probably in combination. When mechanical clocks came into use, they were often wound at least twice a day to ensure accuracy. Monasteries broadcast important times and durations with bells, rung either by hand or by a mechanical device, such as by a falling weight or by rotating beater.
Although the mortuary inscription of Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, <P> bell, and are derived from the Medieval Latin clocca, also meaning bell. Indeed, bells were used to mark the passage of time; they marked the passage of the hours at sea and in abbeys.
Throughout history, clocks have had a variety of power sources, including gravity, springs, and electricity. Mechanical clocks became widespread in the 14th century, when they were used in medieval monasteries to keep the regulated schedule of prayers. The clock continued to be improved, with the first pendulum clock being designed and built in the 17th century. Candle clocks The earliest mention of candle clocks comes from a |
It will depend on the religion and/or the denomination. As generically as possible: A **priest** is any person ordained by the religious authority to perform religious services. For example, all male members of the Catholic religious hierarchy are priests, whether they are "simple" priests or bishops or popes or what have you. In the following explanations I'm using the term "priest" generically, not in its more common technically Catholic sense. (One could also use the term "cleric" instead of "priest.") **Pastors** are typically low-rung priests, especially among Protestant denominations. A "pastor" is a "shepherd" of a congregation "flock." Pastors are usually priests of smallish congregations. **Ministers** are also basically pastors, though among some Protestant denominations they can also be priests over larger communities. The term "minister" refers to the idea that this priest manages the religious affairs of congregation similar to the way a political minister manages the political affairs of his or her division/ministry. **Vicars** are essentially ministers as well, and are found especially within Catholicism. "Vicar" comes from the word that gives us "vice-" as in "vice-admiral" or "vice president." So, someone who is in a high position of authority but not at the top. The Catholic Pope is the "vicar of Christ" - he's Jesus' deputy. Bishops are frequently associated with vicars who are priests slightly lower in the hierarchy than themselves. A **bishop** is a priest who has authority over multiple congregations, and usually authority over multiple priests (pastors, ministers, etc.). Bishops are found in some but not all Protestant denominations, and are typically associated with Catholicism. The term "bishop" is a rough translation of the Greek word "episkopos" which means "overseer." So, a bishop is an overseer of other priests/congregations. Sometimes but not always a bishop will have his or her own congregation. Episcopalians (that is, U.S.-based Anglicans - Church of England - and note how the name comes from the same Greek word) use bishops as their main authority title. Within Catholicism, bishops are the heads of a "diocese." An **archbishop** is an overseer of overseers, and is found primarily in Catholicism as the head of an "archdiocese." Another related term that you didn't mention is **presbyter**. This comes from the Greek "presbuteros" and means "elder." Some Protestant denominations (e.g., Presbyterians) have presbyters in bishop-like positions of authority. Catholic priests are technically presbyters, but this is not a common usage among most English-speaking Catholics. There are also **deacons**, who are typically lay religious authorities. What this means is that they're not ordained (they're not priests), but they still carry some responsibilities involved in running day-to-day operations within a church congregation. A **reverend** is a priest along the same lines as the pastor and the minister. Typically "reverend" is used as a naming title rather than as an actual title, so we have, for example, "Reverend Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr." - who was an ordained minister, and had a religious doctorate (I believe a Th.D. but I'm not certain). A **monk** is, within Catholicism (and some Protestant denominations, such as the Lutherans), a person (typically male, sometimes a priest) who does not have a congregation and is *typically* separated from general society within a monastery. Catholic monks are known as "brothers." Historically, not all monks have been priests; I believe most are actually not ordained, and within Catholicism are not authorized to give communion for precisely that reason. **Nuns** are the female equivalent (and are definitely *not* priests within Catholicism because Catholic women cannot be ordained); they are called "sisters." Catholic monks are not strictly speaking "ordained" but they are also not "lay" members of the religion. A **preacher** is someone whose priestly duties are understood primarily to be preaching-related (speaking in front of the congregation). "Preacher" is a term preferred by a lot of small, hierarchy-lite traditions/denominations as a way of distancing themselves from other terms that, to them, seem to be prideful. This is not, however, the exclusive use of the word. In all of this, though, bear in mind that each denomination is going to have its own quirks about nomenclature. And that these terms are *generally* not found outside of Christianity. So, for example, the primary term for a priest within Judaism is "rabbi", and within Islam a priest is an "imam." These are terms that are *roughly* equivalent to pastor/minister within a Christian context, although they have different responsibilities and their positions within the overall hierarchy of the religious tradition may be different. This has been a broad overview and I am aware that some specific details are fudged for the sake of simplicity. Others are welcome to "correct" my explanation but bear in mind that this is eli5, not askscience. | the difference between priest, pastor, vicar, minister, bishop etc. | <P> Clergy Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the terms used for individual clergy are clergyman, clergywoman, and churchman. Less common terms are churchwoman and clergyperson, while cleric and clerk in holy orders both have a long history but are rarely used.
In Christianity, the specific names and roles of the clergy vary by denomination and there is a wide range of formal and informal clergy positions, including deacons, elders, priests, bishops, preachers, <P> for instance, is almost without exception a cleric, but a cardinal is not a type of cleric. An archbishop is not a distinct type of cleric, but is simply a bishop who occupies a particular position with special authority. Conversely, a youth minister at a parish may or may not be a cleric. Different churches have different systems of clergy, though churches with similar polity have similar systems. Anglicanism In Anglicanism, clergy consist of the orders of deacons, priests (presbyters) and bishops in ascending order of seniority. Canon, archdeacon, archbishop and the like are specific positions within these orders. Bishops <P> in particular, i.e., for clergy performing ritual within the sphere of the sacred or numinous communicating with the gods on behalf of the community. Christianity In general, Christian clergy are ordained; that is, they are set apart for specific ministry in religious rites. Others who have definite roles in worship but who are not ordained (e.g. laypeople acting as acolytes) are generally not considered clergy, even though they may require some sort of official approval to exercise these ministries.
Types of clerics are distinguished from offices, even when the latter are commonly or exclusively occupied by clerics. A Roman Catholic cardinal, |
Ever played keep away? The person in the middle is wildly chasing the person that has the object, as the chaser get close the person throws the object to another. So the chaser has to go running towards the second person, and so on. Same thing with these scam artists, the money is quickly routed through various international banks all over the world. Sometimes in countries where the local cops have been bribed not to look, or are too poorly trained and under staffed to bother with a crime that happened abroad. Within a few hours or days of the con artists getting the money, it's been withdrawn and laundered. Think of a very simple example, I'm a friend of a friend who is crashing at your house after a crazy party. I'm someone your friend barely knows, and only recently met. While you're sleeping, I steal a $100 bill from your wallet. By some luck, you know that bill's serial number. In the morning, I leave early, go to a local shop, and change the $100 for 5x$20. Even if you manage to trace the $100 it's now been split up as $20s which will be harder to trace. Even if you manage to trace those $20s, I've gone somewhere else, bought something with the $20, or maybe bought prepaid gift cards with them. Add in, maybe I gave some of that money to another person. By the time you catch up with me, proving that I took your $100 will be difficult, and I probably don't even have the money anymore anyways. Same with these con artists, the person on the phone is "just an employee" of a larger criminal syndicate. | why can't the police or banks trace the money, when people are scammed through irs or over the phone? | <P> to transfer and launder funds. Law enforcement investigations have exposed that such schemes operating not only in multiple countries in North America, Europe, and Africa, but in other countries and jurisdictions as diverse as Brazil, Costa Rica, Hong Kong, India, Israel, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates.
Many of the frauds perpetrated online, work on the principle of large number of victims losing relatively small sums of money. The Office for Fair Trading (2006) research illustrates that in many of the frauds relatively small sums of money are lost – frequently less than £100. The tactic of the <P> victim fraudulent negotiables, assuring them that they get to keep part of the funds. They will expect the victim to send the remainder to various parties that they specify, under the guise that they are legitimate business contacts. This is a money laundering scheme, as the victim becomes a pawn in the filtering process. The process continues until the victim catches on, or even gets caught.
Another form of the scam is the "Representative/Collection Agent" variation wherein the scammer advertises, usually on legitimate online job sites, available positions for "Representative or Collection Agent" for a company abroad. As the representative, <P> the victim, once they become aware of the scam, can successfully retrieve their money and alert officials who can track the accounts used by the scammer.
Wire transfers via Western Union and MoneyGram are ideal for this purpose. International wire transfers cannot be cancelled or reversed, and the person receiving the money cannot be tracked. Other non-cancellable forms of payment include postal money orders and cashier's checks, but wire transfer via Western Union or MoneyGram is more common. Cryptocurrency payments are also used. Anonymous communication Since the scammer's operations must be untraceable to avoid identification, and because the scammer is often |
Second question first. Why is it called a "clock"? According to the Online Etymology Dictionary: > late 14c., *clokke*, originally "clock with bells," probably from Middle Dutch *clocke* (Dutch *klok*) "a clock," from Old North French *cloque* (Old French *cloke*, Modern French *cloche*), from Medieval Latin (7c.) *clocca* "bell," probably from Celtic (compare Old Irish *clocc*, Welsh *cloch*, Manx *clagg* "a bell") and spread by Irish missionaries (unless the Celtic words are from Latin); ultimately of imitative origin. So the word "clock" appears to originate as being named after the bells that they rung. As for "watch", again from the Online Etymology Dictionary: > Military sense of "military guard, sentinel" is from late 14c. General sense of "careful observation, watchfulness, vigilance" is from late 14c.; *to keep watch* is from late 14c. Meaning "period of time in which a division of a ship's crew remains on deck" is from 1580s. The meaning "small timepiece" is from 1580s, developing from that of "a clock to wake up sleepers" (mid-15c.). So "watch" meaning "timepiece" seems to derive from using a small clock to wake soldiers up for their watch. | why is it that if it's on your wrist, it's a watch, but if it's on the wall, it's a clock? and why is it called a clock? | <P> bell, and are derived from the Medieval Latin clocca, also meaning bell. Indeed, bells were used to mark the passage of time; they marked the passage of the hours at sea and in abbeys.
Throughout history, clocks have had a variety of power sources, including gravity, springs, and electricity. Mechanical clocks became widespread in the 14th century, when they were used in medieval monasteries to keep the regulated schedule of prayers. The clock continued to be improved, with the first pendulum clock being designed and built in the 17th century. Candle clocks The earliest mention of candle clocks comes from a <P> the compensating tank by having standard positions for the counterweight graduated on the beam, and hence it could control the rate of flow for different lengths of day and night. With this arrangement no overflow tank was required, and the two attendants were warned when the clepsydra needed refilling. Timekeeping innovations in medieval and pre-modern periods The term 'clock' encompasses a wide spectrum of devices, ranging from wristwatches to the Clock of the Long Now. The English word clock is said to derive from the Middle English clokke, Old North French cloque, or Middle Dutch clocke, all of which mean <P> water wheel. Early mechanical clocks and watches The earliest medieval European clockmakers were Catholic monks. Medieval religious institutions required clocks because they regulated daily prayer- and work-schedules strictly, using various types of time-telling and recording devices, such as water clocks, sundials and marked candles, probably in combination. When mechanical clocks came into use, they were often wound at least twice a day to ensure accuracy. Monasteries broadcast important times and durations with bells, rung either by hand or by a mechanical device, such as by a falling weight or by rotating beater.
Although the mortuary inscription of Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, |
The Convair B-36 was SAC's primary nuclear bomber from 1946 to 1959. Based in Alaska, they had insufficient range to fly the return leg of a bombing mission over the Soviet Union. In addition Operation Castle's results indicated that a typical wartime delivery profile would result in significant damage to the aircraft. Either way, it was a one-way trip. With the introduction of the B-52, this changed. It was faster, longer ranged, and capable of in-flight refueling. SAC had up to 12 of them in the air at any given time. Assuming they weren't blown out of the sky by SAMs or Interceptors; they could make it back to friendly soil. | in case of a nuclear war what would bomber crews do after dropping their payload? | <P> the east coast of the United States and therefore, as a rationale for their closure, were "...subject to short warning time attacks by (Soviet) submarine-launched ballistic missiles." Richardson's decision was consistent with earlier SAC guidance, issued in 1954, to avoid basing strategic bomber forces within 250 miles of the Atlantic or Gulf Coasts, although this guidance had never been implemented.
However, the 250 mile rationale had been partially employed (in addition to other factors, ranging from the retirement of SAC B-47s in the early 1960s to the costs of maintaining SAC B-52 units in Southeast Asia in support of the <P> being re-equipped with North American B-25 Mitchells in 1943, and long range Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy bombers in 1944. Fought in the 1944-1945 Philippines Campaign, continuing raids on Japanese forces on Okinawa in 1945.
Squadron demobilized after the Japanese Capitulation, however carried as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress very heavy bomber unit and assigned to Twentieth Air Force in 1946 but not manned or equipped. Strategic Air Command bombardment operations Returned to the United States and assigned to Strategic Air Command (SAC) at March Air Force Base in 1948, operating B-29s. Deployed to Okinawa and flew combat operations over North Korea after <P> the propeller-driven B-29s with new B-47E Stratojet swept-wing medium bombers in 1954, capable of flying at high subsonic speeds and primarily designed for penetrating the airspace of the Soviet Union. In the late 1950s, the B-47 was considered to be reaching obsolescence, and was being phased out of SAC's strategic arsenal. Began sending aircraft to other B-47 wings as replacements in early 1964, being one of the last SAC squadrons equipped with the Stratojet. Inactivated in September when the last aircraft was retired. |
Hamas is an Islamic-fundamentalist political party that came into existence as a rival to the more secularized Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1987. At its inception Hamas was not militarized, and as a result they were allowed to organize without intervention from Israel because they were seen as an alternative to Yasser Arafat (the leader of the PLO). This ended in 1989 with Hamas' armed involvement in the First Intifada, which was a Palestinian uprising in response to Israeli occupation in the Palestinian Territories. Since that time, Hamas has engaged in many terrorist attacks on civilians in a response to the Israel's existence. They gained political power in 2007 from the Palestinian Parliament and currently control the Gaza portion of the Palestinian Territories. The short term objective is to gain control of the remaining West Bank and establish these territories as a recognized nation. The long term objective is to battle for control of all of current Israel. Currently, Europe, the U.S. and Israel consider Hamas to be a terrorist organization while most Arabic nations do not. This is very simplified, and I placed emphasis in some areas while not delving into particulars in others to paint the picture. | who are hamas? what do they believe in and what are their long term objectives? | <P> been quiescent and non-confrontational towards Israel. Aside from developing Islamic charities to provide humanitarian assistance to Palestinians, it emphasized social justice (adala) and the subordination of the world to the sovereignty of God (hakmiyya).
Hamas was founded in 1987, soon after the outbreak of the First Intifada, the first popular uprising against the Israeli occupation.
Creating Hamas to participate in the revolt was regarded as a survival measure to enable the Brotherhood itself, which refused to fight against Israel, to hold its own against other competing Palestinian nationalist groups. By forming a military wing distinct from its social charity organizations, it was <P> Hamas Etymology Hamas is an acronym of the Arabic phrase حركة المقاومة الاسلامية or Harakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya, meaning "Islamic Resistance Movement". The Arabic word 'hamas' (حماس) means "courage" or "zeal". The Hamas covenant interprets its name to mean "strength and bravery". Aims Hamas, as its name (Islamic Resistance Movement) implies, aims to liberate Palestine from the Israeli occupation by resisting it. And according to Hamas armed branch Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades:
To contribute in the effort of liberating Palestine and restoring the rights of the Palestinian people under the sacred Islamic teachings of the Holy Quran, the Sunnah (traditions) of Prophet <P> basis through Israel to Hamas, to replace the millions of dollars the PA had stopped transferring to Hamas. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu explained that letting the money go through Israel meant that it couldn't be used for terrorism, saying "Now that we are supervising, we know it’s going to humanitarian causes". Gaza Islamic roots and establishment of Hamas Hamas rose as an offshoot of the Gaza Mujama al-Islamiya branch of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, which had been actively encouraged by Israel to expand as a counterweight to the influence of the secular Palestine Liberation Organization and had since 1973 |
The planets' orbits are all very close together, within 6 degrees of the ecliptic (the plane formed by the Sun's apparent motion from Earth.) Saturn's rotational axis (and subsequently rings) is tilted 27 degrees relative to "vertical" for its orbit, much like Earth's rotational axis is tilted. This is in addition to the orbit being (barely) tilted relative to the ecliptic. Since Saturn's orbit takes roughly 29 years, there are long seasons of "looking up" and "looking down", and shorter "edge-on" seasons. Saturn's last equinox was Aug. 11, 2009, so it should be late in it's "looking down" phase currently (Northern hemisphere summer, Southern winter.) The next solstice will be somewhere around mid-December 2016. | do all of the planets orbit on the same level, and if so why does it appear that we're "looking up" at saturn through earthbound telescopes? | <P> to share its retrograde orbital motion. It is aligned with the plane of Saturn's orbit. Saturn has an axial tilt of 27 degrees, so this ring is tilted at an angle of 27 degrees to the more visible rings orbiting above Saturn's equator. Galileo's work Galileo Galilei was the first to observe the rings of Saturn in 1610 using his telescope, but was unable to identify them as such. He wrote to the Duke of Tuscany that "The planet Saturn is not alone, but is composed of three, which almost touch one another and never move nor change with respect <P> complex patterns in its brightness. Most of the variability is due to the changing aspect of the rings, and this goes through two cycles every orbit. However, superimposed on this is variability due to the eccentricity of the planet's orbit that causes the planet to display brighter oppositions in the northern hemisphere than it does in the southern.
In 1980, Voyager 1 made a fly-by of Saturn that showed the F ring to be composed of three narrow rings that appeared to be braided in a complex structure; it is now known that the outer two rings consist of knobs, kinks <P> and lumps that give the illusion of braiding, with the less bright third ring lying inside them.
New images of the rings taken around the 11 August 2009 equinox of Saturn by NASA's Cassini spacecraft have shown that the rings extend significantly out of the nominal ring plane in a few places. This displacement reaches as much as 4 km (2.5 mi) at the border of the Keeler Gap, due to the out-of-plane orbit of Daphnis, the moon that creates the gap. Formation and evolution of main rings Estimates of the age of Saturn's rings vary widely, depending on the approach used. They |
Let me deal with the part about religious freedom here first. The claim you have heard is true. The Pilgrims at Plymouth and the Puritans who founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony wanted to practice their own faith. They did not support any wider concept of religious freedom. Other religious groups were barred from the colony and they had laws against blasphemy that were used to protect their version of theology Baptists were persecuted in the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1640s, and explictly banned by law in 1645. Punishments could be harsh. In 1651 for instance a group of three Baptists were arrested in Lynn, Massachusetts and convicted of re-baptizing adults (Baptists did this because they did not believe infant baptism was valid). All three were fined, one was whipped. Quaker fared worse than Baptists. In the 1650s Quakers who visited Massachusetts were branded, whipped or mutilated. Puritans who converted to Quakerism had their property seized. In 1659 and 1660 Massachusetts executed four Quakers; Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson, Mary Dyer, and William Leddra. The Puritans would have likely killed more Quakers, but they were commanded to stop by royal command in 1661. Puritans also tried to purge dissenting theology within their own ranks. Puritan Minister Roger Williams claimed that the Puritans had illegitimately occupied native lands, which resulted in him getting tried for sedition and heresy. He was banished from the colony in 1635 and ultimately founded what would become the Colony of Rhode Island. Rhode Island allowed for religious toleration. In 1638 the Puritans tried Anne Hutchinson in what is now called the Antinomian Controversy. The theology here is a bit complicated, but it resulted in the Massachusetts expelling Hutchinson and a number of other dissenters from their churches and banishing them from the colony. The Puritans were more repressive than England, but it was matter of degrees. In England it was not until the 1689 Toleration Act that dissenting Protestants, who were not members of the Church of England, could worship freely. This provided religious toleration to Baptist, Quakers and Puritans, but did not allow such freedom to Roman Catholics, atheists, or non-Christians. That said, how much repression dissenters actually faced in England could vary a lot, both Quakers and Baptists still spread widely during the seventeenth century. Quakers and Baptists were sometimes arrested, but they were not killed like they were in Puritan New England. The idea that society should tolerate of many religious views is a comparatively new one, it was only becoming common in Europe at the end of the seventeenth century. In the American colonies only Pennsylvania and Rhode Island would allow significant religious freedom for their residents. The Puritans were harsher than the England in enforcing their state religion, but both groups made religious dissent a crime. | i heard it said once that: 'the pilgrims left for the americas not for their own religious freedom, but for the freedom to not live among those who didn't believe as they did' is there any truth to this claim? | <P> a colony at Plymouth (in what would become later Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England which legitimized their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism. This successful, though initially quite difficult, colony marked the beginning of the Protestant presence in America (the earlier French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements had been Catholic), and became a kind of oasis of spiritual and economic freedom, to which persecuted Protestants and other minorities from the British Isles and Europe (and later, from all over <P> the anti-Catholicism of Oliver Cromwell, the Commonwealth of England, and the Penal Laws against Catholics and others who did not adhere to the Church of England.
One of the results of the persecution in England was that some people fled Great Britain to be able to worship as they wished – but they did not seek religious freedom, and early North American colonies were generally as intolerant of religious dissent as England; Puritan Massachusetts, for example, did not allow standard Church of England worship. Some of these people voluntarily sailed to the American Colonies specifically for this purpose. After the American <P> formulas of the Book of Common Prayer; the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.
The later Puritan movement were often referred to as Dissenters and Nonconformists and eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.
The most famous and well-known emigration to America was the migration of the Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England, who fled first to Holland, and then later to America, to establish the English colonies of New England, which later became the United States.
These Puritan separatists were also known as "the pilgrims". After establishing |
Blackberry was focused on the business market. Originally it was only a business that could justify the expense of a smart phone so the apps were focused on the concerns of businesses. Apple came along and decided that hardware prices have come down enough that justified a consumer level smart phone. Apple focused on the general public and their phones were successful. Very successful. Blackberry stuck with the idea that there were going to be 2 markets, a business market and a general consumer market because business contract are very lucrative. The problem is that many business discovered that an Iphone more than met their needs and they switched. It's been very hard for Blackberry to switch gears and it's been a slow decline ever since. | ; why did blackberries stop being popular? | <P> to the device. In September 2012 RIM announced that the BlackBerry PIN would be replaced by users' BlackBerry ID starting in 2013 with the launch of the BlackBerry 10 platform. Competition and financial results The primary competitors of the BlackBerry are Android smartphones and the iPhone. BlackBerry has struggled to compete against both and its market share has plunged since 2011, leading to speculation that it will be unable to survive as an independent going concern. However, it has managed to maintain significant positions in some markets.
Despite market share loss, on a global basis, the number of active BlackBerry subscribers <P> has increased substantially through the years. For example, for the fiscal period during which the Apple iPhone was first released, RIM reported that they had a subscriber base of 10.5 million BlackBerry subscribers. At the end of 2008, when Android first hit the market, RIM reported that the number of BlackBerry subscribers had increased to 21 million. Finally, in the quarter ended June 28, 2012, RIM announced that the number of BlackBerry subscribers had reached 78 million globally. After the release of the Apple iPhone 5 in September 2012 RIM CEO Thorsten Heins announced that the current global subscribers is <P> keyboard with touchscreen features.
During the second financial quarter of 2013, BlackBerry sold 6.8 million handsets, but was eclipsed by the sales of competitor Nokia's Lumia model for the first time.
On August 12, 2013, BlackBerry announced the intention to sell the company due to their increasingly unfavourable financial position and competition in the mobile industry. Largely due to lower than expected sales on the Z10, BlackBerry announced on September 20, 2013 that 4,500 full- and part-time positions (an estimated 40% of its operating staff) have been terminated and its product line has been reduced from six to four models. On September |
I've always struggled to understand social credit theory as well. Here in Alberta, Canada the social credit party formed the government for 34 years straight. They were a highly socially conservative christian party which left much of the social credit reforms unaddressed. For a time they issued "prosperity credits". These were essentially currency that decreased in value each week. They were designed to keep people from hoarding money during the great depression. They were extremely impractical at the time though and were barely used. The Socreds also tried to reform banking in the province, but I've never read how. It ultimately failed because a province doesn't have enough authority over banking practices to enact these changes. Ultimately, from my interpretation, think of socialism as government programs funded by taxes, and social credit as laws that see workers paid a a minimum wage that they can live and grow with. It's goal wasn't financial equality so much as it was a guaranteed minimum standard from which people can flourish. I could be wrong though, my understanding is limited to the historical sentiments of one (failed) case study. Probably not the best perpective. Hope it lends a bit of insight at least, I'm probably going to look up more now. | the economics of c.h. douglas' theory of social credit | <P> their interest in social credit. While the Social Crediters remained in government until 1971, the revolutionary spirit of the 1930s was all but forgotten: as Athabasca University historian Alvin Finkel notes, post-war Social Credit "had been transformed from a mass, eclectic movement for social reform led by monetary reformers to a relatively small government party that enjoyed considerable support from various sectors of the Alberta population for its judicious combination of right-wing rhetoric and social service and road-building programs." The Social Credit Board, with its reform mandate and its direct pipeline to Douglas, was no longer needed. <P> implementing social credit, a new economic theory that posited that poverty could be ended by increasing citizens' purchasing power. By 1937, many Social Credit backbenchers in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta were becoming frustrated with the government's lack of progress. This frustration became the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers' revolt. As a condition of regaining the rebels' support, Aberhart agreed to create the Social Credit Board, to be composed of five Social Credit MLAs and responsible for the implementation of social credit in Alberta. The chair of the Social Credit Board was Glenville MacLachlan; he and three other members <P> Alberta Social Credit Party Origins William Aberhart, a Baptist lay-preacher and evangelist in Calgary, was attracted to social credit theory while Alberta (and much of the western world) was in the depths of the Great Depression. He soon began promoting it through his radio program on CFCN in Calgary, adding a heavy dose of fundamentalist Christianity to the Social Credit theories of C.H. Douglas. The basic premise of social credit is that all citizens should be paid a dividend as capital and technology replace labour in production; this was especially attractive to farmers sinking under the weight of the Depression. |
Your pinna does a lot of things for your hearing. Perhaps most importantly, it subtle shapes the pressure waves that make up sound as they pass into your ear canal in different ways depending on the location of the sound. Determining left/right orientation of the source of a sound in complicated, but it involves timing and volume. It's something like stereoscopic vision, using your two ears to triangulate the location. Up/down orientation, as well as front/back is more difficult. To do that, your pinna shapes the sound coming into your ears, affecting the volume and the timbre. Timbre (pronounced "TAM-bur") is the "quality" of a sound not defined by the pitch or volume. Say, the difference between how a clarinet sounds and a trumpet sounds even when they're playing the same note. Over millions of years of evolution, our brains have learned to use that information to help locate the source of a sound. Over your lifetime, your own brain learns how to specifically use the modulation of sound from your unique pinnas. Relevant Smarter Every Day. As a result, it would be much more difficult for you to locate the direction of the source of a sound. Other animals solve the problem with different ways. For instance, dogs will cock their head to the side, changing the angle that their ears make with the sound to get a better read on it. Owls' ears are offset - one is higher than the other - and they have radar-dish like structures to funnel the sound into their ears. Your pinna has another purpose, though. It resonates roughly at the same pitch as normal human speech. Likewise, your ear canal and the bones in your ear also resonate at roughly human speech frequencies. We're *really good* at listening to other humans talking (which should come at no surprise, given the amount of brain space we dedicate to understanding language). With just an ear hole you would expect to have a little more difficulty understanding other people talking, especially with a lot of other noise. | if the outer anatomy of your ear was removed leaving just a hole in the side of your head, how would your hearing be affected? | <P> different-shaped outer ear surfaces, the directional patterns differ from the listener's own, and problems will appear when trying to evaluate directions in the median plane with these foreign ears. As a consequence, front–back permutations or inside-the-head-localization can appear when listening to dummy head recordings, or otherwise referred to as binaural recordings. It has been shown that human subjects can monaurally localize high frequency sound but not low frequency sound. Binaural localization, however, was possible with lower frequencies. This is likely due to the pinna being small enough to only interact with sound waves of high frequency. It seems that <P> and the external ear canal, form direction-selective filters. Depending on the sound input direction in the median plane, different filter resonances become active. These resonances implant direction-specific patterns into the frequency responses of the ears, which can be evaluated by the auditory system for vertical sound localization. Together with other direction-selective reflections at the head, shoulders and torso, they form the outer ear transfer functions. These patterns in the ear's frequency responses are highly individual, depending on the shape and size of the outer ear. If sound is presented through headphones, and has been recorded via another head with <P> distances, the ear positions and the orientation of the ears. Lateral information (left, ahead, right) If the ears are located at the side of the head, similar lateral localization cues as for the human auditory system can be used. This means: evaluation of interaural time differences (interaural phase differences) for lower frequencies and evaluation of interaural level differences for higher frequencies. The evaluation of interaural phase differences is useful, as long as it gives unambiguous results. This is the case, as long as ear distance is smaller than half the length (maximal one wavelength) of the sound waves. For animals |
We can take a look at one of the most famous cabinets of curiosities: that of Ole Worm, in Denmark about the time you're mentioning. Here is a woodcut of the inside of his cabinet. As we can see, the cabinet contains a wide variety of items, from natural phenomena such as taxidermized animals and fossils to artifacts from faraway countries and ancient peoples (mostly from the New World in his case, so a lot of Native American stuff). In the beginning, the majority of the cabinet would likely have been natural phenomena, such as shells, taxidermied animals, bones, horns, and fossils. The earliest depiction of such a cabinet can be seen here. and we can see that it is heavily reliant on natural phenomena. Later versions of the cabinet might include works of art as well as the aforementioned natural phenomena and artifacts. Here is a later 17th century painting of part of a cabinet which depicts a lot of art as well as shells and ancient coins. One thing that you might find in a *Künstkammer* would be a "thunderstone". These were flint points (Paleolithic tools such as arrowheads, spear points, or axes), but people of the time believed they were embedded in the ground by lightning and had magical properties. It was actually the collection of these "thunderstones" and the comparison of them to tools brought to a *Künstkammer* from the New World that enlightened scholars as to their actual use as tools by very ancient people. | what kinds of things could i expect to find in a cabinet of curiosities? | <P> Cabinet of curiosities Cabinets of curiosities (also known in German loanwords as Kunstkabinett, Kunstkammer or Wunderkammer; also Cabinets of Wonder, and wonder-rooms) were notable collections of objects. The term cabinet originally described a room rather than a piece of furniture. Modern terminology would categorize the objects included as belonging to natural history (sometimes faked), geology, ethnography, archaeology, religious or historical relics, works of art (including cabinet paintings), and antiquities. The classic cabinet of curiosities emerged in the sixteenth century, although more rudimentary collections had existed earlier. In addition to the most famous and best documented cabinets of rulers and <P> aristocrats, members of the merchant class and early practitioners of science in Europe formed collections that were precursors to museums. History The earliest pictorial record of a natural history cabinet is the engraving in Ferrante Imperato's Dell'Historia Naturale (Naples 1599) (illustration, left). It serves to authenticate its author's credibility as a source of natural history information, in showing his open bookcases at the right, in which many volumes are stored lying down and stacked, in the medieval fashion, or with their spines upward, to protect the pages from dust. Some of the volumes doubtless represent his herbarium. Every surface of <P> 4,000 specimens of Carniolan and foreign plants, a smaller number of animal specimens, a natural history and medical library, and an anatomical theatre.
Cabinets of curiosities would often serve scientific advancement when images of their contents were published. The catalog of Worm's collection, published as the Museum Wormianum (1655), used the collection of artifacts as a starting point for Worm's speculations on philosophy, science, natural history, and more.
Cabinets of curiosities were limited to those who could afford to create and maintain them. Many monarchs, in particular, developed large collections. A rather under-used example, stronger in art than other areas, was the |
They were not organized gangs in the way we use the term today. Greaser was more of a label that was used in the same way that hipster is used today, a categorization coined by outsiders. It is my understanding that greasers did not refer to themselves as such. Modern gangs like the Bloods and the Aryan Brotherhood display a pretty rigid hierarchy, are often national and even international, and usually assemble in the first place to engage in some sort of illicit activity. The Hell's Angels, for example, started as a M.C., but evolved into a bonafide syndicate with specific "business goals". That's not to say that greasers didn't engage in certain illegal activities, but it was not necessarily an implicit goal in the way it is within modern organized gangs. Just because you looked like a greaser, didn't mean you were in an organized gang. Yet I wouldn't really say that the greaser thing was merely a fashion statement, either. They were in many ways the American equivalent to British rockers: kids from working-class families that sort of stayed within their social group, and adopted a certain look. *West Side Story*, *The Outsiders*, etc. sort of created this image around the way these kids dressed. *West Side Story* in particular creates a real Hollywood caricature, it's not going for historical accuracy or really any sort of commentary on what was really a more complex social identity. Greasers and rockers were originally just poor kids who really couldn't afford nice clothing, so they'd wear their work clothes all the time. Tank tops and tee shirts weren't considered appropriate clothing to wear in public, but they were perfectly fine for factories, auto shops, etc. Denim was cheap and utilitarian, and the now-iconic cuffed jeans started because these guys usually had to buy pants that were a few sizes too large, or had belonged to their older brother, etc. It was certainly an image that evolved over time, with both greasers and rockers wearing this "uniform" with a certain degree of pride (suspenders were also big among rockers) as time went on, sometimes to explicitly identify with a group. Rockers and greasers are also often associated with motorcycles and that culture, and this too stems from bikes being cheap, available, and easy to maintain, as odds were at least one guy in the group worked as a mechanic, or was at least mechanically-inclined, something you just didn't see as much within groups of clean-cut teenagers from wealthier backgrounds. Same goes for getting away with smoking and drinking. And I guess fighting in public if you had to look out for your friends. Asserting yourself within a group has always meant something different for every social class around the world. TL;DR: Not like the organized gangs of today, but not merely a fashion statement, although the look became iconic. Rooted in working class culture and developed from there. **EDIT** Got my wires crossed. Suspenders were more of a skinhead thing. Also an interesting counterculture. If you're interested in this stuff, there's lots of great stuff out there on greasers, rockers, mods, skinheads...sixties youth counterculture in general is pretty fascinating. Here's a cool photo someone submitted to /r/historyporn a few months back. English skinheads and hippies. | were "greasers" anything like the gangs of today, or was it just a fashion fad? | <P> own interest clubs or publications. As such, there was no business marketing geared specifically towards the group. Their choice in clothing was largely drawn from a common understanding of the empowering aesthetic of working-class attire, rather than cohesive association with similarly dressed individuals. Some greasers were in motorcycle clubs or in street gangs (and conversely, some gang members and bikers dressed like greasers), though such membership was not necessarily an inherent principle of the subculture. Regardless, greasers were often associated with and assumed by the mainstream public to be members of street gangs (often ethnic-based gangs) or motorcycle gangs.
Ethnically, <P> later used to refer to mechanics. It was not used in writing to refer to the American subculture of the mid-20th century until the mid-1960s, though in this sense it still evoked a pejorative connotation and a relation to machine work. The name was applied to members of the subculture because of their characteristic greased-back hair. Origins of the subculture and rise to popularity The greaser subculture may have emerged in the post–World War II era among the motorcycle clubs and gangs of the late 1940s, though it was certainly established by the 1950s. The original greasers were aligned by <P> original greasers were composed mostly of Italian Americans in the Northeast and Chicanos in the Southwest. Since both of these peoples were mostly olive skinned, the "greaser" label assumed a quasi-racial status that implied an urban, ethnic, lower-class masculinity and delinquency. This development led to an ambiguity in the racial distinction between poor Italian Americans and Puerto Ricans in New York City in the 1950s and 1960s. Greasers were also perceived as being predisposed to perpetrating sexual violence, stoking fear among middle-class males and a degree of arousal among middle-class females. Decline and modern incarnations Though the television show |
The electron was discovered with a cathode ray tube, which is an evacuated chamber that carries a light emitting beam when a voltage is applied to it (used for old TVs and monitors). If you put a magnet near the tube, the beam deflects from a straight path, in the same way that a wire with electricity running through it is attracted or repelled by a magnet. Using basic physics, one can calculate parameters of the beam by the way it bends. For example, if the particles composing the beam are very heavy, they will not bend as strongly. What JJ Thompson showed was that the particles in the beam had to be of an extremely small mass, much smaller than even than lightest known atom (Hydrogen), indicating a new particle. | discovery of the electron | <P> ... mark the paths of particles of matter charged with negative electricity", quoting Thomson. The aetherial hypothesis was vague, but the particle hypothesis was definite enough for Thomson to test. Magnetic deflection Thomson first investigated the magnetic deflection of cathode rays. Cathode rays were produced in the side tube on the left of the apparatus and passed through the anode into the main bell jar, where they were deflected by a magnet. Thomson detected their path by the fluorescence on a squared screen in the jar. He found that whatever the material of the anode and the gas in the <P> fundamental units was more than 1,000 times smaller than an atom, suggesting the subatomic particle now known as the electron. Thomson discovered this through his explorations on the properties of cathode rays. Thomson made his suggestion on 30 April 1897 following his discovery that cathode rays (at the time known as Lenard rays) could travel much further through air than expected for an atom-sized particle. He estimated the mass of cathode rays by measuring the heat generated when the rays hit a thermal junction and comparing this with the magnetic deflection of the rays. His experiments suggested not only that <P> cathode rays were over 1,000 times lighter than the hydrogen atom, but also that their mass was the same in whichever type of atom they came from. He concluded that the rays were composed of very light, negatively charged particles which were a universal building block of atoms. He called the particles "corpuscles", but later scientists preferred the name electron which had been suggested by George Johnstone Stoney in 1891, prior to Thomson's actual discovery.
In April 1897, Thomson had only early indications that the cathode rays could be deflected electrically (previous investigators such as Heinrich Hertz had thought they could |
The **Martial Law Era** of **Former President Ferdinand Marcos** is a complex period in our history. Different kinds of people had different kinds of experiences. Those who *took up arms against the state, or were sympathetic to them*, naturally had different narratives compared to those who *lived through the period as* *compliant, obedient citizens*. And in between are others who had different stories to tell, some positive, some negative, and many others that are mixed. Of course, each side had reasons to stay in theirs, and many, were due to *political beliefs*. Communism in the Philippines has failed (Had he succeeded in his younger years, **Jose Maria Sison** would have established something similar to what the Kim family did with North Korea because *he believed that* he was the **Filipino Mao Zedong**), but they're trying to actively forward their political agenda on two frontlines: the legal front (the National Democratic Front), and its armed insurgent wing, (the New People's Army). The legal front is mostly dependent on exploiting the people by introducing such concepts to them, most popular is their *hiding behind* ***student activism and activism in general,*** which gave both a bad name and a reputation for being defenders of the communists, and the traitorous sympathisers of the Huks (which is true, for most part now, in modern times). Some were latecomers, and the rest were the originally persuaded by the beliefs. Many of them didn't believe that communism was the answer to the problems plaguing the Philippines (for the rich, it was obvious why, but for the ones who managed to honestly uplift their socio-economic standing, it was ridiculous, because a lot of them were also people who weren't helped and people who led hard lives, but learned to be dependent on themselves without having to rely on the government too much), and neither was armed struggle, even more. Many had simply done their best in different fields the way the South Koreans did when they experienced their hardships. For students, it was different. Many of them genuinely were sympathisers for the exploited, but for the others, it was different. For all its fearful reputation even at that time, the \[Communist\] Party \[of the Philippines\] was merely a ragtag band of hubristic fantasists who thought replicating the Chinese revolution was a cinch. I can conclude that he definitely wasn't the one behind the Plaza Miranda Incident, or the bombings that followed afterwards. The Plaza Miranda Incident, was confirmed by one of the Party's Founding Fathers, Ruben Guevarra, the Head of the CPP Military Commission and a member of the CPP Central Committee, circa late 60s all the way to the 70s, to have been perpetrated by the Communist Party's very own Dante Cordero, acting with others in the series of bombings, but starting with the Plaza Miranda Incident, otherwise known as Operation Plan Big Leap Forward, the first in a series of campaigns that the CPP launched against the government. Watch the Ideolohiyang Pilipino Dokyu of Sambayanan, in partnership with the UP Diliman Social Sciences Third World Research Department. You can't find anything completely factual as to official statements released by any officials or opposition at the time because, the tumultuous political atmosphere. Much of anything you can find are either in the form of physical documents, dead people or those who know about it because they were involved in it. Therefore, I don't suggest reading anything from the PRWC official information board \[it's heavily biased and contrary to the things I know they did\] about things relating to the time, or common google searches for news articles of today. For example, as the of the time of writing this, I'm actually reading on the CIA declassified documents about anything politically-related or anything related to the Philippines at all. It offers a different perspective because they're the third party. | did ferdinand marcos, from the philippines, forged an attack in manila to justify martial law? | <P> and that only in a few areas where grave problems of public order and national security continue to exist will martial law continue to remain in force."
After the lifting of martial law, power remained concentrated with Marcos. One scholar noted how Marcos retained "all martial law decrees, orders, and law-making powers," including powers that allowed him to jail political opponents. Human rights abuses The martial law era under Marcos was marked by plunder, repression, torture, and atrocity. As many as 3,257 were murdered, 35,000 tortured, and 70,000 illegally detained according to estimates by historian Alfred McCoy. One journalist described <P> on the Pacific side of Isabela in Cagayan Valley." The weapons were shipped from Communist China which at that time was exporting the communist revolution and supported the NPA's goal to overthrow the government.
Marcos, who thereafter ruled by decree, curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, abolished Congress, controlled media establishments, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics Senators Benigno Aquino Jr. and Jose W. Diokno, virtually turning the Philippines into a totalitarian dictatorship with Marcos as its Supreme Leader. Initially, the declaration of martial law was well received, given the social turmoil <P> this plan was undermined by his fellow Kapampangans and other members of the elite for they threw luxurious parties for him. Thus, Macapagal's "simple living" turned out to be mere rhetoric and only was true for the poor. Martial Law (1972-1991) In 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines in a state of Martial Law because in that time, student demonstrations were becoming more violent for the demonstrators and law officers were becoming too unruly and uncontrollable. According to Marcos, his New Society, which was supposed to be the result of Martial Law, was based on the discontent of the |
Here is an article on microtubule organization in plants. A bit of background - the MTOC, or microtubule organizing center, is exactly what it says. In cells that contain centrioles, they are the MTOC. In cells that don't contain centrioles, such as higher plants, the nuclear envelope often serves as the MTOC. So what the above article explains is that there are certain "microtubule-associated proteins," namely MAP65, katanin p60, and MOR1, that are largely responsible for organization and assembly of microtubules in plants. Another big question regarding lack of centrioles is how plant cells divide. In animals, the mitotic spindle attaches to the centrioles/centrosomes. In plants, the mitotic spindle attaches to microtubule arrays at cortical MTOCs. Here is a perspective from Plant Cell about microtubule arrays and here is a paper about plant cell division if you want to read further. | question about cytoskeletons | <P> of various anchoring and cross-linking proteins.
In the cortical array of plants, as well as in the axons of neurons, scientists believe that microtubules nucleate from existing microtubules via the action of severing enzymes such as katanin. Akin to the action of cofilin in generating actin filament arrays, the severing of microtubules by MAPs creates new (+) ends from which microtubules can grow. In this fashion dynamic arrays of microtubules can be generated without the aid of the γ-TuRC. Branching MT nucleation Studies using Xenopus egg extracts have identified a novel form of microtubule nucleation that generates fan-like <P> microtubules are nucleated via a non-centrosomal pathway. Other cells, such as neurons, skeletal muscle cells, and epithelial cells, which do have MTOCs, possess arrays of microtubules not associated with a centrosome. These non-centrosomal microtubule arrays can take on various geometries—such as those leading to the long, slender shape of myotubes, the fine protrusions of an axon, or the strongly polarized domains of an epithelial cell. Researchers think that the microtubules in these arrays are generated first by the γ-TuRCs, then transported via motor proteins or treadmilling to their desired location, and finally stabilized in the needed configuration through the action <P> scaffold or template for α/β tubulin dimers during the nucleation process—speeding up the assembly of the ring of 13 protofilaments that make up the growing microtubule. The γ-TuRC also acts as a cap of the (−) end while the microtubule continues growth from its (+) end. This cap provides both stability and protection to the microtubule (-) end from enzymes that could lead to its depolymerization, while also inhibiting (-) end growth. MT Nucleation from Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs) The γ-TuRC is typically found as the core functional unit in a microtubule organizing center (MTOC), such as the centrosome in |
The most common example of this is Rh Incompatibility where an Rh- woman is impregnated by an Rh+ man. If the fetal blood is Rh+, it can immunize the woman who considers this a foreign antigen. When the maternal anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta, they can lyse fetal blood cells leading to complications including fetal death. At birth, this is called hemolytic disease of the newborn. Accumulation of heme degradation products (bilirubin) can swamp the fetus or newborn's ability to further metabolize these toxic intermediary compounds. Since the blood brain barrier is not yet well-formed, high bilirubin levels can cause brain damage leading to later developmental abnormalities. This process is known as kernicterus. Often, maternal Rh exposure occurs at birth, meaning that the first child is born unaffected. Subsequent pregnancies begin with the mother already immunized resulting in miscarriages unless the fetus also happens to be Rh-. To prevent this, pregnant Rh- women are treated with anti-Rh antibodies that will bind and destroy Rh+ cells before they are recognized by her immune system. See: Very rarely, more minor antigen incompatibility can cause a similar scenario. | does parental blood type influence miscarriage or development? | <P> ectopic pregnancy, childbirth, ruptures in the placenta during pregnancy (often caused by trauma), or medical procedures carried out during pregnancy that breach the uterine wall. In subsequent pregnancies, if there is a similar incompatibility in the fetus, these antibodies are then able to cross the placenta into the fetal bloodstream to attach to the red blood cells and cause their destruction (hemolysis). This is a major cause of HDN, because 75% of pregnancies result in some contact between fetal and maternal blood, and 15-50% of pregnancies have hemorrhages with the potential for immune sensitization. The amount of fetal blood needed <P> reasons, the incidence of maternal antibodies against type A and B antigens of the IgG type that could potentially cause hemolytic disease of the newborn is greater than the observed incidence of "ABO disease." About 15% of pregnancies involve a type O mother and a type A or type B child; only 3% of these pregnancies result in hemolytic disease due to A/B/O incompatibility. In contrast to antibodies to A and B antigens, Rhesus antibodies are generally not produced from exposure to environmental antigens. In cases where there is ABO incompatibility and Rh incompatibility, the risk of alloimmunization is decreased <P> cells as foreign and mount a response by creating antibodies. During the first pregnancy, the initial exposure to fetal RBCs results in the formation of IgM antibodies, and these do not cross the placental barrier, which is why no effects are seen in first pregnancies for Rh-D mediated disease. However, in subsequent pregnancies, the immune system mounts a memory response when re-exposed, and these antibodies (IgG) do cross the placenta into fetal circulation. These antibodies are directed against a protein found on the surface of the fetal red blood cells (RBCs). The antibody coated fetal red blood cells are |
Two issues are involved here: First, the medieval church’s regulation of the degrees of [consanguinity] () and [affinity] ( within which people could not marry. Second, the shift in the 12th century to a “consent theory” of marriage by which a couple married each other by exchanging “words of the present [tense]” (*verba de praesenti*)—“I take you to be my husband/wife”—regardless of whether witnesses or a priest was present to bless the marriage. If they exchanged vows this way without witnesses or a priest, the marriage was said to be “clandestine” (secret). It was legal (i.e., a valid, binding sacrament) though not licit (i.e., allowed). The problem was that a man (or I guess sometimes a woman) could seduce a maiden into a clandestine marriage, sleep with her, and then deny that there had been any exchange of vows. He might even already have been married. To combat both clandestine marriages and people marrying within forbidden degrees of relationship the [4th Lateran Council of 1215] () ordered (in Canon 51) this: > [W]e absolutely forbid clandestine marriages; and we forbid also that a priest presume to witness such. Wherefore, extending to other localities generally the particular custom that prevails in some, we decree that when marriages are to be contracted they must be announced publicly in the churches by the priests during a suitable and fixed time, so that if legitimate impediments exist, they may be made known. In England, this public announcement was called “banns.” Priests were obliged to announce an upcoming marriage three Sundays in a row to allow anyone who knew of impediments to the marriage (clandestine marriage, couples related within forbidden degrees, bigamy) to come forward to “speak now or forever hold your peace.” Source: I’m assuming you can find details in Jacqueline Murray’s *Love, Marriage, and Family in the Middle Ages: A Reader* (2001) or Frances & Joseph Gies’ *Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages* (1989). I relying on my general knowledge. | how did it come to be that we say "speak now, or forever hold your peace" at weddings? was there a time where objections were common? | <P> of offspring". In 1439 the Council of Florence defined marriage as a sacrament, solidifying the development of doctrine from the previous twelve centuries and described marriage as 'indisoluble' "since it signifies the indivisible union of Christ and the church." The passage follows, "Although the separation of bed is lawful on account of fornication, it is not lawful to contract another marriage since the bond of a legitimately contracted marriage is perpetual."
Although divorce, as known today, was generally allowed in Western Europe after the 10th century, separation of husband and wife and the annulment of marriage were also well-known. What is <P> and Pope over the right to make church appointments. The Papacy were the initial victors, but as Italians divided between Guelphs and Ghibellines in factions that were often passed down through families or states until the end of the Middle Ages, the dispute gradually weakened the Papacy, not least by drawing it into politics. In 1059 the Church attempted to control, or exact a price for, most marriages among the great by prohibiting marriages involving consanguinity (blood kin) and affinity (kin by marriage) to the seventh degree of relationship. Under these rules, almost all great marriages required a dispensation. The <P> defined sacrament, by the ninth or tenth century, the divorce rate had been greatly reduced under the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, which considered marriage to be instituted by God and Christ indissoluble by mere human action. Marriage was later defined as a sacrament, beginning in 1208, when Pope Innocent III required members of another religious movement to recognize that marriage was a sacrament as a condition for being received back into the Catholic Church. In 1254, Catholics accused Waldensians of condemning the sacrament of marriage, "saying that married persons sin mortally if they come together without the hope |
Even many M and L dwarf stars, which are similar in mass and luminosity to brown dwarfs but are massive enough to ignite fusion (they'd have brown dwarf-like luminosities because they're older), have comparable radii to Jupiter. If you put a ball of gas with that sort of mass together, you're going to be able to make it stable at more than 1 to 1.5 or so times Jupiter's mass because it won't be in hydrodynamic equilibrium - its gas pressure will be too small to counteract its own gravity, and the gas will collapse until those two balance each other out. | can an astronomical object have a significantly larger radius than that of a gas giant like jupiter without undertaking fusion and thus being a star? | <P> would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses.
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter. Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from <P> present, its atmosphere would collapse, and the planet would shrink. For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, but above about 500 M⊕ (1.6 Jupiter masses) the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter <P> Jupiter mass Context and implications Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies beyond the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center.
Because the mass of Jupiter is so large compared to the other objects in the solar system, the effects of its gravity must be included when calculating satellite trajectories and the precise orbits of other bodies in the solar system, including Earth's moon and even Pluto.
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at |
What you are looking for is Mars Geothermal gradient A brine and clathrate (aqueous liquid) can exist at around 250K the mean surface temperature on Mars is around 220K The vital isotherm for our briny clathrate aqueous liquid is 250K, Isotherms at this tempurature would be found (according to our current, but not perfect models) at around 4.7 to 2.8 km deep depending on the ice saturation level of the regolith Fresh water would require another 25K of warming and would require atleast another 4km of depth (read 8 km deep total) source for everything on this subject!!! also Im a geologist EDITED a few things to make it more clear and correct a number | on earth you can reach a stable temperature about 20m underground (i think), would it work the same as on mars? | <P> only likely sources of greenhouse warming that are available in large quantities in the Mars environment. Large amounts of water ice exist below the Martian surface, as well as on the surface at the poles, where it is mixed with dry ice, frozen CO
2. Significant amounts of water are located at the south pole of Mars, which, if melted, would correspond to a planetwide ocean 5–11 meters deep. Frozen carbon dioxide (CO
2) at the poles sublimes into the atmosphere during the Martian summers, and small amounts of water residue are left behind, which fast winds sweep off the poles at <P> can dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Advantages According to scientists, Mars exists on the outer edge of the habitable zone, a region of the Solar System where liquid water on the surface may be supported if concentrated greenhouse gases could increase the atmospheric pressure. The lack of both a magnetic field and geologic activity on Mars may be a result of its relatively small size, which allowed the interior to cool more quickly than Earth's, although the details of such a process are still not well understood.
There are strong indications that Mars once had an atmosphere as thick as <P> from at least two different fluid flows. In Pahrump Hills, an area about 39 feet lower, the minerals clay, hematite, jarosite, quartz, and cristobalite were found.
Measurements made by Curiosity allowed researchers to determine that Mars has liquid water at times. Because the humidity goes to 100% at night, salts, like calcium perchlorate, will absorb water from the air and form a brine in the soil. This process in which a salt absorbs water from the air is called deliquescence. Liquid water results even though the temperature is very low, as salts lower the freezing point of water. |
After gaining independence in 1945, the Philippines became a democracy. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos became president. He was highly controversial, accused of corruption, embezzlement, etc. In 1972 he declared martial law, followed by tons of censorship and repression, while he and his wife was able to continue a life of luxury. After his main rival was assassinated in 1983 Marcos called for a snap election and won, but it was widely regarded as fraudulent. This culminated in the People Power Revolution, which made him flee to Hawaii and Corazon Aquino, the widow of the assassinated rival from earlier, became the legitimate president. But it wasn't all sunshine. She inherited the debts and corruption issues from her predecessor, which were combined with coup attempts and natural disasters, as well as insurgencies by communists and Moro separatists. Include teh withdrawal of US troops from the Philippines and things didn't look so bright. Aquino made a law stating presidential terms were limited to one term, and she did not stand for re-election. The row of presidents after her have done much to let the economy grow as well as fighting the insurgents, but a few militant groups remain who are known for kidnapping foreigners for ransom. Nonetheless, it's far safer now than it was twenty years ago. | what is happening in the philippines? | <P> and barricading themselves within Camp Crame. This resulted in that peaceful 1986 EDSA Revolution that forced Marcos into exile in Hawaii while Corazon Aquino became the 11th President of the Philippines on February 25, 1986. Under Aquino, the Philippines would adopt a new constitution, ending the Fourth Republic and ushering in the beginning of the Fifth Republic. <P> of New York that more than half of the Filipino population was living in squalor while Marcos and his allies were living in luxury. EDSA Revolution to the Present (1986- ) Due to the success of the EDSA Revolution, Marcos and his family would flee to Hawaii and Corazon Aquino would become the new Philippine President. When she took power, President Aquino was able to restore democracy and basic rights such as the writ of habeas corpus and free speech. However, when established a constitutional convention to replace the 1973 constitution, the delegates were mostly from the old elite. Also, <P> History of the Philippines (1965–86) First term In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos won the presidential election and became the 10th President of the Philippines. His first term was marked with increased industrialization and the creation of solid infrastructures nationwide, such as the North Luzon Expressway and the Maharlika Highway. Marcos did this by appointing a cabinet composed mostly of technocrats and intellectuals, by increasing funding to the Armed Forces and mobilizing them to help in construction. Marcos also established schools and learning institutions nationwide, more than the combined total of those established by his predecessors.
In 1968, Senator Benigno S. Aquino Jr. |
Japan conquered Korea in 1910. In 1945, as World War II was ending, the US took the southern part of Korea from the Japanese while our allies the Russians invaded it from the north. When that war ended, neither the US nor Russia wanted to give up territory the other might benefit from, and so Korea was split into two countries: a Communist north and a democratic south. But the south hasn't really been very democratic and north is run by a dynasty of crazy people, so the situation isn't stable. In 1950, the North launched a war to reunite the country. The US and allied countries stepped in to protect the South, and Russia and China backed the North. The two sides fought each other for 3 years, nobody was winning, and so they finally agreed to a ceasefire. But not a peace treaty. The two sides of Korea still hate each other, each thinks it deserves to run the whole country, and both side are backed by outsiders who won't let their side of Korea lose, so the mess just sits there, threatening to erupt into war again. | north korea vs. south korea | <P> North Korea in the Korean War The Korean War started when North Korea invaded South Korea, and ended on July 27, 1953 with the armistice creating the well-known Korean Demilitarized Zone. Before the War In August 1945, two young aides at the State Department divided the Korean peninsula in half along the 38th parallel. The Russians occupied the area north of the line and the United States occupied the area to its south. Beginning On June 25, 1950, the Korean War began when some 75,000 soldiers from the North Korean People’s Army poured across the 38th parallel, the boundary between <P> wars and a near-war in the 1950s became the focus for capitalist versus communist struggle. The first war was the Korean War, fought between People's Republic of China-backed North Korea and mainly United States-backed South Korea. The Korean Peninsula was a Japanese colony between 1910 and 1945, when Soviet and American troops invaded and divided it along the 38th parallel. A communist government controlled the territory north of the border and a capitalist one controlled the South, with both authorities considering the other one illegitimate and claiming sovereignty over the entire peninsula. North Korea's invasion of South Korea on June <P> North Korean occupation of South Korea, June to September, 1950 The North Korean occupation of South Korea from June to September, 1950 constituted the first phase of the Korean War.
In June 25, 1950, The Korean People's Army (KPA) crossed the 38th parallel between North and South Korea. The KPA advanced at incredible speed, capturing Seoul on June 28, 1950. Thus began the three-month North Korean occupation of South Korea. This occupation ended beginning with the UN counter-offensive in Inchon (September 15, 1950 – September 19, 1950) - otherwise known as the Inchon Landing. North Korean system in the South The |
The Chronometer. From Wikipedia: A marine chronometer is a clock that is precise and accurate enough to be used as a portable time standard; it can therefore be used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation. When first developed in the 18th century, it was a major technical achievement, as accurate knowledge of the time over a long sea voyage is necessary for navigation, lacking electronic or communications aids. The first true chronometer was the life work of one man, John Harrison, spanning 31 years of persistent experimentation and testing that revolutionized naval (and later aerial) navigation and enabling the Age of Discovery and Colonialism to accelerate. Basically, if you know the time, you can know your position longitudinally. You have a known location that is zero time (GMT). You can always know when it's noon, so you just see how far off you are and then you will know where you are. mid 18th century. Helped the British a ton in developing their naval power and in expanding the area that they could influence. | what innovations can be seen as game changers throught the history of navigation, and how so? | <P> Chronometer watch History The term chronometer was coined by Jeremy Thacker of Beverley, England in 1714, referring to his invention of a clock ensconced in a vacuum chamber.
The term chronometer is also used to describe a marine chronometer used for celestial navigation and determination of longitude. The marine chronometer was invented by John Harrison in 1730. This was the first of a series of chronometers that enabled accurate marine navigation. From then on, an accurate chronometer was essential to open-ocean marine or air navigation out of sight of land. Early in the Twentieth Century the advent of radiotelegraphy time signals <P> in the 19th century.
The more accurate Harrison timekeeping device led to the much-needed precise calculation of longitude, making the device a fundamental key to the modern age. Following Harrison, the marine timekeeper was reinvented yet again by John Arnold who while basing his design on Harrison's most important principles, at the same time simplified it enough for him to produce equally accurate but far less costly marine chronometers in quantity from around 1783. Nonetheless, for many years even towards the end of the 18th century, chronometers were expensive rarities, as their adoption and use proceeded slowly due to the high <P> John Harrison The first three marine timekeepers In the 1720s, the English clockmaker Henry Sully invented a marine clock that was designed to determine longitude: this was in the form of a clock with a large balance wheel that was vertically mounted on friction rollers and impulsed by a frictional rest Debaufre type escapement. Very unconventionally, the balance oscillations were controlled by a weight at the end of a pivoted horizontal lever attached to the balance by a cord. This solution avoided temperature error due to thermal expansion, a problem which affects steel balance springs. Sully's clock only kept accurate |
This is a complicated topic, but I'll try, and feel free to ask for more detail on any part... The "PGA Tour" is an organization that basically coordinates the running of all the individual 4-day tournaments that make up professional golf in the US. The PGA Tour has split tournaments into a few categories; the important ones are the Majors (the highest profile tournaments with the best golfers participating), and the Regular tournaments, which fill in the rest of the weeks between Majors. Each tournament has a sponsor, and field of players is determined by a combination of the PGA and the sponsor. The PGA issues "Tour Cards" to qualifying golfers - golfers who have passed a qualification test (Q-School), golfers who have won tournaments in the previous 1-5 years, or golfers with sufficient lifetime tournament wins. Any holder of a currently valid Tour Card can enter any regular tournament; the Majors often have stricter criteria. The remainder of the field is filled in with golfers selected by the sponsor. The PGA, for a very long time, did not have a very easy to understand method of telling the public who was the best golfer so far that year. You can't compare the score on one course to the score on a different course, so you can't just sum up or average a golfer's round scores - a 72 at one course is awesome, but at an easier course, 72 might be considered a horrible score. So they came up with the FedEx cup. The FedEx cup is a points-based system. The PGA decides a total number of points available for each tournament, which can vary from tournament to tournament. Golfers are awarded points based on their finish position in the tournament. Towards the end of the year, the points leaders are invited into a series of playoff events, finishing with the "Tour Championship" tournament. The winner of that tournament gets the FedEx cup for the next year. Prior to the FedEx cup, the PGA had zillions of different standings listings - and nobody could decide which was more important... there was the "money leader" list, which tracked the amount of money a golfer won in a year (until 2013 this was a qualifier for getting a Tour Card; in 2013, it converts to FedEx cup points). They have lists of how many tournaments a golfer has won, how many majors they have won, and all kinds of other lists. The FedEx cup was a response to all these lists, giving fans an easy, points-based system to follow. The schedule starts in January in Hawaii, runs through the west coast through the winter, through the south and east in the spring and early summer, and heads to the north and midwest in the summer. The season ends in Late September with the Tour Championship. *whew*... anything else? :) | can someone please explain to me how the pga tour works? (fedex cup, majors, standings, schedule) | <P> rules, with the exception that the opposing team chooses which ball is played. The scoring system uses match play rules. Team tour The "Team Tour" mode allows players using their own created golfers to build up their own team to travel the world playing in different types of game modes until they reach the final match against Tiger Woods' team. With each victory, the player is allowed more golfers to be added to their team. The golfers that are available are the golfers that they have just beaten. In each round, the player may also "Up the Ante" to <P> Tour Season Mode allows players to play in various tournaments across a 30-year career, using their own created golfer. Each tournament is 72 holes (4 rounds) played at different courses, usually determined by the name of the event (e.g. "The Pebble Beach Open" or "The UK Major Championship"). The game mode is designed to be as realistic as possible, with players able to view the scoreboard after each hole, which shows the scores for each round, how many holes the golfer has played in the current round and the total number of strokes they have taken. Guests & the cut <P> PGA Tour (video game series) History Starting in 1998, Tiger Woods was the star and face of the series. The deal with Woods was worth $6.2 to 7 million a year at the height of his 15 years at EA Sports.
That's according to Kotaku sources, Electronic Arts reportedly planned to outsource Tiger Woods PGA Tour 15 and give the in-house team at EA Tiburon two years to make Tiger Woods PGA Tour 16 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. However, when CEO John Riccitiello resigned March 2013, this plan was dropped to save costs, the sources said.
On October 2013, |
Due to the oil intensive nature of modern agriculture, major food crisis will likely be precipitated by significant disruptions to oil markets and supplies, i.e. trouble with Iran and the Straight of Hormuz. Modern agriculture is increasingly consolidated into the hands of fewer and larger companies. Really the only way to avoid large scale food crisis is to promote decentralization of food production such that a significant portion of food production is shifted into ones own backyard or neighboring small farms. This will mitigate the oil reliance and the risk of putting too many eggs in the mega farm basket. TL:DR-Grow a garden. | what is the likelihood of a major food crisis? how can we stop it? | <P> maximum U.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200 million (actual population approx. 290m in 2003, 329m in 2019). To achieve a sustainable economy world population will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study. Without population reduction, this study predicts an agricultural crisis beginning in 2020, becoming critical c. 2050. The peaking of global oil along with the decline in regional natural gas production may precipitate this agricultural crisis sooner than generally expected. Dale Allen Pfeiffer claims that coming decades could see spiraling food prices without relief and massive starvation on a global level such as never experienced <P> over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and defoliants and rely on machines, which as of 2014 rely on or are derived from crude oil, making agriculture increasingly reliant on crude oil extraction. Proponents of the Peak Oil theory fear that a future decline in oil and gas production would lead to a decline in food production or even a Malthusian catastrophe. Effects on food security The effects of the Green Revolution on global food security are difficult to assess because of the complexities involved in food systems.
The world population has grown by <P> urban-rural income gap, integration of smallholders into value chains, and maintaining competitiveness in the market. However, in low-income countries, chronic problems such as poverty and hunger cause agricultural modernization efforts to be constrained. It is projected that global populations by 2050 will increase by one-third and as such will require a 70% increase in the production of food. Therefore, the Second Green Revolution will likely focus on improving tolerances to pests and disease in addition to technological input use efficiency. |
Left ventricular hypertrophy which is the growth of the left ventricle can happen from having a very trained body as well. Many pro cyclists and endurance athletes have this, it reduces work capacity due to the hearts overall efficiency. A reason why endurance athletes have crazy low heart rates, the heart is just that efficient at pumping blood. Now cardiomyopathy and left ventricular hypertrophy can also happen from years of steroid use coupled with heavy lifting, this is a permanent condition that compromises the overall function of the heart. Your ejection fraction which is the pumping ability essentially decreases, thus compromising your heart and essentially being a cause of death sometimes. This can also happen to obese especially those prone to it genetically, but more common in steroid users. Since all steroids essentially cause an erythropeitic response in the blood, which is a signaling of red blood cell production from the kidneys, causing blood to get thicker. This definitely plays a role in the pressure it adds to the arterial lining from elevated blood pressure. Some guys take such high doses for so many years that the androgens cause the heart to grow in itself on top of blood pressure issues. An athletic ventricle hypertrophy is different because the changes are not permanent to the heart and often reverses once the athlete starts training. This is kind of the gist of it, I'm starting to rant I guess. Hopefully someone much smarter can chime in. Cheers! | what happens to human cardiac muscle as you do cardio exercises? does the heart micro-tear like skeletal muscle? | <P> Athletic heart syndrome Cause Athlete's heart is a result of dynamic physical activity, such as aerobic training more than 5 hours a week rather than static training such as weightlifting. During intensive prolonged endurance or strength training, the body signals the heart to pump more blood through the body to counteract the oxygen deficit building in the skeletal muscles. Enlargement of the heart is a natural physical adaptation of the body to deal with the high pressures and large amounts of blood that can affect the heart during these periods of time. Over time, the body will increase both the <P> (though if a nonathlete has symptoms of bradycardia, cardiomegaly, and cardiac hypertrophy, another illness may be present). Athlete's heart is not the cause of sudden cardiac death during or shortly after a workout, which mainly occurs due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a genetic disorder.
No treatment is required for people with athletic heart syndrome; it does not pose any physical threats to the athlete, and despite some theoretical concerns that the ventricular remodeling might conceivably predispose for serious arrhythmias, no evidence has been found of any increased risk of long-term events. Athletes should see a physician and receive a clearance to be <P> chamber size of the left ventricle, and the muscle mass and wall thickness of the heart.
Cardiac output, the amount of blood that leaves the heart in a given time period (i.e. liters per minute), is proportional to both the chamber sizes of the heart and the rate at which the heart beats. With a larger left ventricle, the heart rate can decrease and still maintain a level of cardiac output necessary for the body. Therefore, athletes with AHS commonly have lower resting heart rates than nonathletes.
The heart becomes enlarged, or hypertrophic, due to intense cardiovascular workouts, creating an increase in |
Francis II dissolved the Holy Roman Empire only a few days after the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, and the announcement from many of the smaller German states that they were leaving the Holy Roman Empire in favour of the Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon had actually issued an ultimatum demanding that Francis step down, and while that was definitely a factor, there were other reasons for the fall of the Holy Roman Empire. With the utter humiliation of Austria by Napoleon, and the organization of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon many of the Smaller German states left the Holy Roman Empire. With the rise of Prussia, Germany had really been split into three spheres of influence, Prussia, Austria, and the rest of Germany. Many of the smaller German states threw their lot in with Napoleon and joined the Confederation of the Rhine for numerous reasons, one they feared Napoleon and his armies, secondly they figured that by accepting Napoleon's protection in the Confederation they might better position themselves for the future with or without Napoleon; basically they hoped build themselves up and prepare for the future. Finally, the reason many of the smaller German states joined the Holy Roman Empire and still participated was because it provided protection from bigger states, Austria had basically made the title of Holy Roman Emperor into a hereditary title, so any member of the Holy Roman Empire was basically guaranteed the protection (in theory anyways) of Austria. Napoleon showed that the protection offered by the Holy Roman Empire was not clearly all it was cracked up to be. Furthermore, after the treaty of Luneville states in the Empire and outside began to just annex the various small German states. Austria, Prussia, France, Bavaria, Baden, Wurrtemburg all gained substantial territory, many of the smaller German states were wiped of the map. It really undermined the structure of the Empire that member states and the leader of the Empire could just at any moment rearrange the territory of the Empire. Beyond that though, the Holy Roman Empire had simply just become stagnant, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years War took away the ability of the Emperor to decide on religious matters in Germany which was a major part of the original structure of the Empire. There had been attempts to reform the Empire since around 1790, specifically with regards to secularization and federation. This had promoted some, such as Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg, to think the Reich was collapsing and thus they tried to save it. Dalberg was a high ranking official in the Holy Roman Empire and was the head of one of the Archbishopric states (small little religious states that were in the Empire). Basically he saw that no one in the Empire, including the Emperor had the will to actually go through with the reforms, so he turned to Napoleon to save the Empire, by offering members of Napoleon's family high ranking offices in the Empire. Napoleon wanted none of this, he had seen the issues that being Emperor had caused Austria, and he preferred to keep his little system of Client States intact rather going and getting involved in the decaying Empire. Napoleon planned to just let the Empire die off. Dalberg ended up jumping ship and joining the Confederation of the Rhine, seeing it as the successor to the Holy Roman Empire. He tried to do what he had tried to do in the Holy Roman Empire and reform the Confederation of the Rhine, but everyone kinda just ignored him. The German princes who were leaving the Empire said that > They had effectively been abandoned by both major German powers; ‘in vain’, they declared, ‘did one look for Germany in the heart of the German polity’; those whose lands lay nearest to France had had no choice but to seek peace with France; now they were all resolved to seek the protection of the Emperor of France." In the closing days of the Reich there was some attempt to mould it to fit the new political situation. Bavaria proposed that the Empire turn into a permanent German federal state of sorts, with a figurehead Emperor chosen by election, the Reichstag would be transformed into a permanent body of representatives. Prussia tried to build their own quasi Empire in the North of Germany, both suggestions didn't pan out. There were reports from Austrian officials saying that the Holy Roman Empire had served its purpose and was no longer worth maintaining in the face of French pressure. For example one was released by an Austrian politician and official in the Holy Roman Empire named Joseph Hass: > Foreign power and politics’ had now achieved what the unruly spirit of the German princes and their mistaken sense of freedom had failed to do over centuries: the unity of the German Reich was destroyed. ‘The German people no longer constitute a state’, he wrote, ‘not because of the desire for independence of its Estates, but rather in order to impose a foreign yoke all the more rigorously.’ Virtually nothing was left of the system of the Reich; the emperor now only had authority in the Archchancellor’s lands, in Western Pomerania, Mecklenburg, and the Hanseatic Cities—‘for as long as these lands retain their present rulers’. Francis decided to relinquish the Crown and end the Empire, but only after making sure that he was confirmed as the hereditary Emperor of Austria and all the lands that went with it. Francis didn't reference the French ultimatum, simply saying that he had tried to fulfill his duties as Emperor. He stated that since he had lost the confidence of the Electors and Princes he would abdicate and release all servants of the Reich from their duties. He said: > ‘for as long as we can live up to the confidence placed in us by the Electors, princes and Estates and other members of the Reich, and for as long as we are able to satisfy the obligations we have assumed’. > we hereby decree that we regard the bond which until now tied us to the state of the Reich as dissolved’. In the mind of Francis, it was better to end the Empire and confirm his own power as Emperor of Austria, than risk the Empire falling into the hands of Napoleon, or one of the Electors. An Empire dominated by Napoleon was an Empire Francis did not want to be apart of. My main source for this would be volume II of the book "Germany and the Holy Roman Empire" by Joachim Whaley. But the book is very long and isn't the most riveting read, so if you're looking for something to read on the matter, I'd advise looking for the book "The Holy Roman Empire 1495-1806" by Peter H. Wilson | francis ii abdicated as holy roman emperor, ending the hre. he did so after his defeat at the hands of napoleon, but why exactly? | <P> and countries. This confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him. This action was unrecognized by George III of the United Kingdom who was also the Elector of Hanover and had also lost his German territories around Hanover to Napoleon. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which was held by George's British heirs until Queen Victoria's accession, when it <P> of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession as Holy Roman Emperor of Napoleon, who had earlier that year adopted the title of an Emperor of the French; Francis II eventually abandoned the title of German-Roman Emperor later in 1806. To safeguard his dynasty's imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Apart from now being included in a new "Kaiserthum", the workings of the overarching structure and the status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy that existed before 1804.
This was especially demonstrated <P> also did not participate in the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which led to the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. With respect to the Prussian idea of a north German empire, within which Saxony was supposed to be raised to a kingdom, he appeared reserved. However, when Napoleon advanced as far as Thuringia after September 1806 in response to the Berlin Ultimatum, which demanded the withdrawal of French troops from the left bank of the Rhine, Frederick Augustus joined with Prussia. At the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt in 1806 the Prussian – Saxon troops |
If you spend 30 seconds googling it the top result from The Mayo Clinic: Are tanning beds safer than natural sunlight? Answer from Lawrence E. Gibson, M.D. Tanning beds don't offer a safe alternative to natural sunlight. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation damages your skin, whether the exposure comes from tanning beds or natural sunlight. This damage increases the risk of skin cancer and premature skin aging. In fact, most tanning beds emit mainly UVA rays — which may increase the risk of melanoma, the deadliest form of skin cancer. If you'd like the golden glow of a tan without exposure to damaging UV radiation, consider using a sunless tanning product. Avoid tanning beds, and use a broad-spectrum sunscreen whenever you're outdoors. | why if at all are tanning beds more dangerous than sunbathing outside when it comes to skin cancer? | <P> The commercial use of tanning beds was banned entirely in Brazil in 2009 and Australia in 2015. As of 1 January 2017, thirteen U.S. states and one territory have banned under-18s from using them, and at least 42 states and the District of Columbia have imposed regulations, such as requiring parental consent.
Indoor tanning is a source of UV radiation, which is known to cause skin cancer, including melanoma and skin aging, and is associated with sunburn, photodrug reactions, infections, weakening of the immune system, and damage to the eyes, including cataracts, photokeratitis (snow blindness) and eye cancer. Injuries caused by tanning devices <P> Indoor tanning Indoor tanning involves using a device that emits ultraviolet radiation to produce a cosmetic tan. Typically found in tanning salons, gyms, spas, hotels, and sporting facilities, and less often in private residences, the most common device is a horizontal tanning bed, also known as a sunbed or solarium. Vertical devices are known as tanning booths or stand-up sunbeds.
First introduced in the 1920s, indoor tanning became popular with white people in the Western world, particularly in Scandinavia, in the late 1970s. The practice finds a cultural parallel in skin whitening in Asian countries, and both support multibillion-dollar industries. Most <P> antidepressants, antibiotics, antifungals and anti-diabetic medication, can cause photosensitivity, which makes burning the skin while tanning more likely. This risk is increased by a lack of staff training in tanning facilities. Young people Children and adolescents who use tanning beds are at greater risk because of biological vulnerability to UV radiation. Epidemiological studies have shown that exposure to artificial tanning increases the risk of malignant melanoma and that the longer the exposure, the greater the risk, particularly in individuals exposed before the age of 30 or who have been sunburned.
One study conducted among college students found that awareness of the |
Yes, the current consensus is that the Hanging Gardens existed. Or, we know at least that the Assyrian kings did build extravagant gardens and could devise very elaborate, technologically advanced watering systems, as described by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Philo of Byzantium. But, the classical and cuneiform sources provide many different, sometimes conflicting, details about the existence of various royal gardens. I'm personally a bit dubious whether there ever existed the ONE Hanging Gardens of Babylon: the classical literary traditions might be a conflation of a number of different stories about royal gardens in the East. But, Stephanie Dalley, a now retired assyriologist from Oxford University who has written a book and various articles about the Gardens, has come up with a nice theory for the location of the Gardens that does reconcile the classical tradition somewhat with the archaeological evidence - although her theory does (and probably will) remain unproven. Dalley thinks the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were located at the Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh. Her reason for thinking that the Gardens never actually existed at Babylon is that many generally reliable classical authors, who describe Babylon to some length and who should be interested in exactly this sort of marvels, such as Herodotus (I.181), Xenophon (in *Cyropaedia*), or Pliny the Elder (*Nat. Hist.* VI. 123) never mention any gardens - even though they do describe the magnificent walls of the city. And, even more seriously, archaeological finds or cuneiform sources in Babylon give no signs of the Gardens. Notably, king Nebuchadnezzar, to whom the wonder was attributed by classical authors, says nothing about any gardens in the abundant inscriptions that record his building-works in the city. The famous classical descriptions of the gardens, from which we know them, come from: 1. Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC), an engineer who wrote technical treatises, described the watering system of the gardens to some length; but we do not know what is his source. 2. Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC, 10.1-6) quoting Ctesias of Cnidus, a c. 400 BC historian of Persia and Assyria; Ctesius’ works are lost but he’s generally considered a somewhat unreliable source. 3. The geographer Strabo (1st century AD, XVI 1.5), who according to his own words based his account of Persia in e.g. written eyewitness stories of the officers of Alexander the Great. It’s not clear who is his source for the Garden of Babylon. 4. The Jewish author Josephus (1st century AD, *Contr. Apion.* I 19-20; *Antiquities of the Jews* X 11.1), saying that he has based his knowledge on Berossus, a Babylonian priest who apparently wrote history in Greek in 3rd century BC; Josephus’ account is thus often considered the most legit 5. Quintus Curtius Rufus (1st century AD, *History of Alexander* V 1.35), who’s description of the garden is thought to rely on Clitarchus, a late 4th century BC historian who compiled his own *History of Alexander* from contemporary eye-witness sources. There is an extremely handy website that has collected together all the classical sources in English translation. So, the thing to note here is that none of these people writing about the Garden of ’Babylon’ had ever visited Babylon, not to mention Persia, expect perhaps Philo, of whose life we know nothing. And, they’re writing about the old history and geography of a distant region, the languages of which they could not themselves speak; it’s a game of Chinese whispers in Greek, Aramaic, Old Persian, and cuneiform… Classical authors regularly conflate or are mislead by their indigenous sources and get details about both the Persian past and present wrong. For example, Josephus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar, but he was also the most famous ancient Mesopotamian king known in classical antiquity who just becomes a short-hand for ”famous Eastern king who did lots of stuff”: quite a number of things that he never historically did get attributed to him in classical tradition. The Greeks also understood the history of Mesopotamia within a faulty framework of three successive monarchies, Assyria, Media, and Persia, completely omitting the Neo-Babylonian kingdom (which Nebuchadnezzar ruled), so they often keep getting names and successive rules of Eastern monarchs wrong. The Greek and Jewish tradition weren’t very good at keeping track of names of Eastern cities: they specifically mix up Nineveh and Babylon, something that also happens in the Biblical texts (e.g. II Chronicles 33:11 says that Assyrians took Manasseh captive to Babylon, which was at the time a ruin; it ought to say Nineveh). So, it’s not difficult to accept that the classical tradition just got the location of the Gardens wrong. Dalley then further goes onto identify Nineveh as the location of the Gardens and the king of Assyria Sennacherib (705 BC to 681 BC) as their builder. One of the main reasons for this is that Sennacherib describes at length in his records that he commissioned engineering works to bring mountain water to Nineveh, in order to provide water for drinking and for a garden that he had built. There’s also an architectural relief in Nineveh by Sennacherib’s grandson Assurbanibal, which shows a lavish garden: picture of the sculpture, and here’s a drawingwhere it’s a bit easier to see what’s going on. Sennacherib's garden has for long been considered as a sort of ’proto-type’ of the Hanging Gardens, but Dalley thinks we should in fact consider them as *the* Hanging Gardens. We should note that the Greek description for ’hanging’ gardens does not imply the same as the English, i.e. plants with their roots higher than the actual leaves and top. A close reading of the sources could indeed support a garden like the one described in the sculpture relief: a naturalistic landscape rising up in tiers "like a (Greek) theatre" (Diodorus Siculus): forest trees are planted in it in terraced levels, and water is brought into the garden along an aqueduct which is incorporated into the terracing. There’s also a decorative pavilion or small palace in the relief, which might correspond to the "royal lodges of every description" which Diodorus mentioned. The only issue is that there’s no devices of raising water in huge quantities to the garden, just how ”streams of water emerging from elevated sources flow partly in a straight line down sloping channels” (Philo). But, the relief is broken in the middle, and it’s possible that the picture did show some water-raising device, too. So, here’s artist Terry Ball’s picture of the ’Hanging Gardens of Babylon’ based on Dalley’s instructions and the Nineveh relief. Dalley further backs up her argument by noting that Sennacherib conquered and destroyed Babylon to shambles during his rule, rendering the city completely deserted for some seven years; so, technically he was the ’king of Babylon’. And, Dalley thinks there might be some evidence that during this time Nineveh as Sennacherib’s capital was considered as ’New Babylon’, further explaining the later confusion. This is possible, but all this is bit shaky proof for Nineveh as the definite location for the Gardens. The Nineveh theory is mainly based on that sculptural relief, and it’s easy to make the literary descriptions and the very scarce historical evidence we have to fit the picture when we want to make it happen, considering how much room for speculation there is. Her theory is lovely and certainly works, but we should note that there were other lavish gardens in Mesopotamia that might have just as well been the source of the classical tradition; the kings quite liked bragging about gardens and engineering works in public inscriptions. For example, the banquet stela of Assurnasirpal II from Nimrud described his engineering works that brought mountain water to his garden at Nimrud, and the huge party he held when the work was completed, entertaining more than 69,000 people with extravaganza. TL;DR: Some gardens definitely did exist in Mesopotamia; to what extent they were THE Gardens of Babylon, is open to interpretation. E: typos, and the link to ancient sources fixed | did the hanging gardens of babylon actually exist, and has definitive proof been found? why is it the only wonder whose location has not been definitely found? | <P> Garden of Eden. No specific place has been identified, although there are many theories.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are listed by classical Greek writers as one of the Seven Wonders of the World – places to see before you die. The excavated ruins of Babylon do not reveal any suitable evidence, which has led some scholars to suggest that they may have been purely legendary. Alternatively the story may have originated from Sennacherib's garden in Nineveh. Indian gardens Ancient Indian gardens are mentioned in several ancient Hindu texts including Rigveda, Ramayana, and Mahabharata. Buddhist accounts mention bamboo grove which was <P> harvesting, are becoming widely practiced as innovations in these fields continue to develop. Mesopotamian gardens Mesopotamia, the "land between the Rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, comprises a hilly and mountainous northern area and a flat, alluvial south. Its peoples (Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, and Babylonians) were urban and literate from about 3,000 BCE. Evidence for their gardens comes from written texts, pictorial sculpture, and archaeology. In western tradition Mesopotamia was the location of the Garden of Eden and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Temple gardens developed from the representation of a sacred grove; several distinct styles of royal garden are also known.
The <P> network fed by the lake, and connected to the moats. A miniature water garden is located to the west of the first water garden, consisting of several small pools and watercourses. This recently discovered smaller garden appears to have been built after the Kashyapan period, possibly between the 10th and 13th centuries. Persian gardens All Persian gardens, from the ancient to the high classical were developed in opposition to the harsh and arid landscape of the Iranian Plateau. Unlike historical European gardens, which seemed carved or re-ordered from within their existing landscape, Persian gardens appeared as impossibilities. Their ethereal and |
I am a Texas Historian, and I think I can offer some information on this. Vicksburg was indeed a major defeat for the Confederacy, but the Union did not hold the entire Mississippi afterwards. The Confederacy still held the lower portions of the Mississippi, but they could no longer use the upper portions of the river for transportation or communications. So, if you can envision the Southern states, there was still a narrow opening below Vicksburg and the gulf. In Texas, after Vicksburg, communication with Richmond was hard to come by. The state government was basically defending itself, and was relying on the combined Confederate forces of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. In late 1863, the Union launched a major two pronged invasion of Texas commanded by General Banks. The intention of these campaigns was to: 1) Completely sever the Confederate overland cotton trade into Mexico. 2) Seize and capture the Texas coastline, including its coastal defense systems, and reduce the amount of blockade runners. 2,000 Union soldiers came ashore at the mouth of the Rio Grande and separated into two columns. The first movement of troops started up the river and eventually made it all the way up to Laredo before a Confederate garrison, under the command of an Hispanic officer, halted their advance in an astonishing victory. The second, and more successful column of Union soldiers, began moving up the Texas coastline towards Galveston. These troops were able to seize all of the Barrier Islands, the majority of the port cities (Corpus Christi, Indianola, Port Lavaca, etc.), and all of the Confederate fortifications from the mouth of the Rio Grande to the tip of Matagorda Island. So what does all this rambling have to do with your original post? The Union invasion of Texas, which lasted from 1863-1864, generated a massive scare with-in the western portions of the Confederacy. When the Federals began their campaigns in Texas, the Rebel leaders of the western Confederacy panicked. Separated from the majority of the South, with an extremely low number of soldiers (most of whom were already losing hope for a Southern victory), the commanding officers had to go as far as calling up all of the local militias and volunteer units to aid in the defense of the state. By the Spring of 1864, there were almost a 1,000 Union soldiers ready to make an attack against either Galveston or Houston. But, for some untold reason, Banks suddenly decided to cancel the movement and ordered a campaign to seize control of the Red River in Louisiana. It would prove to be a major mistake. The Red River Campaign of 1864, was aimed at furthering the rift with-in the Confederacy. The Union had finally seized control of New Orleans, and Banks foolishly believed that northern Louisiana and eastern Texas were mostly devoid of Confederate forces. His error in judgement led to the Federal defeat at the Battle of Sabine Crossroads, which altered the entirety of the campaign, and re-fueled the Confederate morale. If you want to find primary documentation on just how scattered and panicked the Confederate forces in the west were after Vicksburg, I highly suggest researching the Texas campaigns of 1863-64. Probably one of the best books on the subject is titled “The Yankee Invasion of Texas”. I can’t recall the name of the author, but I know you can find it on Amazon for about 20 bucks. Hope this helps! | after the union victory in the siege of vicksburg, it gained control of the mississippi river and split the confederacy into two. how was the western-half of the confederacy governed and were the two sides ever able to communicate in a meaningful way? | <P> Vicksburg, the capture of Fort Hudson, Louisiana, along with victories at Fort Smith and Little Rock, Arkansas. Union advances in eastern Tennessee were signaled by the fall of Knoxville and Chattanooga. At the end of the First Confederate Congress, it controlled just over a half of its congressional districts, while Federals occupied two-fifths and almost one-tenth were disrupted by military conflict.
President Davis had urged immediate measures to increase the Confederacy's effective manpower as Congress reconvened on December 7, but it did not act until its adjournment on February 17, 1864. It expanded the draft ages from eighteen to forty, to <P> the Mississippi River just 20 miles (32 km) north of Baton Rouge. At the time, the Confederacy still controlled the 200-mile stretch of the Mississippi River between Vicksburg, Mississippi, in the north and Port Hudson in the south. The Union wanted to gain control of Vicksburg, which had a strategic position on a bluff, in order to control the Mississippi.
While General Ulysses Grant laid siege to Vicksburg, Banks conducted the siege of Port Hudson. Siege of Port Hudson On May 27, 1863, Banks launched a poorly coordinated attack on the well-defended, well-fortified Confederate positions at Port Hudson. As part of the <P> ordered several of his ships up stream to clear the river and followed himself in Hartford on the 7th to join in the conquest of the valley. Defenseless, Baton Rouge and Natchez promptly surrendered to the Union ships and no significant opposition was encountered until 18 May when the Confederate commandant at Vicksburg replied to Commander Samuel P. Lee's demand for surrender: "... Mississippians don't know and refuse to learn, how to surrender to an enemy. If Commodore Farragut or Brigadier General Butler can teach them, let them come and try."
When Farragut arrived on the scene a few days later, |
A lot of the biggest banks in the US (i.e. JP Morgan / Citigroup are probably the classic cases) are financial conglomerates that house many different kinds of businesses that touch many different (and arguably unrelated) areas of finance. They might have a division that does personal banking (bank accounts for people + credit cards), a division that does commercial/corporate banking (lending to businesses and corporations), and a division that does investment banking (trading and advisory work). The idea of "too big to fail" is that these conglomerates touch so much of the economy, that if one division has a problem that might make the bank go insolvent (i.e. huge trading losses), the government basically *has* to bail them out, since the repercussions of failure are so big. What Sanders and others who want to "break up" these big banks want to do is basically split them into smaller entities that don't touch so many sectors of finance at once. The most commonly talked about split is to separate the investment bank (trading and advisory) from the personal banking and commercial/corporate banking divisions. | what does bernie sanders' "too big to fail" bill mean when it says it is going to 'break up' big banks? | <P> Too big to fail The "too big to (let) fail" theory asserts that certain corporations, particularly financial institutions, are so large and so interconnected that their failure would be disastrous to the greater economic system, and that they therefore must be supported by government when they face potential failure. The colloquial term "too big to fail" was popularized by U.S. Congressman Stewart McKinney in a 1984 Congressional hearing, discussing the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation's intervention with Continental Illinois. The term had previously been used occasionally in the press.
Proponents of this theory believe that some institutions are so important that they <P> of banks having taxpayer-funded guarantees for their speculative investment banking activities. "If some banks are thought to be too big to fail, then, in the words of a distinguished American economist, they are too big. It is not sensible to allow large banks to combine high street retail banking with risky investment banking or funding strategies, and then provide an implicit state guarantee against failure."
Alistair Darling disagreed; "Many people talk about how to deal with the big banks – banks so important to the financial system that they cannot be allowed to fail, but the solution is not as simple, <P> up the largest banks More than fifty economists, financial experts, bankers, finance industry groups, and banks themselves have called for breaking up large banks into smaller institutions. This is advocated both to limit risk to the financial system posed by the largest banks as well as to limit their political influence.
For example, economist Joseph Stiglitz wrote in 2009 that: "In the United States, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere, large banks have been responsible for the bulk of the [bailout] cost to taxpayers. America has let 106 smaller banks go bankrupt this year alone. It's the mega-banks that present the mega-costs |
I wrote one of my research papers on the 1954 animated version of *Animal Farm* and went briefly into the history of this CIA sponsored British film for my European cinema class. The movie is worth checking out after the book, and I think you'll enjoy how different this adaption is compared to the book and you can easily see that the film, like the book, became a vehicle for anti-communist propaganda following WW2. First, Orwell published his novella just days after the end of World War 2, and initially, his political slant and anti-Stalinist views made it difficult for him to find a publisher. Remember that USSR had been a valuable ally for both the Americans and Brits, so it was unthinkable that such a scathing but disguised criticism of Stalin would be well-received by the public. The book I referenced is *Orwell Subverted: The CIA and the Filming of Animal Farm* by Daniel Leab. In it, Leab talks about how Stalin was loved by the public, to the point of the average citizens at the time referring to him as "Uncle Joe." Despite this as you know, *Animal Farm* received favorable reviews and enormous commercial success in both the US and Britain and not because readers somehow missed its obvious references to the USSR. Despite Orwell's focus on Stalin, it's likely that the book was intended to be an attack on totalitarianism as a whole. In his essay, "Why I Write", Orwell briefly mentions *Animal Farm* as "the first book in which I tried... to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole." Orwell's personal political leaning towards socialism and "his contempt for what he called 'the ordinary stupid capitalists'" (Leab) suggests his criticism intended to target the tendency for any utopian movement to extinguish any notion of individuality. Consequently, while the novel is undoubtedly anti-Stalinist, Orwell’s work is underlined by his socialist stance and does not condemn communism. When the novel finally attracted the CIA's attention, they omitted the inconvenient aspects of Orwell’s criticisms and rewrote numerous parts of the source material to create the script for the 1954 animated film version of Animal Farm. I won't spoil it for you, but I do recommend that you check out the 1954 film after you read the book. The tone completely changes, and it makes for an interesting, if not enjoyable, watch. | i am about to read animal farm for the first time - what should i know before i begin? | <P> Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm. Preface Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:
The sinister fact about literary censorship in England is that it is largely voluntary.... Things are kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervenes but because of a general tacit agreement that 'it wouldn't do' to mention that particular fact.
Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June <P> political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, Animal Farm may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point."
Animal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.
The CIA from 1952 to 1957 in Operation Aedinosaur sent millions of balloons carrying copies of the novel into Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, whose air forces tried to shoot the balloons down. Significance and allegory Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended <P> Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it. Reception Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be |
The Larsen ice shelf that broke off was sea ice, not land ice, and was floating when it broke off. That shelf itself will not raise the sea level at all when it melts, it didn't raise the sea level when it broke, nor did it alleviate any pressure on the continental land mass. When the continental ice sheet melts, there will be some isostatic rebound, but that will happen over thousands upon thousands of years and will likely be in the millimeters per year range. The ice on the continent will take lifetimes to melt even during the worst case climate change scenario and will have little effect on the volcanoes underneath. | does the ice sheet of antarctica have a "bottle cap effect" on the recently discovered volcanoes underneath? | <P> the polar ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica, as this is where the vast majority of glacial ice is located. If all the ice on the polar ice caps were to melt away, the oceans of the world would rise an estimated 70 m (230 ft). Although previously it was thought that the polar ice caps were not contributing heavily to sea level rise (IPCC 2007), recent studies have confirmed that both Antarctica and Greenland are contributing 0.5 millimetres (0.020 in) a year each to global sea level rise. The Thwaites Glacier alone, in Western Antarctica is "currently responsible for approximately 4 <P> percent of global sea level rise. It holds enough ice to raise the world ocean a little over 2 feet (65 centimeters) and backstops neighboring glaciers that would raise sea levels an additional 8 feet (2.4 meters) if all the ice were lost." The fact that the IPCC estimates did not include rapid ice sheet decay into their sea level predictions makes it difficult to ascertain a plausible estimate for sea level rise but a 2008 study found that the minimum sea level rise will be around 0.8 metres (2.6 ft) by 2100. Newer observations with NASA's ice-penetrating radar of Operation <P> ocean warming and resulting ice sheet runoff. Hence, without better modelling, new observations suggest that past projections of sea level rise attribution from the Greenland Ice Sheet require upward revision. Antarctica Antarctica is intensely cold and arid. Most of the world's freshwater ice is contained within its sheets. Its most dramatic example of glacier retreat is the loss of large sections of the Larsen Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula. The recent collapse of Wordie Ice Shelf, Prince Gustav Ice Shelf, Mueller Ice Shelf, Jones Ice Shelf, Larsen-A and Larsen-B Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula has raised awareness of |
The SA was downsized after the Night of the Long Knives but as you posted they remained in existence until the end of the war under the command of Victor Lutze up to his death in '43, followed by Wilhem Schepmann. As you'd expect from the militia-obsessed Third Reich, they had their own combat branch, semi-analogous to the Waffen-SS but much smaller, called Feldherrnhalle. Sources: Jill Halcomb's *The SA: A Historical Perspective* | what happened to the sa after the night of the long knives? | <P> of the new Nazi Party which Hitler had put together following his release from prison. The reborn SA then received its first formal uniform regulations and also began using the first recognizable system of rank insignia.
Along with a brown shirt uniform, SA members would wear swastika armbands with a kepi cap. Originally, the SA used its pre-1923 rank titles, but this changed in 1926 when local SA units began to be grouped into larger regiment sized formations known as Standarten. Each SA regiment was commanded by a senior SA officer called a Standartenführer. At the same time, to differentiate from <P> with his SA people, and Gehrke was given leadership of SA "Storm Troop 37". In December 1931 this Storm Troop was uprated, becoming the "Standard 55" troop. Gehrke retained leadership of it.
Rapid increases in membership accompanied the Nazi rise to power and the party's successful power grab at the start of 1933, and this triggered a succession of organisational changes to the structure and hierarchy of the SA. Early in 1933 Gehrke's group was upgraded again, becoming an autonomous SA unit ("Sturmbann"), finally promoted again on 6 August 1933 to "Standard 15" troop. By this time Gehrke and his unit <P> as Chief of Staff of the SA. Röhm's appointment was as the result of Adolf Hitler personally assuming command of the SA as the Oberster SA-Führer. Hitler would hold this title until the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945 and, after 1930, it was the SA Chief of Staff who was the effective leader of the organization.
Röhm undertook several changes to the SA uniform and insignia design, the first being to invent several new ranks in order for the SA rank system to mirror that of the professional military. The rank expansion took place gradually between 1930 and 1932, with |